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SOCIAL PENETRATION THEORY
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Introduction
There once was a brilliant man named Abraham who created the Maslow Hierarchy of
needs. An American psychologist, Abraham Maslow, created a theory of the five basic needs of
human nature. This pyramid consists of biological and physical needs, safety needs, belonging
and love needs, esteem needs and self-actualization needs (Taormina & Gao 2013). In the core
of the needs is belongingness and love. Whether it is belonging in an activity or love from
another person, people need it. Relationships with other people are developed day in and day out
of an individual's life. With developing relationships human nature yearns for love and belonging
from those relationships being developed. To make those relationships last and fulfill Maslow’s
stated needs; the Social Penetration Theory explains how individuals exchange information to
develop a deeper and more personal connection with intended people. The purpose of this
paper is for the Social Penetration theory to help explain the development of relationships
regarding a team atmosphere at the collegiate level. The paper will consist of an explanation
of the Social Penetration Theory, an understanding of communication revolving around a
woman’s college soccer program and how the principles of Social Penetration Theory are
applied within a team at the collegiate level.
A Basic Understanding of the Social Penetration Theory
Social Penetration Theory is the process of developing deeper intimacy with another
person through mutual self-disclosure and other forms of vulnerability (Griffin 2000).
Psychologists Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor introduced this theory. In recent studies,
Pennington (2008) from Missouri State University stated, “Much like in the movie Shrek it is
argued ogres are like onions, Altman and Taylor describe people as onions with several layers of
information pressed tightly together” (14). As Altman and Taylor expressed, layers of an onion

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best describe this theory. The individual is the core of the onion, and the onion has layers of
information about them. Information that is closest to the surface of the onion is not as important,
and information closest to the core is the most personal information about the individual.
Relationships can move from breadth (range of information, but shallow) to depth
(specific area of information, but deep in meaning). Breadth and depth of self-disclosure should
be well balanced, as both are equal in importance when developing long lasting relationships. A
quote that describes this well states: “Depth without breadth can never create a satisfying
relationship because there will always be aspects of the personality that are completely
untouched. The social penetration theory also explains that for a relationship to be mutually
successful that those involved must peel away entire layers, not just wedge into one segment”
(Pennington 2008). In other words, in order to move from superficial to deeply personal topics,
one needs to slowly penetrate the onion, or peel back the layers, to reach their core personality or
sense of self. Altman and Taylor suggest that through time, self-disclosure, trust and mutual
understanding of the necessity of depth and breadth, a rewarding relationship can be established
(Pennington 2008).
First viewed as a direct, continuous penetration from crust to core, social penetration is
now considered to be a cyclical and dialectical process. Cyclical takes the meaning of back and
forth communication, as managing tension between public and private defines dialectical
meaning. They do not automatically get better where the individuals learn more and more about
each other. Instead, the individuals have to work through tensions in the relationship (the
dialectic) while they learn and group themselves in relationships.
Sometimes the relationship is very open, while other times, one or both parties in the
relationship need their space, or have other concerns, and the relationship is “closed”. The theory

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states that these cycles occur throughout the existence of the relationship as the individuals try to
balance their needs for openness and closed-ness.
The decision to be closed off is based on the perceived cost/reward ratio. The individual
will reveal more about themselves when the cost/reward ratio appeals to them, and will not if it
does not. Therefore if rewards continue, the individual will continue to share more.
Relationships are developed and maintained through disclosure. People allow other
people to penetrate their onion when they disclose personal information. Then, once formed, they
are maintained by revealing more and more information to each other.
According to Griffin (2000), The Social Penetration Theory explains how relational
closeness develops while extending its explanation in various reasons for the degree of self-
disclosure. This theory allows people to predict when individuals will risk self-disclosure. It also
predicts that people will regulate closeness on the basis of rewards and costs. This means, that if
perceived mutual benefits outweigh the costs of greater vulnerability, the process of social
penetration will proceed (Griffin, 2000). By understanding this theory individuals are able to
control and improve the outcomes of future communication interactions. The concepts of risking
self-disclosure and understanding the importance of the combined duo of breadth and depth
apply to an informal or formal conversation. To improve future interactions of communications
people have the ability to control what they disclose to others. By taking the risk of self-
disclosure at a personal or professional level, individuals can benefit themselves by forming new
relationships, having others gain a better understanding of who they are, and eventually having
self-disclosure being reciprocated.
A Basic Understanding of Collegiate Women’s Soccer

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There are multiple people involved within a college soccer program. It may seem that just
the coaching staff and the teammates on the roster are all that is involved, but there are many
behind the scene people helping programs be successful. According to NCAA, there are more
than 460,000 student-athletes competing within 23 different sports. A little more than half are
male student-athletes, but there are more women’s teams in the NCAA than men's (Current
Student-Athlete). Each program and each division has their own standards of team academic
regulations. To meet these standards and maintain eligibility this requires involvement with
designated athletic advisors, academic advisors, tutors, student study groups, and one-on-one
professor meetings. In regards to meeting with academic professionals, the student athlete must
uphold standards on the athletic side of things too. This requires personal involvement with the
Athletic Director, the President of the University, Social Media consultants, coaching staff, and
of course the team. Also, involvement in other activities such as leadership development
programs and team bonding is essential to the collegiate soccer experience.
Meetings with all the important people of the program only fill the gaps of a student
athlete schedule. There are many NCAA rules and regulations when it comes to specific sports,
division and in or out of season. On average the NCAA Bylaw limits its student athletes to four
hours a day and 20 hours a week in season (Countable Athletically Related Activities). On top of
those physically demanding hours the athlete has to take on the next role of the day of being a
scholar. Student athletes must revolve their classes around their practice times. The student
athlete must meet the requirements of credits to be eligible for play as well as maintaining a
specified grade point average. Here at Grand Valley State, women's soccer players must schedule
their classes around a 2pm to 6pm time block because those four hours are dedicated to soccer
practice. They have to maintain a minimum of 12 credits a semester to be eligible to play.

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Classes may be scheduled from 8am to 2pm or even 6pm to 9pm. Remember, the student athletes
must make time to prepare for practice by being in the correct uniform, provide for the proper
nutrition and no matter what, be on time. The women soccer players at GVSU, and all student-
athletes around the nation, are held to high expectations to always maintain a high level of poise
and respect for the staff members involved with their program and the staff involved in their
academics. After a long day of classes, practice and expelling emotional, mental and physical
energy, the women then have to shower, eat, and study all while trying to maintain a healthy
sleeping schedule. All the soccer girls also live together putting even more time and effort into
their teammates. As stated before, those extra hours outside of practice and class may consist of
other meetings, team activities, or other involvements regarding the university. With multiple
time commitments mainly revolving around the chosen sport and its teammates, it is easy to
notice the importance of relationship building.
How the Principles of Social Penetration Theory are applied to Collegiate Women’s Soccer
The Social Penetration Theory is applied to a collegiate women’s soccer program by
having to form relationships at deeper levels each and every day of their college experience. The
most important relationships to practice the Social Penetration Theory would be forming
friendships with immediate teammates and coaching staff. Majority of student athlete’s time is
spent with their teammates on and off the field making reciprocation of self-disclosure highly
important. Within the course of four years and extensive amount of time being spent with all the
people involved in a collegiate program, layers of those student-athletes are bound to be peeled
back and exposed.
The importance of this theory within group dynamics of a team can be key to success on
and off the field. Described by Dr. Klausner and Dr. Hoch they affiliate team success with team

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chemistry stating, “It can be the difference between an ordinary season and an outstanding one”
(Creating Team Chemistry). By understanding, interpreting and decoding messages from
coaches and teammates, it saves time to avoid confusion and helps student-athletes be more
efficient at the job they are to accomplish. If communication cannot be understood, this is where
the importance of having an in depth relationship comes in handy by gaining an understanding of
the person and what they are trying to communicate.
With a first hand experience, knowing how to give constructive criticism on the field to
build your teammates up and not mentally overload them is vital to the success of the individual
and the team. Based off of previous trial and errors and conversations off the field of how and
why they like to receive feedback, teammates are to adjust and demand greatness in different
ways according to the player. Some like to be yelled at during the play to ignite a fire within
them to perform better. Others like to be calmly pulled aside after the play and to be explained,
“this is what you did, this is what you should do.” Some players cannot receive constructive
criticism within the game, but rather after their performance they prefer to be enlightened. By
demanding greatness from your teammates in the wrong ways, it can cause for breakdowns on
the field and un-needed stress off the field. By understanding the teammate you are working
with, it builds trust within the two of you. Working together to achieve a common goal is
exposing emotional layers of the dedicated soccer player.
In a safety net of a team, it is fairly simple to risk self-disclosure. Sports can bring
athletes to their breaking points, having the most sensitive part of their core being shown to their
surrounding teammates. Sports can also fill every joint of your body with excitement and the
feeling of success where you will also be exposed to your teammates. At breaking points of an
athlete's career the only people to get you back on track are the people that surround you every

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day and have voluntarily committed to you since the first day of pre-season. Teammates are also
there to keep the success going in any way possible when athletes are at their peak.
Cost and reward is huge within team chemistry. Spending what little personal time
student-athletes have dedicated to one of their teammates to help improve their game or studies
outside practice or school time is an example of cost and reward. If one teammate is giving more
than the other and not receiving a gain from helping their teammate out, it is most likely that
relationship will be hindered. Reciprocating personal dedication to each other builds trust and
relationships within teammates. Holding teammates accountable to team rules is a must. Cost
and reward can be exemplified off the field as friendships are strengthened beyond the topic of
soccer. Each individual sacrifices a “normal” college experience by avoiding party scenes or late
nights to pursue their beloved game. This means that all teammates must follow the rules and
expectations. The cost is the sacrifice of not attending as many social events that others do,
losing sufficient personal time, and the taxation on your body and mind. With that cost comes
reward of success, personal relationships with teammates and character building that no college
course could ever teach. The reward is that, through self-disclosure, there is an understanding
that every teammate around you is dedicated to the same thing you are and making the same
sacrifices. When teammates step outside these commitments and team rules, it causes a break in
team chemistry and diminished trust within that teammate. When teammates step out of line
there is no reward for their surrounding teammates or for themselves. When a teammate chooses
not to participate in self disclosure there is a divide between that individual and the team.
It is simple to predict when to self disclose personal information and to whom. If a
student athlete is struggling in a certain class, it is their responsibility to seek help and
communicate with an advisor or tutor about their academic struggles. If a student athlete is

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struggling with their demanding schedule after a family issue has arose, like a close family
member passing away, it should be a comfortable environment for the girl to lean of her
teammates and share that personal information. In hopes that her self disclosure will be
reciprocated by someone relating to the situation and being there for them to help them through
the process. The Social Penetration Theory also supports the prediction of cost and reward with
communication with a coach. Student athletes are always striving to perform their best. With
conversations with their coaching staff they can continue to learn about the game and develop as
a player. The reward in this is the feedback to gain more insight. If the feedback is not being
given to the player asking for it, there is no reward, causing a break in the relationship.
The connection of the Social Penetration Theory with a collegiate women’s soccer team
amplifies the importance of building meaningful relationships with the people that you pour your
blood, sweat and tears out with. The personal layers of a teammate are peeled back after
experiencing the highs and lows of the college soccer journey together. Balancing breadth and
depth of conversations, controlling when to risk disclosure and paying attention to the cost and
rewards of relationships on and off the field help build purposeful and long lasting friendships.
Social Penetration Theory helps individuals understand the importance of creating personal
connections and relationships through self-disclosure. These relationships and connections lead
to strengthening team chemistry. Henry Ford says it best, “Coming together is a Beginning.
Keeping together is a Process. Working together is Success” (Team, 2016). Without exploiting
the concepts of the Social Penetration Theory, success of team chemistry will not be
accomplished.
Conclusion

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This paper consisted of an explanation of the Social Penetration Theory, an
understanding of the communication revolving around a woman’s college soccer program and
how the principles of Social Penetration Theory were applied within a team at the collegiate
level. The purpose of this paper was for the Social Penetration theory to help explain the
development of relationships regarding a team atmosphere at the collegiate level. A team
environment is the perfect place to drive home Abraham Maslow known necessity of having a
sense of belonging and love. Being on the team makes one feel like they belong to something
much greater than themselves, but forming those loving relationships within the team pushes
human nature hierarchy of needs to the next level. Those loving friendships of a college soccer
program engulf student athletes with an unforgettable experience with irreplaceable people.

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References
Countable Athletically Related Activities. (n.d). Retrieved April 04, 2016 from
http://www.ncaa.org/sites/default/files/20-Hour-Rule-Document.pdf
Creating Team Chemistry. (n.d.). Minnesota State High School Coaching Association Web site.
Retrieved April 05, 2016, from
http://www.mshssca.org/resources/creatingteamchemistry.pdf
Current Student-Athletes. (n.d.). Retrieved April 04, 2016, from http://www.ncaa.org/student-
athletes/current
Griffin, E. (2000). A first look at communication theory. Wheaton College: The McGraw-Hill
Companies.
Pennington, N. (2008). Will you be my friend: Facebook as a model for the evolution of the
social penetration theory.
Taormina, R. J., & Gao, J. H. (2013, Summer). Maslow and the motivation hierarchy: Measuring
satisfaction of the needs. American Journal of Psychology, 126(2), 155+. Retrieved from
http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.gvsu.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA337814761&v=2.1&u
=lom_gvalleysu&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=98edc71d51d8e15d794adc350840bfb5
Team Interaction – Part 1. (2016). Retrieved April 05, 2016, from
http://successbyheart.com/2010/08/team-dynamics/team-interaction-part-1/

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