Some Summary of Morphology
- 1. Presented by : I Ketut Restu Cahyadiarta
- 2. Words, Sentences, and Dictionaries Words as Meaningful Building-Blocks of Language Words as Types and Word as Tokens Words With Predictable Meanings Non-word With Unpredictable Meanings Conclusion : Words Versus Lexical Items
- 3. Words as Meaningful Building- Blocks of Language Words as meaningful building-blocks mean that words can be merge into the sentences as a building-blocks. We think of words as the basic units of language, but in fact that is not to say that a sentence must always consist of more than one word.
- 4. 02/14/15 One word commands such as "go" or "sit", although they crop up relatively seldom in everyday conversation. Even as adults, there are quite a few circumstances in which we use single word outside the context of any actual or reconstruct able sentence, example: •Warning shouts, such as "Fire!". (That example mean sometimes one word can describe a sentence, it mean a word can be classified in a various ways)
- 5. 02/14/15 So that, an english dictionary is the key when we do not know the meaning of the word. in fact, that is what a dictionary entry basiclly consist of. Not only for the meaning, but also some information about grammar. it seem that a word is not just a building- blocks of sentences, it is unpredictable, so we need dictionary and even for native speakers. Two characteristics of words: 1.They have meaning that unpredictable and so must be listed in dictionary. 2.They are the building-blocks out of which phrase and sentences are form.
- 6. 02/14/15 Words as Types and Word as Tokens Token having a reference of individual occurrence of a type of the words. Example: Mary goes to Edinburgh next week, and she intends going to Washington next month. The same word in that sentence (to and next) are distinct token of a single type.
- 7. In much the same way, one can say that two performance of the same tune, or two copies of the same book, are distinct tokens of one type. The type-token distinction is relevant to the notion “word” in this way. Sentences may be said to be composed of word-tokens, but it is clearly not word- tokens that are listed in dictionaries. It would be absurd to suggest that each occurrence of the word next in sentence merits a separate dictionary entry. 02/14/15
- 8. Is it enough to say that characterization have a relation between the first characterization, because the words as a building-blocks can be relates to word-tokens and characterization of merits a separate dictionary entry. The term word would be ambiguous between a ‘type’ interpretation and a ‘token’ interpretation; but the ambiguity would be just the same as is exhibited by many other terms not specifically related to language. 02/14/15
- 9. For example: “tune” => a tune I heard this morning may be ‘the same’ as one I heard yesterday That may be instances of the same type, but the tokens that I have heard of it are distinct. The distinction between a type and tokens is an ontological one between a general sort of thing and its particular concrete instances. The types are generally said to be abstract and tokens are mean a concrete particulars. 02/14/15
- 10. 02/14/15 Words With Predictable Meanings sometimes, words has meanings that are predictable. that is meanings that can be worked out on the basic of the sounds and make them up. Onomatopoeic words are some words whose sound seems to reflect their meaning fairly directly, such as: bow-wow, miaow, and cock-a-doodle-doo. another example, sl- seems to reflect it's meaning (slip, slide, slop, slurp) are called as sound symbolism. So, easier to predict a sound symbolism meaning than the real word.
- 11. Example : Ginkgo trees reproduce dioeciously. Dioeciously is an example of word that, although not brand new (it may even be listed in some dictionaries), chould just as well be brand new so far as most readers of this book are concerned. For present purposes, what matters is to be aware that not every word can be listed in a dictionary, even in the fullest dictionary imaginable.
- 12. 02/14/15 Non-word With Unpredictable Meanings We saw it is possible for a linguistics item to be a basic building-block of syntax. The item is clearly not itself a sentence or a phrase and yet to have a meaning that is predictable. Consider these two sentences from the point of a learner of English who is familiar with the usual meanings of the words expenditure, note, and tab: •I keep notes on all my expenditure. •I keep tabs on all my expenditure.
- 13. Native speakers will instinctively interpret keep tabs on as a single unit which has meaning pay close attention to ,or monitor carefully. Idiom is a combination of words that have meaning owing to its common usage. Idiom are enormously various in length, structure and function. verb (ex. :kick the bucket (die) ) Idioms = noun (ex. :dark horse (competitor whose strength is unknown) 02/14/15
- 14. Akin to idioms, but distinguishable from them , are phrases in which individual words have collocationally restricted meanings. Consider the following phrases : 1.White wine 2.White coffee 3.White noise 4.White man In a broad sense they may count as idiomatic, because the meaning that white has in them is not usual meaning; rather, when collocated with wine, coffee, noise and man.
- 15. •If a typical idiom is a phrase, then a word with collocationally restricted meaning is smaller than a typical idiom. It provokes the question whether there are linguistic item with unpredictable meaning that are larger than phrases. The answer is yes , because many proverbs fall into this category. A proverb is a traditional saying, syntactically a sentence, whose conventional interpretation differs from what is suggested by the literal meaning of the words it contains.
- 16. Example: It’s no use crying over spilt milk. (After an accident one should look to the future, rather than waste time wishing the accident had not happened.) Spilling milk is a kind of accident, but in the proverb at the sentence above, it is used metaphorically to stand for any accident. What is important about proverbs is that they constitute a further example of a linguistic unit whose use and meaning are in some degree unpredictable , but which is larger than a word.
- 17. 02/14/15 Conclusion : Words Versus Lexical Items In this chapter we can got the information about: 1. Pointed out that we tend to think of words as possessing two characteristics: • The meaning are unpredictable and so must be listed in dictionaries. • The are the building-blocks for words and phrase. 2. The two characteristics do not always go together. It will be helpful to have distinct terms for items with each of the two characteristics.
- 18. We can use lexical items for items with first characteristics, and reserve Word for items with second characteristics. Sometimes we meet there are some words that are not lexical items, and some lexical items that are not words. It is mean there are not really the traditional view of words as things that are (or should be) listed in dictionaries is entirely wrong. Many words have meanings that are predictable, there is nevertheless a tendency for these meaning to lose motivation over time. The words which does not start out as a lexical item may in due course become one 02/14/15
- 19. Selected the dictionaries list to contain the lexical items or words, or contain both of them influence the most practice dictionaries to reflects a compromise. Because some are more generous than others in listing idioms, and some are more generous than other in listing word with entirely predictable meanings. 02/14/15