Τίμαιος είναι φιλοσοφικός διάλογος του Πλάτωνα

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO
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JNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO
3 1822022573265

T7AATQN02 TIMAIOI
THE TIMAEUS OF PLATO
EDITED
WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES
BY
R. D. ARCHER-HIND, M.A.
FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
Honfcon
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK
1888
[
The Right of Translation is m

CTam bvtogc :
PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. AND SONS,
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

PREFACE.
THE present appears to be the first English edition of the
Timaeus. Indeed since the sixteenth century, during which
this dialogue was published separately no less than four times,
it had not, so far as I am aware, been issued apart from the
rest of Plato's works until the appearance of Lindau's edition,
accompanied by a Latin translation, in 1828. Lindau's com-
mentary, though here and there suggestive, does not afford
much real help in grappling with the main difficulties of the
dialogue ;
and sometimes displays a fundamental misappre-
hension of its significance. Ten years later came Stallbaum's
edition ; concerning which it were unbecoming to speak with
less than the respect due to the zeal and industry of a scholar
who has essayed the gigantic enterprise of editing with elaborate
prolegomena and commentary the entire works of Plato, and it
would be unfair to disparage the learning which the notes
display: none the less it cannot be denied that in dealing
with this dialogue the editor seems hardly to have realised
the nature of the task he has undertaken. Stallbaum was
followed in 1841 by Th. H. Martin, whose work, published
under the modest title of '
Etudes sur le Timee de Platon,'
is far and away the ablest and completest edition of the Timaeus
which exists. As an exposition of the philosophical import
of the dialogue I should not be disposed to rate it so very
highly ;
but so far as it deals with the physical and other
scientific questions discussed and with the numerous grave
difficulties of detail, it is invaluable : the acuteness and in-

vi PREFACE.
genuity, the luminous clearness, and (not least) the unfailing
candour of the editor, deserve all admiration. The debt owed
to Martin by any subsequent editor must needs be very great.
The most recent edition known to me was published in 1853 in
the useful series issued by Engelmann at Leipzig, including text,
German translation, and rather copious notes. Bockh's '
Speci-
men editionis' unfortunately is but a small fragment
The only English translations with which I am acquainted
are Thomas Taylor's and Prof. Jowett's : in German there are
several. Martin's edition includes a clear and close French
rendering, considerably more accurate than Cousin's.
Among the most valuable and important contributions to
the explanation of the Timaeus are some writings of August
Bockh, especially his admirable treatise
'
Ueber das kosmische
System des Platon.' It is much to be regretted that so excellent
a scholar did not give us a complete edition of the dialogue.
The chief ancient exponent is Proklos, of whose commentary,
6eiq rtvl fjioipa, only perhaps one third, a fragment of some
850 octavo pages, is extant, breaking off at 440. This dis-
quisition is intolerably verbose, often trivial, and not rarely
obscure : nevertheless one who has patience to toil through
it may gain from it information and sometimes instruction ;
and through all the mists of neoplatonic fantasy the native
acuteness of the writer will often shine.
The principal object of this edition is to examine the philo-
sophical significance of the dialogue and its bearing on the
Platonic system. At the same time, seeing that so few sources
of aid are open to the student of the Timaeus, I have done my
best to throw light upon the subsidiary topics of Plato's dis-
course, even when they are of little or no philosophical import-
ance ;
nor have I willingly neglected any detail which seemed
to require explanation. But as in the original these details are
subordinate to the ontological teaching, so I have regarded
their discussion as subordinate to the philosophical interpretation
of this magnificent and now too much neglected dialogue.
A translation opposite the text has been given with a view
to relieving the notes. The Timaeus is one of the most difficult
of Plato's writings in respect of mere language; and had all
matters of linguistic exegesis been treated in the commentary,

PREFACE. vii
this would have been swelled to an unwieldy bulk. I have
hoped by means of the translation to show in many cases how I
thought the Greek should be taken, without writing a gram-
matical note ; though of course it has been impossible to banish
such subjects entirely.
My obligation to Dr Jackson's essays on the ideal theory
will be manifest to any one who reads both those essays and my
commentary. I am as fully as ever convinced of the high
importance of his contribution to the interpretation of Plato.
In his essay on the Timaeus indeed there are some statements
to which I can by no means assent ;
but as that paper in its
present form does not contain Dr Jackson's final expression of
opinion, I have not thought it necessary to discuss divergencies
of view, which may prove to be very slight, and which do not
affect the main thesis for which he is contending.
Lastly I must thank my friend Dr J. W. L. Glaisher for his
kindness in examining my notes on the arithmetical passage at
the beginning of chapter VII, and for mathematical information
in other respects.
TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
17 January, 1888.

ERRATUM.
P. 204, ist col. of notes, line ai, cancel as erroneous the words 'And if.. .as the first.'

INTRODUCTION.
i. OF all the more important Platonic writings probably Vindica-
none has less engaged the attention of modern scholars than
the Timaeus. Nor is the reason of this comparative neglect far ance
to seek. The exceeding abstruseness of its metaphysical content,
*
^e
rendered yet more recondite by the constantly allegorical mode Timaeus
of exposition; the abundance of a priori speculation in a domain
which experimental science has now claimed for its own; the vast ties.
and many-sided comprehensiveness of the design all have con-
spired to the end that only a very few of the most zealous students
of Plato's philosophy have left us any considerable work on
this dialogue. It has been put on one side as a fantastic, if
ingenious and poetical, cosmogonical scheme, mingled with -ora-
cular fragments of mystical metaphysic and the crude imaginings
of scarcely yet infant science.
But this was not the position assigned to the Timaeus by
the more ancient thinkers, who lived 'nearer to the king and the
truth.' Contrariwise not one of Plato's writings exercised so
powerful an influence on subsequent Greek thought; not one
was the object of such earnest study, such constant reference.
Aristotle criticises it more frequently and copiously than any other
dialogue, and perhaps from no other has borrowed so much:
Cicero, living amid a very stupor and paralysis of speculative
philosophy, was moved to translate it into Latin :
Appuleius gives
for an account of the Platonic philosophy little else but a partial
abstract of the Timaeus, with some ethical supplement from the
Republic: Plutarch has sundry more or less elaborate disquisitions
on several of the subjects handled in it. As for the neoplatonic
school, how completely their thought was dominated by the
metaphysic of the Timaeus, despite the incongruous and almost
P. T. I
OP

INTRODUCTION.
Pre-
platonic
basis of
Platonism:
Heraklei-
tos, Par-
menides,
Anax-
agoras.
monstrous accretions which some of them superimposed, is mani-
fest to any reader of Plotinos or Proklos. Such being the con-
cordance of ancient authorities, is it not worth while to inquire
whether they be not justified in attaching so profound a significance
to this dialogue?
The object of this essay is to establish that they were justified.
No one indeed can read the Timaeus, however casually, without
perceiving that in it the great master has given us some of
his profoundest thoughts and sublimest utterances : but my aim
is to show that in this dialogue we find, as it were, the focus to
which the rays of Plato's thought converge; that by a thorough
comprehension of it
(can we but arrive at this) we may perceive
the relation of various parts of the system one to another and
its unity as a whole: that in fact the Timaeus, and the Timaeus
alone, enables us to recognise Platonism as a complete and co-
herent scheme of monistic idealism.
I would not be understood to maintain that Plato's whole
system is unfolded in the Timaeus; there is no single dialogue
of which that could be said. The Timaeus must be pieced
together with the other great critical and constructive dialogues
of the later period, if we are rightly to apprehend its significance.
But what I would maintain is that the Timaeus furnishes us with a
master-key, whereby alone we may enter into Plato's secret cham-
bers. Without this it is almost or altogether impossible to find
in Platonism a complete whole ;
with its aid I am convinced
that this is to be done. I am far from undervaluing the difficulty
of the task I have proposed : but it is worth the attempt, if
never so small a fraction may be contributed to the whole result.
With this end in view, it is necessary to consider Plato's
intellectual development in relation to certain points in the history
of previous Greek philosophy. These points are all notorious
enough, but it seems desirable for our present purpose to bring
them under review.
2. Now it seems that if we would rightly estimate the task
which lay before Plato at the outset of his philosophical career
and appreciate the service he has rendered to philosophy, we
must throw ourselves back into his position, we must see with
his eyes and compute as he would have computed the net result
of preplatonic theorising. What is the material which his pre-
decessors had handed down for him to work upon? what are
the solid and enduring verities they have brought to light? and

INTRODUCTION. 3
how far have they amalgamated these into a systematic theory of
existence ?
In the endeavour to answer these questions I think we can
hardly fail to discern amid the goodly company of those early
pioneers certain men rising by head and shoulders above their
fellows :
Herakleitos, Parmenides, Anaxagoras, these three. Each
one of these bequeathed to his successors a great principle
peculiarly his own; a principle of permanent importance, with
which Plato was bound to deal and has dealt. And save in so
far as the Pythagorean theory of numbers may have influenced
the outward form of his exposition, there is hardly anything in
the early philosophy before Sokrates, outside the teaching of
these three men, which has seriously contributed to Plato's store
of raw material. The synthesis of their one-sided truths required
nothing less than the whole machinery of Plato's metaphysical
system : it is from their success and their failure that he takes
his start the success of each in enunciating his own truth, the
failure of each to recognise its relations.
Since these three men, as I conceive, furnished Plato with
his base of operations or, more correctly perhaps, raised the
problems which he must address himself to solve, it is incumbent
on us to determine as precisely as we can the nature of the
contributions they severally supplied.
3. The old Ionian physicists were all unknowingly working The
their way to the conception of Becoming. They did not know
this, because they knew not that matter, with which alone they kleitos
were concerned
!
, belonged altogether to the realm of Becoming.
Nor yet did they reach this conception, for they had not been
able to conceive continuity in change that is to say, they had
not conceived Becoming. They imagined the indefinite diversity
of material nature to be the complex manifestations of some
uniform underlying element, which, whether by condensation and
expansion or by some more fundamental modification of its sub-
stance, transmuted itself into this astonishing multiplicity of dis-
similar qualities. But according to their notion this underlying
element, be it water or air or some indefinable substrate, existed
at any given place now in one form, now in another ;
that is, it
abode for a while in one of its manifestations, then changed and
abode for a while in another. Air is air for a time ;
then it is
1
Of course the antithesis of matter and spirit had not yet presented itself to
Greek thought.
I 2

4 INTRODUCTION.
condensed and turns to water. Thus the notion of continuity is
absent, and consequently the notion of Becoming. Yet, for all
that, Thales, Anaximandros, and Anaximenes were on the path to
Becoming.
The penetrating intellect of Herakleitos detected the short-
coming of his predecessors. All nature is a single element trans-
muting itself into countless diversities of form : be it so. But the
law or force which governs these transmutations must be omni-
present and perpetually active. For what power is there that
shall hold it in abeyance at any time ? or how could it intermit
its own activity without perishing altogether? Therefore there
can be no abiding in one form; transmutation must be every-
where ceaseless and continuous, since nature will not move by
leaps. Motion is all-pervading, and rest is there nowhere in the
order of things. And this privation of rest is not a matter of
degree nor to be measured by intervals of time. Rest during an
infinitesimal fraction of the minutest space which our senses can
apprehend were as impossible and inconceivable as though it
should endure for ages. We must see the oSos avw KOTU as
Herakleitos saw it : all nature is a dizzy whirl of change without
rest or respite, wherein there is no one thing to which we can
point and say 'See, it is this, it is that, it is so.' For in the
moment when what we call
'
it
'
has begun to be '
this
'
or
'
that
'
or
'
so,' at that very moment it has begun to pass from the state
we thus seek to indicate : there is nowhere a fixed point. And
thus Herakleitos attains to the conception of continuity and
Becoming. He chose appropriately enough fire, the most mobile
and impalpable of the four reputed elements, to be the vehicle of
this never resting activity of nature : but it matters nothing what
was his material substrate. His great achievement is to have
firmly grasped and resolutely enunciated the principle of con-
tinuity and hence of Becoming: for continuity is a mode of
Becoming, or Becoming a mode of continuity, according as we
may choose to view it. Moreover, Herakleitos introduces us to
the antithesis of ov and p.^ ov. We cannot say of any object 'it is
so,' or use any other phrase which implies stability. Yet the
thing in some sense or other is, else it would be nothing ; it is
at any rate a continuity of change. So then the thing is and
is not ;
that is to say, it becomes. Or if, as we watch a falling
drop of rain, we take any spot in its course which it would just
fill, we can never say 'it is there,' for it never rests ;
yet, by the

INTRODUCTION. 5
time the drop reaches the earth, that spot has been filled by it.
The drop has a 'where,' though we can never define the 'where.'
Thus throughout the teaching of Herakleitos the 'is' is confronted
by 'is not.'
4. In the preceding paragraph I have confined myself Result of
within the limits of the actual teaching of Herakleitos : the Platonic
developments of it will occupy our attention later on. What then
is the actual result the contribution to the philosophical capital
with which Plato had to start? We have conceived change as
continuous, that is, we have conceived Becoming. And Be-
coming is negation of stable Being. Also since change is a
transition, it involves motion : therefore in affirming Becoming we
affirm Motion. And since change is a transition from one state
to another, it involves plurality. So in affirming Becoming we
affirm Multitude. Becoming, Motion, Multitude these are three
aspects of one and the same fact : and this is the side of things
which Herakleitos presents to us as the truth and reality of
nature. The importance of this aspect cannot be exaggerated,
neither can its insufficiency.
5. For where does this doctrine leave us in regard to the Impossi-
acquisition of knowledge? Surely of all men most hopeless. Let y
ij
us set aside for the present the question of the relation between the neces-
subject and object as elaborated in the Theaetetus, and confine
s
^y '"
n
r
ourselves simply to the following considerations. The object of Heraklei-
knowledge must exist : of that which is not there can be no |^
n l
knowledge. But we have seen that according to Herakleitos it is
as true to say of everything that it is not as to say that it is :
therefore at best it is as true that there is no knowledge as
that there is. Again the object of knowledge must be abiding :
how can the soul have cognisance of that which unceasingly
slips away and glides from her grasp? For it is not possible
that we cognise our elemental substrate now in one form, now
in another, since change is continuous : there is no footing
anywhere ;
for each thing the beginning of birth is the beginning
of dissolution ; every new form in the act of supplanting the old
has begun its own destruction. In this utter elusiveness of fluidity
where is knowledge to rest ? Plato sums up the matter in these
words : ei p.fv yap O.VTO TOVTO, rj yvdxri?, TOU yvwats etvat fitj p.c-
TaTriTrm, /W.CVGI re oV act 17 yptoats /ca! elrj yv<3(ris'
(I 8 KCU avro TO
eiSos fJifTaTriirrei rrjs yvwo-etos, a//,a T* av /^UTaTTiWoi tts dAAo eiSo?
yvaxrews Kai OVK av eir; yvwcris' i 8t aei fUTaTTiTrrei, aei OVK av fit]

INTRODUCTION.
KCU CK TOUTOU Tou Xoyou cure TO yvoxjoftevov OVTC TO
fitvov av flrj. Cratylus 440 A.
Thus the teaching of Herakleitos tends to one inevitable end
none can know, for nothing can be known.
Parmeni- 6. Seeing then that Becoming and Multitude are unknow-
able, are we therefore forced to abandon in despair all striving
after knowledge? Or is it
perchance possible that there exists
Being or Unity, which abides for ever sure and can be really and
certainly known? Such at least was the conviction of Parmenides.
This great philosopher, who may be considered as the earliest
herald of the idealism which should come but yet was not, set
about his work by a method widely different from that of the
Ionian physicists
1
. The lonians indeed, and even Herakleitos
himself, in a certain sense sought unity, inasmuch as they postu-
lated one single element as the substrate of material phenomena.
But such a unity could not content Parmenides. What, he may
have asked, do we gain by such a unity ? If there is one element
underlying the appearances of material nature, why choose one
of its manifestations as the fundamental form in preference to
another? If the same substance appears now as fire, now as air,
now as water, what is the use of saying that fire, air, or water is
the ultimate element ? And if with Anaximandros we affirm that
the ultimate substance is an undefined unlimited substrate, this is
only as much as to say, we do not know the substrate of things.
In any case the supposition of a material substrate leaves us just
where we were. The unity that pervades nature must be one of
a totally different sort ;
not a material element which is trans-
formed into multitudinous semblances, but a principle, a formative
essence, distinct from the endless variety of visible nature. It
must be no ever-changing substrate, but an essence simple, im-
mutable, and eternal, far removed from the ken of sensation and
to be reached by reason alone. And not only must it be verily
existent, it must be the sum-total of existence ;
else would it fail
of its own nature and fall short of itself. Since then the One is
and is the whole, it must needs follow that the Many are not at
all. Material nature then, with all her processes and appearances,
is utterly non-existent, a vain delusion of the senses : she is Not-
being, and Not-being exists in no wise only Being is. And since
1
I take Parmenides as the repre- speaking, a philosopher at all, and
sentative of Eleatic thought, regard- Zeno as merely developing one aspect
ing Xenophanes as not, properly of Parmenidean teaching.

INTRODUCTION. 7
Not-being is not, neither is there Becoming ; for Becoming is the
synthesis of Being and Not-being. Again if there is not Be-
coming, Motion exists not either, for Becoming is a motion, and
all motion is becoming. Multitude, Motion, Becoming all these
are utterly obliterated and annihilated from out of the nature of
things :
only the One exists, abiding in its changeless eternity of
stillness
1
.
7. Such is the answer returned by Parmenides and his school The Elea-
to the question asked at the beginning of our previous section,
takei^by^'
Material nature is in continual flux, you say, and cannot be itself, is as
known: good then material nature does not exist. But Being aTthat'of
6
or the One does exist and can be known, and it is all there is to Heraklei-
, tos.
know.
Now it is impossible to conceive a sharper antithesis than
that which exists at all points between the two theories I have
just sketched. The Herakleiteans flatly deny all unity and rest,
the Eleatics as flatly deny all plurality and motion. If then either
of these schools is entirely right, the law of contradiction is
peremptory the other must be entirely wrong. Is then either
entirely right or wrong ?
We have already admitted that Herakleiteanism presents us
with a most significant truth, and also that it
remorselessly sweeps
away all basis of knowledge. Therefore we conclude that, though
Herakleitos has given us a truth, it is an incomplete and 'one-
sided truth. Let us notice next how the Eleatics stand in this
respect.
About the inestimable value of the Eleatic contribution there
can be no doubt. Granted that the phenomena of the material
world are ever fleeting and vanishing and can never be known
what of that ? The material world does not really exist : it is not
there that we must seek for the object of knowledge, but in the
eternally existent Unity. Thus they oppose the object of reason
1
This sheer opposition of the ex- little value he might attach to opinion,
istent unity to the non-existent plurality was bound to take account of it*,
led Parmenides to divide his treatise That Parmenides was perfectly con-
on Nature into two distinct portions, sistent in embracing the objects of
dealing with Truth and Opinion. I Opinion in his account, I admit. But
am not disposed to contest Dr Jack- none the less does his language justify
son's affirmation that
'
Parmenides, the statements in the text : he em-
while he denied the real existence phatically affirms the non-existence of
of plurality, recognised its apparent phenomena, and has no care to ex-
existence, and consequently, however plain why they appear to exist.

8 INTRODUCTION.
to the object of sensation. This is good, so far as it goes : it
points to the line followed by Plato, who said, if material nature
cannot be known, the inference is, not that knowledge is im-
possible, but that .there is some immaterial existence, transcending
the material, which is the true object of knowledge. But the
further we examine the Eleatic solution, the more reason we shall
see to be dissatisfied with it. First the problem of the material
world is not answered but merely shelved by the negation of its
existence. Here are we, a number of conscious intelligences,
who perceive, or fancy we perceive, a nature which is not our-
selves. What then are we, what is this nature, why do we seem to
perceive it, and how can there be interaction between us and it ?
A bald negation of matter will not satisfy these difficulties. Again,
the Eleatics are bound to deny not merely the plurality of objects,
but the plurality of subjects as well What then are these con-
scious personalities, which seem so real and so separate, and
which yet on Eleatic principles must, so far as their plurality and
their separation is concerned, be an idle dream ? Secondly, if we
ask Parmenides what is this eternally existent One, no satisfactory
answer is forthcoming. On the one hand his description of the
v OK ray is clogged with the forms of materiality : it is
'
on all
sides like unto the globe of a well-rounded sphere, everywhere in
equipoise from the centre:' on the other, it is a mere aggregate of
negations, and, as Plato has shown, an idle phantom of the
imagination, an abstraction without content, whereof nothing can
be predicated, which has no possible mode of existence, which
cannot be spoken, conceived, or known. This is all Parmenides
has to offer us for veritable existence. If it is true that on
Herakleitean principles nothing can be known, it is equally true
that on Eleatic principles there is nothing to know.
The Hera- 8. How is it then that either of these most opposite theories
JariEl^. leads to an equally hopeless deadlock? It is because each of
tic theories them presents us with one side of a truth as if it were the whole.
like^n*
^or OPP05^6 as the doctrines of Herakleitos and Parmenides
complete, may appear, they are in fact mutually complementary, and neither
iallT*com-
*s actua^y **** except in conjunction with its rivaL Herakleitos
plementary did well in affirming Motion ; but he forgot that, if Motion is to
other the ^ there must likewise be Rest : for opposite requires opposite,
fusion of So too Parmenides in denying plurality saw not that he thereby
the work* abolished unity: for One and Many can exist only in mutual
left to correlation each is meaningless without the other. Both must
Plato.

INTRODUCTION. 9
exist, or neither : the two are as inseparable as concave and
convex.
Here then lies the radical difference between Parmenides and
Plato. Parmenides said, Being is at rest, therefore Motion is not;
Being is one, therefore Multitude is not ; Being is, therefore Not-
being is not at all. Plato said, since there is Rest, there must be
Motion ;
since Being is one, it must also be many ; that Being
may really be, Not-being must also be real. The chasm between
the two sides must be bridged, the antinomy conciliated : Rest
must agree with Motion, Unity with Multitude, Being with Not-
being.
But, it may be objected, is not this the very thing we just now
said that the theory of Herakleitos achieved ? is not his great merit
to have shown that each thing becomes, that is to say, it is at once
and is not? True, Herakleitos shows this in the case of particulars :
he exhibits 'is' and 'is not' combined in the processes of material
nature. But as his universal result he gives us the negation
of Being, just as Parmenides gives us the negation of Not-Being:
each in the universal is one-sided. This Becoming, to which
Herakleitos points in the material world, must be the symbol of a
far profounder truth, of which Herakleitos never dreamed, which
even Plato failed at first to realise.
So then these are our results up to the present point. On the
one side we have Multitude, Motion, Becoming; on the other
Unity, Rest, Being. The two rival principles confront each other
in sheer opposition, stiff, unyielding, impracticable. And till
they
can be reconciled, human thought is at a standstill. The partisans
of either side waste their strength in idle wrangling that ends
in nothing. And indeed, as we have them so far, these two
principles are hopelessly conflicting: some all-powerful solvent
must be found which shall be able to subdue them and hold them
in coalescence. Now this very thing is the contribution of the
last of the three great thinkers who are at present under considera-
tion: he brought into the light, though he could not use, the
medium wherein the fundamental antithesis of things was to
be reconciled.
9. Anaxagoras belongs to the Ionian school of thought and Anaxago-
mainly concerned himself with physics. But such was the ras>
originality of his genius and such the importance of his service to
philosophy that he stands forth from the rest, as prominent
and imposing a figure as Herakleitos himself. With his physical

10 INTRODUCTION.
Anaxago-
ras and
causation.
theories we are not now concerned, since it is the development
of Greek metaphysic alone which we are engaged in tracing.
Anaxagoras distinguished himself by the postulation of Mind as
an efficient cause: therefore it is that Aristotle says he came
speaking the words of soberness after men that idly babbled.
All was chaos, says Anaxagoras, till Mind came and ordered it,
Now what is the meaning of this saying, as he understood it?
First we must observe that the teaching of Anaxagoras is
not antithetical to that of either Herakleitos or Parmenides, as
these two are to each other: he takes up new ground altogether.
His doctrine of vous is antagonistic to the opinions of Empedokles
and of the atomists. Empedokles assumes Love and Hate as
the causes of union and disunion. But herein he really introduces
nothing new; he merely gives a poetical half-personification to the
forces which are at work in nature. The atomists, conceiving
their elemental bodies darting endlessly through infinite space,
assigned as the cause of their collision TVXTJ or dvdyKrj, by which
they meant an inevitable law operating without design, a blind
force inherent in nature. This is what Anaxagoras gainsaid: to
him effect required a cause, motion a movent. Now he observed
that within his experience individual minds are the cause of
action: what more likely then, he argued, than that the motions
of nature as a whole are caused by a universal mind? It did not
seem probable to him that a universe ordered as this is could be
the chance product of blindly moving particles; he thought he saw
in it evidence of intelligent design. He knew of but one form of
intelligence the mind of living creatures, and chiefly of man.
Mind then, he thought, must be the originator of order in the
universe a mind transcending the human intelligence by so
much as the operations of nature are mightier than the works
of man. Thus then he postulated an efficient cause distinct from
the visible nature which it
governed.
This leads us briefly to compare his attitude towards causation
with that of Herakleitos and Parmenides. Herakleitos sought
for no efficient cause. The impulse of transmutation is inherent
in his elemental fire, and he looks no further. Why things
are in perpetual mutation is a question which he does not
profess to answer; it is enough, he would say, to have affirmed a
principle that will account for the phenomena of the universe: it
is neither necessary nor possible to supply a reason why the
universe exists on this principle. And in fact every philosophy

INTRODUCTION. I
must at some point or other return the same reply. Herakleitos
then conceives a motive force to exist in matter, but seeks not any
ulterior cause thereof.
The Eleatics simply abolished causation altogether. Since
the One alone exists and changes never, it is the cause of nothing
either to itself or to anything else. Causation in fact implies
Becoming, and is thus excluded from the Eleatic system. No
attempt is made to establish any relation of causality between the
One and the Many, since the latter are absolutely negated. Nor
does Parmenides in his treatise on the objects of Opinion make
any effort to account for the apparent existence of the multitude
of material particulars.
Anaxagoras is thus the first with whom the conception of an
efficient cause came to the front; and herein, however defective
may have been his treatment of the subject, his claim of originality
is indefeasible.
10. The shortcomings of the Anaxagorean theory have been Deficien-
dwelt upon both by Plato and by Aristotle. Plato found indeed ciesof An-
much in Anaxagoras with which he could sympathise. His
conception that Intelligence, as opposed to the atomistic
dvdyKr], is the motive cause in nature, is after Plato's own heart.
But after advancing so far, Anaxagoras stops short. Plato
complains that he employs his Intelligence simply as a mechanical
cause, as a source of energy, whereby he may have his cosmical
system set in motion. But if, says Plato, the "PX9
? f l^e universe
is an intelligent mind, this must necessarily be ever aiming at the
best in its ordering of the universe no explanation can be
adequate which is not thoroughly teleological. But Anaxagoras
does not represent 'the best' as the cause why things are as they
are :
having assumed his vous as a motive power, he then, like all
the rest, assigns only physical and subsidiary causes. The final
cause has in fact no place in the philosophy of Anaxagoras. Nor
does he ever regard Mind as the indwelling and quickening
essence of Nature, far less as her substance and reality. On the
contrary Mind is but an external motive power supplying the
necessary impetus whereby the universe may be constructed
on mechanical principles. Material phenomena stand over
against it as an independent existence; they are ordered and
controlled by Mind, but are not evolved from it, nor in any way
conciliated with it. Thus we see how far Anaxagoras was from
realising the immeasurable importance of the principle which he

1 2 INTRODUCTION.
himself contributed to metaphysics, the conception of a
causative mind. And so his philosophy ends in a dualism of
the crudest type.
Results. ii. And now we have lying before us the materials out of
which, with the aid of a hint or two gained from Sokrates, Plato
was to construct an idealistic philosophy. These materials consist
of the three principles enunciated by the three great teachers whose
views we have been considering
1
. These principles we may term
by different names according to the mode of viewing them
Motion, Rest, Life; Multiplicity, Unity, Thought; Becoming,
Being, Soul: all these triads amount to the same. But however
pregnant with truth these conceptions may prove to be, they
are thus far impotent and sterile to the utmost. Each is presented
to us in helpless isolation, incapable by itself of affording an
explanation of things or a basis of knowledge. To bring them to
light was only for men of genius, rightly to conciliate and
coordinate them required the supreme genius of all. Like the bow
of Odysseus, they await the hand of the master who alone can wield
them. The One of Parmenides and the Many pf Herakleitos
must be united in the Mind of Anaxagoras : that is to say, unity
and plurality must be shown as two necessary and inseparable
modes of soul's existence, before a philosophy can arise that
is indeed worthy of the name. And it is very necessary to
realise that to all appearance nothing could be more hopeless than
the deadlock at which philosophical speculation had arrived:
every way seemed to have been tried, and not one led to know-
1
It may be thought strange that I between the Pythagorean theory of
here make no mention of the Pytha- numbers and the Platonic theory of
goreans. But the Pythagorean in- ideas a resemblance sufficient to in-
fluence on Platonism has been grossly duce Aristotle to draw a comparison
overrated. Far too much importance between them in the first book of the
has often been attached to the state- metaphysics. But that the similarity
ments of late and untrustworthy au- was merely external is plain from
thorities, or to fragments attributed Aristotle's own account, and also that
on most unsubstantial grounds to the significance to be attached to the
Pythagorean writers. All that we Pythagorean numbers had been left
can safely believe about Pythagorean in an obscurity which probably could
philosophising is to be found, apart not have been cleared up by the
from what Plato tells us, in Aristotle : authors of the theory. We may doubt-
and from his statements we may less accept the verdict of Aristotle in
pretty fairly infer that they had no a somewhat wider sense than he
real metaphysical system at all. There meant by the words lav dirXwi
is indeed some superficial resemblance

INTRODUCTION. 1
3
ledge. The natural result was that men despaired of attaining
philosophic truth.
12. Before we proceed further, perhaps a few words are Empedo-
due to Empedokles. For he seems to have been dimly conscious
of the necessity to amalgamate somehow or other the principles
which Herakleitos and Parmenides had enunciated, the principles
of Rest and Motion. But of any scientific method whereby this
should be done he had not the most distant conception. His
scheme is crudely physical, a mere mechanical juxtaposition of
the two opposites /uis re SiaAXa^'s TC //.(.ye'vTwv
: a real ontological
fusion of them was utterly beyond his thought. Still, although
he really contributes nothing to the solution of the problem
concerning the One and Many, the fact that he did grope as it
were in darkness after it is worthy of notice.
13. The hopelessness of discovering any certain verity con- The
cerning the nature of things found an expression in the sophistic ^p^i*]}
movement This phase of Greek thought need not detain us Protago-
long, since it did nothing directly for the advancement of meta-
ras>
physical inquiry. It is possible enough that the new turn which
the sophists gave to men's thoughts may have done something
to prepare the way for psychological introspection, and their
studies in grammar and language can hardly have been other
than beneficial to the nascent science of logic. From our present
point of view however the only member of the profession that
need be mentioned is Protagoras, who was probably the clearest
and acutest thinker among them all, and who is interesting
because Plato has associated his name with some of his own
developments of the Herakleitean theory. The historical Pro-
tagoras probably did little or nothing more in this direction than
to popularise some of the teaching of Herakleitos and to give
it a practical turn. What seems true to me, he said, is true for
me ;
what seems true to you is true for you : there is no absolute
standard TTO.VTWV xp^arcuv /xeVpov avOpwrros. Therefore let us
abandon all the endeavours to attain objective truth and turn
our minds to those practical studies which really profit a man.
The genuine interest of the doctrine of the relativity of knowledge,
which Protagoras broached, is to be found in Plato's develop-
ment of it ; and this will be considered in its proper place. So
far as concerns our present study, we see in Protagoras only a
striking representative of the reaction against the earlier dogmatic
philosophy.

1 4 JNTRODUCTION.
Sokrates. 14. Into the question whether Sokrates was a sophist or
not we are not concerned to enter. And, deep as was the mark
which he left on his time, we need not, since our inquiry deals
with metaphysics, linger long with him : for whatever meta-
physical importance Sokrates possesses is indirect and may be
summed up in a very few words. With Sokrates the ultimate
object of inquiry is, not the facts given in experience, but our
judgments concerning them. Whereas the physicists had
thought to attain knowledge by speculation upon the natural
phenomena themselves, Sokrates, by proceeding inductively to
a classification and definition of various groups of phenomena,
substituted concepts for things as the object of cognition. By
comparing a number of particulars which fall under the same
class, we are enabled to strip off whatever accidental attributes
any of them may possess and retain only what is common and
essential to all. Thus we arrive at the concept or universal
notion of the thing : and since this universal is the sole truth
about the thing, so far as we are able to arrive at truth, it follows
that only universals are the object of knowledge, so far as we
are able to attain it. This Sokratic doctrine, that knowledge
is of universals is the germ of the Platonic principle that know-
ledge is of the ideas : and though, as we shall see, a too close
adherence to it led Plato astray at first, it remained, since there
was a Plato to develope it, a substantial contribution to philo-
sophical research.
Plato: two X 5- We are now in a position to appreciate the nature
stages to of the work which lay before Plato and of the materials which
guished in ne found ready to his hand. We have seen that philosophy,
his treat-
properly speaking, did not yet exist, though the incomposite
the meta- elements of it were there ready for combination. Now it would
physical be a very improbable supposition that Plato realised at first
sight the full magnitude and the exact nature of the problem
he had to encounter : and a careful study of his works leads,
I believe, to the conclusion that such a supposition would be
indefensible
1
. If then this is so if Plato first dealt with the
question incompletely and with only a partial knowledge of what
he had to do, but afterwards revised and partly remodelled his
theory, after he had fully realised the nature of the problem
1
For a full statement of the rea- denned phases of his thought, I must
sons for holding that in Plato's dia- refer to Dr Jackson's essays on the
logues are to be found two well- later theory of ideas.

INTRODUCTIOtf. 1
5
obviously our business is to investigate his mode of operation at
both stages : we must see how he endeavoured in the first instance
to escape from the philosophical scepticism which seemed to be
the inevitable result of previous speculation, what were the defici-
encies he found in the earlier form of his theory, and how he pro-
posed to remedy its faults. We must see too how far his concep-
tion of the nature of the problem may have altered in the interval
between the earlier and the later phase of the ideal theory.
To this end it will be necessary to examine Plato's meta-
physical teaching as propounded in a group of dialogues,
whereof the most important metaphysically are the Republic and
Phaedo with which are in accordance the Phaednts, Symposium,
Meno, and apparently the Cratylus and next the amended
form of their teaching, as it appears in four great dialogues of the
later period, Parmenides, Sophist, Philebus, Timaeus ; especially
of course the last. The Sokratic dialogues may be dismissed
as not bearing upon our question.
1 6. Plato had thoroughly assimilated the physical teaching Plato
of Herakleitos. He held no less strongly than the Ionian philo-
sopher the utter instability and fluidity of material nature. We tean stand
are not perhaps at liberty to allege the very emphatic language
Pomt>
of the Theaetetus as evidence that this was his view in the earlier
phase of his philosophy, with which we are at present dealing :
but there is abundant proof within the limits of the Republic
and Phaedo; see Republic 4796, Phaedo 788. He therefore,
like Protagoras, was bound to draw his inference from the Hera-
kleitean principle. The inference drawn by Protagoras was that
speculation is idle, knowledge impossible. The inference drawn
by Plato was that, since matter cannot be known, there must
be some essence transcending matter, which alone is the object
of knowledge. And furthermore this immaterial essence must
be the cause and sole reality of material phenomena. Thus it
was Plato's acceptance of the Herakleitean TrdvTa. pei, together
with his refusal to infer from it the impossibility of knowledge,
that led him to idealism.
At this point the hint from Sokrates is worked in. What Thecontri-
manner of immaterial essence is it which we are to seek as the
gokrates
object of knowledge ? Plato cordially adopted the Sokratic and the
principle that universals alone can be known. But the Sokratic
^ as
universal, being no substantial existence but merely a con- presented
ception in our own mind, will not meet Plato's demand for a

1 6 INTRODUCT1ON.
self-existent intelligible essence. Plato therefore hypostatises the
Sokratic concept, declaring that every such concept is but our
mental adumbration of an eternal and immutable idea. Thus
in every class of material things we have an idea, whereof the
particulars are the material images, and the concept which we
form from observation of the particulars is our mental image
of it. Immaterial essence then exists in the mode of eternal
ideas or forms, one of which corresponds to every class, not only
of concrete things, but of attributes and relations, of all things
in fact which we call by the same class-name (Republic 5 96 A).
The particulars exist, so far as they may be said to exist, through
inherence of the ideas in them at least this is the way Plato
usually puts it, though in Phaedo IOOD he declines to commit
himself to a definition of the relation. These ideas are arranged
in an ascending scale : lowest we have the ideas of concrete
things, next those of abstract qualities, and finally the supreme
Idea of the Good, which is the cause of existence to all the other
ideas, and hence to material nature as well
Now since, as we have seen, there is an idea corresponding
to every group of particulars, we may note the following classes
of ideas in the theory of the Republic: (i) the idea of the good;
(2) ideas of qualities akin to the good, KCIAOV, Sucaiov and the like ;
(3) ideas of natural objects, as man, horse ; (4) ideas of cncevaoTa,
guch as beds or tables ; (5) ideas of relations, as equal, like ;
(6) ideas of qualities antagonistic to good, aSucov, aurxpov, and
so forth (Republic 476 A).
Thus then we have the multitude of particulars falling under
the above six classes deriving their existence from a number of
causative immaterial essences, which in turn derive their own
existence from one supreme essence, to wit, the idea of the good.
The particulars themselves cannot be known, because they have
no abiding existence : but by observation and classification of
the particulars we may ascend from concept to concept until we
attain to the apprehension of the auro dyaOw, whence we pass
to the cognition of the other ideas. Thus Plato offers us a theory
of knowledge which shall enable us to escape from metaphysical
Predica- scepticism. But he also offers us in the theory of ideas his solution
tion.
Q a pressmg logical difficulty the difficulty raised by Antisthenes
and others as to the possibility of predication. The application
of the ideal theory to this question is to be found in Phaedo 102 B.
Predication signifies that the idea of the quality predicated is

INTRODUCTION. 17
inherent in the subject whereof it is predicated : if we say
'
Sokrates is small,' we do not, as Antisthenes would have it,
identify
'
Sokrates
'
and '
small,' but simply indicate that Sokrates
partakes of the inherent idea of smallness. Thus we find in the
doctrine of ideas on the metaphysical side a theory of knowledge,
on the logical side a theory of predication.
17. Such is Plato's first essay to solve the riddle bequeathed The
him by his predecessors. Let us try to estimate the merits and
deficiencies of his solution. Plato's
The bold originality of Plato's theory is conspicuous at a
^eory.
glance. In the first place, by proclaiming the Absolute Good as The source
the sole source of existence, he identifies the ontological with the of Being
ethical first principle, the formal with the final cause. Thus he Good the
makes good the defect whereof he complained in the philosophy
same,
of Anaxagoras. For in the Platonic system a theory of being is
most intimately bound up with a theory of final causes :
ontology
and teleology go hand in hand. Everything exists exactly in
proportion as it fulfils the end of being as perfect as possible ; for
just in that degree it
participates in the idea of the good, which is
the ultimate source of all existence. In just the same way he
escapes from the utilitarian doctrine of Protagoras, by deducing
his ethical teaching from the very fount of existence itself. Thus
he finds one and the same cause for the existence of each thing
and for its goodness. A good thing is not merely good relatively
to us : as it exists by participating in the idea of the good, so it is
good by resembling the idea ;
the participation is the cause of the
resemblance. Hence good is identified with existence, evil with
non-existence; and, as I have said, each thing exists just in so far
as it is good, and no further.
Again in the ideal theory we for the first time reach a Concep-
conception, and a very distinct conception, of immaterial existence.
tio
f
j
m~
Perhaps we are a little liable to be backward in realising what a existence,
huge stride in advance this was. I will venture to affirm that
there is not one shadow of evidence in all that we possess of
preplatonic utterances to show that any one of Plato's predecessors
had ever so remote a notion of immateriality. Parmenides,
who would gladly have welcomed idealism, is as much to seek as
any one in his conception of it. And when we see such a man as
Parmenides 'the reverend and awful' with all his 'noble profundity'
hopelessly left behind, we may realise what an invincible genius it
was that shook from its wings the materialistic bonds that clogged
P. T. 2

18 JNTROD UCTION.
Distinction
between
perceiving
and think-
ing.
Plato
works in
whatever
is valid in
Heraklei-
tos, Par-
menides
and Anax-
agoras.
Deficien-
cies of the
earlier
Platonism.
Heraklei-
tos and
Parmeni-
des not
yet con-
ciliated.
both thought and speech and rose triumphant to the sphere of the
'colourless and formless and intangible essence which none but
reason the soul's pilot is permitted to behold.'
And as the material and immaterial are for the first time
distinguished, so between perception and thought is the line for
the first time clearly drawn. Perception is the soul's activity as
conditioned by her material environment ; thought her unfettered
action according to her own nature :
by the former she deals with
the unsubstantial flux of phenomena, by the latter with the
immutable ideas.
Plato then recognises and already seeks to conciliate the
conflicting principles of Herakleitos and Parmenides. He satisfies
the demand of the Eleatics for a stable and uniform object of
cognition, while he concedes to Herakleitos that in the material
world all is becoming, and to Protagoras that of this material
world there can be no knowledge nor objective truth. He also
affirms with Anaxagoras that mind or soul is the only motive
power in nature soul alone having her motion of herself is the
cause of motion to all things else that are moved. Thus we see
that Plato has taken up into his philosophy the great principles
enounced by his forerunners and given them a significance and
validity which they never had before.
1 8. Now had Plato stopped short with the elaboration
of the philosophical scheme of which an outline has just been
given, his service to philosophy would doubtless have been
immense and would still probably have exceeded the performance
of any one man besides. But he does not stop short there nay,
he is barely half way on his journey. We have now to consider
what defects he discovered in the earlier form of his theory, and
how he set about amending them.
First we must observe that the conciliation of Herakleitos
and Parmenides is only just begun. It is in fact clear that Plato,
although recognising the truth inherent in each of the rival
theories, had, when he wrote the Republic, no idea how completely
interdependent were the two truths. For in the Republic his con-
cern is, not how he may harmonise the Herakleitean and Eleatic
principles as parts of one truth, but how, while satisfying the just
claims of Becoming, he may establish a science of Being. He
simply makes his escape from the Herakleitean world of Becoming
into an Eleatic world of Being. And the world of Becoming
is for him a mere superfluity, he does not recognise it as an

INTRODUCTION. 19
inevitable concomitant of the world of Being. This amounts to
saying that he does not yet recognise the Many as the inevitable
counterpart to the One.
Plato is in fact still too Eleatic. He does not roundly reject Pheno-
the material world altogether: he sees that some explanation of it
^"^tely
is
necessary, and endeavours to explain it as deriving a kind of explained,
dubious existence from the ideas. But this part of his theory was,
as he himself seems conscious, quite vague and shadowy: the
existence or appearance of material nature is left almost as great a
mystery as ever. And, as we shall see, the nature of the ideas
themselves is not satisfactorily made out, still less their relation to
the avro dyaOov.
Plato is also too Sokratic. He allows the Sokratic element Necessity
in his system to carry weight which oversets the balance of the
^g^1112
whole. We have seen that, owing to his admission of a hypostasis of ideas,
corresponding to every Sokratic concept, we have among the
denizens of the ideal world ideas of o-Kcuaora, of relations, and of
things that are evil. In the first place the proposition that there
exist in nature eternal types of artificial things seems very dubious
metaphysic. Again, we have only to read the Phaedo in order to
perceive what perplexities beset the ideas of relations'. Finally,
the derivation from the supreme good of ideal evil is a difficulty
exceeding in gravity all the rest. Clearly then the list of ideas
needs revision.
Moreover but scant justice is done to the Anaxagorean Principle
principle of vovs. Plato had indeed supplied the teleological
"O
.
w u
^"
deficiency of Anaxagoras ;
but we have no hint yet of soul as the
substance and truth of all nature, spiritual and material, nor of the
conciliation of unity and multitude as modes of soul's existence.
Nor have we any adequate theory to explain the relation of
particular souls to phenomena and to the ideas. Even the
Herakleitean principle itself is not carried deep enough. It is not
sufficient to recognise its universal validity in the world of matter.
For if there be any truth in Becoming, this must lie deeper than
the mere mutability of the material world: the changefulness of
matter must be some expression of changeless truth.
I conceive then we may expect to see in Plato's revised Summary.
theory (i) a more drastic treatment of the problem concerning the
One and the Many, (2) a searching inquiry into the relation
between ideas and particulars, (3) a large expurgation of the list
1
For instance Phaedo 102 B.
2 2

20 INTRODUCTION.
of ideas, (4) a theory of the relation of soul, universal and
particular, to the universe. The answer to these problems may be
latent in the earlier Platonism : but Plato has not yet realised the
possibilities of his theory. By the time he has done this, we find
most important modifications effected in it. Still they are but
modifications: Plato's theory remains the theory of ideas, and
none other, to the end.
The Par- 19. The severe and searching criticism to which Plato sub-
menides.
j
ects his own theory is begun in the Parmenides. This remarkable
dialogue falls into two divisions of very unequal length. In the
first part Parmenides criticises the earlier form of the theory of
ideas ;
in the second he applies himself to the investigation of the
One, and of the consequences which ensue from the assumption
either of its existence or of its non-existence. The discussion of
the ideal theory in the first part turns upon the relation between
idea and particulars. Sokrates offers several alternative suggestions
as to the nature of this relation, all of which Parmenides shows to
be subject to the same or similar objections. The purport of his
criticisms maybe summed up as follows: (i) if particulars par-
ticipate in the idea, each particular must contain either the whole
idea or a part of it ; in the one case the idea exists as a number of
separate wholes, in the other it is split up into fractions ; and,
whichever alternative we accept, the unity of the idea is
equally
sacrificed :
(2) we have the difficulty known as the rpiVos av-
Opwiros if all things which are like one another are like by virtue
of participation in the same idea, then, since idea and particulars
resemble each other, they must do so by virtue of resembling
some higher idea which comprehends both idea and particulars,
and so forth ets aTreipov :
(3) if the ideas are absolute substantial
existences, there can be no relation between them and the world
of particulars : ideas are related to ideas, particulars to particulars ;
intelligences which apprehend ideas cannot apprehend particulars,
and vice versa. It may be observed that the second objection is
not aimed at the proposition that particulars resemble one another
because they resemble the same idea, but against the hypothesis
that because particulars in a given group resemble each other it is
necessary to assume an idea corresponding to that group.
Sokrates is unable to parry these attacks upon his theory, but
in the second part of the dialogue Plato already prepares a way of
escape. In the eight hypotheses comprised in this section of the
dialogue Parmenides examines TO v, conceived in several different

INTRODUCTION. 2 1
senses with the view of ascertaining what are the consequences
both of the affirmation and of the negation of its existence to
TO ev itself and to raXXa TOV evoV The result is that in some
cases both, in other cases neither, of two strings of contradictory
epithets can be predicated of TO tv or of TaXAo. If both series of
epithets can be predicated, TO ev can be thought and known, if
neither, it cannot be thought nor known 1
. Now in the latter
category we find a conception of ev corresponding to the Eleatic
One and to the idea of the earlier Platonism.
The positive result of the Parmenides then is that the ideal
theory must be so revised as to be delivered from the objections
formulated in the first part : the second part points the direction
which reform is to take. We must give up looking upon One and
Many, like and unlike, and so forth, as irreconcilable opposites :
we must conceive them as coexisting and mutually complementary.
Thus is clearly struck the keynote of the later Platonism, the
conciliation of contraries. In this way Plato now evinces his
perfect consciousness of the necessity to harmonise the principles
of his Ionian and Eleate forerunners, giving to each its due and
equal share of importance.
20. It will be convenient to take the Theaetetus next
2
. The The-
This dialogue, starting from the question what is knowledge,
a
presents us with Plato's theory of perception a theory which
entirely harmonises with the teaching of the Timaeus and in part
supplements it. This theory Plato evolves by grafting the p-crpov
ai>0p<D7ros of Protagoras upon the Trdvra pel of Herakleitos and
developing both in his own way. As finally stated, it is as com-
plete a doctrine of relativity as can well be conceived. What is
given in our experience is no objective existence external to us ;
between the percipient and the object are generated perception
on the side of the percipient and a percept on the side of the
object: e.g. on the part of the object the quality of whiteness, on
the part of the subject the perception of white. And subject and
object are inseparably correlated and exist only in mutual con-
nexion subject cannot be percipient without object, nor object
1
For a detailed investigation of form among the later dialogues ap-
the intricate reasoning contained in pear to me irresistible, although parts
this part of the dialogue see Dr Jack- of the dialogue have such decided lite-
son's excellent paper in the Journal rary affinity to some of the earlier
of Philology, vol. XI p. 287. series that I am disposed to entertain
2
Dr Jackson's arguments for in- the supposition that what we possess
eluding the Theaetetus in its present is a second and revised edition.

22 INTRODUCTION.
generate a percept without subject. And subject as well as object
is undergoing perpetual mutation :
thus, since a change either of
object or of subject singly involves a change in the perception,
every perception is continually suffering a twofold alteration.
Perception is therefore an ever-flowing stream, incessantly changing
its character in correspondence with the changes in subject and
in object. Nothing therefore can be more complete than the
absolute instability of our sensuous perceptions. The importance
of this theory will be better realised when we view it in the light
of the Timaeus.
The 21. More important than even the Parmenides is the
Sop is .
Sophist, one of the most profound and far-reaching of Plato's
works. Plato starts with an endeavour to define the sophist, who,
when accused of teaching what seems to be but is not knowledge,
turns upon us, protesting the impossibility of predicating not-
being : it is nonsense to say he teaches what is not, for TO p? oi/
can neither be thought nor uttered. Hereupon follows a truly
masterly examination into the logic of being and not-being. The
result is to show that either of the two, viewed in the abstract
and apart from the other, is self-contradictory and unthinkable.
And as being cannot exist without not-being, so unity also, if
it is to have any intelligible existence, must contain in itself the
element of plurality ;
one is at the same time one and not-one,
else it has no meaning. The failure to grasp this truth is the
fundamental flaw in Eleatic metaphysics and consequently in the
earlier ideal theory. It seems to me hardly open to doubt that
the eiSwv <i'A.oi of 248 A represent Plato's own earlier views. The
strictures he passes upon these ewfy are just those to which we
have seen that the incomplete ideal theory is liable. He shows
that the absolute immobility of the etSr/, to which all action and
passion are denied, renders them nugatory as ontological prin-
ciples they are empty and lifeless abstractions :
yet, says Plato,
a principle of Being must surely have life and thought 249 A.
Next he takes five of the peyurra yen/, as he calls them, Rest,
Motion, Same, Other, Being; and he demonstrates their inter-
communicability, total or partial. The deduction from this is that
such relations are not aura Ka.6' avra elSrj, or self-existing essences,
but forms of predication, or, as we might say, categories. Thus
the ideas of relations which gave us so much trouble are swept
away; for were these yevr) substantial ideas, they could not thus
be intercommunicable. Finally, the sophistic puzzle about p.rj ov

INTRODUCTION. 2 3
is disposed of by resolving the notion of negation into that of
difference :
prj ov is
simply erepov.
The foregoing statement, brief and general as it is, will suffice,
I think, for enabling us to estimate the extent of the contribution
made by this dialogue towards building up the revised system.
We have (i) the overthrow of the Eleatic conception of being
and unity, which warns us that the ideal theory, if it would stand,
must abandon its Eleatic character, (2) the most important
declaration that Being must have life and thought this of course
implies that the only Being is soul, and points to the universal
soul of the Timaeus, (3) the deposition of relations from the rank
of ideas, (4) the dissipation of all the fogs that had gathered
about the notion of py ov, and the affirmation that there is a sense
in which not-being exists. The Sophist, it may be observed,
does for the logical side of Being and Not-being very much
what the Timaeus does for the metaphysical side. There is much
besides which is important and instructive in this dialogue, but
I believe I have summed up its main contributions to the later
metaphysic.
22. The Sophist then has expunged relations from the Ideas of
list of ideas. But there is another class of ideas included in the
earlier system which is not expressly dealt with in any one of
the later dialogues, and which it may be as well to mention here.
We have seen reason to desire the abolition of ideas of o-Kf.va.o-ro..
Now so far as Plato's own statements are concerned, the abandon-
ment of these ideas is only inferential. There is continual
reference to such ideas in the earlier dialogues, but absolutely
none in the later. This would perhaps sufficiently justify us in
deducing the absence of o-Kcvao-ra in the revised list of ideas.
But we have in addition the distinct testimony of Aristotle on this
point. See metaphysics A iii 1070* 18 Sio 817 ov /ca/coj? o HAarcDv
t(f>r)
OTL dor) eoTiv OTTOO-O. <vo-, with which compare A ix 99 i
b 6
otov oiKi'a /cat SaKTuXio?, wv ov <a/nv eiSr; clvai. We know that in
the earlier period Plato did recognise ideas of oaa and oWruXios :
therefore Aristotle, in denying such ideas, must have the later
period in his mind. In just the same way we read in metaphysics
A ix 99<3
b 1 6 01 >.v TWJ/ irpos TI TTOIOVO~IV iScas, c5v ov </>ayu,ev cTvai
naff avro ye'vos.
Relations were undoubtedly included among
the ideas of the earlier period ; yet, since, as we have seen, they
are rejected in the later, Aristotle simply denies their existence
without reference to the earlier view.

24 INTRODUCTION.
Thus then, sweeping away all ideas of o-Kevaora, we are able
to affirm that in Plato's later metaphysic there are ideas corre-
sponding only to classes of particulars which are determined by
nature, and none corresponding to artificial groups.
The 23. In the Phikbus we come for the first time to construc-
J'
tive ontology. We have the entire universe classed under four
heads Limit, Trepas the Unlimited, avfipov the Limited, P.IKTOV
the Cause of limitation, alria rrjs /uc9. In this classification
Trepas is form, as such ; aTmpov is matter, as such ; /UKTOV is
matter defined by form; amo. -riys /u'o>s is the efficient cause
which brings this information to pass : and this efficient cause
is declared to be the universal Intelligence or voi)s. The objects
of material nature are the result of a union between a principle
of form and a formless substrate, the latter being indeterminate
and ready to accept impartially any determination that is im-
pressed upon it. It is not indeed correct to say that the aTrapov
of the Phikbus is altogether formless : it is indeterminately qualified,
and the Trepas does but define the quantity. For example,
oVeipoi/ is 'hotter and colder,' that is, indeterminate in respect
of temperature : the effect of the Trepas is to determine the tem-
perature. The result of this determination is JUKTO'V, i.e. a
substance possessing a definite degree of heat. The analysis
of the material element given in the Phikbus therefore falls far
short, as we shall see, of the analysis in the Timaeus.
It is not however the Trepas itself which informs the aVeipov :
Plato speaks of the informing element as Trepas exov or 7r PaTOs
yeVva. This it is which enters into combination with matter, not
the Trepas itself. What then is the Trepas lov ? I think we cannot
err in identifying it with the ewriovra KCU eioWa of the Timaeus ; i. e.
the forms which enter into the formless substrate, generating /xi/Aif-
fiara of the ideas, and which vanish from thence again. The Trepas
l^ov will then be the Aristotelian eTSos the form inherent in
all qualified things and having no separate existence apart from
things. Every sensible thing then consists of two elements,
logically distinguishable but actually inseparable, form and matter.
Nowhere in the material universe do we find form without matter
or matter without form. Form then or limit, as manifested in
material objects, must be carefully distinguished from the absolute
Trepas itself, which does not enter into communion with matter :
but every Trepas e^ov possesses the principle of limitation, which
it
imposes upon the oVeipov wherewith it is combined.

INTRODUCTION. 25
But what is the Tre'pas itself? I think we are not in a position
to answer this question until we have considered the Timaeus.
But the nature of the reply has been indicated by a hint given
us in the Parmentdes, viz. that the ideas are 7rapa8eiy/*aTa eo-rwra
eV TTJ <frv<rei. For the Trepas <?x
ov> by imposing limit, so far assimi-
lates the oVeipov to the Tre'pas; consequently the /XIKTOV is the
of the Trepas as irapdSfiyfjLa. We may therefore regard the
as the ideal type to which the particulars approximate. Thus
we derive from the Philebus a hint of the paradeigmatic character
of the idea, which assumes its full prominence in the Timaeus.
This part of the theory however cannot be adequately dealt with
until we have examined the latter dialogue.
The most important metaphysical results of the Philebus may
thus, I conceive, be enumerated :
(i) the assertion of universal
mind as the efficient cause, and as the source of particular minds,
(2) the distinction of the formal and material element in things,
(3) the theory of matter as such, rudimentary as it is, which is
given us in the aTretpov.
24. Besides this, the Philebus enables us to make another ideas of
very important deduction from the number of ideas. We now f
vl1 no
,
. ..... longer ad-
regard the particular as resembling the idea in virtue of its in- mined.
formation by the Trepas f-ov. And in so far as this information is
complete the particular is a satisfactory copy of the idea. Now
let us represent any class of particulars or /xi/cra by the area of a
circle. The centre of this circle would be marked by the par-
ticular, if such could be found, which is a perfect material copy of
the idea that particular in which the formal and material elements
are blended in exactly the right way. Let us suppose the other
particulars to be denoted by various points within the circle in
every direction at different distances from the centre. Now in so
far as the particulars approximate to the centre, they are like the
idea, and by virtue of their common resemblance to the idea they
resemble each other. Such particulars then as resemble each
other because of their common resemblance to the idea are called
by the class-name appropriate to the idea. But it is clear that
particulars may also resemble each other because of a similar
divergence from the idea: we may have a number of them
clustering round a point within our circle far remote from the
centre and therefore very imperfectly representing the idea. Such
particulars have a class-name not derived from the idea, but de-
noting a similar divergence from the idea. A word denoting

26 INTROD UCTION.
Advance
made in
the four
dialogues
on the
metaphy-
sic of the
earlier
period.
divergence from the idea denotes evil. Therefore there are class-
names of evil things ;
but such class-names do not presuppose a
corresponding idea :
they simply indicate that the particulars com-
prehended by them fall short of the idea in a similar manner.
For example : a human being who should exactly represent
the avro o tvnv dv0pu)7ros would be perfectly beautiful and per-
fectly healthy. But in fact humanity is sometimes afflicted with
deformity and sickness: we have accordingly class-names for these
evils. But one who is deformed or sick fails, to the extent of his
sickness or deformity, in representing the ideal type : these class-
names then do not represent an idea but a certain falling-off from
the idea. Hence we have no idea of fever, because fever is only
a mode of deviation from the type
'
; and the same is true of all
other imperfections. Thus at one stroke we are rid of all ideas
of evil.
25. Let us now pause to consider how far these four dialogues
have carried us in the work of reconstruction, and how much awaits
accomplishment.
In the first place, the elimination of spurious ideas is fully
achieved. The Sophist frees us from ideas of relations, the Philebus
from those of evil ;
while o-KeuaoTa are rejected on the strength of
Aristotle's testimony, confirmed by the total absence of reference
to them in the later dialogues :
accordingly we have now ideas
corresponding only to classes naturally determined. It seems to
me manifest that ideas of qualities must also be banished from
the later Platonism ; and on this point too we have the negative
evidence that they are never mentioned in the later dialogues;
but there is no direct statement respecting them.
We have also a clear recognition, especially prominent in the
Parmenides, of the indissoluble partnership between One and
Many, Rest and Motion, Being and Not-being. The necessity for
reconciling these apparent opposites is distinctly laid down, though
the conciliation is not yet worked out. The acknowledgement
of soul as the one existence, from which all finite souls are de-
rived, and as the one efficient cause is a notable advance, as is
also the theory of the Theaetetus concerning the relation between
particular souls and material nature. And finally we have the
analysis of OVTO. into their formal and material elements, and the
still immature conception of matter as a potentiality.
1
In the Phaedo, on the contrary, we definitely have an idea of fever : see
105 c.

INTROD UCTION. 27
Moreover, putting the Theaetetus and Philebus together, we
obtain a result of peculiar importance. From the latter we learn
that finite souls are derived from the universal soul, from the
former that material objects are but the perceptions of finite
souls. The conclusion is inevitable, since the objects which con-
stitute material nature do not exist outside the percipient souls,
and since these percipient souls are part of the universal soul,
that material nature herself is a phase of the universal soul, which
is thus the sum total of existence. Thus we have the plainest
possible indication of the ontological theory which is set forth
in the Timaeus ; though, as usual, Plato has not stated this
doctrine in so many words, but left us to draw the only possible
inference from his language.
26. Yet great as is the progress that has been made, even Deficien-
more remains to be achieved : and it is to the Timaeus that we "es stl11 to
be sup-
must look for fulfilment. plied.
Although the fundamental problem of the One and the Many
is now fairly faced, the solution is not yet worked out. Nor is
the relation between the universal efficient Intelligence and the
world of matter clearly established : the failure of Anaxagoras in
this regard remains still unremedied. Also (what is the same
thing viewed in another way) the relation between ideas and par-
ticulars is left undefined. Nay, in this respect we seem yet worse
off than we were in the Republic. For the old unification, such
as it was, has disappeared, and no new one has taken its place.
Formerly we were content to say that the particulars participated
in the ideas, and from the ideas derived their existence. But now
this consolation is denied us. We have the ideas entirely separate
from the particulars, as types fixed in nature ; and no explanation
is offered as to how material nature came to exist, or seem to exist,
over against them. We have the 'subjective idealism' of the
Theaetetus^ and that is all. In fact, while we vindicate the idea as
a unity, we seem to sacrifice it as a cause.
Furthermore we desiderate a clearer account of the relation
between the supreme idea and the inferior ideas, and also between
limited intelligences and the infinite intelligence : nor can we
be satisfied without a much more thorough investigation into the
nature of materiality. And the answers to all these questions
must be capable of being duly subordinated to one compre-
hensive system.
Now if the Timaeus supplies in any reasonable degree a solution

28 INTRODUCTION.
The cen-
tral meta-
physical
doctrine
of the
Timaeus.
of the aforesaid problems, it seems to me that no more need be
said about the importance of the dialogue.
27. In the Ttmaeus Plato has given us his ontological
scheme in the form of a highly mystical allegory. I propose in
the first place to give a general statement of what I conceive
to be the metaphysical interpretation of this allegory, reserving
various special points for after consideration
1
. The ontological
teaching of this dialogue, though abounding in special difficulties,
can in my belief be very clearly apprehended, if we but view it in
the light afforded us by the other writings of this period ;
on which
in turn it sheds an equal illumination.
In the Timaeus then the universe is conceived as the self-
evolution of absolute thought. There is no more a distinction
between mind and matter, for all is mind. All that exists is the
self-moved differentiation of the one absolute thought, which is
the same as the Idea of the Good. For the Idea of the Good is
Being, and the source of it ;
and from the Sophist we have learnt
that Being is Mind. And from the Parmenides we have learnt
that Being which is truly existent must be existent in two modes :
it must be one and it must be many. For since One has meaning
only when contrasted with Many, Being, forasmuch as it is One,
demands that Many shall be also. But since Being alone exists,
Being must itself be that Many. Again, Being is the same with
itself; but Same has no meaning except as correlated with Other;
so Being must also be Other. Once more, Being is at rest ; Rest
requires its opposite, Motion; therefore Being is also in motion.
Seeing then that Being is All, it is both one and many, both same
and other, both at rest and in motion : it is the synthesis of every
antithesis. The material universe is Nature manifesting herself in
the form of Other : it is the one changeless thought in the form of
mutable multitude. Thus does dualism vanish in the final identi-
fication of thought and its object :
subject and object are but
different sides of the same thing. Thought must think: and since
Thought alone exists, it can but think itself
8
.
1
Considering that the exposition
here offered deals with matters of
much controversy, my statement may
be thought unduly categorical and
dogmatic. In reply I would urge
that difficulties of interpretation and
the manner in which Plato's meaning
comes out are pretty copiously dis-
cussed in the commentary. At pre-
sent I am aiming at making my story as
clear as possible, to which end I have
given results rather than processes.
What I conceive to be the justification
for the views advanced will, I hope,
appear in the course of my exposition.
2
It is
easy to see that Aristotle's

INTRODUCTION. 29
Yet, though matter is thus resolved into a mode of spirit, it
is not therefore negated. It is no longer contemptuously ignored
or dismissed with a metaphor. Matter has its proper place in
the order of the universe and a certain reality of its own. Though
it has no substantial being, it has a meaning. For Nature, seeing
that she is a living soul, evolves herself after a fixed inevitable
design, in which all existence, visible and invisible, finds its rightful
sphere and has its appointed part to play in the harmony of the
universe. But there is more to be said ere we can enter upon
the nature of matter.
28. The universal mind, we say, must exist in the form of Pluralisa-
plurality as well as in the form of unity. How does this come
t]
to pass ? The hint for our guidance is to be found in the Phi- mind in
lebus, where we learn that, as the elements which compose our
of^jjj
bodies are fragments of the elements which compose the universe, existences,
so our souls are fragments, as it were, of the universal soul. Hence
we see how the one universal intelligence exists in the mode of
plurality : it differentiates itself into a number of finite intelli-
gences, and so, without ceasing to be one, becomes many. These
limited personalities are of diverse orders, ranging through all
degrees of intellectual and conscious life ; those that are nearest
the absolute mind, if I may use the phrase, possessing the purest
intelligence, which fades into deeper and deeper obscurity in
the ranks that are more remote. First stands the intelligence
of gods, which enjoys in the highest degree the power of pure
unfettered thought ; next comes the human race, possessing an
inferior but still potent faculty of reason. Then as we go down
the scale of animate beings, we see limitation fast closing in
upon them intelligence grows ever feebler and sensation ever
in proportion stronger, until, passing beyond the forms in which
sensation appears to reign alone, we come in the lowest organisms
of animal and vegetable life to beings wherein sensation itself
seems to have sunk to some dormant state below the level of
consciousness. Yet all these forms of life, from the triumphant
intellect of a god to the green scum that gathers on a stagnant
pool, are modes of one universal all-pervading Life. Reason may
degenerate to sensation, sensation to a mere faculty of growth ;
vb-r<j(S vorjffews is directly derived from ceeded on Plato's lines in conceiving
the Timaeus: though his very frag- of material nature as one mode of the
mentary utterances on this subject eternal thought,
leave us in doubt how far he had pro-

30 INTRODUCTION.
but all living things are manifestations of the one intelligence ex-
panding in ever remoter circles through the breadth and depth
of the universe : each one is a finite mode of the infinite a
mould, so to speak, in which the omnipresent vital essence is
for ever shaping itself.
The 29. So far as the theory has yet taken us, we have on the
fatter and one ^an(^ the universal soul, on the other finite existences into
its place which the universal evolves itself. Matter has not yet made
Platonic
*ts aPPearance i n our system. But Plato is not wanting in an
ontology, account of matter; and here the theory of perception in the
Theaetetus will come to our aid.
In the pluralisation of universal soul finite souls attain to a
separate and independent consciousness. But for this indepen-
dent consciousness every soul has to pay a fixed price. The
price is limitation, and the condition of limitation is subjection to
the laws of what we know as time and space. But the degree
of subjection varies in different orders of existence ; and in
the higher forms is tempered with no mean heritage of free-
dom. The object of cognition for finite souls is truth as it is
in the universal soul. Now intelligences of the higher orders have
two modes of apprehending this universal truth one direct, by
means of the reason, one symbolical, by means of the senses.
And when we speak of soul acting by the reason and through
the senses, we mean by these phrases that in the one case the
soul is exercising the proper activity of her own nature, qua
soul ;
in the other that she is acting under the conditions of
her limitation, qua finite soul : which conditions we saw were
time and space. Now the direct apprehension, which we call
reasoning, exists to any considerable degree only in gods and
in the human race. In the inferior forms of animation the direct
mode grows ever feebler, until, so far as we can tell, it disappears
altogether, leaving the symbolical mode of sensuous perception
alone remaining. Time and space then are the peculiar adjuncts
of particular existence, and material objects, i.e. sensuous percep-
tions, are phenomena of time and space in other words sym-
bolical apprehensions of universal truth under the form of time
and space. Thus the material universe is, as it were, a luminous
symbol-embroidered veil which hangs for ever between finite exist-
ences and the Infinite, as a consequence of the evolution of one out
of the other. And none but the highest of finite intelligences
may lift a corner of this veil and behold aught that is behind it.

INTRODUCTION. 31
But we must beware of fancying that this material nature has
any independent existence of its own, apart from the percipient
it has none 1
. All our perceptions exist in our own minds and
nowhere else; the only existence outside particular souls is the
universal soul. Material nature is but the refraction of the single
existent unity through the medium of finite intelligences : each
separate soul is, as it were, a prism by which the white light of
pure being is broken up into a many-coloured spectacle of ever-
changing hues. Matter is mind viewed indirectly. Yet this does
not mean the negation of matter : matter has a true reality in our
perceptions; for these perceptions are real, though indirect,
apprehensions of the universal. And since universal Nature
evolves herself according to some fixed law and order, there is a
certain stability about our perceptions, and a general agreement
between the perceptions of beings belonging to the same rank.
But none the less are we bound to affirm that matter has no
separate existence outside the percipient soul. Such objectivity
as it possesses amounts to this : it is the same eternal essence
which is thus symbolically apprehended by all finite intelligences.
Mind is the universe, and beside Mind is there nothing.
30. But all this time what has become of the ideas ? So The ideal
far they have not even been mentioned in our exposition. Yet
|j|
eo
^
m
their existence is most strenuously upheld in this dialogue, and maeus.
therefore their place in the theory must be determined. Our duty
then plainly is to search the ontology of the Timaeus for the ideas.
It is notable that in the Timaeus we hear less than usual of
the plurality of ideas ;
nor is that surprising, when so much stress
is laid upon a comparatively neglected principle, the unity of the
Idea. But the plurality of ideas is not only reaffirmed in the
most explicit language, it is a metaphysical principle especially
characteristic of the dialogue. The paradeigmatic aspect of the
ideas now comes into marked prominence :
they are the eternal
1
The teaching of the Theaetetus, to it. But this is no real objection,
viewed in relation with the space- For if Soul is the sum-total of exist-
theory of the Timaeus, seems to me ence, all that exists independently of
perfectly conclusive on this point. It finite soul is the universal soul. There-
may indeed be argued that only the fore, so far as the object exists outside
afoOfja-is is purely subjective, accord- the subject, that object is the uni-
ing to the theory of the Theaetetus; versal soul itself : that is, as said above,
the object generating the alcOtirbv, our sense-perceptions are perceptions
although existing in correlation with of the universal under the condition of
the subject, has an existence external space.

32 INTRODUCTION.
and immaterial types on which all that is material is modelled.
'Alles Vergangliche ist nur ein Gleichniss' might be adopted as
the motto of the Timaeus.
In order to make clear the position of the ideas in Plato's
maturest ontology, I fear I must to some extent repeat what has
been said in the preceding section. The supreme idea, auVo
dyaOov, we have identified with universal vovs, for which TO oV,
TO cv, and TO irav are synonyms. This universal thought then
realises itself by pluralisation in the form of finite intelligences.
These intelligences possess a certain mode of apprehending the
universal, which we term sensuous perception. By means of such
perception true Being cannot be apprehended as it is in itself;
what is apprehended is a multitude of symbols which shadow
forth the reality of existence, and which constitute the only mode
in which such existence can present itself to the senses. These
symbols or likenesses we call material objects, which come to be
in space, and processes, which take place in time. They have no
substantial existence, but are subjective affections of particular
intelligences : what is true in them is not the representation in
space and time, but the reality of existence which they symbolise.
But these symbols do not arise at random nor assume arbitrary
forms. Since the evolution of absolute thought is not arbitrary,
but follows the necessary and immutable law of its own nature, it
may be inferred that all finite intelligences of the same rank have,
within a certain margin, similar perceptions. Now the unity of
Being presents itself to diverse kinds of sense and to each sense
in manifold wise. Each of these presentations is the eiKuv, or
image, of which that unity is the 7rapa8eiy/za, or original ; and the
accuracy of the image varies according to the clearness of the
presentation. A perfectly clear presentation is a perfect symbol
of the truth, the CIKWV exactly reflects the ira.pa.8fiy/Aa. : a dimmer
presentation is a more imperfect image. The 7rapa'8y/na then is
the perfect type, to which every particular more or less approxi-
mates. Now were this approximation quite successfully accom-
plished, in every class the particulars, since they all exactly reflected
the type, would be all exactly alike. Deviations from the type
and consequent dissimilarities among the particulars are due to
the imperfect degree in which our senses are capable of appre-
hending, even in this indirect way, the eternal type.
Since then we see that different classes of material phenomena
are so many different forms in which the eternal unity presents

INTRODUCTION. 33
itself to the senses, it follows that the types or ideas corresponding
to such classes are simply determinations of the universal essence
or avro O.JO.BOV itself: that is to say, each idea is the idea of the
good specialised in some particular mode or form blueness is
the mode in which the good reveals itself to the faculty which
perceives blue. So then everything in nature which we hear or
see or perceive by any perception means the idea of the good.
There is thus nothing partial or fractional in Nature : she reveals
herself to us one and entire in each of her manifestations. Di-
versity is of us. We are all beholding the same truth with a
variety of organs : it is as though we looked at a flame through a
many-faceted crystal, which repeats it on every surface. And
since the unity is eternal and inexhaustible, inexhaustible is the
number of forms in which it may present itself to every
sense.
31. Furthermore, if it were in the nature of finite intelligences
Evil
to receive through the senses accurate symbols of the good, all
presenta-
things must be perfectly fair; foulness is due to defect of pre-
tionofthe
sentation. Hence there can be no ideas of ugliness and dirt, of
injustice and evil : all these things arise from failure in representing
the idea and consequent failure in existence. For in all things
that exist there must be a certain degree of good, else they could
not exist at all : even in visible objects that are most hideous
there is some fairness; the likeness to the type is there, however
marred and scarce discernible. Evil is nothing positive, it is but
defect of existence; and this defect is due to the limitations of
finite intelligence and of finite modes of being.
To sum up : the one universal Thought evolves itself into a Summary,
multitude of finite intelligences, which are so constituted as to
apprehend not only by pure reason, but also by what we call the
senses, with all their attendant subjective phenomena of time and
space. These sensible phenomena group themselves into a multi-
tude of kinds, each kind representing or symbolising the universal
Thought in some determinate aspect. It is the Universal itself
which in each of these aspects constitutes an idea or type, im-
material and eternal, whereof phenomena are the material and
temporal representations : the phenomena do in fact more or less
faithfully express the timeless and spaceless in terms of space and
time. Thus the auro dyaOov is the ideas, and the ideas are the
phenomena, which are merely a mode of their manifestation to
finite intelligence. The whole universe, then, ideal and material,
P. T. 3

34 INTRODUCTION.
The plu-
rality of
ideas a
necessary
corollary
of the plu-
ralisation
of univer-
sal
thought.
Question
raised: are
there ideas
of fa
only?
is seen to be a single Unity manifesting itself in diversity. Such I
conceive to be the theory of ideas in its final form.
32. One thing more should be added. It is plain from
what has been said, that the plurality of ideas is the inevitable
consequence of the pluralisation of absolute thought into finite
minds. For the various classes of phenomena, to which we need
corresponding ideas, are part of our consciousness as limited
beings, and arise from our limitation. It is because universal
Being is presented to us in this sensuous manner, in groups of
material phenomena, that universal Being must determine itself
into types of such phenomena. If we were not constituted so as
to see roses, there would be no idea of roses. We should then
be contemplating the eternal unity directly, as it is in itself :
differentiation would neither be necessary nor possible. But
this may not be, for pluralisation without limitation is incon-
ceivable : and limitation to us involves space and time. There-
fore paradoxical, nay profane as the statement would have
appeared in the days of the Republic ideas can no more
exist without particulars than particulars can exist without the
ideas.
33. Before we leave this subject, a question suggests itself
to which it is perhaps impossible to return a decisive answer.
We have seen that in the mature Platonism ideas are restricted
to classes which are naturally determined. Ought we to go a step
further and confine the ideas to classes of living things? It
appears to me that there are good grounds for an affirmative
answer ;
but Plato has left his intention uncertain.
All the ideas mentioned in the Timaeus, with the exception
of one passage, are ideas of <5a a term which includes plants
as well as animals. The exceptional passage is 516, where we
hear of irvp auro <' cavrou and, by implication, of ideas of the
other three elements also. Now that ideas should be confined
to <3a seems reasonable on the following grounds. The supreme
idea is expressed in the Timaeus as auro o TTI <3ov, and this
includes all other ideas that exist. If then the supreme universal
idea is <3ov, it would seem that the more special ideas, which
are subordinate to it, ought to be o>a likewise. Or let us put
it in another way. We have been led to identify the supreme
intelligence with the auro dyaOov. We have said too that this
supreme intelligence or idea pluralises itself into finite existences,
and that it determines itself into special ideas. Now do not this

INTRODUCTION. 35
pluralisation and this determination constitute one act? Is not
the evolution of Mind in the form of human minds the same
process as the determination of the idea of Man ? If this be so,
then, since Mind can only pluralise itself in the form of living
beings, it can only determine itself into ideas of t<aa. Aristotle
1
indeed seems to account wvp, <nxp, KffaXij, as natural classes
whereof there are ideas : but I very much doubt whether Plato
would have admitted ideas of these. The idea of Star involves
in its material representation Trvp, even as the idea of Man
involves in its material representation crap and Kf<f>aXij: but
it in no way requires the existence of any ideas of these things.
There is however the passage 516, in which an idea of fire
is distinctly mentioned. I think it probable that this passage
ought not to be pressed too hard. After he has been speaking
of the four material elements, Plato raises the question whether
these material substances alone are existent, or whether there
is such a thing as immaterial essence : and the four elements
being in possession of the stage, it naturally occurs to contrast
them with ideal types of the elements. I do not think we are
forced to conclude from this that Plato deliberately meant to
postulate such ideas. If this explanation be not admitted, I
should say that we have in this passage a relic of the older theory,
which Plato ought to have eliminated, and would have eliminated,
had his attention been drawn to the subject. Practically then
I believe that we should regard the ideal world as confined to
ideas of <3a.
34. The foregoing account of the metaphysical teaching Summary
contained in the Timaeus suffices, I think, to show that in this
ofres'
dialogue, taken in conjunction with the other later writings,
Plato does offer us a solution of the problems enumerated in
26 as yet unsolved. We now have his theory (i) as to the
relation of the efficient mind to material nature, the latter arising
from the pluralisation of the former; (2) the relation of the
supreme idea to the other ideas, which are determinations of it;
(3) the relation of ideas and particulars that the particular
is the symbolical presentation of the idea to limited intelligence
under the conditions of space and time; (4) the relation between
the supreme intelligence and the finite intelligences, into which
it differentiates itself; (5) the relation between the finite intelli-
gence and material nature, involving an account of matter itself;
1
Metaphysics A iii 1070* 19.
32

36 INTRODUCTION.
and (6) we have the fundamental antithesis of One and Many
treated with satisfying completeness. Plato is indeed far more
profoundly Herakleitean than Herakleitos himself. Not content,
like the elder philosopher, with recognising the antithesis of ov
and fir) ov as manifested in the world of matter, he shows that
this is but the visible symbol of the same antithesis existing
in the immaterial realm. True Being itself is One and Many, is
Same and Other. Were there not a sense in which we could say
that Being is not, there were no sense in which we could say that
it verily is. Matter in its mobility, as in all besides, is a likeness
of the eternal and changeless type.
It now remains to deal with some special features of the
dialogue, and to discuss certain objections and difficulties which
may seem to us to threaten our interpretation.
Difficulty 35. The form which Plato gives to his thoughts in this
fromYhe dialogue has greatly multiplied labour to his interpreters. For all
allegorical his clearness of thought and lucidity of style Plato is always
^e most difficult of authors: and in the Timaeus we have the
added difficulty of an allegorical strain pervading the whole
exposition of an ontological theory in itself sufficiently abstruse.
And if we would rightly comprehend the doctrine, we must of
course interpret the allegory aright. Plato is the most imagi-
native writer produced by the most imaginative of nations ;
and
he insists on a certain share of imagination in those who would
understand him. A blind faithfulness to the letter in this dialogue
would lead to a most woful perversion of the spirit. Here, more
than in any of Plato's other writings, the conceptions of his reason
are instantly decked in the most vivid colours by his poetic fancy.
And of all poetical devices none is dearer to Plato than personi-
fication. Hence it is that he represents processes of pure thought,
which are out of all relation to time and space, as histories
or legends, as a series of events succeeding one another in time.
In conceiving the laws and relations of mind and matter, the
whole thing rises up before his imagination as a grand spectacle, a
procession of mighty events passing one by one before him.
First he sees the unity of absolute thought, personified as a wise
and beneficent creator, compounding after some mysterious law
the soul that shall inform this nascent universe: next he descries
a doubtful and dreamlike shadow, formless and void, which
under the creator's influence, gradually shapes itself into visible
existence and is interfused with the world-soul which controls

INTRODUCTION. 3 7
and orders it, wherewith it forms a harmonious whole, a perfect
sphere, a rational divine and everlasting being. Next within this
universe arise other divine beings, shining with fire and in their
appointed orbits circling, which measure the flight of time and
make light in the world. Finally, the creator commits to these
gods, who are the work of his hands, the creation of all living
things that are mortal : for whom they frame material bodies and
quicken them with the immortal essence which they receive from
the creator.
All this is pure poetry, on which Plato has lavished all the
richness of imagery and splendour of language at his command.
But beneath the veil of poetry lies a depth of philosophical
meaning which we must do what in us lies to bring to light.
And there is not a single detail in the allegory which it will
be safe to neglect. For Plato has his imagination, even at its
wildest flight, perfectly under control : the dithyrambs of the
Timaeus are as severely logical as the plain prose of the Parme-
nides.
Most of the details of this myth are considered in the notes as
they arise; but there are one or two of its chief features which
must be examined here.
36. The central figure in what may be called Plato's cos- How is the
mological epic is the o^/uoupyos, or Artificer of the universe. It
to^^im.
*
is evidently of the first importance to determine whether Plato derstood?
intends this part of his story to be taken literally; and if not, how
his language is to be interpreted.
The opinions which have been propounded on this subject
may fairly be arranged under three heads.
According to the first view the S^/xtovpyo? is a personal God, (0 is he a
external to the universe and actually prior to the ideas : to GocT^ex-
this appertains one form of the opinion that the ideas are
'
the temal to
e .^ , ,
the uni-
thoughts of God.' verse and
There is but one passage in all Plato's works which can give P".r to
the slightest apparent colour to the theory that the ideas are
in any sense created or caused by God. This is in Repttblic
597 B D, where God is described as the <vrovpyos of the ideal
bed. But a little examination will show that no stress can really
be laid upon this. For to the three beds, the ideal, the particular,
and the painted, Plato has to assign three makers. For the two
latter we have the carpenter and the artist: then, if the series
is to be completed, who could possibly be named as the creator

38 INTRODUCTION.
of the ideal bed save God? And the series must needs be com-
pleted to attain Plato's immediate purpose, in order that the
carpenter and the artist may be placed in their proper order
of merit. The postulation of God as the creator of the ideal bed
is merely an expedient designed to serve a temporary end, not
a principle of the Platonic philosophy. If we take any other
view we bring the passage into direct conflict with the statement
beginning 508 E, where it is declared in the plainest language that
the Idea of the Good is the cause of all existence whatsoever.
Moreover to maintain that the ideas are the thoughts of a personal
God is utterly to ignore Plato's emphatic and constantly iterated
affirmation of the self-existent substantiality of the ideas. Even
could these declarations be explained away, we should have
to face Aristotle's criticism of the ideal theory nay, Plato's own
criticism in the Parmenides; neither of which would have any
meaning were not the ideas independent essences : the argument
of the T/HTOS avOptoiros, for instance, would be irrelevant. The
hypothesis then that a personal God is in any sense the cause
of the ideas must be dismissed as incompatible with Platonic
principles.
(2) is he a 37. Secondly, it is held that the Syj/xiovpyos is a personal
creator* creator, external to the universe and to the ideas, on the model of
external to which he fashioned material nature. This view demands the
verse'and
most careful consideration, since it is the literal statement of the
to the Timaeus. But it will prove, I think, to be totally untenable. In
the first place it makes Plato offer us, instead of an ontological
theory, a theological dogma: it is an evasion, not a solution of the
problem. For we are asked to suppose that after constructing an
elaborate ontology which is to unfold the secret of nature, Plato
suddenly cuts the knot with a hypothesis which has absolutely no
connexion with his ontology. Again, however much opinions
may differ as to the extent of Plato's success in eliminating
dualism, it will hardly be disputed that to do this was his aim.
But here we have not merely dualism, but a triad : the ideas, the
creator, and matter. All these are distinct and independent, nor is
there any evolution of one from another. Can we seriously
believe that Plato's speculations ended in this? And there remain
yet more cogent considerations. In this story we find the S^/xioup-
yos represented as creating tyvxv- But "A^X1
?* we know, is eternal.
Her creation must then be purely mythical: and if the creation,
surely the creator also. Or if not, since i/'ux
1
)
and the 8>//xioiy>yo

INTRODUCTION. 39
are alike eternal, are we to suppose that there are two separate
and distinct Intelligences that is, inasmuch as vous exists in ^v^
alone, two tyvxal to all eternity existing? What could be gained
by such a reduplication? Moreover, if two such ^v-^al exist, there
ought to be an idea of them a serious metaphysical compli-
cation'. If on the other hand it be maintained that the cosmic
soul is an emanation or effluence of the S^/xiovpyo's, this is practi-
cally abandoning the present hypothesis in favour of that which is
next to be considered. Finally, if the S^/tioupyos is a personal
creator, he is certainly <aov, and vorjrov <3ov. What then is his
relation to the auVo o m <3ov? Either he is identical with it
or contained in it: in either case the hypothesis falls to the
ground. The literal interpretation of Plato's words must there-
fore be abandoned for the reason that its acceptance would
reduce Plato's philosophy to a chaos of wild disorder.
38. Lastly, the Srjp.iovpyos is identical with the avro ayaOov. (3) is he
This view, properly understood, I conceive to be in a sense correct :
id
-
e
t
u
l
Ivf
1
but it needs the most careful defining, and, in the form in which it ai/rd o.ya-
is sometimes propounded, is unsatisfactory. We can only accept
it by realising that the avro ayaOov is the infinite intelligence, which
is manifested in the visible universe : and we shall approach the
question better if we identify the 8rjfj.iovpyo<s,
not in the first place
with the dya66v, but with tyvx"l>
which comes to the same in the
end.
Now the position of the S^iovpyos in the Timaeus is precisely
that of vov? /facriAcvs in the Philebus: see Philebus 26 E 28 E.
Therefore the <fy/uovpyos is the universal intelligence from which all
finite intelligences are derived. But intelligence or vov? is nothing
else than ^vxq pure and simple, apart from any conjunction with
matter. What then is the relation of pure intelligence to the
cosmic soul which informs the universe ? Let us turn once more
to the Philebus. In 29 E 30 A vovs is definitely identified with
the cosmic soul ;
it is the universal i/^x^ whereof all visible nature
is o-w/xo. So then the Srj/uovpyos of the Timaeus must be identical
with the world-soul. This is so : but the statement is not yet
complete. For the (fy/uovpyos is pure reason, while the world-soul,
being in conjunction with matter, is i/^x"? in all her aspects, cori-
1
Compare Timaeus 31 A rd yap &oi>, oD ^pos av flrr]v titelvu. The
irepi^x " Tfo-vra, oiroffa voT}rd. fo, ptO' argument is the same as in Republic
trtpov devTfpov of'K S,v TTOT' elV irdXic 597 c.
yap av irepov flvai rd irepl

40 INTROD UCTION.
Applica-
tion to
the avrb
dyaOov.
Creation
not an
arbitrary
exercise of
will, but
the fulfil-
ment of
eternal
law.
taining the element not only of the Same, but of the Other also.
In other words the 8>//xtovpyos is to the world-soul as the reasoning
faculty in the human soul is to the human soul as a whole, in-
cluding her emotions and desires. But the reasoning faculty is
nothing distinct from the human soul ; it is only a mode thereof.
The 8>7jnioiy)yos then is one aspect of the world-soul: he is the
world-soul considered as not yet united to the material universe
or more correctly speaking, since time is out of the question, he is
the world-soul regarded as logically distinguishable from the body
of the universe. And since the later Platonism has taught us
to regard matter as merely an effect of the pluralisation of mind or
thought, the S^toupyos is thought considered as not pluralised
absolute thought as it is in its primal unity. As such it is a logical
conception only; it has not any real existence as yet, but must
exist by self-evolution and consequent self-realisation
1
. These
two notions, thought in unity and thought in plurality, are myth-
ically represented in the Timaeus, the first by the figure of the
creator, the second by the figure of the creation : but the creator
and the creation are one and the same, and their self-conscious
unity in the living KO'CT/XOS is the reality of both.
39. Now we may apply what has been said to the auro
dyaOov. In 27 we identified the on'ro dya0ov with absolute
thought or universal spirit. The identity of rous with the dya6ov
is plainly affirmed in Philebus 22 c: compare too the language
used of vovs in Philebus 26 E with that used of the dyaOov in
Republic 508 E. We are justified then in identifying the orjfjuovpyos
with the afro dyaOov, so long as the dyadov is conceived as not yet
realised by pluralisation. For the realisation of the Good or of
Thought comes to pass by the evolution of the One into the
Many and the unification of both as a conscious whole. Thus
Plato's system is distinctly a form of pantheism :
any attempt
to separate therein the creator from the creation, except logically,
must end in confusion and contradiction.
40. Thus we see that the process which is symbolised in
the creation of the universe by the Artificer is no mere arbitrary
exercise of power : it is the fulfilment of an inflexible law. The
creator does not exist but in creating :
or, to drop the metaphor,
absolute thought does not really exist unless it is an object to
1
I must guard against being sup-
posed to mean that the pluralised
thought is more real than the primal
unity :
only that the existence of both
is essential to the reality of either.

INTROD UCTION. 4 1
itself. So then the creator in creating the world creates himself,
he is working out his own being. Considered as not creating he
has neither existence nor concrete meaning. Thus we have not
far to seek for the motive of creation : it is so, because it must be
so. A creator who does not create is thought which does not
think, being which does not exist : it is no more than the lifeless
abstraction of Eleatic unity.
After what has been said, it is almost a truism to affirm that The Pro*
the process represented in the Timaeus is not to be conceived bolised
as occupying time or as having anything whatsoever to do with in
.the
t nr-r.1 t Timaens
time. Yet SO potent IS the spell of Plato S irorava. fjia^ava, that it
indepen-
may not be amiss to insist upon this once more. The whole story
d
.
ent of
.... r i r time and
is but a symbohsation of the eternal process of thought, which space.
is and does not become. All succession belongs to the pheno-
mena of thought pluralised ;
it is part of the apparatus pertaining
to them : but with the process of thought itself time has no more
to do than space. It seems therefore vain to discuss, as has often
been done, the eternity of the material universe in Plato's system.
Considered as one element in the evolution of thought, material
nature is of course eternal; but its phenomena, considered in
themselves, belong to the sphere of Becoming and have no part in
eternity :
although, viewed in relation to the whole, time itself is a
phase of the timeless, or, as Plato calls it,
'
an eternal image of
eternity.'
41. Only if we adopt the interpretation of the S^tovpyos The uni-
which I have been defending can we understand Plato's statement
V
if
rs
f-if
s
in 920 that the universe is 'the image of its maker' for the ness of its
reading TTOIT/TOU is better authenticated than vorjrov. If the KOO-/AOS
creator<
is the image of its maker, the maker must be identical with the
O.VTO o eon <3ov. Now since the icooyxos is Trav, the <3ov cannot be
anything outside it : rather it must be the notion which is realised
in the universe ;
a type not separate from the copy, but fulfilled in
the copy and in that fulfilment existing. It must be the unity
whereof the KO'O-/U,OS is the expression in multiplicity. Unity is the
type, multiplicity the image thereof: and it is necessary that
unity, if it is really to exist, must appear also in the form of
multiplicity. Thus then must it be with the <3ov. But this is
exactly the position we have seen reason for assigning to the
S?7/aoupyo's, so that Plato is fully justified in identifying the two.
So if we say that the universe is the likeness of its creator,
we mean that it is unity manifested in plurality and so realised.

42 INTRODUCTION.
The type and the likeness are the same thing viewed on different
sides.
It is perhaps worth noticing that our view harmonises with
Plato's statement in Parmenides 1340, that as absolute knowledge
cannot belong to man, so the knowledge of finite things cannot
appertain to God. But if God be distinct from the universe, and
so far limited, there seems no reason why he should not have
knowledge of finite things. A God who is not the All, however
much his knowledge may transcend human knowledge, would
surely have the same kind of knowledge. But a God whose know-
ledge is of the absolute alone is a God whose knowledge is of
himself alone ;
and such a God must be the universe, not a deity
external to the universe.
The Koffpos 42. Having thus investigated the relation of the S^/uovpyos
and the
^ ^ ^ cosmi c soui anci to the material universe, it behoves us to
Y v~X.n TOV
Koffpov. make a similar inquiry concerning the relation of the Kooyxos and
the i/^x1
/
T v Ko'cr/iou. The ij/v^oyovia of the Timaeus has been
treated with some fulness in the commentary, so that a compara-
tively brief statement may here suffice by way of supplement.
The cosmic soul, like finite souls, consists of three elements
of rauTov, Odrepov, and ovcrla : that is to say, the principle of Same,
i.e. of unity and rest, of Other, i.e. of variety and motion, of
Essence, which signifies the identification of these two in one
conscious intelligence. The terms ravrov Odrcpov and ouVta have
distinct applications, according to the side from which we regard
the subject : these applications I have endeavoured to distinguish
in the note on the passage which deals with the question. Let us
first look at it thus. The world-soul consists (i) of absolute
undifferentiated thought, (2) of this thought differentiated into
a multitude of finite existences, and (3) it unites these two elements
in a single consciousness. Now of what consists the material
part, the body of the Ko'oyxos? Simply of the perceptions of finite
consciousnesses. And as these perceptions exist only in the con-
sciousness of the percipient souls, so these souls are comprehended
in the universal soul, whereof we have seen that finite souls are, as
it were, fractional parts. Therefore the cosmic soul comprehends
within her own nature all that exists, whether spiritual or material.
Thus the only reality of the universe is the soul thereof, which is
the one totality of existence. Matter is nothing but the revelation
to finite consciousness, in the innumerable modes of its apprehen-
sion, of the universal spirit. All that is material is the expression

INTRODUCTION. 43
in terms of the visible of the invisible, in terms of space and
time of the spaceless and timeless, in terms of Becoming of
Being. All sensible Nature is a symbol of the intelligible, and
she is what she symbolises. So are all things at last resolved
into an ultimate unity, which yet contains within itself all"
possible multiplicity ; and Plato's philosophy, shaking off the
last remnants of duality, reaches its final culmination in an abso-
lute idealism.
43. But is the cosmic soul herself percipient of matter, The cosmic
or is such perception confined to limited intelligences ? I think Material
the true answer is that the cosmic soul is percipient of matter perception.
through the finite souls into which she evolves herself. We may
regard her elements, TavroV, Odrcpov, owi'a, either as modes of her
existence or as modes of her activity. As a mode of her existence,
Odrepov signifies the multitude of finite souls in which she is plu-
ralised. As a mode of her activity, Odrepov is sensible perception.
But both modes must belong to the same sphere, so that per-
ception of matter must belong to that phase of the universal soul
which appears as a number of finite souls. Thus then the aggre-
gate of perceptions experienced by all finite souls constitute the
perception of matter in the cosmic soul : there is no such per-
ception by the cosmic soul apart from the perceptions of finite
souls. We must observe that in the region which is Odrepov rela-
tively to the tyvxj TOV Kou/iov, TO.VTOV and ovcria reappear relatively
to the finite souls which constitute that region. Each separate
soul must have ravrov also, else it would not have ovaia, it would
not substantially exist : and hence the element of Bdrepov in the
cosmic soul, and by consequence the cosmic soul herself, would
be nonexistent. So each finite soul is a complete miniature copy
of the great soul. Accordingly in Plato's similitude we find that
the Circle of the Other is constructed of soul which is composed
both of Same and of Other.
44. There is yet another question, the answer to which Relation
is indeed to be inferred from what has been already said, but
which ought perhaps to receive explicit treatment : how are the soul and
.
^ the ideas.
ideas related to the cosmic soul ?
Since we have seen our way to identifying the Srjfjuovpyos both
with the avTo dyaOov and with one element of the ^xn T0" KOO-/AOV,
the simple unity of thought, conceived as still undifferentiated,
it follows that whatever relation we have established between the
avro dyaOoy and the other ideas will hold good as between the

44 INTRODUCTION.
cosmic soul and the ideas. But perhaps it
may serve to render
the matter clearer, if we put it in some such way as this.
The ideas, we know, are self-existing, substantial realities. But
they can in no wise be essences external to the world- soul, else
would the world-soul cease to be All :
they must therefore be in-
cluded in it or identical with it. Now the body of the universe
is the material image of the soul thereof: also all material things
are images of the ideas. Thus then, being TrapaSeiy/xara of the
same troves, the ideas and the cosmic soul coincide. The ideas, I
say not an idea. For every single idea is the type of one class
of material images ;
the ideal tree is the type of material trees, and
of nothing else. The material trees then represent the cosmic
soul in so far as that can be expressed in terms of trees they
represent, so to speak, the ScvSpoV^s of it.
Accordingly the idea
of tree is one determinate aspect of the cosmic soul that aspect
which finds its material expression in a particular tree. And so
the sum total of the ideas will be the sum total of the determi-
nations of the cosmic soul the soul in all her aspects and signifi-
cations. Also the supreme idea, the avro dyaBdv, will be the soul
herself as such, considered as not in any way specially determined :
the material copy of which is not anything in the universe, but
the material universe as a whole, which is fairer, Plato says, than
aught that is contained within it.
Thus by following up this line we arrive at a result which
precisely tallies with that which we reached when considering the
relation between the avro dya.9ov and the inferior ideas. And
so is the substantial existence of the ideas preserved intact, since
each idea is the universal soul in some special determination.
So too is the unity of the eternal essence maintained ;
for all the
ideas are the same verity viewed in different aspects. And here,
as everywhere in the mature Platonism, do the principles of Unity
and Multitude go hand in hand, mutually supporting one another
and never to be parted.
Qdrepov 45. We have seen that the universal soul is constituted
as space. of Tav
'
Tov Odrepov and ovata, and the general significance of these
terms has been discussed. But there is one special application
of 6d.Tf.pov which has not yet occupied our attention. This is
Plato's conception of x^Pa)
or Space.
Plato's identification of the material principle in nature with
space than which there is no more masterly piece of analysis
in ancient philosophy has also been very copiously dealt with

INTRODUCTION. 45
in the notes; but it is too important to be entirely passed over
in this place.
It has been seen that in the Philebus the analysis of the material
element in things was manifestly incomplete. The direipov was
not altogether d-raOes, but possessed ei/arnoT^Te?, such as hotter
and colder, quicker and slower, which were quantified and defined
by the Trepa? exov- But only the quantity or limit is imposed
upon the aireipov from without; the quality, though in an un-
defined form, is still resident in it. Now however, in the Ti'maeus,
all quality and attribute is withdrawn : we have an absolutely
formless uVoSo^', or substrate, potentially receptive of all quality,
but possessing none. So far, this may be identified with Aris-
totle's irpwrrj vt]. But Plato takes a further step, which was
not taken by Aristotle : the uVoSo^i} is expressly identified with
Space. How is this done ?
The vVoSox?) is absolutely without form and void : no sense
can apprehend it. The sensible objects of perception are the
dor) do-iovTo, KCU fi6vTa the images thrown off in some mysterious
way by the ideas and localised in the vTro8ox>j- All attributes
which belong to our perceptions are due to these elorj, save one
alone, which is extension. The vVoSo^, submissive in all besides,
is peremptory on this one point of whatever kind a material
object may be, it must be extended. So then, if we abstract
from matter all the attributes conferred by the euno'vra KCU e'ltoVra,
we have remaining just a necessity that the objects composing
material nature shall be extended. Thus we see Odrtpov in
another way playing its part as the principle of Difference. For,
as Plato says, if the type and the image are to be different, if they
are to be two and not one, they must be apart, not inherent one
in the other : the copy must exist in something which is not the
type, ovcrtas aju,axry7rojs dvTeop.vi]. Hereupon 6a.Tf.pov Steps in
and provides that something, to wit, the law of our finite nature
which ordains that we shall perceive all objects as extended in
space. Space then is the differentiation of the type and its image.
But extension is nothing independently and objectively existing.
For all our perceptions of things are within our own souls, which
are unextended ;
and the things exist not but in these perceptions,
Extension then exists only subjectively in our minds. All the
objectivity it has is as a universal law binding on finite intelli-
gences, that they should all perceive in this way. It is a conse-
quence and condition of our limitation as finite souls.

46 INTRODUCTION.
Plato's
motive for
devoting
so much
space to
physical
specula-
tion.
The significance of 6drepov as space is thus but a corollary
of its significance as pluralisation of mind ;
since this pluralisation
carries with it sensuous perception, which in its turn involves
extension as an attribute of its objects. In like manner is time
another consequence of this pluralisation : so that we may regard
space and time as secondary forms of Odrepov. And so are all
the aspects in which we view the element of Odrepov necessarily
contingent upon its primary significance of Being in the form of
Other, the principle of Multitude inevitably contained in the
principle of Unity.
46. Up to this point I have dwelt exclusively upon the
metaphysical significance of the dialogue: this being of course
incomparably more important than all the other matters which are
contained in it. Nevertheless the larger portion of the work
is occupied with physical and physiological theories, with elabo-
rate explanations of the processes of nature and the structure and
functions of the human body. This being the case, it would
seem advisable to say a few words on this subject also.
It might excite not unreasonable surprise that Plato, so strongly
persuaded as he was that of matter there can be no knowledge,
has yet devoted so much attention to the physical constitution
of nature; more especially as he repeatedly declares that con-
cerning physics he has no certainty to offer us, but at most
'the probable account.' It is perhaps worth while to see if we
can discover any motives which may have influenced him.
In the first place it is to be observed that the restriction
of ideas to classes of natural objects tended in some degree
to raise the importance of physical study. If it is true that
of natural phenomena themselves there can be no knowledge,
it is yet possible that the investigation of these phenomena may
serve to place us in a better position for attaining knowledge
(or approximate knowledge) of the ideas, which are the cause and
reality of the phenomena. For from the knowledge of effects
we may hope to rise to the cognition of causes. If then ideas
are of natural classes alone, we may at least gain thus much from
the study of nature: we may by the observation of particulars
ascertain what classes naturally exist in the material world, and
thence infer what ideas exist in the intelligible world. As Plato
says in 69 A, we ought to study the dvayKalov for the sake of the

INTRODUCTION. 47
Oflov : that is to say, we must investigate the laws of matter in the
hope that we may more clearly ascertain the laws of spirit.
Physical speculation is not an end in itself: at best it is a re-
creation for the philosopher when wearied by his more serious
studies: but considered as a means of attaining metaphysical
truth, it is worthy of his earnest attention. For this cause the
study of material nature was encouraged in Plato's school; though
Plato would have been scornful enough of the disproportionate
importance attached to it by some of his successors. And since
he thought it deserving of his scholars' attention, it was fitting
that the master should declare the results of his own scientific
speculation.
It must be remembered too how Plato had found fault with
Anaxagoras for not introducing TO /?e'ATrToi/ in his physical
theories as the final cause. In the physical part of the Timaeus
he seeks to make good this defect. He strives to show in detail
how the formative intelligence disposed all matter so as to achieve
the best result of which its nature was capable; to show that the
hypothesis of intelligent design was borne out by facts. He
is careful to point out that the physical processes he expounds
are but subsidiary causes, subordinate to the main design of Intel-
ligence; for example, after explaining the manner in which vision
is produced, he warns us that all this is merely a means to an end :
the true cause of vision is the design that we may look upon the
luminaries of heaven and thence derive the knowledge of number,
which is the avenue to the greatest gift of the gods, philosophy.
Now of course on Platonic principles such a teleological account
of Nature can have no completeness, unless it be based upon
ontology ;
since everything is good in so far as it represents
the avro dyaOov. Plato describes phenomenal existence as materi-
ally expressing the truth of intelligible existence ;
and in so far as
this expression is perfectly accomplished, the phenomena are fair
and good. So then Plato, from the teleological side seeks
to show that the material universe is ordered as to all its details in
the best possible way, and demonstrates, from the ontological
side, that this is so because all the phenomena of the universe are
-symbols of the eternal idea of good. Plato's contention is that
there is an exact correspondence between the ideal and phe-
nomenal worlds, that material Nature is not a mere random
succession of appearances, but has a meaning and a truth. And if
material Nature has this significance, she cannot be unworthy

48 INTRODUCTION.
of the philosopher's attention; she must be studied that her
meaning may be revealed. Viewed in this light, the physical
portions of the Timaeus have a genuine bearing on philosophy;
and the very minuteness with which Plato has treated the subject
proves that he attached no slight importance to it.
The scientific value of these speculations is naturally but
small: many of them are however very interesting, both intrinsi-
cally, for their ingenuity and scientific insight, and historically, as
showing us how a colossal genius, working without any of the
materials accumulated by modern science, and without the instru-
ments which it employs, endeavoured to explain to himself the
constitution of the material universe in which he lived.
Plato's 47. From the question that has just been raised, con-
opinions cerning the bearing of physical inquiry upon metaphysical know-
concerning ledge, naturally arises another question which should not be left
ledge." altogether unnoticed. What did the Plato of the Timaeus con-
ceive to be the province of human knowledge, and what sort
of knowledge did he conceive to be attainable? We have already
seen reason to believe that he had more or less altered his
position with regard to this point since the Republic and Phaedo
were written. This was to be expected: for, as the Theaetetus
showed, ontology must precede epistemology; before we can say
definitely what knowledge is, we must find out what there is to
know. Therefore, since Plato's ontology has been modified, it
may well be that this modification had its effect on his views of
knowledge.
The object of knowledge is plainly the same as ever. Only
the really existent can be known: and the only real existence
is the ideas, and ultimately the auro aya06V. Knowledge then, in
the truest and fullest sense of the word, signifies only the actual
cognition of the supreme idea as it is in itself. Now in the days
of the Phaedo and Republic we know that Plato actually aimed at
such cognition. However remote the consummation might be,
however despondingly the Sokrates of the Phaedo may speak of
it, that and that alone was the end of the philosopher's labours
an end regarded as one day attainable by man. But now, both
in the Parmenides and in the Timaeus, Plato disclaims such abso-
lute knowledge as lying beyond the sphere of finite intelligence.
And he is right. For he who should know the Absolute would
ipso facto be the Absolute. Only the All can comprehend the All.
And if the supreme idea cannot be absolutely known, neither can

INTRODUCTION. 49
the other ideas. For since every idea is, as has been said, a
determination of the supreme idea, a complete knowledge of any
one idea would amount to a complete knowledge of every other
idea and of the supreme idea itself. From such ambitious dreams
we must refrain ourselves. But we are not therefore left beggared
of our intellectual heritage. Absolute knowledge of universal
truth may be beyond our reach, but an approximation to such
knowledge is in our power, an approximation to which no bounds
are set. We have said that the supreme idea determines itself
into a series of subordinate ideas. The more of these subordinate
ideas we contemplate, the more comprehensive will be our con-
ception of the supreme idea: and in proportion as our vision
of the subordinate ideas gains in clearness, even so will our con-
ception of the highest advance in truth. For since Truth is one
and simple, every mode of truth is an access to the whole. This
then is what Plato now holds up as the philosopher's hope an
ever brightening vision of universal truth, attained by industrious
study of particular forms of truth. Thus in place of the complete
fruition of knowledge, once for all, of which we once dreamed,
we have the prospect of a perpetual advance therein. And what-
ever increment of knowledge we may win, although it is neces-
sarily incomplete, it is real: the ladder has no summit, but we
have gained one step above our former place. And there seems
certainly nothing discouraging in the reflection that, however
much we may succeed in learning, behind all our knowledge
there lies something in wait to be known that though the truth
which we know is true, there is always a truth beneath it that is
truer still.
Knowledge then is now as ever for Plato to be found in the
ideal world : and there alone. Material nature is still to him
a realm of mists and shadows, where nothing stable is nor any
truth, where we grope doubtfully by the dim light of opinion.
But through these mists lies the road to the bright sphere of
reason, where abide the ideal archetypes, which are the true
objects of our thought, and which have lost none of that lustre
that once was chanted in the Phaedrus. There is no recession
here : still the immaterial and eternal only can be known. All
that is changed is the extension of the word knowledge. We
know the ideas but as finite minds may know them ; that is,
partially, with never perfect yet ever clearer vision :
being our-
selves incomplete, completeness of knowledge is beyond our
P. T. 4

50 INTRODUCTION.
scope. This restriction of the bounds of human knowledge must
needs have presented itself to Plato's mind along with the clear
conception of an infinite universal soul which is the sum and
substance of all things.. For only in the endeavour to grasp the
boundlessness of the infinite would he become fully alive to the
limitation of the finite.
Con- 48. The account I have thought it necessary to give of
C ' Udin
kL
*^e philosophical doctrines contained in the Timaeus is now
completed. There are indeed divers matters of high importance
handled in the dialogue which I have either left unnoticed or
dismissed with brief mention. The theory of space propounded
in the eighteenth chapter, although its profound originality and
importance can hardly be overestimated, has been only partially
examined : further treatment being reserved for the commentary
on the said chapter, since it involves too much detail to be
conveniently included in a general view of the subject such as
I have here sought to give. The same will apply to the very
interesting ethical disquisition towards the end of the dialogue,
and to the psychological theories advanced in the thirty-first and
thirty-second chapters.
In the foregoing pages my aim has been to trace the chief
currents of earlier Greek speculation to their union in the Platonic
philosophy, and to follow the ever widening and deepening stream
through the region of Platonism itself, until it is merged in the
ocean of idealism into which Plato's thought finally expands.
In particular I have sought to follow the history of the funda-
mental antithesis, the One and the Many, from the lisping utter-
ance of it (as Aristotle would say) by the preplatonic thinkers
to its clear enunciation as the central doctrine of the later Pla-
tonism. And however imperfectly this object may have been
accomplished, I trust I have at least not failed in justifying the
affirmation that the Timaeus is second in interest and importance
to none of the Platonic writings.
Of course it is not for a moment maintained that all the
teaching I have ascribed to this dialogue is to be found fully
expanded and explicitly formulated within its limits. To expect
this would argue a complete absence of familiarity with Plato's
method. Plato never wrote a handbook of his own philosophy,

INTRODUCTION. 5 r
nor will he do our thinking for us : he loves best to make us
construct the edifice for ourselves from the materials with which
he supplies us. And this we can only do by careful combination
of his statements on the subject in hand, spread, it
may be,
over several dialogues, and by sober interpretation of his figurative
language, availing ourselves at the same time of whatever light
we may be able to derive from ancient expositors of Plato, and
chiefly from Aristotle. Consequently no theory we may thus
form is a matter of mathematical demonstration : if we can find
one which combines Plato's various statements into a systematic
whole and reveals a distinct sequence of his thought, all reason-
able expectation is satisfied. In evolving the opinions which
have in this essay been offered concerning the interpretation
of the Timaeus, I have made but two postulates that Plato does
not talk at random, and that he does not contradict himself.
To any who reject one or both of these postulates the arguments
adduced in the foregoing are of course not addressed, since there
is no common ground for arguing. But of those who accept them,
whoever has an interpretation to propound which more thoroughly
harmonises all the elements of Plato's thought than I have been
able to do, and which more readily and directly arises from his
language, e/ceo-os OVK fxOpo? wv dd <j>io<;
49. It remains to say a few words about the text. In this
edition I have rather closely adhered to the text of C. F. Her-
mann, which on the whole presents most faithfully the readings
of the oldest and best manuscript, Codex Parisiensis A. The
authority of this ninth century ms. is such that recent editors
have frequently accepted its readings in defiance of a consensus
among the remainder; an example which I have in general
followed. In departing from Hermann I have usually had some
manuscript support on which to rely, and sometimes that of A
itself: but in a very few cases (about six or seven, I believe,
in all) I have introduced emendations, or at least alterations, of
my own ;
none of which are very important In order that the
reader may have no trouble in checking the text here presented
to him, I have added brief critical notes in Latin, wherein are
recorded the readings of the Paris manuscript (quoted on Bek-
42

5 2 JNTRODUCTION.
ker's testimony), of C. F. Hermann, of Stallbaum, and of the
Zurich edition by Baiter Orelli and Winckelmann, wherever these
differed from my own. These authorities are denoted respect-
ively by A, H, S, and Z. The readings of other manuscripts have
not been cited. Fortunately the text of the Timaeus is for the
most part in a fairly satisfactory condition.
There are some small points of orthography in which this
edition systematically differs from Hermann's spelling; but I
have deemed it
superfluous to record these.

TIMAIOS
[17 Trepl (frv
TA TOY AIAAOrOY
2HKPATH2, KPITIA2, TIMAIO2, EPMOKPATH2.
St.
in. p.
I. SO. El?, Bvo, T/9et9' o Be Brj rera/oro? rjp.lv, w <f)ie Tt/xate, 17 A
TToO roov %$e? fiev Bairvjiovav, ra vvv Be ecrriaropcov ;
TI. 'A<r6eveid rt9 avr(a wviireaev, eo
Sw/cpare?' ov yap av
K(ov rrja-Be aTreXetTrero r^9 (rvvova-ias.
5 2H. Ou/coOy o-ov rwvBe re epyov Kal TO inrep rov aTroi/ro?
TI. Ilavu /u,ey ow, Kal tcara Buva/jiiv <ye ovBev eetyo/Av' B
ovBe jap eit) av Bi/caiov, %ê? I^TTO croO êvHrdevras, ot? 7*1;
irpeTrov
gevlois firj ov TrpoOvfioxj ere TOI)? OITTOVS rjpaJv avraêcmdv.
8 etrj av : elvai A. &v etrj SZ.
17 A 19 B, c. . Sokrates meets by
appointment three of the friends to whom
he has on the previous day narrated the
conversation recorded in the Republic.
After the absence of the fourth member
of the party has been explained, he pro-
ceeds to summarise the social and poli-
tical theories propounded in that dia-
logue.
It will be observed that the unusually
long introductory passage, extending to
27 c, has its application not to the Ti-
maeus only, but to the whole trilogy,
Republic, Timaeus, Critias. The recapitu-
lation of the Republic indicates the precise
g caTa<f>ffTiai> :
avTefaffTiav AZ.
position of that work in the series; while
the myth of Atlantis marks the intimate
connexion which Plato intended to exist
'
between the Timaeus and Critias : it is
indeed artistically justifiable only in rela-
tion to Plato's projected, not to his accom-
plished work. It is obvious that when
the Republic was written no such trilogy
was in contemplation.
The supposed date of the present dis-
cussion is two days after the meeting in
the house of Kephalos. The latter, as we
learn from the beginning of the Republic,
took place on the day of the newly esta-
blished festival of the Thracian deity

PERSONS OF THE DIALOGUE:
SOKRATES, TlMAEUS, HERMOKRATES, KRITIAS.
I. Sokrates. One, two, three what is become of the fourth,
my dear Timaeus, of our yesterday's guests and our entertainers
of to-day ?
Timaeus. He has fallen sick, Sokrates : he would not will-
ingly have been missing at this gathering.
Sokrates. Then it is for you and your companions, is it not,
to fulfil the part of our absent friend ?
Timaeus. Unquestionably ;
and we will omit nothing that
lies in our power. For indeed it would not be fair, seeing
how well we were entertained by you yesterday, that the rest
of us should not heartily requite you with a fitting return of
hospitality.
Bendis, a goddess whom the Athenians of a hexameter. It is quoted in Athenaeus
seem to have identified with their own IX 382 A, where there is a story of a man
Artemis. The festival took place on the who made his cooks learn the dialogue by
1
9th or 2oth Thargelion (
= about 22nd heart and recite it as they brought in the
or 23rd May). On the following day dihes.
Sokrates reports to the four friends what 6 Si 81^ rfrapros] Some curiosity has
passed at the house of Kephalos ; and on been displayed as to the name of the
the next the present dialogue takes place. absentee ; and Plato himself has been
i. cts 8vo rptis] This very simple suggested. But seeing that the conversa-
opening has given rise to a strange tion is
purely fictitious, the question would
amount of animadversion, as may be seen seem to be one of those dfairodeiKra
by any one who struggles through the which are hardly matter of profitable
weary waste of words which Proklos has discussion.
devoted to its discussion. Quintilian (ix 2. Sairvfiovcov] i.e. guests at the feast
iv 78) attacks it for beginning with part of reason provided by Sokrates.

56 HAATHNOS [i7-
Sfl. *Ap' ovv /j,epvr)(r0e, oo~a vplv teal irepl u>v eireraâ elrrelv ;
TI. Td fiev ftejMvrifAeOa, oaa Be pr), av rrapwv vTro/j,w>j<reis'
fiaXXov Be, el fjttj
rt crot,
âeiroi>, ef a/3%^9 Bid @pa%ea)V rrdtv
7rdvede avrd, 'Cva, /3e/3aua0r) paov irap -fjfuv.
5 2O. TaOr' carat. %#9 TTOU rwv vrf e/iou prjBevrwv 6ya)v
irepl rroireia^ fy TO Ke<pdaiov, o'ia re /ecu ef; o'Cwv dvBpdov dpicrTr]
KarefyalveT av p,ot yevecrdai.
TI. Kat fj,da 76 ?7/iui',
a>
Sw/cpare?, prjOeia-a irdat Kara vow.
2fi. *Ap' ovv ov TO T&V <yect)p
i
y(3v oo~ai re aat re%vai irpwrov
10 ev avry %<uy3l5 Btet6ne0a drro rov ryevovs rov rwv TT/JOTr
aovrwv ',
TI. Nat.
Kat Kara (frvcriv Brj Bovres TO Ka6' avrov e/ca<7T
ev fj,6vov eTTirijSev/jLa Kai fj,lav eKacrrw re^vrjv rovrovs, ol-9 D
15 Trpo rrdvrwv eSet TroXefielv, eliropev (9 a/ja avroix; Beoi <f>vaKa$
elvat /JLOVOV rfjs TroXew?, ei re Tt? et;(o6ev r) Kal roov evSodev tot
KaKovpyrjcrwv, Bt,Kaovra<; pev rrpdws Tot? dpôfêvot<; vrc avrwv
Kal (pvcret <f>ioi<; overt, %ae7rov<? Be ev Tat9 /iaât9 Tot9 evrvy^d- ISA
vovffi rwv e^dpcSv YiyvojAevovs.
20 TI. TlavraTraai p,ev ovv.
<&variv yap ol/juai rtva roav (pvdKU>v rrjs ^f^^9 eXe-
fj,ev OvjAoeiBf), ap,a Be <j)i6(ro<f>ov Belv elvat Btatye-
13 Soi/res: didovres A. 14 (jdav exiiffTtp T^XV-TJV : sic SZ e Bekkeri coniectura.
d<f>' fKa.<TTOV ry T^VV A, quae uncis inclusa retinuit H. 16 frdodev: tvdov SZ.
i. <5<ra vfxiv] This is doubtless the by the more advanced ontology of the
right reading. Sokrates had bargained Timaeus ; and were the dialogue actually
with his friends, as we may learn from incorporated in a trilogy, it would stand
20 B, that they should supply the sequel in need of sundry important modifica-
to his discourse : and this they had con- tions. But the ideal commonwealth is
sented to do. Thus in recapitulating his maintained intact : the laws of the /coXM-
own contribution Sokrates recalls to their iroXts are agreeable to the ontological
minds what is expected of them. and physical principles set forth in the
6. irepi iroXireCas] Sokrates in his Timaeus and find their counterpart in
summary of the Republic deals with it the institutions of ancient Athens as they
solely as a political treatise, totally ig- are to be depicted in the Critias. Now it
noring its metaphysical bearings. This, seems to me highly important to notice
while very significant of the change in that the political theories of the Republic
Plato's views, is due to the fact that it is are thus stamped with Plato's deliberate
only on its political side that the Republic approval in a work belonging to the
is connected with the rest of the trilogy. ripest maturity of his thought /j.da yt
Its metaphysical teaching is superseded THUV prjOeiffa iraffi Kara vow. We ought

18 A] TIMAIO2. 57
Sokrates. Do you remember the extent and scope of the
subjects I appointed for your discussion ?
Timaeus. In part we remember; and whatever we have
forgotten, you are here to aid our memory. But I should
prefer, if it is not troublesome, that you should briefly recapitu-
late them from beginning to end, that they may be more firmly
fixed in our minds.
Sokrates. I will. The main subject of my discourse
yesterday was a political constitution, and the kind of prin-
ciples and citizens which seemed to me likely to render it most
perfect.
Timaeus. Yes, and what you said, Sokrates, was very much
to the satisfaction of us all.
Sokrates. Was not our first step to separate the agricultural
class and tradesmen in general from those who were to be the
defenders of our state ?
Timaeus. It was.
Sokrates. And in assigning on natural principles but one
single pursuit or craft which was suited to each citizen severally,
we declared that those whose duty it was to fight on behalf of
the community must be guardians only of the city, in case any
one whether without or within her walls should seek to injure
her, and that they should give judgment mercifully to their
subjects and natural friends, but show themselves stern to the
enemies they met in battle.
Timaeus. Quite true.
Sokrates. For we described, I think, a certain temperament
which the souls of our guardians must possess, combining in a
peculiar degree high spirit and thoughtfulness, that they might
not then to regard the Laius&s indicating 15. <j)uaKas] The distinction between
any abandonment by Plato of his political 0ua/cej and Micovpot is here neglected,
ideal, but simply as offering a working cf. Republic 414 A a/>' oZv ws di)6s 6p0&-
substitute so long as the attainment of TCLTOV Ka.elv TOVTOVS ptv <J>ua.Kas iravreXeTs
that ideal was impracticable. Plato re- TWJ> re t^uOev iroep.i<av TUV re tvrbs 0t-
mains all his life long a true citizen of lwv, 6Vwi> ol fitv /*TJ povX^crovrai, oi 3 /urj
that city
'
whereof the pattern is pre- duvriaovrai KOMovpyeiv, TOI)S 3 viovs, o)s vvv
served in heaven '.
dri ^>yacas ^/coXoO/xei', firticovpovs rt KO.I
7. KaT<f>aivtT' av] $.
belongs to >e- por)6oi>s TO?S rCiv &pi'>vTtav dby/jLa<riv ;
vtaOau.. 11. a^a &v 0v|ioi8rj] Republic 375 B
9. rd TWV Y WPY*'' V] Republic 370 E foil,
foil.

58 TIAATHNOS [18 A
LVa 7T/JO5 eKarepOVS OVVailtrO Op6w<S TTpdoi KOI
TI. Nat.
SO. Tt Se rpo<prjv ; dp ov yvfjivaantcrj teal p,ov<riKfi
5 T,'ocra trpocrijKei rovrois, ev aTracri reBpd^Bai',
TI. HaVf n-ev ovv.
Toi)9 e 76 ovrut rpa<j>svra<; ee%0r) TTOV
apyvpov f&JTt aXXo Trore fj^rjSev /cr^ytta eavrwv 'iSiov
8eiv, aXX' co? eTTitcovpovs fticrOov afJL(BdvovTa<s rfjs ^>i>a/c//9 irapa
JO TCOJ/
0-<pofJ,VQ)V VTT dVTWV, 0<T09 <
re Brj Koivf) /cat %vvSiatT(i)fj,evov<; pera a
aperf}*; Siu TTCIVTOS, r<Sv dXXcov eTTiTySevfAdTcov a/yovra<j
TI. 'Ee%#?; /cat ravra
15 SO. Kat ywei/ 8/7 /cat vrept ryvvaiKwv eirep,vr)(j6r)p,ev, w? ra? C
rot? dvSpdcri 7rapa7rtjcria<; etrj ^vvap/j.oo'Teov, teal rd eTriTr)-
Trdvra Kowa /cara re TroXe/iof /cat /cara r^y aXX^v Biairav
Tracrai?.
TI. Tayr7 /cat raura eyero.
SO. Tt 8e S^ TO 7re/Jt T77? 7rai8o7roti'a9 ; 17 TOVTO IJLCV Sta TJ}Z/
drjdeiav T&V Xe%#eWa>z/ ev/jLvrjôvevTov, on Koivd rd r<av ydfj,o)v
KOI rd rwv TraiScov rrdcriv aTrdvrwv eri6ep,ev, /jirjâvcofjievoi, O7r<w9
k Trore TO lyeyevrjjjLevov avra> ISia yvcacroiro, vofj,tovcrt Se rrdvres D
avrovs oftoyeveis, doe<f>ds fj,ev /cat a8eX<^>oi)9 ocronrep dv
25 T^? rrpeTTovaT)? ei/To? ^Xt/a'a? yiyvcovrai, rovs 8' e^rrpoaOev /cat
tivwQev yoveas re /cat <yovea>v rrpoyovovs, rovs 8' et9 TO icdrwdev
eicyovovs TratSa? T6 etcyovuv ;
TI. Nat, /cat ravra ev/jivrj/jLovevra, y eyeis.
2Ii.
f/
O7TG)9 Se S?) Kara Svvafjuv evdvs yiyvoivro a><>
apiaroi
30 Ta? (privets, dp ov n.ep>vqp,e6a, a$9 TOU9 apjôvras e<f)ap,ev /cat Ta?
Selv et? TÎ/ To5y yd/Awv <rvvep%iv d0pa fitjâvdadat E
20 T( S^ : T/ 5a/ AH. 22 wxa.v&fj.evoi :
/iijx^^Môuy AH. correxit Stephanus.
23
airao-i] Stallbaum would have 15. ircpl -yvvaiKcSv] Plato's regulations
atrcuri. Plato frequently uses for the training of women will be found
the old form of the dative plural : but in Republic 451 C 457 B: he treats of
there seems no real objection to the pre- vaidovoila in the immediate sequel.
position. 22. pixavcopcvoi] Hermann's defence
7. P.ITTI pvtr6v] Republic 416 D, E. of fjirfxavu^vov^ is vain; nor is Butt-

E] TIMAIO2. 59
be able to show a due measure of mildness or sternness to friend
or foe.
Timaeus, Yes.
Sokrates. And what of their training ? were they not to
have been trained in gymnastic and music and all studies which
are connected with these ?
Timaeus. Just so.
Sokrates. And those who had undergone this discipline, we
said, must not consider that they have any private property in
gold or silver or anything else whatsoever, but as auxiliaries
drawing from those whom they preserved so much pay in return
for their protection as was sufficient for temperate men, they
were to spend it in common and pass their lives in company
with one another, devoting themselves perpetually to the pursuit
of virtue and relieved from all other occupations.
Timaeus. That also is the way it was put.
Sokrates. Moreover with regard to women we observed that
their natures must be brought into harmonious similarity with
those of men, and that the same employments must be assigned
to them all both in war and in their general mode of life.
Timaeus. Yes, that was what we said.
Sokrates. And what were our rules concerning the pro-
creation of children ? This, I think, is easy of recollection
because of the novelty of our scheme. We ordained that the
rights of marriage and of children should be common to all, to
the end that no one should ever know his own offspring, but
that each should look upon all as his kindred, regarding as
sisters and brethren all such as were between suitable limits of
age, and those of the former and previous generations as parents
and grandparents, and those after them as children and children's
children.
Timaeus. Yes, it is very easy to remember this too as you
describe it.
Sokrates. Next with a view to securing immediately the
utmost possible perfection in their natures, do we not remember
that it was incumbent on the rulers of both sexes to make
mann's ^-xavu^voa very satisfactory. 31. tls r^v TWV ydpuv c-vvcpgiv] J?e-
I agree with Stallbaum in receiving the public 459 D, E.
nominative.

60 IIAATftNOS [18 E-
Kripoi<> ri&iv, OTTW? 01 Kaicol %<wpt9 o'i T' dyaOol rat9 o//,ot'eu9
etcdrepoi gvXXijôvrat, Kal pr) ris avroi*; ej(6pa Sid ravra yiyvtjrai,
TV'XTJV yyovfievois ai-rlav rrj? ûXXêoK ;
TI. MefjLvijfjL0a.
5 2n. Kat fjLrjv ore ye rd fj,ev rwv dyaOcav OpeTrreov etyapev 19 A
elvai, rd Be r&v KCLKWV et? rrjv dr)v d6pa BiaSoreov 7roiv'
eirav%avop,eva)v Be a-KOTrovvTa? del TOI)? aîou? 7rdtv dvdyeiv Seiv,
rot)? Be jrapd a$i<Tiv dvagiovs 6t9 rrjv rwv efraviovrwv
TI.
SO. *Ap' ouy S?) SieX^Xyâ/iei/ ^877 KaQdirep %^9, 0)9 eV
/c6</>aXaiot9 irdiv eirave6elv, r) iroOovêv en ri rwv pÔevrwv, w
TI. Oi}Sa/4ft>9, aXXa rai^ra raOr' ^y ra e%6evTa, w Sw/3are9. B
15 II. Sfi. ÂKOVOIT' dv rjBrj rd fj,erd raOra Trept r^9 7roXtTeta9,
7)1; 8iij0ofJ,ev, olov TI 7T/309 avrr)v TreTrovOws rvy^dva). Trpoaeoiice
Be Brj nvl pot, TOHoSe TO Trddos, olov ei T49 â5a aa TTOU 6eaa~d-
/uei/09, efre i5?ro ypa<f>rj<; elpyaapeva eire /cat %>vra dr)0ivd)<i, rj<rv-
yiav Be ayovra, et9 eTriOv/juiav dtyltcotTo 0edo~a<?0ai Kivovpevd re
20 avrd Kal n roov rot9 cratfâcn BOKOVVTCOV Trpoaijicetv Kara rrjv aya>-
viav d&Kovvra' ravrov KCU eyca irkTrovQa ?rpo9 rrjv TTOIV fjv c
Biij8ofjLV. TJBecos <ydp av rov 6y(a 8ie^toyro9 dKOva-ai/J? dv
dffXovs, 01)9 7roXi9 d&Kel, TOVTOVS avrrjv dyatviôfAevijv 7r/oo9 7roXet9
aXXa9 7rpe7r6vra><i, elV re TroXe/iOf dfyucoiievrjv Kal ev ro3 7roXe/Aeti>
25 ra 'Trpoa'rjKOVTa aTroBiBovaav rfj TratBeia KOI rpocpfj tcard re ra9
diadrreiv A. 14 TayrA: awrd S.
24 re :
75 A. omittit S.
6. Xa9pa SiaSoTe'ov] Plato has here enjoined : idv re afarepos ticyovos vv6a-
somewhat mitigated the rigour of his /cos 77 virocrldripos ytvrjTat, /j.t)5evl
ordinance in the Republic : see 459 D TOI)J /careXe^croiia't*', oXXa rrjv ry <J>vffei
apiarovs rats dplffrats avyylyvecrOai ws xovvav rtfj.^v airodovres <5ffovffu> els 5i)fuovp-
TrXeurrdKis, TOI)S 5^ ^>ai;Xo7-(Toi;s rats <j>av- yobs rj els yeupyovs. Probably then, when
Xordratj rovvavrlov, Kal ruv /lev rk ticyova. Plato speaks of not rearing the inferior
rptfaiv, ruv deftr/. Compare too 4600 rit. Si children, he merely means that they are
TUV xeiP^vuv> Kal fav TI rui> oXXuw avdir-qpov not to be reared by the state as infant
ylyvrjrai, ev airopp-firtf re Kal aSf/Xtf) Kara- 0u'Xa*cs.
tcptyovaiv us irpewei : and again, 461 c 7. iravavo|Uvv 8i o-Koirovvras]
fjLdiffra fj.ev /t7?5' els <j>ws fK<f>epeiv Kvi)/j.a Plato clearly recognises that the laws of
Hrj5e 7' ev, edv yevrjrai, eav 5e ri /3id<rr}rai, heredity are only imperfectly understood
oiirw Ti6eva.i ws OVK ovarjs rpo<j>rjs r<p rot- by us, and that therefore the results may
ovrif. But in 415 B the milder course is often baffle our expectation.

TIMAIOS. 6r
provision for the contraction of marriages by some secret mode
of allotment, that to the good and bad separately might be
allotted mates of their own kind, and so no ill-feeling should
arise among them, supposing as they would that chance governed
the allotment ?
Timaeus. We remember that.
Sokrates. And the offspring of the good we said must be
reared, while that of the bad was to be secretly dispersed among
the other classes of the state ;
and continually observing them
as they grew up, the rulers were to restore to their rank such as
were worthy, and in the places of those so promoted substitute
the unworthy in their own rank.
Timaeus. Quite so.
Sokrates. Have we now said enough for a summary re-
capitulation of yesterday's discourse ? or do we feel that any-
thing is lacking, my dear Timaeus, to our account ?
Timaeus. Not at all :-
you have exactly described what was
said, Sokrates.
II. Sokrates. Listen then and I will tell you in the next
place what I feel about the constitution which we described.
My feeling is something like this :
suppose a man, on beholding
beautiful creatures, whether the work of the painter or really
alive but at rest, should conceive a desire to see them in motion
and putting into active exercise the qualities which seemed to
belong to their form this is just what I feel about our city
which we described : I would fain listen to one who depicted
her engaged in a becoming manner with other countries in those
struggles which cities must undergo, and going to war, and
when at war showing a result worthy of her training and educa-
19 B 21 A, c. ii. Sokrates now ex- on them to gratify his wish. Hermo-
presses his desire to see his pictured city krates readily assents, but first begs
called as it were into life and action ; he Kritias to narrate a forgotten legend of
would have a representation of her actual ancient Athens, which he thinks is appo-
doings and dealings with other cities. site to the matter in hand : to this Kritias
He distrusts his own power to do this consents.
worthily, nor has he any greater confi- 17. olov t TIS] This passage is re-
dence in poets or sophists. But he de- ferred to by Athenaeus xi 507 D in sup-
clares that his three companions are of all port of the truly remarkable charge of
men the best fitted by genius and training 0io5oi'o which he brings against Plato,
to accomplish it ; and he therefore calls

62 ITAATHNOS [19 C
ev rol<f epyois Trpdêis teal Kara ra? ev rots 6yois Biepfjiijvevcreis
jrpos etederras rv 7roXe&)i/. raOr' ovv, cu
K.pt,ria icai
'
Ep/io/cpare?,
e/tavrov fj,ev auras teareyv&tea /AT; TTOT' av Sward? yeveaOai rovs D
(ivBpas teal rr}v 7roA.ii/ iicavdos eytcaifudo-ai. leal TO fiev efJiov ovBev
5 Oavâarov' aXXa, TT)I' avrrjv Boâv eir)<f)a tfal rrepl rwv irdai
yeyov6ra)v teal rwv vvv ovrcov Troirjrwv, ov ri TO TronjriKov drtfid-
&>i> yevos, dd Travrl SrjXov eJ<? TO fjUfj-yriicbv edvos, ol? av ev-
rpa<j>rj, ravra ptfiTja-erai pa<rra teal dpurra, TO 8' etcrcx; rfjs rpo<f>f)<t
etcdcrrois yt,yv6/j,evov^ âXe-TroV p.ev epyois, ert Se â7ru)rpov E
10
6yois ev fJLifjLet<rdai. TO 8e rwv a-o<j>iarwv yevos av irowv fj,ev
-.-'
ôywv teal Kaa>v d(av /iaX' e/MTreipov rjyr)fj,ai, (j>o/3ovjLLai Be, ftij
7T<U9, are TrXavTjrov ov teard TroAet? otV^cret? re l&ias ovSaprj Siw-
terjtcos, aaroôv apa <f)i0(r6<l>c0v dv&pdav y teal TroXiriKwv, 'ocf av
old re ev TroXe/zw teal fj,d%ai<> Trpdr-rovres epya> teal oyy rcpoaoyn-
15 Xof)z/Te5 e/catTTOt? irpdrroiev teal yoiev. KaraKiXenrrat Srj TO rfjs
v/jLerepa? eêw? yevos, a//a d/j,<j>orepwv (f>vcrei
teal rpo<}>f) êre-ôv. 20 A
TlfUUOS re ydp '68e, evvoptordrris dv vroXecu? Tr;? ev *raiq Aotept-
So?, ovo-ia teal yevet ovo'evos varepos u>v rwv eteei, Ta?
fiev a/3%a? Te teal rijj,d<; rwv ev rfj rroKei fêraKeêlpio-rat,
20 o-oî'a? 8' av tear* e/j,rjv Sogav err dtepov a-Tracr?;? eTjv0e' Kptriav
8e TTOV rrdvres ol rffi icrjAev ovSevos ISicorijv ovra wv Xeyofiev' T^9
Be 'J&ppotepdrovs av rrepl fyvcrews teal rpo(j>!j<;, TT/JO? inravra
6 Kal rwv : Kal irepl TWV A.
7. ri |up.T]TiK6v ?0vos] See Republic a very similar phrase below at 42 D
392 D, 398 A, 597 E foil. Poetry, says TTJJ irpwr^j Kal AplffT^ d.<f>lKoiro
Plato, is an imitative art ; and poets can- ews. ? expresses a permanent habit
not imitate what is outside of their experi- of mind.
^
ence. For the use of tOvos compare 16. cin<})OTpwv] sc. <f>ioff&<f>ov Kal
Sophist 242 D, Gorgias 455 B, Politicus TTOITIKOV.
290 B. 17. T Yap] The re is not answered:
9. ?n8^ xoXtirwTtpov XOYOIS] Proklos see Shilleto on Demosth.ya/j. leg. 176.
raises needless difficulty about this. Plato vvo|AwrdTTis wv ir6ws] The laws
simply means that to describe such things of the Epizephyrian Lokrians were
worthily requires a rare literary gift : it is ascribed to Zaleukos, 660 B.C. From
far easier to find an Agamemnon than a Demosthenes Kara Tt/j-oKparovs p. 744 it
Homer. appears that this people was so conser-
12. art irXavtfriv ov] cf. Sophist 224 B, vative as to pass no new law, with a
where one kind of sophist is described as single amusing exception, during a
rbv (laOyfjiaTa ffwuvovfj-fvov ir6tv re K period of 200 years. In Laws 638 D
rriXewj vofj.lefjLaTos ifutfttflM* they are said eiW/twroTot rwv irepl ineivov
15, TO TTJS vp.T^pas %ws Y^VOS] i.e. rbv rbirov ytyovivai. Pindar adds his
men of a philosophical habit. We have testimony, Olymp. XI (x) 17 vfati yap

20 A] TIMAIOS. 63
tion, both when dealing in action and parleying in speech with
other cities. Now, Kritias and Hermokrates, my own verdict
upon myself is that I should never be capable of celebrating the
city and her people according to their merit. So far as concerns
me indeed, that is no marvel ;
but I have formed the same
opinion about the poets, both past and present ;
not that I
disparage the poetic race, but any one can see that the imitative
tribe will most easily and perfectly imitate the surroundings
amid which they have been brought up, but that which lies
outside the range of each man's experience is hard to imitate
correctly in actions and yet harder in words. As to the class of
sophists on the other hand, I have always held them to be well
furnished with many fine discourses on other subjects ; yet I am
afraid, seeing they wander from city to city and have never had
dwellings of their own to manage, they may somehow fall short
in their conception of philosophers and statesmen, as to what in
time of war and battles they would do and say in their dealings
and converse with divers people. One class then remains, those
who share your habit of mind, having by nature and training a
capacity for both philosophy and statecraft. Timaeus for in-
stance, belonging to an admirably governed state, the Italian
Lokris, and one of the foremost of its citizens in wealth and
birth, has filled offices of the highest authority and honour in
his native city, and has also in my judgment climbed to the
topmost peak of all philosophy : while at Athens we all know
that Kritias is no novice in any of the questions we are discuss-
ing: of Hermokrates too we must believe on the evidence of
'Arp^/ceia iroKiv AoKpuJf Ze<f>vpluv. mides 169 C KO.KVOS [sc. Kpirias]
20. iir aKpov dirdoTjs] Plato's judg- /tot VTT' ffj.ou diropovvros dvayKaffdrjvat Kal
ment of the historical Timaeus can hard- avrdj auvai inrb airoplas. are ovv eiJ-
ly have gone so far as this: that however SOKI/JLUV ^Kaarore rjffxtvfro TOI>* ira-
he must have set a high estimate on the povras, Kal otire ^vy^wpfiaal /tot ^dffv
Pythagorean's philosophical capacity he dStWros tlvai SifXfoOai a vpoi'KaXov/jujv
has proved by making him the mouth- avrov, tXeyt re ovdiv 0-a^s, eiriKaXvirruv
piece of his own profoundest specu- r-qv diroplav.
lations. 22.
'
EpfJioKparovs] This was the cele-
21. ovSevos I8iwn]v] ^KaXelro WCWTTJJ brated Syracusan general and statesman,
fdv ev 4>io<r6$ois, <f>i6ffo<j>os S ev I5iu- distinguished in the Peloponnesian war.
reus, says Proklos. He seems to have A Hermokrates mentioned among the
been one of those who made a good friends of Sokrates by Xenophon memo-
show out of a little knowledge : cf. Char- rabilia I ii 48 is doubtless a different

64 HAATHNOS [20 A
i
elvai iKavrjs TTO(OV papTvpovvrayv TTUTTevTeov 877. o Kal %0e<? eyco
B
8iavoov/jLvo<j vfuav Seopevav ra Trepl TTJS TroXtre/a? 8te6etv Trpo-
6vfici)<; eâptônrjv, clScos, QTI TOV e7<? 6yov ovSeves civ vfi<av
ede6vTwv iKavatTepov diroSoiev' et? yap Troeôv irpeTrovra Kara-
5 o~Tr/o-avT<} TIJV 7roiv airavf avrfj TO, TrpoarjKovra aTroSotr' av
fjiovoi TWV vvv. eiTTcav 8rj TaTriTaÔevra dvreTreraâ vp,lv a Kal
vvv eyw. gvva)fjiooyrj<raT
>
ovv KOivy a-Ke-^rafievot Trpos vfia?
avrovs et? vvv avraTroBcacreiv fj,oi TO, TWV 6jajv evia, Trdpei/jLi re C
ovv Brj KKO<rfji,r)/j,evo<; evr' aura KOI TrdvTwv eTOifioraro^ (av Be-
EP. Kat fiev STJ> KaOdirep etrre T///at09 o8e, w ^wfcpares, ovre
,etyo(jiV TrpoOvfjiias ovSev ovre eanv ovSefiia 7rp6(pa<n<; rjfjfiv
TOV fj,rj Bpav TavTa' OXTTC teal %#e9 evOvs evOevSe, eVetS?) frapd
KpiTiav 7T/30? TOV êvwva, ov /cal KaTavofiev, dtjjiKO/jieda, Kal Tt
15 TTpOTCpOV KaO' 68oV aVTO, TaVT <TK07rOVfJi6V. O 8' OVV qfJilV OJOV D
640-7777; o~aTO CK TraXaia? dfcofjs' ov Kal vvv Xe76, w Kptria,
iva %vvBoKifi,do~r) TT/JO? TTJV liriTaîv etr' eTTtr^Seto? elV a
0~TIV.
KP. TaOra ^p?) 8pdv, el Kal rc3 TpiTw KOIVCOVOJ
TI. Ao/cet
KP. "A/coue 877, ScoArpare?, XOYOU /u-aXa /Ltey aroTroi;, jravra-
iraa'i ye ftrjv dr)6ov<>, to? o raJy eTrra <7o<ct$TaT09 2oX<ui/ TTOT' e^?;. E
?7i> yxey ouy otVeto? /cat <T(f)6opa ^)tXo? 77/ity ApcoTriSov TOV irpo-
25 TraTTirov, KaOaTrep eyei TroXXaôO /cat avro? ey r^ Troiijcrei,'
:
IKWIJV H. 5: 5i6 ASZ. 9 aw omittit S. 13 TOV ny: rb fj.-q S.
14 a<piKOfj.e6a :
cupiKotfteOa A. 19 x/31?'
:
5^ A.
person : a friendship between Sokrates prominence given to war throughout the
and the Syracusan leader is in itself im- passage is notable: it is considered as a
probable, if not impossible, and the Ian- normal mode of a state's activity. And
guage of Sokrates in the present passage in fact, when Plato wrote, it could hardly
seems inconsistent with the existence of be regarded otherwise.
any intimacy. That however the Syra- 9. KCKOO-IJLTJIIE'VOS] i.e. with festal attire
cusan is the interlocutor in this dialogue and garland.
seems to me certain. Plato has assem- n. Kal &v 8ij] This is the only
bled a company of the very highest dis- occasion throughout the dialogue on
tinction, among whom an obscure com- which Hermokrates opens his lips.
panion of Sokrates would be out of 24. Apwir8ov] Proklos makes out
place. the genealogy thus :
4. els yelp iroXtpov irpt'irovra] The

E] TIMAIO2. 65
many witnesses that his genius and acquirements qualify him to
deal with all such matters. This was in my mind yesterday
when I willingly complied with your request that I should
repeat the conversation concerning the ideal polity ;
for I knew
that no men were more competent than you, if you were willing,
to supply the sequel : no one else indeed at the present day
could, after engaging our city in an honourable war, render her
conduct worthy of her in all respects. So after saying all that
was enjoined on me I in my turn enjoined upon you the task of
which I now remind you. Accordingly you consulted together
and agreed to entertain me at this time with a return
'
feast of
reason '. I am here then ready for it in festal array, and never
was there a more eager guest.
Hennokrates. Indeed, Sokrates, as Timaeus said, there will
be no lack of zeal on our part, nor can we attempt to excuse
ourselves from performing the task. In fact yesterday imme-
diately on leaving this spot, when we reached the guest-chamber
at the house of Kritias where we are staying, and even before
that on our way thither, we were discussing this very matter.
Kritias then told us a story from an old tradition, which you had
better repeat now, Kritias, to Sokrates, that he may help us to
judge whether it will answer the purpose for our present task or
not.
Kritias. So be it, if our third partner Timaeus agrees.
Timaeus. I quite agree.
Kritias. Listen then, Sokrates, to a tale which, strange
though it be, is yet perfectly true, as Solon, the wisest of the
seven, once affirmed. He was a relation and dear friend of
Dropides, my great-grandfather, as he says himself in many
Exekestides
Solon Dropides
Kritias (the elder)
Kallaischros Glaukon (the elder)
Kritias (the younger) Periktione Charmides
Plato Glaukon Adeimantos
He must however be mistaken in making a relationship. Moreover it would seem
Solon and Dropides brothers : Plato's that Solon has been placed a generation
words evidently do not imply so close too near to the elder Kritias.
P. T. 5

66 IIAATnNOS [20 E
Be Kpiriav rrov rov ^fierepov rrdrrrrov elirev, w? drrepvi)povevev av
7TO05 rjp.d't
6 yeptov, on fieyda Kal OavfJLacrra rfjaBi
1
eirj rcaata
epya rfjs TroXeto? VTTO ypovov /cat <f)dopd<f avvpwrrwv rjâvio'fj.ei'a,
trdvrwv Be ev fj.eyio~rov, ov i>vv tTTifivrjffdeia'i rrpirrov av rjplv eir) troi 21 A
5 re aTToBovvai %dpiv Kal rrjv 6eov afia ev rfj
I
7rai>rjyvpei BiKaiw re
Kal dr}0(Ja<; olbvrrep vfLVOvvra^ eyKW/Midîv,
2n. Eu eyeis. aXXa 8^ rrolov epyov rovro KpiTta5 ov
ey6fj,evov (Aev, to? Be rrpa^dev OI/TG)? VTTO rf)o~Be rfjs 7roXea)5 ap-
%aiov Btrjyeiro Kara rijv SoXeovo? QKOIJV ;
10 III. KP. '70) (f>pd<ra) -jraXaibv OKTJKOW^ 6yov ov veov
dvBpo?. f)v /j.ev yap Brj rore Kpirias, u5? e<f)r), o-êBov 771)5 rjBrj
rwv ei-evrjKovra ercav, eya> Be Try fj,dio~ra Se/cer?;?' ij
Be Koupec3Ti5 B
Kal rore gvveftr) rot? rraio~iv' aOa yap rjfj.lv oi
I TTOV rov : iroi; omittunt SZ.
5. ^v rig iravtfyvpti] The goddess is
of course Athena; and the festival would
seem to be the lesser Panathenaia, as
Proklos tells us. Considerable discussion
has arisen as to the time of year in which
this festival was held. The greater Pana-
thenaia, which took place once in four
years, lasted from the iyth to the 25th
Hekatombaion. The lesser festival was
annual. Demosthenes Kara Tifj-OKparovs
26 refers to a Panathenaic festival which
took place in Hekatombaion ; and it is
affirmed by some scholars that he is
speaking of the lesser Panathenaia. Were
this so, it would follow that the greater
and lesser festivals were held at the same
time of year. But Proklos has an ex-
plicit statement to the contrary: on ye
flip TO IlavaflTjwua (sc. ra fiiKpa) rots
BevSiSe/otj tJtrtTO tyovffiv ol viro/JLV-rj-
fjia.TiffTa.1, Kal 'ApttrroTAijj 6 'P65tos ftap-
Tvpel TO ptv iv llfipaiei HfvSiStia rrj etdct
TOW Ga/yyijXtwi'Oj eiriTCfiff0ai, tirtffOa.1. ot
rat rept TIJV 'AOrjvav lopras. It seems to
me that this direct evidence is not to
be outweighed by an uncertain argument
based on the passage of Demosthenes.
Clinton Fasti Hellenici II pp. 332 5
has a careful discussion of the question
elirev: tlvetv A.
and decides in favour of placing the lesser
Panathenaia in Thargelion.
7. o Xry<5j.vov p^v] Stallbaum is
ill advised in adopting the interpretation
of Proklos ny travv ftev -reOpvri[j.tvov,
ytvofjifvov ot 5/iws. The meaning is be-
yond question
'
not a mere figment of the
imagination (like the commonwealth de-
scribed in the Republic), but a history
of facts that actually occurred'. Cf. 26 E
TO re ^17 icao0tnTa. nvOov dX' ai}0ivbv
6yov elvai vd/jifjLeya. iron.
4i A 25 D, c. iii. Kritias proceeds
to tell a story which his grandfather
once learned from Solon : that when
Solon was travelling in Egypt he con-
versed with a priest at Sais ; and begin-
ning to recount to the priest some of the
most ancient Hellenic legends he was
interrupted by him with the exclamation
'Solon, ye are all children in Hellas,
and no truly ancient history is to be
found among you. For ever and anon
there comes upon the earth a great de-
struction by fire or by water, and the
people perish, and all their records and
monuments are swept away. Only in
the mountains survive a scattered rem-
nant of shepherds and unlettered men,

21 B] TIMAIOS.
passages of his poems : and Dropides told my grandfather
Kritias, who when advanced in life repeated it to us, that there
were great and marvellous exploits achieved by Athens in days
of old, which through lapse of time and the perishing of men
have vanished from memory : and the greatest of all is one
which it were fitting for us to narrate, and so at once discharge
our debt of gratitude to you and worthily and truly extol
the goddess in this her festival by a kind of hymn in her
honour.
Sokrates. A good proposal. But what was this deed which
Kritias described on the authority of Solon as actually performed
of old by this city, though unrecorded in history?
III. Kritias. I will tell an ancient story that I heard from
a man no longer young. For Kritias was then, as he said, hard
upon ninety years of age, while I was about ten. It happened
to be the 'children's day' of the Apaturia ;
and then as usual
the boys enjoyed their customary pastime, our fathers giving us
knowing nought of the past : and when
again a civilisation has slowly grown up,
presently there comes another visitation
of fire or water and overwhelms it. So
that in Greece and most other lands the
records only go back to the last great
cataclysm. But in Egypt we are pre-
served from fire by the inundation of the
Nile, and from flood because no rain
falls in our land : therefore our people
has never been destroyed, and our re-
cords are far more ancient than in any
other country on earth '. Then the priest
goes on to tell Solon one of these his-
tories : how that nine thousand years ago
Athens was founded by Athena, and a
thousand years later Sais was founded
by the same goddess ; how the ancient
Athenians excelled all nations in good
government and in the arts of war ; and
above all how they overthrew the power
of Atlantis. For Atlantis was a vast
island in the ocean, over against the
pillars of Herakles, and her people were
mighty men of valour and had brought
much of Europe and Africa under their
sway. And once the kings of Atlantis
resolved at one blow to enslave all the
countries that were not yet subject to
them, and led forth a great host to sub-
due them. Then Athens put herself at
the head of the nations that were fight-
ing for freedom, and after passing through
many a deadly peril, she smote the in-
vaders and drove them back to their
own country. Soon after there came
dreadful earthquakes and floods ; and the
earth opened and swallowed up all the
warriors of Athens ;
and Atlantis too
sank beneath the sea and was never more
seen.
13. 'AirarovpCwv] Apaturia was the
name of a festival in honour of Dionysos,
held in the month Pyanepsion, which
corresponded, roughly speaking, with
our October. It lasted three days, of
which the first was called 56pirtia, the
second d.vappva'is, the third Kovpewris.
On this third day the names of children
three or four years of age were enrolled
on the register of their tpparpla. Proklos
seems mistaken in making dvappwis the
first day ; all other authorities place 56p-
Treia first.
52

68 IIAATHNOS [21 B
edecrav paâ>oYa9. jrov fj.ev ovv 877 /ecu TroXXa
Troiyuara, are Se vea /car' etceivov rov xpovov ovra rd ZoXa>ro9
TroXXoi rcov TTdiScw yaaiiev. elrrev ovv Brj ns rdJv (frparepwv, eire
&f) SOKOVV avr<a Tore eire Ka ftdpiv Tivd rut Kpiria <f>epa)V,
Soiceiv
5 ot rd re aXXa o~o(pa>rarov yeyovevai SoXtoz/a /cal /cara r^y Trotrjo'iv C
av TWV 7roirjT<av irdvrwv eXevdepuararov. 6 Srj yepav, <r<f)6Spa yap
ovv fiefjLjrrjfJicu, p,da re tf<rdr) KOI oiaf46i$id(ra<> enrev' Et ye, (a
'A/jkvvav&pe, /x) Trapepyq) rfj 7roiij(rt Karexp'lo'aTO, aXX' ea-Trov&drcei
tcaOdirep aXXot, TOV re 6yov, ov air Alyinrrov Stvpo rfveyKaro,
10 aTrereXeere icai fir) Sid ra<? <TTa<7et9 VTTO KUKWV re d(av, ova evpev
evBdoe IJKWV, tjvayKaadr) Kara[iefj(rai, Kara ye e/jirjv ougav ovre D
'H(T('o8o9 ovre "0/4*7/309 oire aXXo9 ou8et9 ^04777779 evôKi^(arepo<t
>/ w rrt / *> f N / t f/ rr / * TT
eyevero av irore avrov. 1 19 o 771/0 Xo7O9, 77
o 09, w Kpma ;
xl
Trepl fuyforqf, <f>r),
teal ovofiaa-rordrrj^ rracrûv St/catorar' av irpd-
5 fea>9 ovarj<j, fjv 77^6 77 ?roX(9 eirpaê p,ev, Sid Se xpovov teal <f>6opdv
r&v cpyaaanevatv ov Siijpicea-e cevpo 6 6yos. Aeye ef dp^rj<t, ff
S' o<t, ri re /cat 7TC09 KOI vrapd rivwv ft>9 0X77^77 SiaiC7)ico(0<; eeyev
6 %oa)v. "Ei<rri Tt9 /car' AiyvTrrov, 77
S' 09, ev rc5 AeXra, vrepl E
o icard Kopv<f>r)v a^lêrai TO TOU Nei'Xou pe)/za, Sai-Tto9 eiriica-
20 ovfjievo<f vofjbos, rovrov Se rov vopov fttyumf 7roXt9 ai?, oêi/ 8>)
/tat "A/ia<r<9 771; 6 fiaaiXevs' o?9 T?79 7roXea)9 ^09 dp^rjyo^ ri9
<rnv, Aiyirrrria-rl fiev rovvoua NrjiO,
t
Et
r]vio'rl Se, 009 6 e/ceivcov
Xo709,
'
Adrjvd' fj.(ia Se <f)ia6tjvaioi tcai riva rpoTrov oifceioi rwvS*
elvai <f>acriv. ol Sr/ SoXeoy ^77 iropevOels <r<f)6Spa re yeveo~6ai
i->
Trap' ai/rot9 evrifio^, Kal 877 /cat ra TraXata dvepwraiv rovs aai(rra 22 A
irepl ravra rouv lepeatv epTreipovs a"%eSov ovre avrov ovre dov
Ei7]va ovSeva ovSev a><; 7ro9 eiTreiv elSora Trepl rdov roiovrwv
dveupeiv. /cat rrore Trpoayayeiv ftovr)0ei<i avrovs Trepl rwv dp-
IO KO! fjL-^: Kal el pri A. 13 rf irtpl: rj omittit S. 25 ave/)wrtDi :
dvepururros wore A.
10. 8ui rd <rrd<ris] Plutarch Solon Stallbaum's note it
appears that this
c. 31 says it was old age, not civil reference to Amasis placed in Solon's
troubles, which prevented Solon from mouth has been regarded as an anachro-
carrying out his designs. nism, and so Stallbaum himself seems to
14. dv...ot!<rt|s] i.e. it would have consider it. But since Amasis ascended
been, had circumstances been less un- the Egyptian throne in 569 B.C., accord-
favourable. ing to Clinton, there is no obvious
71. "AjMwris 6 peuriXeus] According reason why Solon should not mention
to Herodotus II 172 the birthplace of him, or why he may not even have visited
Amasis was not Sais itself, but Siouph, him, as Herodotus affirms, i
30. For
another cltv in the Saitic nome. From .Solon was certainly alive after the usur-

22 A] TIMAIDS. 69
prizes for reciting poetry. A great deal of poetry by various
authors was recited, and since that of Solon was new at the
time, many of us children sang his poems. So one of the clans-
men said, whether he really thought so or whether he wished to
please Kritias, he considered that Solon was not only in other
respects the wisest of mankind but also the noblest of all poets
The old man how well I recollect it was extremely pleased
and said smiling, Yes, Amynandros, if he had not treated poetry
merely as a by-work, but had made a serious business of it like
the rest, and if he had finished the legend which he brought
hither from Egypt, instead of being compelled to abandon it by
the factions and other troubles which he found here on his
return, my belief is that neither Hesiod nor Homer nor any
other poet would have enjoyed greater fame than he. What
was the legend, Kritias ? asked Amynandros. It concerned a
mighty achievement, he replied, and one that deserved to be the
most famous in the world ;
a deed which our city actually per-
formed, but owing to time and the destruction of the doers
thereof the story has not lasted to our times. Tell us from the
beginning, said the other, what was the tale that Solon told, and
how and from whom he heard it as true.
There is in Egypt, said Kritias, in the Delta, at the apex of
which the stream of the Nile divides, a province called the
Saitic ;
and the chief city of this province is Sais, the birthplace
of Amasis the king. The founder of their city is a goddess,
whose name in the Egyptian tongue is Neith, and in Greek, as
they aver, Athena: the people are great lovers of the Athenians
and claim a certain kinship with our countrymen. Now when
Solon travelled to this city he said he was most honourably
entreated by the citizens; moreover when he questioned con-
cerning ancient things such of the priests as were most versed
therein, he found that neither he nor any other Grecian man,
one might wellnigh say, knew aught about such matters. And
once, when he wished to lead them on to talk of ancient times,
pation of Peisistratos, which occurred in vonlfrvoiv, ?5oj tiriypa^riv elx* roia.vn)v,
560. '70} ei/j.1 irav rb ytyovbs Ka.1 ftv Kai t<ro-
11. Nt|8] This goddess is identified /j.evov Kal rbv t/j-bv wfirXov ov&eis TTW
by Plutarch with Isis, de hide et Osiride flcrjrds
9 rb 5' tv 2aet TTJJ 'Atfijpas, rjv Kal ""law

7o IIAATONOS [22 A-
yaiwv et9 6you? TWV Tr/Be ra apâiorara eyew eTTiêipelv, irepi
tbopcovew re TOV irpwrov Xex#eWo9 Kal Nto/3/79, Kal fierd TOI> fcara-
Kv<rfJibv av Trepl Aet>/caXtWo9 /cat Hvppas w? BteyevovTO nv6ooyelv, ^ %
KOI TOVS ej; avTtoV yeveaoye"iv, Kal TO, TWV ITWV '6aa rv 019 eXeye B
5 TretpacrBai, BiafivrjfjLovevwv TOI)? %p6vovs dpiOjteiv' icai Tiva enrelv rwv
iepewv ev fida TraXatoV *H 2,6wv, SoXw^, "EXX^/i/e? ael
e'ore, yepcov 8e"Er)v OVK etrriv. aKovcras oiv, II<W5 rt TOUTO
<f>dvai. Neoi eVre, elirdv, rdi i|ru^;a<f Trdvres' ovBe/j.iav yap ev avrai<;
t'
dp-âiav dtcorjv 7raaidv Soâv ou3e pdOrjâ XP VV noXiov
TO Se ToyTcof atTtoy roSe. TroXXal /cat /cara TroXXa <f)0opai,
C
yeyovcKriv dvOpwTrwv teal ea-ovrac Trvpl fj,ev
KCU v&an (teyio-Tai,
(jivpiois 8e aXXoi9 erepai ^pa^vrepai. TO yap ovv Kal Trap
1
vp.lv
ey6/Avov, W9 Trore 3>ae0Q)v 'HXtof Trai? TO ToO Trarpos appa
êi/'â? Sid TO fir) &vvaTo<; elvat Kara rrjv TOV iraTpbs 6Sbv eXavveiv
15 rd T 7rl 7^9 %uveKavo- Kal avTos KepavvwOels 8i(p6dpr), TOVTO
fjivBov pev afflfia e%ov eyeTai, TO Be dXrjOes ecrTt TWI/ Trepl yr
t
v
Kal KaT
1
ovpavbv IOVTMV irapda%i$ Kal Bid jiaKpwv ^povwv D
yiyvofievrj TUIV eVi 7^9 Trvpl TroXXa) <p6opd. TOTC otv oVot KOST *J c '
opt] Kal ev i5>|r^Xot9 T07rot9 Kal ev ^rjpois oiKovcri, fj,dov Biovv-
20 Tat TO>V 7rora/iot9 /cat 0adjTp TrpocroiKovvTcav' rjiJ.lv Be o NetXo9
et9 T Ta aXXa awTrjp Kal TOTC etc TavTrjf T^9 aTropias aaêt
v6fJLevos. oTav S' av Beol TTJV yfjv vBaa't, Ka0aipovT<; KaTaKv-
22 Ocoi: olOfoi SZ.
2. ôpwv^ws] Phoroneus is said in 384 Kiihn Kal TUV KaTa.Ki6ivruv OVK ol$'
the legend to have been the son of Ina- et T Kal i^rpiov p!>vov dieytvero.
chos : he was nevertheless the first man 16. pSOov p.v crû>.] Compare Poli-
according to the explanation in Pausanias ticus 268 E, where another myth is
II xv X^yerat 5 Kal 85e 6yos' $opuvta similarly explained as a fragmentary re-
iv rjj yrj raimy yevtffffai irpurov, "Ivayov miniscence of the great convulsion that
5 OVK dvdpa aa TOP iroranbv Trartpa took place when the motion of the uni-
tlvai $opuveT...$opuvfvt Si o 'Ivdov TOVS verse was reversed.
dvOpuwovs ffvvjyaye irpurov h KOIVOV, ffiro- 1 7. irapaXXois] This does not sig-
pdSas T^WS Kal <p' eairruv eKdffTore oUovv- nify a reverse motion, like the dvaKijKr}-
ras' Kal rb uplov ts o trpuTov T)6pol<?OT)(rai> <ns of Politicus 269 E, where the same
aarv dn>ofj.d<r()r} fyopuvinov. Proklos gives word occurs, but some deviation from the
a list of several persons who enjoyed the wonted orbits, as in Republic 530 B 7/7-
distinction of being accounted '
first men '
veadal re raura del wo-ai/rwj Kal ovSany
in various parts of Greece. ovdtv vapaXKdrreiv. The irapaXa|tj must
3. ws 8iry^vovTo]
'
how they survived'. not be regarded as due to accident, which
This seems clearly the meaning here ; but Plato does not admit into his scheme : it
it is a rare use, which we find also in is a phenomenon which, occurring at long
Hippokrates irepi tvid-riijuuv I vol. in p. but definite intervals, is
strictly in the

D] TIMAIO2. 71
he essayed to tell them of the oldest legends of Hellas, of
Phoroneus who was called the first man, and of Niobe; and
again he told the tale of Deukalion and Pyrrha, how they sur-
vived after the deluge, and he reckoned up their descendants, and
tried, by calculating the periods, to count up the number of
years that passed during the events he related. Then said one
of the priests, a man well stricken in years, O Solon, Solon, ye
Greeks are ever children, and old man that is a Grecian is there
none. And when Solon heard it, he said, What meanest thou
by this ? And the priest said, Ye are all young in your souls ;
for ye have not in them because of old tradition any ancient
belief nor knowledge that is hoary with eld. And the reason of
it is this: many and manifold are the destructions of mankind
that have been and shall be; the greatest are by fire and by
water; but besides these there are lesser ones in countless other
fashions. For indeed that tale that is also told among you, how
that Phaethon, the child of the Sun, yoked his father's chariot,
and for that he could not drive in his father's path, he burnt up
all things upon earth and himself was smitten by a thunderbolt
and slain this story, as it is told, has the fashion of a fable;
but the truth of it is a deviation of the bodies that move round
the earth in the heavens, whereby comes at long intervals of
time a destruction with much fire of the things that are upon
earth. Thus do such as dwell on mountains and in high places
and in dry perish more widely than they who live beside rivers
and by the sea. Now the Nile, which is in all else our preserver,
saves us then also from this distress by releasing his founts : but
when the gods send a flood upon the earth, cleansing her with
regular course of nature. quotes with disapprobation. IIop<j>vpios
1 2. Xv6|itvos] The explanation given n^v 5?) <pt]ffti',
&TI 5oa rjv iraXcua Aiyvirritav
of this word by Proklos is utterly worth- rb vdup KaruOfv dvafiXvvTdveiv ry dvapdffct
less : Xuerai ykp 'Arrt/cwj Sri vei TTJS TOV NeiXou, Sik Koi ISpwra yrjs ^/cdXow rbv
diroplas ijyuas d Ne?os. Even conceding NeiXov, ical rb tira.vi.tvm tcarufffv ravro
the more than doubtful Atticism of v!>- r$ Alyvwrly 8i)ovi> Kal rb <rwfi> Xud-
fjifvos
= vwi> (the only authority Stall- fj.ei>ov, ovx 8ri 17 XIUM* XUO/U^J'T; TO vXrjOos
baum can quote is a very uncertain in- rwt> vSa-rtav iroieT, d' Sri verai diro ruv
stance in Xenophon de venatu I
17), the tavrou irtjyuv ical vpofiffiv tU TO ipQavis
clumsy tautology of the participle, thus ^7rexd/x'os irp&Tfpoi>. Nothing can be
understood, is glaring. It appears to me more natural than that the Egyptians
that the right interpretation has been should have believed that the 'earth is
suggested by Porphyries, whom Proklos full of secret springs ', which by their

HAATflNOS [22 D
Tat9 Trap' vfilv
,
ol fiev ev rot? opefft Biaa-a>ovrai J3ovtc6ot voxels re, 01 8' ev
ea-iv ei9 rrjv 0darrav VTTO r<av Trorafioov $e- E
povrat, Kara Be rrjvBe rrjv x&pav ^T Tore oure aXXoTe civcodev
eVi T09 dpovpas VBcop eirippel' TO 8' evavriov KarwB^v irdv erra-
5 rieWt -rrtyvKev. Wev Kal Si a9 ama9 rdvOdSe o-y&peva Xeyerat
TraXaiorara. TO 8e dr)0e$ ev Tracrt Tot? TbVo<9, ^TTOU /i
77 Kavfj,a amlpyti, 7reov, rore 8e earrov del 761/09 e
ocra Be fj Trap VJAIV rj rf)8e rj
Kal tear' dov TOTTOV cov 23 A
a/eo)i/ lo-pev, ei irov Tt icabv rj fj^eya yeyovev rj ical nva &ia<popdv
10
dr)v e%ov, Trdvra yeypapfjieva etc 7raaiov T^S' eVrli/ eV rot9
/epoi9 al ffar(fxrp,eva,
ra Be Trap v/juv Kal T049 aXot9 apn
KaT<TKeva<r/j,ei>a eKda-rore Tvy^di'ei ypafjifjiaa-i Kal aTraaiv, oiroawv
7roXet9 Seovrat,, Kal 7rdiv Bi eiwOorwv eVcof S<nrep vocrr)p,a ijKei
fapopevov avroi<j pevp,a ovpdvtov Kal rov<f dypaftfiaTovs re Kal
15 a/xouo-oi/9 eXiTrev ifi&v, od<TT iraXiv % p%^9 olov vkoi jiyvecfde, B
ovBev tSoT69 OUT T<uv rfjBe ovre T&v "Trap vp2v, ocra TJV ev TO??
%povois. rd yovv vvv Srj yevedXoyrjdevra, u> SoXwi/, Trepl
Trap vfjLtv a BiijXdes, TraiBtov flpa-xy ri Biatpepei pvOwv, ot
irpwrov nev eva 7^9 KaraKkvc^ov fie/jLi-rja-Qe TroXXeijy efj,Trpoa-0ev
4 K&ru6ev TTO.V : irav omittit Z. 9 aicoty dedi ex A. acog HSZ.
breaking forth gave rise to the inunda-
tion. It is true that there is still need of
an explanation why the springs burst
forth at a certain season : but the ancient
Egyptians do not stand alone in sup-
posing that they solve a difficulty by
removing it a stage further back. v6-
/tevoj will therefore mean '
being re-
leased
'
by the unsealing of its subterra-
nean founts. This explanation also gives
a good and natural sense to KaruOev
tira.vifra.1 below. I hold it then undesira-
ble to admit pvbuevos, which is the reading
of some inferior mss.
3. KttTd TljvSl TT]V XWf*"'] The
priest's theory is as follows. The destruc-
tion of ancient records is due (i) to con-
flagrations, (2) to deluges. From the first
the Egyptians are preserved by the inun-
dation of the Nile, from the second by
the total absence of rain in their country.
Accordingly their population is continu-
ous, and their monuments and other
records escape destruction. But in Greece
and elsewhere, when a deluge comes, the
inhabitants of cities and the low countries
are swept into the sea, and only the rude
dwellers in the mountains escape : cf.
Critias 109 D, Laws 677 B. Thus from
time to time the more cultivated por-
tion of the inhabitants, with all their
memorials, are cut off, and civilisation has
to make a fresh start : on which account
all their history is of yesterday compared
with that of the Egyptians. It would
seem however that a conflagration which
should occur in the winter or spring might
take Egypt at a disadvantage.
6. T& 8i dXijOls] The application of
this remark is not very obvious, but I
take it to be this. We have seen that
the history of the Egyptians, owing to
their immunity from <f>0opal, goes back to
an extremely remote period, and conse-
quently many <j>0opai dv0pwirui> are re-
corded. Elsewhere this immunity does

23 B] TIMAIOS. 73
waters, those in the mountains are saved, the neatherds and
shepherds, but the inhabitants of the cities in your land are
swept by the rivers into the sea. But in this country neither
then nor at any time does water fall from on high upon the
fields, but contrariwise all rises up by nature from below.
Wherefore and for which causes the legends preserved here are
the most ancient that are told : but the truth is that in all places,
where exceeding cold or heat does not forbid, there are ever
human beings, now more, now fewer. Now whether at Athens
or in Egypt, or in any other place whereof we have tidings, any-
thing noble or great or otherwise notable has occurred, we have
all written down and preserved from ancient times in our temple
here. But with you and other nations the commonwealth has
only just been enriched with letters and all else that cities
require : and again after the wonted term of years like a recur-
ring sickness comes rushing on them the torrent from heaven ;
and it leaves only the unlettered and untaught among you, so
that as it were ye become young again with a new birth, know-
ing nought of what happened in the ancient times either in our
country or in yours. For instance the genealogies, Solon, which
yojj just now recounted, concerning the people of your country,
are little better than children's tales. For in the first place ye
not exist : tradition tells of but one countries is no greater than that of the
<j>dopa; and people suppose that there records.
has been but one, and that the existence 12. KaT<rKeva<r|A^va...YpaK>
HLaeri] 'lit-
of man in their country dates from acorn- eris mandata', says Stallbaum, a render-
paratively recent time. But the truth is, ing which will surely find few friends :
says the priest, that in all countries where nor can we confine ira<riv oirbiruv ir6fts
the climate admits of human life there dtovrai to public monuments, as he would
has been a human population of varying have us. KareffKevaff^va. means '
fur-
extent surviving a number of <f>Qopatt
nished
'
or '
enriched ', a sense which it
although no memorial of the earlier in- bears several times in Thucydides : see VI
habitants remains. It was a common belief 91, viil 24. The following words ge-
that as the North from cold, so the South nerally comprehend all the appurtenances
from heat was uninhabitable by man : cf. of civilisation :
amongst others, as Proklos
Aristotle meteorologica II v 362
b 26 fv0a says, r^xvai Kal a.yopa.1 KO.I ovrpa,. TO, irap'
fj.h yap Sia ^Ox J oi/Ktri KaroiKovcnv, (vOa. V/MV'IS also a general phrase, =your insti-
d dia T7)v atai>. The difficulty about tutions or commonwealths. Compare
the sentence is that rb 5' aXrjff^s has the Critias no A &TO.V tdrjrdv riffiv ydy rou
air of correcting the statement in the (St'ou Ta.va.yKO.la. Ka,TrKeva,<rfitva.
preceding clause : whereas what is really 13. 81' clwOoruv T<OV] These words
corrected is the implied misconception ; show conclusively that the <f>ffopal were
i.e. that the antiquity of man in other normal and regularly recurrent.

74 IIAATHNOS [23 B-
yeyovoro)v, ert Be TO Kdio~rov Kal upicrrov yevo? eV dvOprirrovs
ev rfi (apa rfj Trap* vp.lv OVK fore 76701/09, e wv o~v re Kal rrdaa
TJ 7roXf9 e<rri rd vvv vp,wv, 7repiei(f>devro<t Trore aTrep/jiaros /9/3aêo9, c
aXX' i5/za? et]0e Bid TO rov<f irepiyevofiei ov9 eVt 7roXXa9 yeved?
5 ypdfj,/j.a<ri reXevrdv dffxavovs. tfv yap Brj Trore, to 2oX&>i>, uTTfp TJ}I/
fieyl&Tijv (pdopav vSacriv rj
vvv *A.6r)vai(0v ovo~a 7roXt9 upla-rr} 7T/309
T rov 7rofj,ov Kal Kara Trdvra evvofiwrdrf] &ia<f)ep6vTW y KO-
HTTa epya Kal TroXiTfiai yeveaOai eyovrat K(iiarai Traa-oov,
OTTwraiV VTTO Tov ovpavov 7;/ifi9 CLKOTIV irapete^dÔa. aKOvaas D
>
ovv 6 26tov <f>r) 6avp,daai Kal iratrav Trpodvp-lav %eiv Seo/xei/09
TWV iepewv irdvra 8t aKpiflelas ol TO. irepl TWV TrdXat TroXirwv
6^179 8ie0tiv. rov ovv iepea (ftdvaf <&6bvos oi)Set9, <w SoXwi/, aXXa
<rov re eWa epco Kal T^9 7roXeG>9 vfiwv, p.diora 8e T^9 Beov X"PiV>
r) ri]v re vfierepav Kal ryvoe eXaê xal edpe-^re Kal erraiêvae, rrpo-
15 repav fiev rr)v Trap' V/JLIV erecri îXi'ot9, K F^9 re Kal 'tL<f>ai<rTov TO E
<nrep/J,a Trapaa(3ov<ra vfiwv, rr/vSe Be vo~repav. rfj<j Be evffdBe
BiaKoo-(j,ri<Te(i)<; Trap' rjp.lv ev Tot9 lepois ypd/jL/j.a(nv o/CTa/ao-^tXtW
erwv dpiO/jibs yeypa-rrrai. rrepl Brj rwv evaKiff^lXia yeyovorow errj
rronu)v aoi Br)(oo-a> Bid ftpaêcov voftovs, Kal rwv epywv avrols
20 o Kai(rrov ercpd^dri' TO 8" a/c/3*/3t9 irepl rcdvrwv e<pej; r;9 eio-avdts 24 A
Kara o-%orjv avrd rd ypdfjLfiara a{36vre<; Bieffi/jiev. rois p.ev ovv
vofjbovs cTKoirei. repot rov<> rfjBe. TroXXa ydp 7rapa8eiy/J,ara rwv
rore reap vfilv ovrwv evddBe vvv dvevprjcrets, Trpcorov /j,ev TO rv
lepewv yevos diro rwv dcov %<u/?t9 d^copta-fêvov, fterd Be rovro TO
g oiroffuv inr6: biroffuv vvv viro HZ. 10 fxfiv: ffetv SZ.
16 fvOdSt : ti>0a.5lS. 22 Tjjde: rrjvde A.
i. iir' eiv8pirovs] îri signifies exten- curious: it seems to stand for 'political
sion over: a use exceedingly rare in Attic institutions'.
prose, but occurring again in Critias 1 1 2 E 15. ITJS TC KCU 'Hâio-rov] As we
ifl traffav TS>vp<avrjv Kal 'Afflav /card re shall presently see, earth and fire are the
cwfjMTuv KctXXr; Kal Kara TTV T&V f/vxuv two principal elements of which material
vavroiav dpfrrjv AXoyi/ioi re yoav Kal 6vo- nature is
composed, air and water being
/xoffrdroroi vavru* TUV Tore : and a similar, means between them ; cf. 31 c foil. Fire
though not identical, use is to be found is the simplest combination of one of the
in Protagoras 322 D. It is not uncommon two primary bases, while earth is the
in Homer, e. g. Iliad X 2 1
3 ptya KV ol only form of the other, 5 1 D foil. These
inrovpdviov KOS ffy
irdvras fir' dvffpu- were the two apâl of Parmenides : Arist.
irow. metaph. I v gS6
b
33 dvo ras alrlas Kal Mo
5. virip Tqv |iryo-TTjv <}>0opdv] vwip ras dpxas vaXiv rldrjcri, Ocpubv Kal if/vxpov,
= back beyond. olov irvp xal yijv tyuv. Cf. physica I v
8. iroXiTtiai] The plural is somewhat i88a
20. Plato's statement falls in with

24 A] TIMAIOS. 75
remember but one deluge, whereas there had been many before
it ;
and moreover ye know not that the fairest and noblest race
among mankind lived once in your country, whence ye sprang
and all your city which now is, from a very little seed that of
old was left over. Ye however know it not, because the sur-
vivors lived and died for many generations without utterance in
writing. For once upon a time, Solon, far back beyond the
greatest destruction by waters, that which is now the city of
the Athenians was foremost both in war and in all besides, and
her laws were exceedingly righteous above all cities. Her deeds
and her government are said to have been the noblest among all
under heaven whereof the report has come to our ears. And
Solon said that on hearing this he was astonished, and used all
urgency in entreating the priests to relate to him from beginning
to end all about those ancient citizens. So the priest said, I
grudge thee not, O Solon, and I will tell it for thy sake and for
the sake of thy city, and chiefly for the honour of the goddess
who was the possessor and nurse and instructress both of your
city and of ours ;
for she founded yours earlier by a thousand
years, having taken the seed of you from Earth and Hephaistos;
and ours in later time. And the date of our city's foundation is
recorded in our sacred writings to be eight thousand years ago.
But concerning the citizens of Athens nine thousand years ago I
will inform you in brief of their laws and of the noblest of the
deeds which they performed : the exact truth concerning every-
thing we will examine in due order hereafter, taking the actual
records at our leisure.
Consider now their laws in comparison with those of our
country ;
for you will find here at the present day many exam-
ples of the laws which then existed among you : first the
separation of the priestly caste from the rest ;
next the distinc-
Athenian mythology : Erechtheus was the ical TOVTWV ol plv Iptes, ol 5
son of Earth and Hephaistos. xXârat, ol 3 POVKOOI, ol 8t ffvîZrai, ol
12. irapaSeCYp-ara is of course not put S /ccunjXot, ol5 ep/j.rjvtes, ol 8t KVêpvrjrat.
for elxovas, as Proklos would have it, but The discrepancy arises from the fact that
signifies samples, specimens. there were actually three castes, the two
23. TO TWV Icplwv y&'os] Plato's classi- higher being priests and warriors, and
fication does not coincide with that given the lowest comprising men following
in Herodotus n 164. The latter makes various occupations which are differently
seven castes : ftm 5 Alyvrrluv eirra. yfrfa, enumerated by different authentic

76 TIAATHNOS [24 A
TOOV Brjmovpyoov, OTI xaff avro CKCKTTOV aXX ?e OVK eirip,iyvvp.evov
BrjfjLiovpyei, TO re TWV vofieeov Kal TO T<UV QrjpevTwv TO re TWV
yewpywv' Kal Brj teal TO fjt,d^tfiov 761/0? yo-Orjo-ai TTOV Tyce dirb B
Trdvrav Twv yevdnv Ke%(i)pio~/Mevov, ol? ovBev aXXo TrXrjv ra irepl TOV
5 7rofiov VTTO TOV vbfiov TTpotreTd^Bij fjt,eeiv' Ti Be r] 7779 oVX/crew?
avTwv a)(<Ti<; d<Hri8(ov Kal BopaTwv, ofc rjpels irpwTOi TWV Trepl TTJV
1
A<riav u>Tricrêda, r/J? êoO KaOdtrep ev eKeivois rot? roTrof? Trap
vp.lv TrpajTOi? evBeiâfievrjs. TO 8' av Trepl T^? <f>povijo-(o<;, opa?
TTOV TOV vopov TTJBe ocrrjv eTTtfieXeiav eVotJ/craTO 1
evBvs KOT
frep TC TOV icoaôv aTravTa, Ka Trpo? C
>5
vyieiav, CK TOVTWV Oeiwv OVTQJV ei? ra dvOpanriva dvevpwv, c<ra re
Tou'rot? eTrerai na0rj/j.aTa trdvTa KTija-afievo^. TavTrjv ovv
Tore %vfj,Trao-av TTJV BiaKoo-prjo-iv Kal trviTaîv -f]
êc-9 Trporepou?
? BiaKO<rfJ,ija-ao~a KaTyKitrev, eKeâîinj TOV TOTTOV ev o5 76-
, TTJV evKpao-lav TWV a>pv ev avTat KaTiBovo~a, on <f>povi-
dvBpas otcroi' are ovv <t07roXe/40? re Kal (f)i6cro(f)o<;
1} deb? ovo~a TOV Trpoo-êpeo-raTou? avTrj fj,eovTa oio-etv TOTTOV D
dvBpa<f, TOVTOV Keafj,evrj TrpduTov KaTwKiaer. cpKeiTe Br) ovv
VOfJLOlS T TOIOVTOIS ^pOOfJLCI'Ol
Kal Tl JJ,dOV eVVOfJLOVfJievOl jrdtJ'r)
to T TrdvTas dvOpwTrovs i^Trep/Se/ST/AcoTe? apeTfj, Kaddirep eto9 jevvij-
/xara Kal TraiBevfiaTa BedSv oWa9. TroXXa fiev ovv V/MCOV Kal ytte-
TJ79 TroXetu? TgBe yeypanfj.eva 6avfj,deTai, irdvTwv 76
0i)pcvruv : TO omittit S. 20 irdvTas :
irapa. vdvras A.
H.
i. OVK tiri|UYvvjMvov] i.e. each mind-
ed his own business, like the citizens of
Plato's model republic.
6. TWV irtpl TI^V 'Aa-iav] Egypt was
commonly regarded in Plato's time as
belonging to Asia rather than Africa.
All Africa was indeed often regarded as
part of Asia ; but that Plato distinguished
them is made clear below in 24 E.
8. TO 8' av ircpl rfjs <|>povnVcws] Hav-
ing described the ordinances relating to
externals he now proceeds to the training
of the mind.
10. ircpC T TOV KoVjiov] The meaning
of this curiously involved and complex
sentence seems to be this. The lawgiver,
beginning with the study of the nature of
the universe, which is divine, deduced
from thence principles of practical use for
human needs, applying them to divina-
tion and medicine and the other sciences
therewith connected. The peculiarity of
the law in fact consisted in basing its
precepts concerning practical arts such
as medicine (avffpuviva) upon universal
truths of nature (Beta), /x^xpt navTiK-fis,
i.e. bringing its deductions down to divi-
nation. In the words ^c TOVTUV Oduv
ovrtav eij TO. avdpuirii>a wevpuv we cer-
tainly have a difficulty of construction.
I take the meaning to be 'from these
divine studies (i.e. of the *60>toj) having
invented them (ÔLVTIK^ and larpiic/i) for
human needs '. But the lack of an object
to cti'eupuH' and the construction of /j TO
a*9p<awufo. are alike unsatisfactory ; and I
>

D] TIMAIO2. 77
tion of the craftsmen, that each kind plies its own craft by itself
and mingles not with another ;
and the class of shepherds and
of hunters and of husbandmen are set apart ;
and that of the
warriors too you have surely noticed is here sundered from all
the other classes ;
for on them the law enjoins to study the art
of war and nought else. Furthermore there is the fashion of
their arming with spears and shields, wherewith we have been
the first men in Asia to arm ourselves ;
for the goddess taught
this to us, as she did first to you in that country of yours.
Again as regards knowledge, you see how careful our law is in
its. first principles, investigating the laws of nature till it arrives
at divination and medicine, the object of which is health, draw-
ing from these divine studies lessons useful for human needs,
and adding to these all the sciences that are connected there-
withal. With all this constitution and order the goddess estab-
lished you when she founded your nation first; choosing out
the spot in which ye were born because she saw that the mild
temperament of its seasons would produce the highest intelli-
gence in its people. Seeing then that the goddess was a lover
of war and of wisdom, she selected the spot that should bring
forth men likest to herself, and therein she first founded your
race. Thus then did ye dwell governed by such laws as I have
described, ay and even better still, surpassing all men in ex-
cellence, as was meet for them that were offspring and nurslings
of gods.
Many and mighty are the deeds of your city recorded here
for the marvel of men ;
but one is there which for greatness and
much doubt whether the text is sound. from the treatise of Hippokrates de aerc
The whole sentence reads strangely in a locis et aquis : ct. especially fvp^fisyapfirl
passage of such singular literary brilliance TO irX^os -nfc x^pW rrj <f>vcri d.KoovOevi>Ta.
as this chapter. With regard to HCLVTIK^ ical efSea rlav dvOpwiruv /cal TOI)J rpowovs.
Kal larpiKTJs Proklos observes that the Kiihn vol. I
p. 567. Compare too Flo-
Egyptians combined these two profes- tinos ennead mis d.Koov6eiv Si rotj TO-
sions. irots ov fjjovov TO. &a tpvra. re Kal fyo,
15. 4>povi|iwT<Tovs avSpas] Compare oXXa Kal avOpunruiv d8ij re Kal Hfy46t] Kal
Laws 641 c, Menexenus 237 c foil. The xpoas Kal Ovfiods Kal tviOu/jdas, ^TrmjSeu-
Euripidean del 6iaafj.irpoTa.Tov fialvovrts /terra Te KO.I JjOr}.
afipusalOtpos will occur to every one. How 21. iravrwv -y* Hv ^vl The amount of
much importance was attached by Greek speculation and misdirected ingenuity
medical science to the influence of climate which Plato's story of Atlantis has
upon the nature of a people may be gathered awakened surpasses belief. Plato is our

7 8 TIAATHNOS [24 D-
prjv $v vTrepexei fieyeOet KCU apery- eyet yup rd yeypaaaeva, ocrrjv E
r) 7roXt<? vfiwv 7rav(re Tore Bvva/J.iv vfipet, Tropevouevyv aaa eVl
trdo-av E.vpcoTrr}v Kal *Ao~iav, egaffev opurjOelcrav etc rov 'ArXazm-
KOV 7Tdyov<f. rare yap Tropfvo-iftov rjv TO e/eet ireXayos' vrjcrov
5 yap irpo rov oro/iaTO? elêv, o Kaeirai, <<? fare vfteis, HpaKeov<;
<rrfjaf y Be 1/770-05 afia Aifivys r
t
v teal 'Ao-t'a5 fiel^wv, f% r/9 eVtâ-
TOI> eVi Tfl5 aXa? i/r)o-of9 rot? rore eyiyvero Tropevopevois, etc Be
rwv vij<ra)v eVt TJ)J/ Karavnicpv rraa-av rjTreipov rrjv irepl rov dr)0i- 2o A
vov etceivov irovrov. rdSe fJiev ydp, 6Va eVro? rov aroâro^ ou
10 eyopev, <f>aiverai ifj.ijv vrevov riva fywv i<r7rovv' eicetvo Be
treXayof OVTW? TJ
re Trepieôvffa avro yfj TravreKfUs [a?;p&)5j
opOorar av eyoiro rjiretpos. ev Be Brj ry 'A.ravriBi vrjo-q) ravrp
fjieydXr) a-vve<rrr) Kal Oavfiaa-rr) Bvva/j,i<; fiaaiXewv, Kparov&a /J,ev
aTrao-775 T^? vrjcrov, irou>v Be dwv vrjcrwv Kal pepwv rrjs -JTreipoV
15 7rpo<? Be rovroi<; eri rwv eVro? rfjBe Ai/3vr)s p,ev ^PXOV ^XP1
^P ? B
AiyvTrrov, T^? Be Ei'peoTJ^;? ^XP1
r
^vpp
r
nvâ^- avrrj Bfj irao-a %vva-
dpoiffffelffa et? ev rj Bvva/jLK rov re Trap Vfuv Kal rov Trap rip.lv Kal
rov evrb<j rov <7To/iaro5 irdvra roirov fiia irore. eTrexeiptjo'ev opuf)
Bovovo~0ai. Tore ovv vu<av, to SoXwi^, rrjs TrcXew? r} Bvvafi,i<; 615
10 airavras dvdpwirov^ Bia<j>avrjv 'Er)va>v rjyovjji,evr), rd 8' avrr) fiovwOeiva e'f dvdyKtjs rwv C
5 KaXtVcu...(Ti7Xat: KaftTt...<rTrias AHSZ. n dXij^ws crash A. ego inclusi.
only authority for the legend : there is explorers took over two years for their
no trace of confirmation from any inde- enterprise and went ashore each year to
pendent source. It appears to me im- raise a crop. The view that Atlantis did
possible to determine whether Plato has actually exist and disappear, as Plato
invented the story from beginning to end describes, receives, I believe, no counte-
ppSi'ws lyirjrrlovs ical o?ro5a7roi)s ai> t6ty nance from geology. The wild absurdity
X&yoi/s iroiet or whether it
really more of most of the theories on the subject may
or less represents some Egyptian legend be gathered from Martin's learned and
brought home by Solon. Stallbaum sup- amusing dissertation. There is hardly a
poses that the ancient Egyptians really country on the face of the globe, not only
had some information of the existence of from China to Peru, but from New Zea-
America. But this is entirely incredible, land to Spitzbergen, including such an
considering the limited powers of navi- eminently unpromising locality as Pales-
gation possessed by even the boldest sea- tine, which has not been confidently iden-
farers of those times. The greatest voyage tified with the Platonic Atlantis. It can
on record was the circumnavigation of only be said that such speculations are
Africa related by Herodotus IV 42: but that deivou K<d tiriirbvov Kal ov ird.vv evrvxovs
is mere child's play to crossing and recross- avSpos.
ing the Atlantic without a compass. The 4. iropv<rinov] Plato means that since

25 c] TIMAIO2. 79
nobleness surpasses all the rest. For our chronicles tell what a
power your city quelled of old, that marched in wanton inso-
lence upon all Europe and Asia together, issuing yonder from
the Atlantic ocean. For in those days the sea there could be
crossed, since it had an island before the mouth of the strait
which is called, as ye say, the pillars of Herakles. Now this
island was greater than Libya and Asia together ;
and there-
from there was passage for the sea-farers of those times to the
other islands, and from the islands to all the opposite continent
which bounds that ocean truly named. For these regions that
lie within the strait aforesaid seem to be but a bay having a
narrow entrance ;
but the other is ocean verily, and the land
surrounding it may with fullest truth and fitness be named a
continent. In this island Atlantis arose a great and marvellous
might of kings, ruling over all the island itself, and many other
islands, and parts of the mainland; and besides these, of the
lands east of the strait they governed Libya as far as Egypt, and
Europe to the borders of Etruria. So all this power gathered
itself together, and your country and ours and the whole region
within the strait it sought with one single swoop to enslave.
Then, O Solon, did the power of your city shine forth in all
men's eyes glorious in valour and in strength. For being fore-
most upon earth in courage and the arts of war, sometimes she
was leader of the Hellenes, sometimes she stood alone perforce,
the Atlantic was thickly studded with 6. Aipvrjs fy Kal'Ao-Cas |AC(<DV] In
large islands, it was possible for mariners estimating the size of Atlantis allowance
to pass from one to another by easy stages must be made for Plato's imperfect know-
until they reached the transatlantic conti- ledge of the magnitude of Asia and Africa.
nent, without the necessity of a long sea 8. r^v KaravTiKpw ird<rav ^irtipov]
voyage. We know from Thucydides that Martin suggests that the notion of a
even the passage across the Ionian sea transatlantic continent may have arisen
was regarded as formidable ; we may rea- from the early conception of Ocean as a
dily conceive then that many halting river, implying a further shore.
places would be required to make the 20. ITOIVTWV yo-P irpocrrdcra] The un-
Atlantic ocean Tropev<Ti/j.ov. mistakable similarity between the posi-
5. TOV o-TOnaros] i.e. the strait of tion of the legendary Athens in the
Gibraltar. Atlantine war and that of the historical
8 KaiTai] The mss. give KaXeirai Athens in the Persian invasion indicates
...ariJXaj, which is usually corrected into that if Plato is using an ancient legend,
KaXeire. But owing to the tautology thus he has freely adapted it to his own ends :
produced, I prefer on Stallbaum's sug- for the existence of such a coincidence in
gestion to retain KaXetrat and read orT/Xai. the original is highly improbable.

8o HAATHNOS [25 c
<io)V d-jroffTavrwv, eVt roi)? ecrârou? dfaicopevT) tcii'Buvovs, icpa-
riovrcav rpofraia (rrr)cre, rov<f Be iirjirw BeBovQ)-
Sova)0f}vai, TOVS o aXXov9, o<roi
rr(Ta<Ta [lev
ero9 pwv 6v(i)<; 'diravra^ tjev0ep<i)a'ev.
/cat KaraKKvaptov yevopevcov,
fiepas ica VVKTOS âe-Tr eVeX#oi/0-775, TO re Trap' i5/ui> /j.d%ifj.ov D
Tray dQpcov eBv /card 7^?, i^
re 'ArXai/Tt? i/ô-o? axravTox; Kara rf)<;
0adrrr)<; &v<ra ijcfravio-drj'
Bio ical vvv airopov xal d&iepevvijrov
yeyove TO eet TreXayo?, trrfKov xdpra {Spaêo? e/iTroSwr OVTO?, ov
10 T; I/Ô-Q? io/jLevr) irapea-êro.
IV. Ta /iej/ S^ prjdevra, <a
'ZwKpares, VTTO rov TraXatoO Kpt-
T/OU xraT* dicorjv rrjv SoXtwvo?, tu9 <7fi/TO/Lt&>5 eiTreiv, a/c^/coa?- E
Xeyoi/TO? 8e 8^ X^1
* <ro^ T^pt TroXtTeta? /cat TCOV av8p<av, oO?
edavfjiaôv aj/a/it/z.i'ô'/co/xei'o? avTa a t'Oi' Xe76>, tcaravooov,
? e/c Tti/o?
etTrev. 01
<ydp ovj^ t'/cai/oS?
/j,avTOV
15 a?
ol?
fie
o0v ra-^v
20 07re/3 ev T0t9
TOI? ftovij(ia<riv vTrodea-Qai, TOVTOV
OUTO> 8, fcaOaTre 08' etTre, ^5 T6
ot//c a?ro (TKOTTOV ^vv^vk^Qf]^ rd -rroXXa
eôvi]0r)v Trapa-^pfj/jia eiTreiv Bid 26 A
evevorjcra ovv, OTI ^pewv eirj
irdvra dvaaj36vTa eyeiv oi/rw?.
<roi rdTTiraÔevra ^^65, 7770^61/09,
fj,eyi<TTOv epyov, 6yov Tivd Trpeirovra
rjp.d<j evTroprjcreiv.
7T/309
:
i0owrris Z.
6. TJ T irop' vjiiv |u>xi|iov] We
must suppose the chief fury of the earth-
quake was spent on Athens itself, so
that all the more cultivated and intelli-
gent citizens, who, as in Plato's own re-
public, included the fighting men, were
destroyed ; while the Attic race was con-
tinued by the rude inhabitants of country
districts.
8. fiiropov Ko.1 dSicptvv^Tov] Ari-
stotle agrees, though assigning a different
reason, about the shallowness of the At-
lantic near Gibraltar : cf. meteorologiea n i
354" 11 TO. 5' {w (TTijXwv /Spaxô n^v 8ta
rbv irr)6v, dirvoa 5' iarlv ws Iv Koiy Tijj
Oaa.TTT)s ovffijs. uffirtp ovv ical Kara, julpot
iieTwv tyûi'oliroTa.fjiol <(>aivwrai ptovrtj,
ovru xal rljs oi/j 7^5 i* rS>v vifrrjXoTtpuv
TOW Tpiy &PKTOV r6 ptvfia ylvercu. . TO
AZ.
*ei<TTOv, wore rd fitv Sta TTJV (Kvaiv
ov (taffta, TO. 5' ?w ire<ifn fia.0ta.
/xaXW. Aristotle's notion was that the
more northerly parts of the globe were
higher than the southern : hence the
marine currents flowed southward car-
rying with them quantities of sand which,
being deposited off the coasts of southern
Europe, silted up the entrance to the
Mediterranean.
g. injXov Kapra Ppaôs] I believe
this reading to be perfectly correct, al-
though I am unable to produce an exact
parallel. /3pox^ was the regular word
for shoals : cf. Herodotus II 102 OaXaayav
OVK&TI irXwr^v OTTO fipaxtuv : also IV 1
70,
and Plutarch de genio Socratis 22 dpcua
revdyit ical ppaâ. The peculiarity in
our passage is of course that /3pa;ôj is

26 A] TIMAIOS. 8 1
when the rest fell away from her; and after being brought into
the uttermost perils, she vanquished the invaders and triumphed
over them : and the nations that were not yet enslaved she pre-
served from slavery; while the rest of us who dwell this side the
pillars of Herakles, all did she set free with ungrudging hand.
But in later time, after there had been exceeding great earth-
quakes and floods, there fell one day and night of destruction;
and the warriors in your land all in one body were swallowed up
by the earth, and in like manner did the island Atlantis sink
beneath the sea and vanish away. Wherefore to this day the
ocean there is impassable and unsearchable, being blocked by
very shallow shoals, which the island caused as she settled down.
IV. You have heard this brief statement, Sokrates, of what
the ancient Kritias reported that he heard from Solon : and
when you were speaking yesterday about the polity and the
men whom you described, I was amazed as I called to mind the
story I have just told you, remarking how by some miraculous
coincidence most of your account agreed unerringly with the
description of Solon. I was unwilling however to say anything
at the moment, for after so long a time my memory was at
fault. I conceived therefore that I must not speak until I had
thoroughly gone over the whole story by myself. Accordingly
I was quick to accept the task you imposed on us yesterday,
thinking that for the most arduous part of all such undertakings,
I mean supplying a story fitly corresponding to our intentions,
an adjective agreeing with mjXou. But wealth as painted by Sokrates and ancient
though this use does not seem to occur Athens as described in Solon's legend,
elsewhere, I see no conclusive reason He therefore taxed his memory to re-
for rejecting it here; and certainly no cover every detail of the history, thinking
tolerable substitute has been offered for it would serve to fulfil Sokrates' wish to
it. A gives /3a0^os, which is pointless: see his imaginary citizens brought into
surely the question that would interest a life and action. Sokrates welcomes the
sailor is how near the mud was to the suggestion; and it is agreed that Timaeus
surface ; its depth he would regard with shall first expound the order of the uni-
profound indifference. And there is little verse down to the creation of man, and
more to be said for Stallbaum's suggestion that Kritias shall follow with his account
rpax^oj. Accordingly I retain ir-rjXov KO.PTO. of the former Athenians and of their war
fipaxtos in the sense of '
very shoaly mud '. with Atlantis.
25 D 27 B, c. iv. Kritias proceeds 18. irtivra dvaXapovra] referring to
to say that he was greatly struck by the the detailed account to be given in the
resemblance between the ideal common- Critias.
P. T. 6

82 nAATHNOS [26 B-
rovvBe dvefapov avra dvapifjivpo-KOfjLevos, aTreXOwv re vx^Bov n B
irdvra eTTia-KOTraiv rrjs rvferos aveaf3ov. a? &ij roi, TO eyopevov,
rd iralBwv uadtj/uira 0avf4a<rrbv e%ei n p,i"rjp.elov. eyca yap, a
fiev Xê? faova-a, OVK. av olB' el Bvvaijj.rjv d-rravra ev ^v^rj jraiv
5 aftelv ravra be, a 7rd^"rrovv %p6i'ov BiaKij/coa, iravrarcaai
av ei rL /*6 avrwv SiaTrtyevyev. rjv fiev ovv fiera
rjSovfj? KCU 7rat8t^5 Tore aKovop,eva, KOL rod Trpeo-ftvrov
C
fj,e BiBd<TKovro<ft
ar' e/ioO 7roXXa/a<>
uxne olov ejKavfj,ara dveKirvrov 7/>a0^
10 KCU Brj KOI roicrBe ev6v<? eXeyov eaiflev avrd ravra, 'iva eviropolev
6yo)v per* e/ioO. vvv oiv, ovnep eveica iravra ravra. eiprjrai,
eyeiv elfil eroi/xo?, eo Sw/cparec, pr) povov ev /ceâXat'ot? a'XX'
axnrep rJKovaa icad' exaarov rovs Be TroXtra? ical rrjv TTCIV, f)V
'XJdes rip.lv &$9 ev fj,v0 D
'5 Bevpo drjaopev a>s eKeivrjv rrjvBe ov<rav, teal roi9 7roXtVa9, 01)9
Bievoov, (pija-opev eicetvov? TOV9 dXrjdivov^ elvai irpoyovow? r)p,u)V,
01)9 eXeyev 6 ifptfa. Trdvrcos dp(j,6<rovcrt KOI OVK cnrqa6p.e6a Xe-
yovres avrovs elvat, rovs ev T&> rare ovras "xpovtp' KOIVJJ Be Bta-
afj,/3dvovre$ aTravres jreipaa'op.eOa TO irpeirov et9 Bvvafjiiv 0X9
to e7reVa|'a9 aTroBovvat. cricoTrelv ovv Brj %p>j, to
^wicpares, el Kara
vovv 6 oyo<$ rjpJiv ovros, tf riva IT' aXXov avr avrov ^rjrrjreov. E
Sfl. Kal rlv av, (a
KptTta, /ioXXov dvrl rovrov fAeraXdpoi-
fiev, 09 ry re Trapovo-rj T^9 êoO Ovcriq Bid rrjv olfceiorrjr' av TrpeVot
fj,di(rra, TO TC /A^ TfkaaQkvta p,v6ov aXX' dXtjOivov 6yov elvai
7 5
Trdfifieyd TTOV. 7ra9 7p /cat Trodev aXXoi9 dvevpr)crop,ev d<pe/j,evoi
rovratv ;
oJ/c e&riv, aXX' dyaOfj rv%r] ^pr) eyeiv fiev i5/ia9, e/ie
Se a^Tt T<oi>
^^69 6ya)v vvv rj<j-v)îav dyovra dvraKOveiv. 27 A
KP. 2/forret 5} TJ^V Tc3v %eviwv <roi Biddeo-iv, <w S(^paT9, 7;
eBoe yap rjpZv Tipaiov fiev, are ovra dcrrpovofAttccararov
: airai'Ta. S. 7 iraidiicrjs : TratSias S. 14 yOv ante (j,ertveyi(6i>Tes
omittunt SZ. 19 post dirai'rej inserit A roi>j dvdfxiiirovy.
4. OVK av oI8' fl
Svva(tit]v] For the 9. tyKavpara] For the methods of
construction and position of &v see Euri- encaustic painting see Pliny Nat. Hist.
pides AIcestii 48, Medea 941. I have xxxv 149.
not noted another instance in Plato. 14. JM} irXao-O^vro. p.v0ov] Cf. 21 A.
7. irai.8i.KTJs] Stallbaum with very We must not bind Plato down too strictly
slight ms. authority reads ireuSias, without to this affirmation.
noticing any other reading: apparently 29. oVrpovoixiKwraTov] Not in the
he failed to perceive that iraiSt^s was in popular sense merely, but in the sub-
agreement with ridovyt. limated Platonic manner.

27 A] TIMAIO2. 83
we should be fairly well provided. So then, as Hermokrates
said, as soon as ever I departed hence yesterday, I began to
repeat the legend to our friends as I remembered it; and when
I got home I recovered nearly the whole of it by thinking it
over at night. How true is the saying that what we learn in
childhood has a wonderful hold on the memory. Of what I
heard yesterday I know not if I could call to mind the whole :
but though it is so very long since I heard this tale, I should be
surprised if a single point in it has escaped me. It was with
much boyish delight that I listened at the time, and the
old man was glad to instruct me, (for I asked a great many
questions) ;
so that it is indelibly fixed in my mind, like those
encaustic pictures which cannot be effaced. And I narrated the
story to the rest the first thing in the morning, that they might
share my affluence of words. Now therefore, to return to the
object of all our conversation, I am ready to speak, Sokrates,
not only in general terms, but entering into details, as I heard it.
The citizens and the city which you yesterday described to us
as in a fable we will transfer to the sphere of reality and to
our own country, and we will suppose that ancient Athens is
your ideal commonwealth, and say that the citizens whom you
imagined are those veritable forefathers of ours of whom the
priest spoke. They will fit exactly, and there will be nothing
discordant in saying that they were the men who lived in those
days. And dividing the work between us we will all endeavour
to render an appropriate fulfilment of your injunctions. So you
must consider, Sokrates, whether this story of ours satisfies you,
or whether we must look for another in its stead.
Sokrates, How could we change it for the better, Kritias ?
It is specially appropriate to this festival of the goddess, owing
to its connexion with her ;
while the fact that it is no fictitious
tale but a true history is surely a great point. How shall we
find other such citizens if we relinquish these ? It cannot be :
so with Fortune's favour do you speak on, while I in requital for
my discourse of yesterday have in my turn the privilege of
listening in silence.
Kritias. Now consider, Sokrates, how we proposed to dis-
tribute your entertainment. We resolved that Timaeus, who is
the best astronomer among us, and who has most of all made it
62

84 HAATHNOS [27 A-
teal irepl (frvveajs TOV TravTos elBevai fidio~Ta epyov
fj,evov, TrpwTov eyeiv dp-ôfievov diro T/?9 TOV KOO-JJLOV
Teevrdv Be el<t dvOpatTrwv <pvo~iv e/u,e
Be fierd TOVTOV, &)9 irapa
[lev TOVTOV BeBeyfJievov dvdpanrovs ro3 6yw yeyovoTas, irapa o~ov
5 Be TreTraiBevfjLevovs BiafapovTa)? avTWV Tivds, /cara 8) TOV 2oXcoi>o9 B
6yov T Kai vofiov elo-ayayovTa avTovs 009 et? StAcacrra? 7/ia9
7roir)<rai TroXtra? T//? TTO&)? T^<r8e co? tVras TOI)? rore 'Adrjvaiovs,
ov<f eprjvvaev aâi/et? oi/ra? ;
raJi/ tepa'V ypap,p,aTwv <pr)H>r),
TO,
otird Be 0)9 7re/)t 7rotTt3y /fal 'AOrjvattov OVTWV 17877 TroielaOat,
10 TOW Xo70t>9.
SO. TeXe(09 re /cat Xa/iTrpco? eot/ca ai/TaTroXêo-ât T?}y
6ya)v o-Tiao~iv. <rov ovv epyov eyeiv dv, <a Tiftaie, eirj TO
TOVTO, <U9 eoitcev, TriKaecravTa Kara VO/JLOV 0ovs.
V. TI. 'AXX', <w
Sft)/3aT6?, TOWTO 76 8^ 7rai/re9, o<rot /rat C
*S /cara /Spa^d Gux^poavvris fieTeôvcrtv, ITTI TTCLVTOS opfifj
nai cr/j-iicpov
/cai /j,eydov trpd'yp.aTo^ deov dei TTOV Kaov<riv 7?/ia? Be Toi/9 Trepi
TOV TravTos 6yovs jroielo-ffai Try /ieXXoi^ra?, 77 yeyovev rj
fcal dyeves
effTiv, el fir) TravTaTraa-t TrapaXXaTTO/zey, dvdytcij Oeovs re ical
Oeds 7ritcaov/jievovs ev%e(r0ai irdvra /cara vovv etceivois pev
^
20 fj,di crTa, TrofjLva)<; Be rjfuv eiTrelv. real T pev Tcepi Oewv TavTy
*
TrapaKeKXtjcrdo)' TO B'
y/jiTepov TrapaicXrjTeov, f) paGT
1
dv vp,els D
fj,ev fj,d6oiT, eyw Be y Biavood[j,ai /iaXitrr' dv Trepl TV
v
E1 o-Ttv ovv Brj KO.T fj,rjv
B6av irpwTov BiaipeTeov TaBc TI TO
3 perk TOVTOV: TOVTWV A. 5 STJ pro 5 reposui suadente S.
6 ij/xaj: vfj.a.1 HZ. n efi? omittit A. ante u Tfywue ponit S.
3. 4>vo-iv seems to have its old 27 C 29 D, r. v. Timaeus, after due
sense of 'generation'. invocation of heavenly aid, thus begins
4. TW Xo-yw yeyovoTas] cf. Republic his exposition. The first step is to dis-
361 B TOV oliccuov irap' afirov iffTwpev ry tinguish the eternally existing object of
Xoytf), avdpa aTrXouv Kalyevvaiov, also 534 D thought and reason from the continually
Trcuoas ovj T^> Xo'7<f) Tp^êts re >cal TOI- fleeting object of opinion and sensation,
fietfeis, ef irorc ^/ryy T/J^KHS. To which class does the material uni-
5. Kara 8^] Stallbaum's suggestion verse belong, to Being or Becoming?
of reading 8ij for St appears to me to To Becoming, because it is
apprehen-
restore the true structure of the sentence. sible by the senses. All that comes to
6. XOYOV TC Kal vofiovj i.e. accept- be comes from some cause; so therefore
ing the statement of Solon that they were does the universe. Also it must be a
Athenian citizens, we formally admit their likeness of something. Now what is
claim to citizenship in the mode pre- modelled on the eternal must needs be
scribed by his law. fair, but what is modelled on the created

D] TIMAIO2. 85
his business to understand universal nature, should speak first,
beginning with the origin of the universe, and should end with
the birth of mankind : and that I should follow, receiving from
him mankind brought to being in theory, and from you a por-
tion of them exceptionally cultivated ;
and that in accordance
with Solon's laws, no less than with his statement, I should
introduce them before our tribunal and make them our fellow-
citizens, as being the Athenians of bygone days, whom the
declaration of the sacred writings has delivered from their
oblivion ;
and thenceforward we shall speak as if their claim to
Athenian citizenship were fairly established.
Sokrates. Ample and splendid indeed, it seems, will be the
banquet of discourse which I am to receive in my turn. So it
would seem to be your business to speak next, Timaeus, after
you have duly invoked the gods.
V. Timaeus. Yes indeed, Sokrates, that is what all do who
possess the slightest share of judgment ;
at the outset of every
work, great or small, they always call upon a god : and seeing
that we are going to enter on a discussion of the universe, how
far it is created or perchance uncreate, unless we are altogether
beside ourselves, we must needs invoke the gods and goddesses
and pray above all that our discourse may be pleasing in their
sight, next that it may be consistent with itself. Let it suffice
then thus to have called upon the gods ;
but we must call upon
ourselves likewise to conduct the discourse in such a way that
you will most readily comprehend me, and I shall most fully carry
out my intentions in expounding the subject that is before us.
First then in my judgment this distinction must be made.
is not fair. The universe is most fair, The first eight chapters of Timaeus'
therefore it was modelled on the eternal. discourse, extending to 40 D, deal with
And in dealing with the eternal type and the universe as a whole; after which he
the created image, we must remember proceeds to its several portions,
that the words we use of each must 11. TO 8' i]|ircpov irapaKXryrfov] i e.
correspond to their several natures : those after appealing to the gods for aid, we
which deal with the eternally existent must appeal to ourselves to put forth
must be so far as possible sure and true all our energies : heaven helps those who
and incontrovertible ;
while with those help themselves.
which treat of the likeness we must be 22. fl Siavoovjiai] Stallbaum proposes
content if they arc likely. To this So- to read a.
krates assents.

* i,
86 HAATHNOS [27 D
ov del, yevecriv 8e OVK eôi>, fcal rl TO yiyvoaevov pev del, ov oe
ovoeTTOTf. TO pev 8>) vorfffei p.Ta 6yov 7reptr}7rr6v, del Kara 28 A
ravrd cv, TO 8' av o6r) UCT' alffOrj crews d6yov ooâcrTov, yiyvo-
fjievov Kal aTToXkii/jievov, oW<w5 8e ovoeTTOTC ov. TTUV 8e av TO
K
yiyv6fj,vov VTT
1
aiTiov TIVOS e dvdyKijs yiyvecrOai' Traim yap
dovvaTOV XWP^ a* Tl/oi; yeveo-iv a-êtv. orov fjtev ovv av 6 Brj-
* i, fJLlOVpyOS 7T/30? TO KOTO. TaVTO, ")(OV /37rCi)V al, TOIOVTO) TlVl
s TrapaSeiyfAaTi, Trjv ISeav Kal Bvva/jLiv avrov aTrep-
<yd%T)Tai, Kaov e^ dvdyKr)*; ovrtas d7roTelcrdai irav ov 8' av B
10 tt? TO yeyovos, yevvrjTw TrapaSery/iGm Trpofr^pfw/tieô?, ov Kaov.
6 &r) Tra? ovpavos rj /foa/zo? rj
Kal ao o TI TTOTG oô/zafd/Ltevo?
p.dio~r av SeôtTO, TovO* ypJiv wvofiao'dw cnceTTTeov 8' ovv irepl
avTov Trp&Tov, 'oirep inrofcetTai irepl TravTos ev dp%fj Belv crKO-rreiv,
TToTepov ffv del, yevecrew; dp^rjv e%wv ovSefiiav, 17 yeyovev, air
15 dp-)(fi<; TIVOS dpd/j,evo<>. yeyovev oparos yap avrTO? Te eVrt /cat
e")(wv,
iravra Se Ta TotavTa alcrd^Ta, TO, S' alcrdijTa, B6rj
fiT alcrBrjaews, yiyvopeva Kal yevvrjTd ecfrdwr).
TOJ 8' c
av yevopevti) (frapev vir aiTtov TWOS dvdyKrjv elvai yeve&Oai. TOV
fjiev ovv TroirjTrjv Kal iraTepa TOvSe TOV TravTos evpelv T epyov Kal
10 eipovTa et? Tcavras dSvvaTov eyetv Tooe 8' ovv irdXiv eVfo-/ce-
i. ri> |iv 8^ voTjo-ti] voT/ffts and 5oâ customary reverent diffidence in naming
denote the faculties, 6yot and oto-^crtj the divine : cf. Aeschylus Agamemnon
the processes. The language of the pre- 160 Zei5s, 6'<rm iror' toriv, el rod' aim?
sent passage precisely agrees with the <j>iov /ce/cX^yu^Vi TOVTO viv irpoffevvtiru.
account given at the end of the fifth book The sentence becomes an anacoluthon
of the Republic. owing to the parenthetical words 17 iced
5. W alrfov TWOS] So Philebus 16 ao...wvofj.dffOu.
E 8pa >4p et act 5oce avaytcaiov dvai 14. nxSrtpov fy a(] i.e. whether it
jrdvra ret yi.yv6fi.tva. did Tiva atriav ylyve- belongs to things eternal or to things
060.1. Only the Cvrws 6v, the changeless temporal. It cannot be too carefully
and abiding, is a cause to itself and needs borne in mind that there is throughout no
no oWa from without : the yiyv6fj.tov question whatsoever of the beginning of
has no principle of causation in itself and the universe in time. The creation in
must find the source of its becoming in time is simply part of the figurative
some ulterior force. representation : it is /car' imvoiav only.
8. n]v ISâv Kal 8vvap.iv] Neither In Plato's highly poetical and allegorical
of these words has a technical meaning, exposition a logical analysis is repre-
though dtivamv is here not so very far sented as a process taking place in time,
removed from the Aristotelian sense. and to reach his true meaning we must
iStav = the form and fashion of it, S6va.fj.iv strip off the veil of imagery. He con-
its function or quality. ceived the universe to be a certain evo-
u. TJ
Ka oXXo] The universe is a lution of absolute thought; and the
living god: Plato therefore uses the several elements in this evolution he

28 c] TIMAIO2. 87
What is that which is eternally and has no becoming, and again
what is that which comes to be but is never ? The one is com-
prehensible by thought with the aid of reason, ever changeless ;
the other opinable by opinion with the aid of reasonless sensa-
tion, becoming and perishing, never truly existent. Now all
that comes to be must needs be brought into being by some
cause : for it is impossible for anything without a cause to
attain to birth. Of whatsoever thing then the Artificer, looking
ever to the changeless and using that as his model, works out
the design and function, all that is so accomplished must needs
be fair : but if he look to that which has come to be, using the
created as his model, the work is not fair. Now as to the whole
heaven or order of the universe for whatsoever name is most
acceptable to it, be it so named by us we must first ask con-
cerning it the question which lies at the outset of every inquiry,
whether did it exist eternally, having no beginning of generation,
or has it come into being, starting from some beginning? It
has come into being : for it can be seen and felt and has body ;
and all such things are sensible, and sensible things, apprehen-
sible by opinion with sensation, belong, as we saw, to becoming
and creation. We say that what has come to be must be
brought into being by some cause. Now the maker and father
of this All it were a hard task to find, and having found him, it
represents as a succession of events. a TravSoKfiov for all views they had a
Such criticism then as that of Aris- difficulty in otherwise bestowing. As to
totle in de caelo I x is wholly irrele- the past tense rjv de(, Proklos very justly
vant: he treats a metaphysical concep- observes e2 d TO yv oti (prffft irpofduv
tion from a merely physical point of olKeiov elvai TO?S alwvlou, eu e? raparrta-
view. Stobaeus eel. I 450 says llvOa- 6ai' irpbycLprrj^dtapOpwo'eus Zirerat ryffw-
yopas <pi]ffl yfvvrfrov KO.T' eirivoiav TJV rjOelq.. The said SidpOpuffis is at 37 E 38 R.
KotT/j-ov, ov Kara xpovov : and presently he 19. tvptiv rt tpyov] Proklos says this
ascribes the same view to Herakleitos. is a warning against superficially seeking
Whether these philosophers really held our dpxh in the physical forces which
that opinion there seems no means of served the old (puffioXoyot. It may be
determining: but since in the immediate observed also that, were we to accept the
context Stobaeus assigns to Pythagoras 3i7/uou/ry6s literally, Plato would surely
some distinctively Platonic notions, we not have used such language in referring
may pretty fairly infer that the creation to so simple and familiar a conception as
of the world icar' tirivoiav was one of a personal creator of the universe ; but if
the many Platonic doctrines which were the Sr/fjuovpybs is but a mythical repre-
foisted by the later doxographers upon sentative of a metaphysical dpxrf, the
Pythagoras, whose school served tliem as justice of the remark is evident.

88 nAATHNOS [28 c
Trreov rrepl avrov, 77/309 rrorepov r<av TrapaBeiy/j-drav 6 retcrai-
vou,evo9 777)09 TO diBiov efterrev
5 el Be o /iT/8'
elrrelv nvl Befits, 777*09 TO 76701/09. rravrl Brj o-a<>?
oVt 777309 TO diBiov 6 fiev yap /caXXtaTO? rwv yeyovorwv, o B"
dpivros r<av alrlwv. ovrco Brj yeyevrjuevo? 717309 TO A,O7&> Kal
<f)povt<rei 7repirjTrrov Kal Kara ravra e%ov BeSTjaiovpyrjrai' rov-
rwv 8e vrrap'vovrwv av rrao~a dvdyKr) rovSe rov KOCTUOV eiKova B
10 Tti/o9 flvai. ueyi<rrov Brj Trai/TO? dpj;a<rdai Kara $vaiv dp^rjv.
w8e ovv rrepi re elicovos Kal rrepl rov irapaSeiyfiaros avrfj poviuovs Kal dfieraTrrwrovs, Kad' 'QGOV [0^0^] T6
15 dveyKroi<; jrpoaijKei 6yoi? elvat, Kal aKivrjrois, rovrov Set prjBev
eXXeiireiv TOI)? Be rov ?rpo9 uev eKelvo aTreiKacrdevros, oi/T09 Be C
eiKovos, eiKoras dva cyov re eKeivcov 6Wa9* o ri rrep Trpds yevetriv
ovaia, rovro Trpos rrianv dXyOeia. eav ovv, w ^WKpares, iroXkd
3 irpbs ri> yeyovos: rb omittit A. 8 Kal ante *carA omittit A. 14 KO.&'
Sffov olov re AZ. /ca0' 8<rov ol6v re Kal H. /cai Ka6' 8<rov oluv re S. inclusi olov.
s :
aie^7cToi;s et mox 6yovs et O.KIVJITOVS S. Set: 5^ S.
on the part of the creator ; it is the
working out of an inevitable law.
6. KaXXurros TWV yeYov TWV] i- e>
there is nothing in the universe which,
taken by itself, is so fair as the universe
as a whole.
g. cixova nvAs ttvai] This leads the
way to the question raised in 30 C.
Seeing that the creator looked to a pat-
tern in framing the universe, it follows
that the universe is a copy of something ;
and we have to inquire what that is
whereof it is the copy. Cicero renders
these words '
simulacrum aeternum esse
alicuius aeterni'; whence it would ap-
pear that his ms. gave tli<6va. alSiov TWOS
cit5/ou, which it has been proposed to re-
store. This however it were rash to do
against all existing mss. and Proklos.
The phrase tlnova. didiov might perhaps
be defended on the same principle as
I .
irpos irirtpov TWV irapa8ti-y|Jid,TWv]
It may reasonably be asked, how could
the creator look 117.6$ rd yeyovbs, since at
that stage there was no 7ryoi'6s to look
to? Plato's meaning, I take it, is this:
the yeyovos at which the Artificer would
look can of course only be the ytyovos
that he was about to produce. Now if
he looked at this, instead of fixing his
eyes upon any eternal type, that would
mean that he created arbitrarily and at
random a universe that simply fulfilled
his fancy at the moment and did not
express any underlying thought: the
universe would in fact be a collection of
incoherent phenomena, a mere plaything
of the creator. But, says Plato, this
is not so: material nature is but the
visible counterpart of a spiritual reality ;
all things have their meaning. Creation
is no merely arbitrary exercise of will

29 c] TIMAIO2. 89
were impossible to declare him to all men. However we must
again inquire concerning him, after which of the models did the
framer of it fashion the universe, after the changeless and abid-
ing, or after that which has come into being? If now this
universe is fair and its Artificer good, it is plain that he looked
to the eternal ;
but if nay it may not even be uttered without
impiety, then it was to that which has come into being. Now
it is manifest to every one that he looked to the eternal : for the
universe is fairest of all things that have come to be, and he is
the most excellent of causes. And having come on this wise
into being it has been created in the image of that which is
comprehensible by reason and wisdom and changes never.
Granting this, it must needs be that this universe is a likeness of
something. Now it is all-important to make our beginning
according to nature: and this affirmation must be laid down
with regard to a likeness and its model, that the words must be
akin to the subjects of which they are the interpreters : there-
fore of that which is abiding and sure and discoverable by the
aid of reason the words too must be abiding and unchanging,
and so far as it lies in words to be incontrovertible and immova-
ble, they must in no wise fall short of this ;
but those which deal
with that which is made in the image of the former and which is
a likeness must be likely and duly corresponding with their
subject : as being is to becoming, so is truth to belief. If then,
Sokrates, after so many men have said divers things concerning
aluviov dKova. in 37 D: but there the ex- does indeed produce a sentence that can
pression has a pointedness which is lack- be construed ; but it involves larger alte-
ing here. aiSiov properly means exempt rations of the text, and the position of
from time, and cannot strictly be applied the word Xtfyous seems extremely unsatis-
to the phenomenal world, though its
factory. I cannot therefore concede his
duration be everlasting. claim to have restored Plato's words,
j 3. TOV jiiv oxiv |iov(|iov] Some cor- According to my version of the sentence
ruption has clearly found its way into elcoi must be supplied with (j.ovt/j.ovs Kal
this sentence. It seems to me that the oueraTTTwroi/s.
simplest remedy is to reject olov, which I 17. dcd 6-yov] i.e. they stand in the
think may have arisen from a duplication same relation to the XOYOJ of the irapd-
of &roc. By this omission the sentence dtiy/j-a as the elK&v to the TrapdSeiyfjM: as
becomes perfectly grammatical. Stall- becoming is to being so is probability to
baum, reading /cai before a0' $<jov, alters truth. We have here precisely the analogy
oveX^y/cToij, Xcryots, aKtvijToif, to the accu- of Republic 511 E.
sative, and writes Se for Set. This method

IIAATHNOS [29 c
TTOV elTTovrav irepl Oewv ical T^? rov 7rai/ro? yeveaews,
Bvvarol ytyvoafjieffa Trdvrrj rrdvrw^ avrovs eavrois o/
6yovs Kal dTrTjKpifiwpevowi oTroBovvai, /j,rj 6avp,da-r)
eav apa fjLTjBevof rjrrov Trape^w/JLeOa et/cora?, dyatrav
*
pevov, <w? o eyo)v eyca vfieis re ol Kpiral (f>vcriv dv0pa>7rivr)v
D
exoftev, &are trepl rovrwv rov elicora pvOov d7roBe%opevovs
rovrov fArjBev eri Trepa fyreiv.
Sn. "Apicrra, co Tifiaie, iravrdiracrL re <y? tce6Vi<> aT
TO fjbev
ovv Trpooifjiiov Qavâaia)^ aTreBe^dfjLeQd crov, rov Be Sij vopov
jo rjp.lv <f)%Tj<> Trepaive.
VI. TI. Aeyco/jiev 8^ 8t' rjv riva alriav yevea-iv Kal TO rrav
r68e 6 vvi(rrd<; ^vvecrrrjo'ev. dyados r)v, dyadw Be ovBels irep] E
ovBevof ov&eTTore eyyiyverai, <j>86vo$' rovrov 8' e/rro? u>v Traira o
n p,di(rra yevea-Qai e/3ovri6r} KaoaTrr}cria eavrut. ravrrjv Brj
15 7ej/eo-ea>9 Kal Koa-fiov /j,diar av ri<? dp%r)v Kvpiwrdr^v Trap*
dvBpwv <f>povifj,a>v a7ro8e^6/ievo9 opdorara aTroBeôir' av. /3oi>-
30 A
yap 6 deos dyaOd p>ev irdvra, <f>avpov Be firjBsV elvat,
rts: Oavuforis HSZ. 4
14 rairrjv 5^: 5^ AHZ.
omittit A. 3
H. 9 vcfjiov :
6yov Z.
:. avrovs taxirois 6)j.oXoôvp.evo-us]
The modesty of Timaeus leads him rather
unduly to depreciate his physical theories:
it would be hard, I think, to detect any
inconsistencies in them, though there
may be points which are not altogether
a.Trr]Kpipu(n{i>a. But Plato insists with
much urgent iteration upon the impossi-
bility of attaining certainty in any account
of the objects of sense. They have no
veritable existence, therefore no positive
truth or secure knowledge concerning
them is attainable. It is his desire to
keep this constantly before the reader's
mind that induces Plato to refer so fre-
quently to the elicus puffo*. The differ-
ence between the eiVccis /*00os and 6 Si'
oKpifieias aXrjOrjs Xo'"yoj is instructively dis-
played when each is invoked to decide
the question of the unity of the universe.
In 31 A the latter authoritatively declares
the /coV/tos to be one only, and gives the
metaphysical reason : in 55 D all the
former ventures to say is TO i**v ovv Sr)
Trap
1
T)H,W> eva avrov Kara TOV eiKOTa, 6yov
/J.rjv<jei, aXXos 5 els dXXa irrj
as erepa 5odcr.
9. TO |jiv ow irpoo|Aiov] The meta-
phor is from harp- playing: irpooifjuov is
the prelude, vdôs the main body of the
composition: cf. Republic 531 D ^ oik
t<r/j.ev &Yi irdvra TO.UTO. irpooifita. fffnv aurov
TOV VQ/J.OV to Sti fia&elv.
29 D 31 B, c, vi. What then was the
cause of creation ? The creator was good
and desired that all things should be so far
as possible good like himself. So he took
the world of matter, a chaos of disturb-
ance and confusion, and brought it to
order and gave it life and intelligence.
And the type after which he ordered it
was the eternal universal animal in the
world of ideas ; that, even as this compre-
hends within it all ideal animals, so the
visible universe should include in it all
animals that are material. And as the
ideal animal is of its very essence one and
alone, so he created not two or many

30 A] TIMAIOS.
the gods and the generation of the universe, we should not prove
able to render an account everywhere and in all respects con-
sistent and accurate, let no one be surprised ;
but if we can
produce one as probable as any other, we must be content,
remembering that I who speak and you my judges are but men :
so that on these subjects we should be satisfied with the probable
story and seek nothing further.
Sokrates. Quite right, Timaeus ;
we must accept it exactly
as you say. Your prelude is exceedingly welcome to us, so
please proceed with the strain itself.
VI. Timaeus. Let us declare then for what cause nature
and this All was framed by him that framed it. He was good,
and in none that is good can there arise jealousy of aught at
any time. So being far aloof from this, he desired that all things
should be as like unto himself as possible. This is that most
sovereign cause of nature and the universe which we shall most
surely be right in accepting from men of understanding. For
God desiring that all things should be good, and that, so far as
systems of material nature, but one uni-
verse only-begotten to exist for ever.
1 2. etyaOis ^v] Consistently with all
his previous teaching Plato here makes
the airrd aya,6&v the source and cause of
all existence ;
this in the allegory is sym-
bolized by a benevolent creator bringing
order out of a preexisting chaos. Of
course Plato's words are not to be inter-
preted with a crude literalness. The
cause of the existence of visible nature is
the supreme law by virtue of which the
one absolute intelligence differentiates
itself into the plurality of material objects :
that is the reason why the world of matter
exists at all: then, since intelligence must
needs work on a fixed plan and with the
best end in view, the universe thus
evolved was made as perfect as anything
material can be. It is necessary to insist
on this distinction, although, when we
remember that for Plato existence and
goodness are one and the same, the dis-
tinction ultimately vanishes : all things
exist just so far as they arc good, and no
more. Thus the conception of the auro
6.ya6ov as the supreme cause, which is
affirmed in the Republic but not ex-
pounded, is here definitely set forth,
though still invested with the form of a
vividly poetical allegory.
13. ov8iroT tyyC-yverai 4>0<$vos] The
vulgar notion TO Belov <f>9ovepji> was ex-
tremely distasteful to Plato: cf. Phaedrus
247 A <j>66vos yap Ufa 0eLov xPu teraTtu.
So Aristotle metaph. A ii
983
a
2 dXX' ovre
TO dtiov (f>dovepov frd^xfrcu elvat, oXXck,
Kal Kara ryv ira.poifJ.iat> iroa f/evdovTai
dot 5 01.
15. irap' avSpuv c|>povLfj.a>v] Vhoare
the <f>p6vt/j.ot dvSpes? Probably some Py-
thagoreans. I have not traced the senti-
ment to any preplatonic thinker ; but it is
quite consonant with Pythagorean views :
cf. Stobaeus eel. ii
64 S
ravrd T<{J HuOayopa' TO
[? 6f$]. Stallbaum cites the apophthegm
attributed by Diogenes Laertius to Thales,
KtiXXtcrToi' KoV/uos, troirj/Aa ydp 6fov: but
this does not seem specially apposite.

IIAATHNOS [ 3 A
/card SvvafJ.iv, ovrco B*} irdv ocrov rjv oparov Trapaa(3(av ov% r)<rv-
%iav dyov dd Kivovpevov TrX^/z/ieXco? Kal draKros, et<? Tagil* avro
rjyayev e/c TT;<? dragias, ^'yô'a/iero? etceivo rovrov TravTw; d/jieivov.
OefJUS Be ovr yv OUT' eart r XKTTOV oyia-dfjievos ovv evpi&Kev e/c r<av Kara <f)v<riv oparwv
ovBev uvorjrov rov vovv eôi/ro? '6ov oov KOIOV ecrecrdai jrore B
Hpyov, vovv 8" av %pi9 tyv%t). Bid
&rj TOV oyi<rfjiov rovBe vovv pev ev ^f^, 'fyvX'nv Be ev <ra>[iaTi
gvvio-rds TO irdv gwereKTaivero, OTTW? '6 ri /cdiaTov e'lij Kara
10
(f>v<riv api<rTov re epyov aTreipyaafjievos. otrra><? ovv Sr} Kara 6yov
rev eiKora Bel eyeiv, rovBe rov Kocrfjiov qjov en^vôv evvovv re
rfj di)6eia Bid rrjv rov 6eov yevecrOai vrpovoiav.
Tovrov 6'
virdpxpvros av rd rovroiv %(ac0v avrov els onoicrijra 6 ^vvia~rd^ gwecrrijo'e. rwv
i. Kara 8xiva|uv] To make the ma-
terial universe absolutely perfect was im-
possible, since evil, whatever it may be,
is more or less inherent in the very nature
of matter and can never be totally abo-
lished : cf. Theaetetus 1
76 A dX' otir'
caro{ffOai TO. KO.KO. dvvarov, u Qe65wpe'
virfvavriov yap TI T$ dyafftf) atl elvai dv&y-
Ki)' offr' b Oeois aura ISpvyOai, TTJV 8
0l>TfTT)V QlHTlV Kal TOfSe TOV TOTTOV WepllToXfl
^{ drdymp- See also Politicus 273 B, c.
Evil is in fact, just as much as perception
in space and time, an inevitable accom-
paniment of the differentiation of abso-
lute intelligence into the multiplicity of
finite intelligences. It is much to be
regretted that Plato has not left us a
dialogue dealing with the nature of evil
and the cause of its necessary inherence
in matter : as it is, we can only conjec-
ture the line he would have taken.
irav oaov rjv oparov irapaXa^wv]
Martin finds in this passage a clear indi-
cation that chaos actually as a fact existed
before the ordering of the KMno*. But
this is due to a misunderstanding of
Plato's figurative exposition. Proklos
says with perfect correctness /COT' tiri-
voidv Ofupfirai irpo rrjs Ko<r/iOTou'oj. The
statement that the Sytuovpytn found cha-
otic matter ready to his hand is one
which TroXi) fj.er^xfl TOV vpoffrvxpvro*.
We learn in 34 c that soul is prior to
matter, which can only mean that matter
is evolved out of soul. What Plato ex-
pressed as a process taking place in time
must be regarded as a logical conception
only. When he speaks of matter as cha-
otic, he does not mean that there was a
time when matter existed uninformed by
mind and that afterwards vovs t6il>v Sie-
KOffnijffev : he means that matter, as con-
ceived in itself, is without any formative
principle of order : it is only when we
think of it as the outcome of mind that it
can have any system or meaning. Com-
pare Appuleius de dogni. Plat. I viii
198
et hunc quidem mundum nunc sine initio
esse dicit, alias originem habere natumque
esse : nullum autem eius exordium atque
initium esse ideo quod semper fuerit ;
nativum vero videri, quod ex his rebus
substantia eius et natura constet, quae
nascendi sortitae sunt qualitatem.
ovx rjo-oxâv tryv] The very fact
that matter is described as in motion,
though the motion be chaotic, is sufficient
to prove conclusively that it is a phase of
since for Plato ifrvxî is the sole
Kivrffffus. Kifoi'ififfov ir?;/n/ueXtDj Kal

c] TIMAI02. 93
this might be, there should be nought evil, having received all
that is visible not in a state of rest, but moving without harmony
or measure, brought it from its disorder into order, thinking that
this was in all ways better than the other. Now it neither has
been nor is permitted to the most perfect to do aught but what
is most fair. Therefore he took thought and perceived that of
all things which are by nature visible, no work that is without
reason will ever be fairer than that which has reason, setting
whole against whole, and that without soul reason cannot dwell
in anything. Because then he argued thus, in forming the
universe he created reason in soul and soul in body, that he
might be the maker of a work that was by nature most fair and
perfect. In this way then we ought to affirm according to the
probable account that this universe is a living creature in very
truth possessing soul and reason by the providence of God.
Having attained thus far, we must go on to tell what follows :
after the similitude of what animal its framer fashioned it. To
drd/crajj describes the condition of matter
as it would be were it not derived from
an intelligent apxy- Aristotle refers to
this passage de caelo III ii
3oo
b
17, com-
paring Plato's chaotic motion to that
attributed by Demokritos to his atoms.
And this philosopheme of Demokritos is
doubtless what Plato had in view : such
a motion as the former conceives, not
proceeding from intelligence, could not
produce a /r6<r/uos. It is impossible that
Plato could have imagined that this dis-
orderly motion ever actually existed :
since all motion is of î>x^, and ^'"X'J
is intelligent.
3. ^Y](rd(ivos Kivo TOUTOV iravrws
aficivov] sc. rdl-tv dramas. Throughout
this passage Plato is careful to remedy
the defect he found in Anaxagoras.
'
All
was chaos', said Anaxagoras ; 'then Mind
came and brought it into order ',
'
be-
cause ',
Plato adds,
'
Mind thought order
better than disorder '. Thus the final
cause is supplied which was wanting in
the elder philosopher, and we now see
Mind working tiri
7. vojv 8' a3 xwpls tjnixtjs] Compare
Philebns 30 C ffo<(>ia f*.T}v KO! voOs dvtv
^fX'?* VK &" Tore jfvoiffOrjv. Stallbaum,
following the misty light of neoplatonic
inspiration, says of ^t'X1?)
'
media est inter
corpora atque mentem '. But in truth
vovs is simply the activity of ^KX1
? accord-
ing to her own proper nature : it is soul
undiluted, as it were; apprehending not
through any bodily organs, but by the
exercise of pure thought : it is not some-
thing distinct from ^xtf, but a particular
function of Î'X1
?-
8. 'I'vx'iv 84 v <rwp,aTi] Plato is here
employing popular language :
accurately
speaking, God constructed body within
soul, as we see in 36 E. Plutarch quaest.
platan. IV wrongly infers from this pas-
sage that, as vovs can only exist in ^^xî
so ^vx1
? can nty exist in (rcD/ua. This of
course is not so : the converse would be
more correct, that (rw/xa can only exist in
î/X7
}- The phrase vovv tv if/vxH ' s a' so
an exoteric expression; for Plato is not
here concerned to use technical language.

94 TIAATHNOS [30 c
ovv ev (lepovs eiSei ire^vKorwv firjBevl Kara%i(ao-wpev dreel yap
604*09 ovSev nor dv yevoiro /raXoV ov 8' eon TaXXa Voa naff ev
Kal Kara yevrj popia, rovry irdvrwv oftoiorarov avriv elvai ndu-
fiev. rd yap 8rj vorjrd %a>a Trdvra eKelvo ev eavrw irepiXafiov
5 %!,, Kadd-rrep oSe 6 #007109 ^/i9 co*a re aXXa Qpeppara gvve-
(rrrjKev cpard, ry yap ra,v voovfievaiv icai(nu> Kal /card trdvra D
TeXep fj,di<rra airov o debs o/iotao-at ôvtj6el<; %wov ev oparov,
TrdvQ* oVa avrov Kara <f>v(riv gvyyevrj &Ja eVro? eôv eavrov,
%vve<TTr)<re. irorepov ovv opOws eva ovpavov 7rpo<reipijKa/jLev, rj
31 A
10 7TOXoi)<? Kal d-rreipovs eyeiv ijv opdorepov ; eva, eiirep Kara TO
Trapabeiy/jia SeSrjjjuovpyrjfjLevos eo-rai. TO ydp irepie-ôv Trdvra,
07roo-a vorjrd &>a, /J,e0' erepov Sevrepov OVK av TTOT' eirj" 7rdiv
yap dv erepov elvai TO Trepl eKeivco Seot a>ov, ov /if/309 av etrrjv
eKelvto, Kal OVK dv en eKelvouv aX* eKeivw ra> Trepieôvn ToS' dv
15 t^<f>wfJLOt(i}fjLvov eyoiro opOorepov. 'iva ovv roBe Kara rrjv /JLOVWVIV B
13 ticetvu: tudvtj) A.
i. Iv (x^povs ttSti] Stallbaum cites
Cratylus 394 D tv r^paros tlSet, Phaedo
91 D Iv op/xovfas ftSet, Republic 389 B ws
Iv <f>apndKOv etdei, Hippias maior 297 B kv
rarpiJs TWOS Iteq..
i. KaO' fv Kal icard Y^vr^] The neo-
platonic commentators are at variance
whether tv or 7^1*1; is to be regarded as
the more universal expression. I think
Plato's usage is
pretty conclusive in favour
of taking Iv as the more special, tv will
thus signify the separate species, such as
horse or tree ; while yivi], I am disposed
to think, refers to the four classes men-
tioned in 40 A, corresponding to the four
elements to which they severally belong.
In any case the ai/rd o tffri faov compre-
hends in it all the scale of inferior ideas
from the four highest to the lowest species.
6. TWV voovfuvuv KoXXCorcp] As we
saw that the material universe is fairer
than any of its parts, so the universal
idea is fairer than any of the ideas which
it comprehends : cf. 39 E Iva r68e ws 6/tot6-
TdTOr ft Tlf Tfl(f KO.I VOIJTIf f<fSy.
8. avrov Kara <f>v<riv |vyycvtj] For
the construction avrov ^<yyfvrj compare
29 B, 77 A, rhilebits 1 1 B.
IO. tva. t'iirep Kara TO -rrapaSei-yH-ci j
The objection might occur that every
other idea, just as much as the ai/ro
faov, is necessarily one and unique. That
is true ; but the difference lies in this :
the abro ffiov is tv as being wav ; there
cannot be a second oi/ro f<o', else it
would not contain within it all VOIJTO. fya.
Therefore while the other particulars may
be satisfactory fufj-rifj-ara of their ideas,
although they are many, the bparbs /t6<r-
/*oj must be one only, else it would not
copy the VOTJTOS *f6<r/tos in the essential
attribute of all-comprehensiveness.
It is noticeable that in this case we have
an idea with only one particular cor-
responding. This would have been im-
possible in the earlier phase of Plato's
metaphysic. He says in Republic 596 A
eI5oj yap TTOV Tt fr UKaffrov elu0afj.fv ride-
aOai vfpl HicaffTa rd iroXXd, ols ravrov
6vo/j.a lTri<f>tpo/j.(v. But now that the
ideas are restricted to diroaa <f>vfftt, now
that they are naturally determined and
their existence is no longer inferred from
a group of particulars, there is for Plato
no reason why a natural genus should not
exist containing but a single particular.

3i B] TIMAIO2. 95
none of these which naturally belong to the class of the partial
must we deign to liken it : for nothing that is like to the im-
perfect could ever become fair ;
but that of which the other
animals severally and in their kinds are portions, to this above
all things we must declare that the universe is most like. For
that comprehends and contains in itself all ideal animals, even as
this universe contains us and all other creatures that have been
formed to be visible. For since God desired to liken it most
nearly to what is fairest of the objects of reason and in all respects
perfect, he made it a single visible living being, containing within
itself all animals that are by nature akin to it. Are we right
then in affirming the universe to be one, or had it been more true
to speak of a great and boundless number ? One it must be, if
it is to be created according to its pattern. For that which
comprehends all ideal animals that are could never be a second
in company of another: for there must again exist another
animal comprehending them, whereof the two would be parts,
and no longer to them but to that which comprehended them
should we more truly affirm the universe to have been likened.
To the end then that in its solitude this universe might be like
But what is this avro $ov ? Surely 8e e& ovpavos (pavepov. el yap ireiovs
not an essence existing outside the KO<T- ovpavol uairep avQpuiroi, ecrrai etdei ftla 17
/j.03, else we should have something over irepl ZKCHTTOV dpxtf, dpi.0p.tf 6V ye TroXXat.
and above the All, and the All would not ei' 6W dpiO[j.$ irod, vXrjv Ix"--- S
be all. It is then (to keep up Plato's -ri rjv elvat OVK extt- vyv T irpurov.
metaphor) the idea of the icoa-pos existing tvreXexeia yap. v apa Kal oyy xal dpid-
in the mind of the Srj/juovpyos :
or, trans- //.<
TO irpurov KLVOVV dKivrjrov &i>. Kal TO
lating poetry into prose, it is the primal Kivot/j.ei>ov apa del Kal <rwex<2s ev povov
IP which finds its realisation and ultimate eft apa ovpavos jUoVos.
unity through its manifestation as iroXXd : 12. irdXiv yap av] Compare Republic
there will be more to say about this on 597 c el dvo /j.6vas Trot^ffeie, irdn> av /j.ia
92 C. Proklos has for once expressed the Kara(f>avelri, r,s txeivai av aZ dfi<f>&Tepai rb
truth with some aptness : TO (itv yap elSos txoiev, Kal etrj dv o &m Klvi] fKelvrj,
[irapddeiyfj.a] TJV vorjrws irdv, avros 5^ [6 dXX' oi/x al 5^0.
drj/j.iovpyos] voepus irav, 6 Si /coV/uos alffd-q- 13. fie'pos] i.e. a subdivision, a lower
TWS irdv : i.e. the irapdSeiyna is universal generalisation.
thought regarded as the supreme intelli- 15. Kara rrv n<Jvxriv] i.e. respect of
gible, the drjfjuovpyos represents the same its isolation, of being the only one of its
regarded as the supreme intelligence, kind. This would not have called for
and the KdVyttos is the same in material explanation, but for Stallbaum's strange
manifestation. See introduction 38. remark '
mox Kara rijv fjAvuaiv i.
q.
Aristotle deduces the unity of the ov- ftbvov '.
thus :
metaph. A viii 1074" 31 Sri

[31 B-
y r$ 7ravreel &>$>,
Bid ravra ovre Bvo otr direipovs
e-Trol-rjo-ev 6 TTOIWV KOfffiovs, aXX' el? oBe uovoyevrjs ovpavos yeyovwt
V V V
VII. 2,a)fjiaroeiBe<; Be 8r) Kal oparov dnrbv re Bel TO yevofievov
5 elvai,'
^copiffdev Be Trvpos ovBev av Trore oparov yevoiro, ovBe
dirrbv dvev nvos crrepeov, crrepeov Be OVK dvev yrjv odev e'/c
7ri;po9 Kal yfjt TO TOU Travros dpyofjêvo^ uvi<rrdvai (rcapa o 6eos
eirolei. Bvo Be ficvo) /caXco? ^vvicrracrOai, rpirov ^&>pt9 ov Bvvarov
Beo-fiov yap ev /Mecrw Bel rivd d/j,<f)olv ^vvaycoyov yiyvecrdai' Beer- G
10 fjioov
Be KaX.icrro<$ 09 dv avrbv re Kal rd j;vvBov/j,eva o ri fj,d-
icrra ev Trotfj. rovro Be 7re(f>VKv dvaoyia /caXXtcrra aTTOTeXetv
OTrorav yap dpiOpdov rpiwv eire oyKwv eire Bvvdpewv (avrivwvovv
rf TO fjie<rov, o ri trep TO Trpourov Trpo? avro, rovro avro 777)09 TO 32 A
ecrârov, Kal 7rdiv avdis, o ri TO e<r%arov 777)09 TO ueo-ov, TO ue<rov
15 777)09
TO irpwrov, rore TO fjiecrov pev irpwrov Kal ea-ârov yiyvopevov,
TO S'
ecrârov Kal TO Trpwrov av [j,eo-a dutyorepa, TrdvO* ouTt9 e
rd avrd elvai ^v/jL^jjcrerai, rd avrd Be yevofieva aXX7;Xot9 ev
10 re omittunt SZ. 14 rovro ante alterum rb ntvov habent SZ.
OT Bvo oiV airctpovs] This is harmony. And of these substances God
directed against the theory of Demo-
Is ritos, that there were an infinite number
of KbfffjLOi: a theory which is of course
a perfectly just inference from Demo-
kritean principles.
i. tts 6'Sc
|iovo-ycvi]s ovpavos] Com-
pare 92 C els ovpavos 8Se fj.ovoytvrj^ d>v.
The words that follow must be under-
stood as an affirmation of the everlasting
continuance of the K60>ios, and -yeyovws,
as I have already done my best to show,
does not imply its beginning in time.
31 B 34 A, c. vii. Now the world
must be visible and tangible, therefore
God constructed it of fire and earth.
But two things cannot be harmoniously
blended without a third as a mean : there-
fore he set proportionals between them.
Between plane surfaces one proportional
suffices; but seeing that the bodies of
fire and earth are solid, two proportionals
were required. Therefore he created air
and water, in such wise that as fire is to
air, so is air to water, and so is water
to earth : thus the four became one
used the whole in constructing the uni-
verse, so that nothing was left outside it
which might be a source of danger to
it. And he gave it a spherical form, be-
cause that shape comprehends within it
all other shapes whatsoever : and he gave
it the motion therewith conformable,
namely rotation on its own axis. And
he bestowed on it neither eyes nor ears
nor hands nor feet nor any organs of
respiration or nutrition; for as nothing
existed outside it, nor had it requirement
of aught, it was sufficient to itself and
needed none of these things.
4. oparov airr6v TC] Visibility and
tangibility are the two most conspicuous
characteristics of matter: therefore the
fundamental constituents of the universe
are fire and earth. This agrees with the
view of Parmenides : cf. Aristotle physica
I v i88a 20 Kal -yAp Hapfj.fi> iS
jsvxpbv apxas jrotet, ravra
vvp Kal yrjv: and Parmenides 112 foil.
(Karsten) : see too Aristotle tfe gen. el
corr. II ix 336* 3. The four elements

32 A] TIMAIOS. 97
the all-perfect animal, the maker made neither two universes nor
an infinite number ;
but as it has come into being, this universe
one and only-begotten, so it is and shall be for ever.
VII. Now that which came into being must be material and
such as can be seen and touched. Apart from fire nothing
could ever become visible, nor without something solid could it
be tangible, and solid cannot exist without earth : therefore did
God when he set about to frame the body of the universe form
it of fire and of earth. But it is not possible for two things
to be fairly united without a third; for they need a bond between
them which shall join them both. The best of bonds is that
which makes itself and those which it binds as complete a unity
as possible ;
and the nature of proportion is to accomplish this
most perfectly. For when of any three numbers, whether ex-
pressing three or two dimensions, one is a mean term, so that as
the first is to the middle, so is the middle to the last ;
and con-
versely as the last is to the middle, so is the middle to the first ;
then
since the middle becomes first and last, and the last and the first
both become middle, of necessity all will come to be the same, and
being the same with one another all will be a unity. Now if the
of Empedokles likewise reduced them- a square root; cf. Theaetetus 148 A; and
selves to two : cf. Aristotle metaph. A iv here stands for a number composed of
985" 33 i>
A"?" XP^7"^ 7e r^TTapcriv, d' two factors and representing two dimen-
ws Svfflv oSffi. (j,6vois, irvpl /j.tv Ko.6' cn/rd, sions. This interpretation of the terms
TO?J 5' airiKeifjitvois us /JLIQ (fttivet, yfj re Kal seems to me the only one at all apposite
dtpi Kal SSart: and de gen. et corr. II iii to the present passage. Another expla-
33O
b 20. His division however does not nation is that they represent the dis-
agree with that of Plato, who classes fire tinction made by Aristotle in Categories
air and water as forms of the same base, i vi 4
b 20 between continuous and dis-
and places earth alone by itself. Crete number ;
the former being a geo-
8. 8vo 84 |i6vci>] Two things alone metrical figure, the latter a number in the
cannot be formed into a perfect harmony strict sense. But as our present passage
because they cannot constitute an dvao7/a. is not concerned with pure numbers at
12. tl'rt
o'-yKwv Art Swoficwv] 'whe- all, this does not seem to the purpose,
ther cubic or square.' The Greek mathe- 13. '6 ri irep TO irpwrov irp&s avr6] e.g.
matician in the time of Plato looked the continuous proportion 4 : 6 :: 6 :
9
upon number from a geometrical stand- may either be reversed so that fffxarov
point, as the expression of geometrical becomes irp&rov, 9 : 6 :: 6 :
4: or alter-
figures. 6yicos is a solid body, here a nated so that the pfoov becomes ?<rxaroy
number representing a solid body, i.e. and irp&Tov, as 6 :
9 ::
4 :
6, or 6 :
4 ::g '. 6.
composed of three factors, so as to repre- Thus, says Plato, the avaoyta forms a
sent three dimensions. &W/u$ is the coherent whole, in which the members
technical term for a square, or sometimes may freely interchange their positions.
P. T. 7

98 ITAATHNOS [ 3 2 A
rrdvra H<rrai. el ^v ovv eVtVeSoi/ fiev, f3d0o<; Se firfSev
IfSet yiyvea-dat TO rov rravrbs <rfia, /ua /j^o-orr)? av
rd re /i0' eavrrjs ^vvSeiv Kal eavrrjv vvv Se arepeoeiSrj yap
avrov 7rpo<rfjKev elvai, rd Be crrepea fiia /JLCV ovSeTrore, Svo Be del
5 fjuea-oryres %vvopparroveriv OVTW Sr) Trvpos re Kal 7779 vSap depa
re o #eo9 eV fiea-y 6ei<$, /cat 717)09 arja icaff* ocrov rjv Svvarov
ova rov avrov 6yov aTrepyaa-d/Mevos, '6 ri irep Trvp 7rpo9 depa,
rovro depa Trpo? v&cop, teal '6 ri drjp 77/009 vScop, vSwp 77/009 yfjv^
%vvSr)<T Kal ^vvear^craro ovpavov oparov Kal nrrrov. Kal Sid
to ravra UK re $r) rovrcov roiovrcov Kal rov dpiOfiov rerrdpcov TO
rov KOGfAov ff&fia eyevvrjOt) Si dvaoyia<; ofj,ooyrjarav, <f>iiav re
eo"%ev K rovrwv, &<rr els ravrov avrw vve0ov aXvrov viro rov
3 ffrepeoeiSrj :
ffrepoeiSrj (sic) A. 8 roOro ante i5wp dedit S.
10 ro&rwv rotofrruv: rofrruv [/cai] TOIO&TUV H. 12 ^vvf06v: !-we8fii> A.
i. |xCa |A<r6TT]s av |ijpKi] Plato lays
down the law that between two plane
numbers one rational and integral mean
can be obtained, while between solid
numbers two are required. But here
we are met by a difficulty. For there
are certain solid numbers between which
one mean can be found; and this cer-
tainly was not unknown to Plato, who
was one of the first mathematicians of
his day. For instance, between 8 (i
3
)
and 512 (8
3
) we have the proportion
8 :
64 :: 64 :
512. A second point, re-
garded by both Bockh and Martin as
a difficulty, is really no difficulty at all,
viz. the fact that there are plane numbers
between which two means can be found,
e.g. between 4 (2
2
) and 256 (i6
2
) we have
4 : 16 :: 64 :
256. This is immaterial;
for Plato does not say that two means
can never be found between two planes,
but merely that one is sufficient. The
other point however does require eluci-
dation. Bockh, who has written two
able essays on the subject, offers the
following explanation :
'
Philosophus nos-
ter non universe planorum et solidorum
magnitudinem spectavit, sed solum earn
comparabilium figurarum rationem, quae
fit, ubi alterum alteri inscribas, ut supra
fecimus, et ibi notatas lineas exares:
idque etiam quadratis et cubis accom-
modari potest.' This he supports by a
geometrical demonstration. Martin's ex-
planation however (with some modifi-
cations), despite Bockh's criticism of it,
appears to me simpler and better. He
points out that Plato's statement is true,
if we suppose him to be using the words
tiriiredov and orepeoV in their strictest
sense, so that a plane number consists
of two factors only, and the solid only
of three; all the factors being primes.
Now it is a priori in the highest degree
probable that Plato is using these terms
in their strictest possible sense. Martin
is not indeed correct in saying that be-
tween two such strictly plane numbers
two means can never be intercalated :
for, given that a, b, c are prime numbers,
we may have this proportion: ab : ac ::
be : c2
, where ac, be are integral. But
this, as we have seen, is of no import-
ance, since Plato does not deny the possi-
bility of such a series, and since his ex-
tremes must be squares. On the other
hand, provided that both the extremes are
squares, we can always interpose a single
mean between them, e.g. a2
: ab :: ab : &.
Again between solids formed ofprime num-
bers we can never (with one exception)
find one rational mean : for if a3
: x :: x : b*

c] TIMAIO2. 99
body of the universe were to have been made a plane surface
having no thickness, one mean would have sufficed to unify itself
and the extremes ;
but now since it behoved it to be solid,
and since solids can never be united by one mean, but require two
God accordingly set air and water betwixt fire and earth, and
making them as far as possible exactly proportional, so that fire
is to air as air to water, and as air is to water water is to earth,
thus he compacted and constructed a universe visible and tangible.
For these reasons and out of elements of this kind, four in
number, the body of the universe was created, being brought
into concord through proportion ;
and from these it derived
friendship, so that coming to unity with itself it became in-
dissoluble by any force save the will of him who joined it.
then x = ab>'ab ; and similarly if the ex-
tremes are of the form cPb or abc. The
exception is the case a?b : abc :: abc : be2
.
We can however obtain two rational and
integral means, whether the extremes
be cubes or compounded of unequal
factors. Howbeit for Plato's purpose
the extremes must be cubes, since a con-
tinuous proportion is required correspond-
ing to fire : air :: air : water :: water :
earth. This we represent by a3
: a*b ::
a*b : alP : : ab2
: b3
. The necessity of this
proviso Martin has overlooked. Thus the
exceptional case of a single mean is
excluded. This limitation of the ex-
tremes to actual cubes is urged by Bb'ckh
as an objection to Martin's theory: but
surely the cube would naturally commend
itself to Plato's love of symmetry in
representing his extremes, more especially
as his plane extremes are necessarily
squares. It is clear to my mind that, in
formulating his law, Plato had in view
two squares and two cubes as extremes :
in the first case it is obviously possible
to extract the square root of their pro-
duct and so obtain a single mean ; in
the second it is as obviously impossible.
Bockh's defence of his own explana-
tion is to be found in vol. in of the
Kleine Schriften pp. 253 265. The
Neoplatonists attempted to extend this
proportion to the physical qualities which
they assigned to the four elements in
groups of three; but as these belong to
them in various degrees, the analogy will
not hold :
e.g. mobility is shared by fire
air and water, but not to the same extent
in each ; and similarly with the rest.
As to Stallbaum's attempt at explanation
I can only echo the comment of Martin :
'je ne sais vraiment comment M. Stall-
baum a pu se faire illusion au point
de s'imaginer qu'il se comprenait lui-
meme '.
9. 8ld TdVTd ?K T Si) TOVTCOV]
'
On
this principle and out of these materials':
signifies the dvaXoyla, Totirwv the
Plato is accounting for the
fact that the so-called elements are four
in number by representing this as the
expression of a mathematical law; and
thus he shows how number acts as a
formative principle in nature. In tf>ila.v
we have an obvious allusion to Empe-
dokles. It is noteworthy that as Plato's
application of number in his cosmogony
is incomparably more intelligent than that
of the Pythagoreans, so too he excels
Empedokles in this matter of <f>iia : he is
not content with the vague assertion that
<t>iia keeps the universe together; he
must show how <f>tla comes about.
72

ioo ITAATHNOS [32 c
aov 7rrjv VTTO rov ^vvB^<ravro<f yeveo~0ai. roSv Be Brj rerrdpwv
%v oov etcaa-rov eir)<J>ev rj
rov KOO-JJLOV %vo-racris. CK jap rrvpos
vBaros re teal depof Kal 777? ^vvea-rrjcrev avrov o ^vvio-ra<f,
ovBev ovBevos ovBe Bvvaftiv e^coOev vTroXnrwv, rdBe Biavotj-
5 9ei<f, rrpwrov pev 'iva oov o ri jj,dicrra a>ov reeov K reea)v D
T&V fJAptoV i1), 7T/30? B TOVTOIS V, O.TC OV% V7TO.etfJ,fjLeV(i)V % 33 A
<&v ao TOIOVTOV yevoir' av, en, 8e 'iva dyijpwv /cal avo<rov rj,
KdTavowv, &5? %v<rTa,T(a <rd>fjuiTi deppd /cat "^rv^pd /cal TrdvO* ocra
8vvdfJ,ei<; tVîpa9 eêt TrepiKrrd/Aeva egwOev Kal Trpovrrl'TrTovra
10 dtcaipcos. vet Kal voa-ovs yrjpds re ttrdyovra fyOlvew Troiei. Bid
&r) rr)v alriav Kal rov o^ta'p,ov ro^Se ev '6ov oQ)v e arcavrwv
reeov Kal dyrjpwv Kal dvotrov avrov ereKTijvaro. <T%fjfj,a
Be B
avrat TO rrpkrrov Kal TO ^vyyeves. ru> Be rd rcdvr ev
o3a irepteêiv fJ,eKovri &> rcpkirov av eir) o~^^/za TO
I5 7repiei,r}(po<; ev avra> irdvra oTro&a <rrjp,ara' Bio Kal <r(f>aipoeiBe<;,
CK fievov Trdvrr] TTÔ? Ta? TeXevTa? laov aTreôv, KVKOTepe<t avro
eropveixraro, Trdvrwv reewrarov ofioiorarov re avro eavrw o"xrj-
fj,drcov, vo/j,icraKa) rcav eâ>0ev avro dTrtjKpiftovro Trowv %dpiv. op^p.drwv
10 re <ydp e-rreBeiro ovBev, oparov yap ovBev vireeLrrero e^caffev ovS" C
,
ovBe ydp aKovarov rrvevîd re OVK r/v 7repteo"To? Beoftevov
ovS' av nvo<; eVtSee? r/v opydvov <r%eiv, a5 rijv fiev et?
eavro rpo<f>rjv Begoiro, rrjv Be rrporepov eûcftaa'fievrjv drrorre^ôi ^f
iraiv. dirrjei re yap ovSev ovBe Trpovrjeiv avrw rroQkv ovBe yap
8 l-v<rrmr($ ed/Mri dedi cum H e W. Wagneri coniectura. %wiffT&.s T fftbftari, A.
SZ. 10 fnreXelirero : VTr^Xenrro A.
4. ov8i 8uvajj.iv] dfoafjiiv is not to be Attic. The mss. for the most part have
understood as 'potentiality', but as wioras or ZVVUTT&V T$ ffufiari. ûo-TaVy
'
power
'
or 'faculty'. <rcfyiaTi is supported by Cicero's rendering
5. T&COV] 'complete' and so per-
'
coagmentatio corporis '.
feet: cf. Aristotle metaph. A xvi 102 i
b
9. irepirra|Ava I w6tv Kal irpo<nrir-
12 rAetov X^yercu fv (M& ov py fcrnv (w rovra] Compare the statement in 81 D
rt Xa/Seu' nydt iv (d>piov : and from this as to the cause of disease and decay.
sense Aristotle derives all the other n. 8v 8Xov] It is needless either with
meanings of this word. Stallbaum to read ft/a or to change airrbv
8. ws wrra.Ttos) one single whole '.
The reading of Stallbaum and the Zurich 14. TO irtpuiXr]<(>os ^v OVTW] The
edition i vviarq. rA ffwfMra has poor ms. sphere is said to contain within it all
authority and is weak in sense ; moreover other shapes, because of all figures
the form {wt<rr is
extremely doubtful having an equal periphery it is the great-

33 c] TIMAIOS. 101
Now the making of the universe took up the whole bulk of
each of these four elements. Of all fire and all water and air
and earth its framer fashioned it, leaving over no part nor power
without. Therein he had this intent : first that it
might be
a creature perfect to the utmost with all its parts perfect; next
that it might be one, seeing that nothing was left over whereof
another should be formed ;
furthermore that it might be free
from age and sickness ;
for he reflected that when hot things
and cold and all such as have strong powers gather round a
composite body from without and fall unseasonably upon it,
they undermine it, and bringing upon it sickness and age cause
its decay. For such motives and reasons he fashioned it as one
whole, with each of its parts whole in itself, so as to be perfect
and free from age and sickness. And he assigned to it its
proper and natural shape. To that which is to comprehend all
animals in itself that shape seems proper which comprehends in
itself all shapes that are. Wherefore he turned it of a rounded
and spherical shape, having its bounding surface in all points at
an equal distance from the centre : this being the most perfect
and regular shape ;
for he thought that a regular shape was
infinitely fairer than an irregular. And all round about he
finished off the outer surface perfectly smooth, for many
reasons. It needed not eyes, for naught visible was left
outside; nor hearing, for there was nothing to hear; and there
was no surrounding air which made breathing needful. Nor
must it have any organ whereby it should receive into itself its
sustenance, and again reject that which was already digested ;
for nothing went forth of it nor entered in from anywhere ;
for
est: all others can be inscribed within it. Aristotle physica IV vi 2i3
b 22 elvat 5'
18. Xciov 84 8ij] This might be sup- ?<pa<rav ical ol Hv0ay6peioi Kevbv, Kal tirftff-
posed to be involved in what has been thai a&rb revfj.aros ws avairvtovri Kal rb Kfvbv, $
is the general shape of the K&ff(i.os spheri- dioplfei rdy 0&reis, us 6vros TOV Ktvov
cal, but that it is a sphere without any x^P1 ^^ " T"^s v tye w Ka* TW Siopt-
appendages. aew Kal TOUT' elvai irpwrov tv rots dpi&-
ii. irvevfJ-a TC ovtc rv irepitoros] This fwlr rb yap nevbv diopifeiv rty (ftvcnv
is directed against a Pythagorean fancy, avr&v: and physica III iv 2O3
a
6 ol ph
that outside the universe there existed TlvOayApfiot tv rots euV0ip"oTj [sc. nOtcun
xevbv, or aireipov Trvtvfj.a, which passed rb aireipov]' ov yap xupiffrbv TTOIOVCTI. rbv
into the cavities in the universe, as dpiff^v Kal etvai rb tl-u rov ovpavov
though the latter were respiring it: cf. airtipov. See too Stobaeus eel.
382.

IO2 HAATHNOS [33 c
rjv avro yap eavry rpo<j>rjv rr)v eavrov (f>6icriv Trapeôv KOI
Trdvra ev eavr<p ical v<p
J
eavrov iracryov teal Bpwv etc
re^vt)^ D
yeyovev rjyrjcraro yap avro 6 %vv0els avrap/ces ov afiewov ea-ecrdai
fidov 77 TrpoaBees dwv. %ip(5v Be, al? ovre af3elv ovre av
5 rivd dfAVvao-Qai %p^La rt<; rjv, ftdrrfv OVK wero Beiv avrw Trpoo-d-
,^
ovBe TroBwv ovBe 0X09 rr;? Trepl rr)v j3d(riv VTrypefflas.
yap aTreveifiev avrw rrjv rov o-w/taro? oltceiav, roav cirrd 34 A
rrjv Trepl vovv Kal (ppovijcnv fiaXtara ovcrav Bio Srj /card ravra
ev ra> avrw ical ev eavrw Treptayaywv avro eVotô-e KVKW KL-
10 velcrOai crrpetyo/jLevov, ra<? Be e avratra? Kivrjcreis d^>ele Kal
d7rav<> aTreipydcraro efceivcov eVl Be rrjv TrepioBov ravrr)v arf
ovBev TroBoov Beov d<rKee$ ical ajrovv avro eyevwrjcrev.
VIII. O^TO? Brj 7ra9 6Wo? act oyio-fios 8eov Trepl rov Trore
T^V (O.VTOV 4>0L(riv irapl-
ov] By this striking phrase Plato means
that the nutrition of one thing is effected
by the decomposition of another : all the
elements of which the universe is composed
feed upon each other and are fed upon in
turn. The idea is still more boldly ex-
pressed by Herakleitos fr. 25 (Bywater)
fj; TrOp rt>v yjjs 66.va.Tov Kal ayp tfj r6v
irvpbs 06.va.TOv, vSup fj; TOV d^pos Od.va.Tov,
yrj TOV vdaros.
4. xcipwv 8^] There is an anaco-
luthon : the genitive is written as though
Xpda- fy belonged to the main clause.
7. riv rov o-tojiaros olKcCav] Plato
does not of course mean that the motion
belongs to the body in the sense of being
its own attribute, because all motion is
of soul ; but simply that the most perfect
motion suits the most perfect form. For
TUV tiTTa. see 43 B : the seven are up and
down, forwards and backwards, to right
and to left, and finally rotation upon an
axis.
8. TTV irtpl vovv Kal <j>prfvTj<ri,v] Com-
pare Laws 898 A TO Kara roOra Sijirof *cal
w<rai/ru>s Kal tv T< avr(f Kal irepl TO, avTa
Kal irpos ra aura Kal KaO^ ?va X6<
yo>' *coi
Tiiîv fjiav au<pu Kive1ff6ai X^yoKrej vovv
i~fy> Tf tv fvl (ppofj.^vijv Klvrjfftv, ff<paipas
ei/Topvov dirtiKaff/j^va <j>opals, OVK &v iroTf
<pavoi dy/uovpyol
elKovuv. Aristotle states his objections
(which are not very cogent) to the com-
parison in de anima I iii
15.
9. KVKO> Ktvdo-0cu <rrp<t>6|ivov] If
we compare the account given in the
Timaeus concerning the motion of the
Ko<r/j,os with that in the myth of the Poli-
ticus, we shall observe a peculiar and very
significant discrepancy. In a passage of
the latter dialogue, 269 A foil., we are told
that for a fixed period God turns the uni-
verse in a given direction, making it re-
volve upon its axis; at the end of this
period he lets go of it and suffers it to
rotate by itself for a like period in a re-
verse direction : its motion being the
recoil from that which had been imparted
by God. And this alternation recurs ad
infinitum. Now the reason for this
singular arrangement is thus stated by
Plato : TO AfttTa Tavra KOI uxravTws
del Kal Tavrov etvai Tots irdvTwv
TT)S Taews. 6V 5 ovpavov /cat KOG/AOV ^TTW-
vo/j.a.KOfj.ev, iro<2v fj.ev Kal fiaKapiuv trapa
TOV yevv-fjffavTOS fiTfir]<pev, drcip otv di)
KfKOLvuvijKf KOL (Tti/taTos. For this cause
it was impossible to give it the same mo-
tion unchanged for ever; so God devised
this ava.KVKi)o~LS as the slightest irapdX-

34 A] TIMA1O2. 103
there was nothing. For by design was it created to supply its
own sustenance by its own wasting, and to have all its action
and passion in itself and by itself : for its framer deemed that
were it self-sufficing it would be far better than if it required
aught else. And hands, wherewith it had no need to grasp
aught nor to defend itself against another, he thought not fit idly
to bestow upon it, nor yet feet, nor in a word anything to serve
as the means of movement. For he assigned it that motion
which was proper to its bodily form, of all the seven that which
most belongs to reason and intelligence. Wherefore turning it
about uniformly in the same spot on its own axis, he made it to
revolve round and round ;
but all the six motions he took away
from it and left it without part in their wanderings. And since
for this revolution there was no need of feet he made it without
legs and without feet.
VIII. So the universal design of the ever-living God, that
Xois from a perpetually constant motion.
But in the Timaeus the movement of the
universe is changeless and everlastingly in
the same direction . Now the interpreta-
tion of this difference is in my judgment
indubitably this. The passage in the
Politicus belongs to a different class of
myth to the allegory of the Timaeus.
Plato is not there expounding his meta-
physical theories under a similitude ; he
is telling a tale with a moral to it. There-
fore it suited his convenience to adopt
the popular distinction between spirit
and matter; and since the /co<7yu.oj was
material, he was forced to deny it the
motion peculiar to TO Qeiorarov. In the
Timaeus, on the contrary, when the entire
universe is the self-evolution of vovs, the
distinction between spirit and matter is
finally eliminated; and there is now no
reason for refusing, or rather there is a
necessity for assigning to the KOOT/OJ the
unchanging motion of the Same. I do
not mean to imply that Plato's view on
this subject was different when he wrote
the Politicus ; merely that the circum-
stances and object of his writing were
other.
34 A 36 D, c. viii. So God made the
universe a sphere, even and smooth and
perfect, quickened through and through
with soul, alone and sufficient to itself.
But he made not soul later than body,
as we idly speak of it: but rather, as
soul was to be mistress and queen over
body, he framed her first, of three ele-
ments blended, of Same and of Other
and of Essence. And when the blending
was finished, he ordered and apportioned
her according to the intervals of a musical
scale, so that the harmony thereof per-
vaded all her substance. And then he
divided the whole soul into two portions,
which he formed into two intersecting
circles; and he called them the circle
of the Same and the circle of the Other :
and he gave the circle of the Same
dominion over the circle of the Other.
And the outer circle, which is of the
Same, he left undivided, but the circle
of the Other he cleft into seven circles,
four one way revolving and three the
other; and their distances one from an-
other were ordained according to the
proportion of the seven harmonic num-
bers of the soul.

IO4 riAATHNOS [34 B-
eo~6fjivov 0eov oyio-0els elov Kal 6fJMov Travraxfj re eK fjbecrov B
i<rov Kal 'oov Kal reXeov eK reewv (rw^drwv a-wâ eTroti/cre'
^fv^r}v Be et<? TO pAa-ov avrov 6els Bid Tfavros re ereive Kal eri
eô)0ev TO o~e3//,a avrfj TrepieKaXv^re ravrr), Kal KVKU> Br) KVKOV
5 <rrpe<f)6fjLvov ovpavov eva fiovov eprjfjiov Karecrrrja-e, Bi aperrjv Be
avrov avrq> Bvvdfjievov ^vyyiyve(T0at, Kal ovBevos erepov 7rpoo~Beo-
iievov, yvu>pifjiov Be Kal <f>iov iKavws avrov avra>. Bia rcavra
Br) ravra evBaipova Oeov avrov eyevvr]aaro.
Trjv Be Br) ilrvYrjv ou^ GJ? vvv varepav emêipovp,ev eyeiv,
10 ovro)<f efjt,r)âvi]o-aro
Kal 6 0eo<; vewrepav ov yap dv dpêa-dai c
irpecrfivrepov vrrb vecorepov gvvepgas elatrev dd TTW? ^/iet?
TroXi) fj,ereôvre<f rov Trpoo-rvôvro^ re Kal eiKr) ravrr) irrj
/cat
v' 6 Be Kal yeveo~ei Kal apery rrporepav Kal Trpecr/Svrepav
Kal dpôvcrav dpôfjuevov ^vvecrrrj-
15 <raro eK roovBe re Kal roiwBe rporrw. rr)^ d/JLepicrrov Kal del 35 A
2 Kal ante IK habet A.
the Epicureans later held corpus quod
vas quasi constitit eius, Lucr. in 440
rather she comprehends it. The same
figure recurs 36 E. Aristotle's criticism
in metaph. A vi 107 i
b
37 is based on a
confusion between /caret -xpovov and /car'
tTrivoiav.
9. ov us vvv vcrr^pav] This passage
ought surely to be warning enough to
those who will not allow Plato the ordi-
nary licence of a story-teller. A similar
rectification of an inexact statement is to
be found at 54 B.
12. TOV irpO<TTV)(6vTOS T Ktti lKT) |
Cf. Philebus 28 D T-QV TOV 6.6yov Kal
eltcfj 8vva/j.iv. Stallbaum has the follow-
ing curious remark :
'
egregie convenit
cum iis
quae Legum libro x. 904 A dis-
putantur, ubi animam indelebilem qui-
dem esse docetur, nee vero aeternam'.
This were '
inconstantia Platonis' with a
vengeance: fortunately nothing of the
kind is taught in the passage cited. The
words are 6.vu>fOpov 8 ov yevoftevov [TO
yevo/j-tvov Herm.] a' OVK aluviov, w<r-
trep ol /card VOU.QV 6vTes 6eol. Plato here
plainly denies eternity, not to soul, but
to the ^(TTaertj of soul and body, which
it was a complete whole constructed out
of the whole quantity that existed of its
constituent elements, as stated in 32 c.
3- 'I'
VX1
'
V 84 ls TO [ie'crov| Soul
being unextended, this is of course meta-
phorical, signifying that every part of
the material universe from centre to cir-
cumference is informed and instinct with
soul. In the words that follow, tfaBev
TO ffu/M OMT-Q irtpitKaXvi^f TafrrT), Stall-
baum (who seems throughout to regard
Plato as incapable of originating any
idea for himself) will have it that he
is following Philolaos. Now the Py-
thagorean irvevfj-a airetpov, the existence
of which is
peremptorily denied by Plato
in 33 C, has not a trace of community
with the Platonic world-soul: nor is
there any reasonable evidence that Philo-
laos or any other Pythagorean conceived
such a soul. Plato seems by this phrase
simply to assert the absolute domination
of soul over body. The old physicists
regarded soul or life as a function of
material things, but for Plato matter is
but an accident of soul : neither will he
allow that soul is contained in body, as

35 A] TIMAIO2. 105
he planned for the God that was some time to be, made its
surface smooth and even, everywhere equally distant from the
centre, a body whole and perfect out of perfect bodies. And
God set soul in the midst thereof and spread her through all its
body and even wrapped the body about with her from without,
and he made it a sphere in a circle revolving, a universe one and
alone ;
but for its excellence it was able to be company to itself
and needed no other, being sufficient for itself as acquaintance
and friend. For all these things then he created it a happy god.
But the soul was not made by God younger than the body,
even as she comes later in this account we are essaying to give ;
for he would not when he had joined them together have suffered
the elder to be governed by the younger : but we are far too
prone to a casual and random habit of mind which shows itself
in our speech. God made soul in birth and in excellence
earlier and elder than body, to be its mistress and governor ; and
he framed her out of the following elements and in the following
is avuXeffpos, since such a mode of exist-
ence must subsist perpetually, but not
aluvios, since it belongs to yeveins.
13. ycv&rci Ka^ <
*P TTi Tpor^pav] The
statement that soul is prior to matter in
order of generation can mean nothing
else but that matter is evolved out of
soul: for had matter an independent
apxv, it would not be vvrepov yeveaei.
Again the priority is logical not temporal.
15. ^K Twv8] Aristotle de anima I
ii 4O4
b 16 says TOV afiTov dt Tpoirov Kal
nXdraw v rip Ti/ua/y TTJV faxty K rdiv
ffToixelwv Troter ywufficeffdai yap rip 6p.olif
TO &JJ.QIOV, Kal Ta ITpaypara tic ruv apxvv
elvcu. This statement is in more than
one respect gravely misleading. First,
although it is impossible to suppose that
Aristotle really meant to classify Plato's
ffToixefa along with the material <TTotxe * a
of Empedokles and the rest, yet, after
stating the theories of the materialists,
to proceed TOV avrov St Tpoirov Kal IlXd-
TUV is, to say the least, a singularly in-
felicitous mode of exposition. Next,
while it is true that in Plato's scheme
like is known by like, yet that is not the
fundamental principle. The antithesis
Same and Other, One and Many, is the
very basis of his whole metaphysic, and
must inevitably be the basis of his psy-
chogony. yivu><rK(ff8at T$ opoly TO op.oi.ov
is consequent, not antecedent.
TTJS dp.epo-rov] First a word con-
cerning the Greek. The genitives TTJS
d/j.epiffTov.../j.eptffTTJs might well enough
be taken with Proklos as dependent on
ev jj.e<rij).
I think however they are rather
to be considered as in a somewhat loose
anticipative apposition to el- dfj.<j>oiv, with
which words the construction first be-
comes determinate. Stallbaum is cer-
tainly wrong in connecting them with
elSos. Presently the words o.Z
irepl after
TTJS re ravrov <f>vaeus are unquestionably
spurious repeated no doubt from TT;S oC
n-f
pi TCL ffufj-ara. In the phrase del KO.TO.
ravra exotiffrjs oixrlas Dr Jackson has
with some probability suggested that
for oixrlas we should read <f>ti<rew. there
is certainly an awkwardness in this use
of ovalas, when we have the word directly
afterwards in so very peculiar and tech-
nical a sense.

io6 TIAATfiNOS [35 A
Kara ravra e^ovcrrjs ovcnas icai rrjs av irepi ra crcapara <ytyvo-
fj,epicrrfjs rplrov e dfKpoiv ev pea-at ^vveKepdcraro ovcnas
', rrjs re ravrov cpvcrews Kal rrjs darepov, Kal Kara ravra
^vvecrrrjcrev ev fj,ecrv avra ovra a-vveKepdcraro els
piav travra IBeav, rrjv darepov cpvcrtv Bva-ftiKrov ovcrav els ravrov
vvap/J,6rr(0v (Sla* /jityvvs Be jj,erd rrjs ovcrias Kal K rpuav Troir)- B
ev, TrdXiv oov rovro /j,oipa<? ocras TrpocrrJKe Btevet/jiev,
Be CK re ravrov Kal Oarepov Kal rijs ova-las fJLe^^fjievrjv.
o Be Biaipelv &Se. plav d(f>ele TO irpwrov diro iravros
fiolpav, fierd Be ravrrjv d(pijpi, 8t,7Taa-iav ravrrjs, rrjv S' av rplrrjv
r)pioiav p.ev rfjs Bevrepas, rpi7raa-iav Be rr)s irpwr^s, rerdprrjv
3 Post <pvfffws delevi av irtpi, quae cum consensu codicum retinent SZ : inclusit H.
This passage is obviously one of the
most important in the dialogue; and it
is necessary to use the utmost care in
interpreting the terms, ravrov and Qare-
pov are in their widest and most radical
sense respectively the principle of unity
and identity and the principle of multi-
plicity and difference : but they are like-
wise used in special applications of these
significations. Such applications are ^
dfj^piaros ovffia and i) irepirci ffi!ifj.ara yiyvo-
fi^v-ij ftfpurrJi, which are identical but not
coextensive with ravrov and Oarepov. Re-
garded objectively, ravrov is the element
of changeless unity in the KOOTAOJ, the
intelligible dpx^, Odrepov is the plurality
of variable phenomena, in which the
primal unity is materially and visibly
manifested. The first is rj dutpicrros ov<ria,
pure mind as it is in its own nature, the
second is mind as it becomes diffe-
rentiated into material existence. Re-
garded subjectively, ravrov is that faculty
in the world-soul which deals with the
intelligible unity, Oarepov that which
deals with sensible multiplicity. One is
the simple activity of thought as such,
the other the operation of thought as
subjected to the conditions of time and
space.
But what is ovfflaf This is stated by
Plato to be rplrov t% dfJ.<f>otv ev fiff<p rijs
re TOLVTOV 0i/crews KO.I rrjs TOV ertpov a
third term arising from the other two
and intermediate between them. I think
the nature of ovcrla will be made clearest
if we take the case of an individual soul.
Every one has (i) the faculty of pure
thought, of reasoning apart from sen-
sation, (2) the faculty of perceiving sen-
sible impressions. Now if we hold that
these two faculties are simply processes
which go on in the brain, so that thought
and perception are merely affections of
the substance of the brain and nothing
more there is an end : there is no ov<rla :
the two faculties have no bond of union
further than they are affections of the
same brain. But if we consider, as Plato
did, that the physical action of the brain
which accompanies thought and sen-
sation does not constitute these, but that
there is a thinking and sentient substance
which acts by means of these brain-pro-
cesses, at once we have a unity : the two
faculties are no longer independent phy-
sical processes but diverse activities of
one and the same intelligence : the sub-
ject is no more a series of consciousnesses
but a conscious personality. Just so the
Koffnos, being a sentient intelligence,
must be conscious of itself as a whole :
by ravrov it
apprehends itself as unity,
by Bdrepov it
apprehends itself as multi-

TIMAI02. 107
way. From the undivided and ever changeless substance and
that which becomes divided in material bodies, of both these he
mingled in the third place the form of Essence, in the midst
between the Same and the Other; and this he composed on such
wise between the undivided and that which is in material bodies
divided ;
and taking them, three in number, he blended them
into one form, forcing the nature of the Other, hard as it was to
mingle, into union with the Same. And mingling them with
Essence and of the three making one, again he divided this into
as many parts as was meet, each part mingled of Same and
of Other and of Essence. And he began his dividing thus : first
he took one portion from the whole ;
then he went on to take a
portion double of this ;
and the third half as much again as the
plicity: and as these are not apart, but
are activities of the same thinking sub-
ject, we have ovffla, their union as modes
of one and the same consciousness, ovcria
then is neither identical with ravrov or
darepov nor a substance apart from both :
it is the identification of the two as one
substance. And as in the particular soul
the reasoning and perceptive faculties
have no independent existence of their
own, but, if they are to exist, must co-
exist in a soul and thus obtain ot<rla, so
it is in the cosmic soul. Taken apart,
both TO.VTOV and Oarepov are mere logical
abstractions, they have no existence.
Combined they instantly unite into a
single ovffta, they are no longer abstract,
but concrete. Thus ov<rla is said to be
rpLrov t d/JKpo'ii', because it arises from
their union. So again we see that the
One and the Many cannot exist but in
combination.
2. Iv fi6r] i.e. it is a bond of
union and connecting link between them.
I would draw special attention to the
fact that according as they are regarded
objectively or subjectively, a^e/w)* and
/j.fpiffrri oi/ffla have a distinct significance:
they are (a) ^vx'n as the primal and
eternal ev 6v, and ij/vxh as evolved into a
plurality of yiyv6fj.eva, (/3) ^ux7?
as dealing
directly by pure thought with absolute
unity, and i/'ux'? as dealing sensually
with the multitude of material pheno-
mena.
6. 8v<r|UKTov o5<rav] The element
of difference and divergency was natu-
rally refractory and hard to force into
union with the rest. Plato, while con-
vinced of the necessity of conciliating
the opposites ev and TroXXd, is fully alive
to the magnitude of the undertaking.
10. T(PXTO 8i Sicupeiv c58] Here
Plato is really pythagorising. The num-
bers which follow are those which com-
pose the geometrical rerpaKTbs of the
Pythagoreans. This rerpaKrto is double,
proceeding in one branch from i to 23
,
in the other from i to 3
3
,
thus :
8 27
It will be observed that the sum of the
first six numbers, i, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9 equals
the last, 27. This reTpaicri/s was sig-
nificant of many things to the Pytha-
goreans : of these it will suffice to mention
one, which Plato may have had in view
in selecting these numbers : i denotes
the point ;
then in the 5iirdffia

io8 ITAATflNOS [35 c-
Se TTJS Bevrepas SnrXrjv, Tre/zTTTî/ 8e rpi7rrjv rrjf rpirrjs, rrjv 8' C
T7?9 7T/3COT779' fjierd 8e ravra ffvveTrXtjpovTo TCI re
Kal Tpi7rdcria Sia&rijfjiaTa, fjuoipas ert eKeiOev dirorefivdiv Kal 36 A
5 T40619 649 TO fJLCTagv TOVTQJV, OOtTTe V Kd<TT(p Sia<rT1Jfjl,aTl SvO
elvac /i6<roT7;Ta9, TTJV p^v Tavro) fiepet r<av aKpwv avrwv inrepe-
vpvcrav Kal vTrepe-ôfjbevrjv, Trjv 8e icna ftev Kar dpiOfjuov vTrepe-
%ov(rav, term Be vTrepeôfjuevrjv TjîdXicov Se Siaa'rda'ecijv Kal
eTTirpircav Kal eiroySocov jevo/jievcov e'/c rovrav rwv 8e<r(j,a)V ev
10 Tat9 7rp6<r0ev 8ia(rrdcr(7i, rw rov e7royoov îacrrrj/MaTi rd eVi- B
para 2 stands for the straight line, 4 for
the rectilinear plane, 8 for the rectilinear
solid. In the rpiTrXtfcria Siao-nJ/tara 3 is
the curved line, g the curvilinear super-
ficies, 27 the curvilinear solid. These
numbers also, as we presently see, form
the basis of a musical scale. The simple
Pythagorean Terpa/criyy, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4=10
is not employed by Plato.
I.
irîATmiv 84 TpiirXtjv TTJS Tp-n]s]
Note that g is prior in the enumeration to
8 : this is because 9 is a lower power, being
the square of 3, while 8 is the cube of 2.
3. jierd 84 ravra o-uvcirXTjpovTo]
Next between every two members of the
double and triple intervals severally he
inserted two means, the harmonical and
the arithmetical. The harmonical mean
is such that it exceeds the lesser extreme
and is exceeded by the greater in the
same fraction of each extreme respec-
tively : i.e. if x and y be the extremes and
3C V
m the mean, jc+ - = y - =m. Thearith-
n n
metical mean exceeds the lesser extreme by
the same number whereby it is exceeded
by the greater extreme, x + n =y -n m.
Thus between 6 and 1 2 we have 8 as the
harmonical mean, 9 as the arithmetical.
Nowinserting these means in the two series
above, we get
In the SnrXcurta 1, *,
J, 2,
|,
3> 4,
f,
6, 8:
In the rpnrXacria Staff-njâra 1, -, i, 3,
-
, 6, 9, -, 1 8, 27-
8. ^|iioXfo>v 8f| It will be seen that
the first of the two series given in the
preceding note proceeds regularly in the
ratios |, f, &c ; while the second pro-
ceeds in the ratios f, |, | &c : there being
in the first series three sets of $, f, $, in
the second three sets of |, |, f.
10. Tp TOV enxrySoov StaoT-rjixan] In
order to understand this passage it is only
necessary to bear in mind one or two
simple acoustical facts. The pitch of a
musical note depends upon the rapidity
with which the sounding body vibrates.
To take for example two vibrating strings:
if one string be twice the length of the
other, the shorter string will, other things
being equal, produce twice as many vi-
brations in a given time as the longer
and will give a note an octave above the
first. Another string $ the length of the
first will give the fifth above the second
string, or the twelfth above the first.
Therefore we express the octave by the
ratio i : 2 and the fifth by 2 :
3. The
other ratios with which we are here con-
cerned are 3 :
4, which gives the fourth ;
8 :
9, which gives a whole tone; 16 :
27,
which gives the (Pythagorean) major
sixth ; and 243 :
256, which will be treated
of presently, but which is very nearly a
semitone. Now in reckoning these ratios
we may either take as our basis the num-

36 B] TIMAIO2. 109
second and triple of the first; the fourth double of the second ;
the fifth three times the third ;
the sixth eight times the first,
the seventh twenty-seven times the first. After that, he filled up
the interval between the powers of two and of three by severing
yet more from the original mass and placing it between them in
such a manner that within each interval were two means, the
first exceeding one extreme in the same proportion as it was
exceeded by the other, the second by the same number exceed-
ing the one as it was exceeded by the other. And whereas by
these links there were formed in the original intervals new
intervals of f and f and ,
he went on to fill
up all the intervals
of f with that of f, leaving in each a fraction over ;
and the
her of vibrations executed in a given time Plato doubtless followed the latter plan, I
as is the practice of modern musicians
or the relative lengths of string required
to produce the several notes, as was usual
amongthe Greeks. In the first case it is ob-
vious that the ratio expresses the octave
upwards, in the second downwards. As
shall follow it too that is, we shall reckon
the scale from top to bottom. Now taking
the dnrdffM dicier-/]para with their harmo-
nical and arithmetical means, and filling
up the intervals as Plato directs, we shall
have :
8:g m 8:9 8:9 8:9 313
8:9 8:9
i
2
4
8:9 !
>
!
64 3
243
8
32 3
'9
gi
f
16"
3 17
2 16
=
9 8:9 8:9
27
243
128
256
3 Q /c.
243
64
243
256
8:9 8:9 :g
22
4
The small figures denote the ratio between each term and its successor.
Now giving these intervals their musical value, we get the following scale :
-I
The original notes of the rer/xt/crfo
are marked as semi breves, the means as
minims, and the insertions of the tirbySoa
and Xelfjifiara as crotchets. Thus we get
a system of three octaves in the Dorian
mode, which was identical with one form
of our modern minor scale.
So far all is simple. But it is not
so easy to determine how the scale of
Tpiirdffia. diaffr^fj-ara should be con-
structed. The most obvious method is
to continue the system of tirlrpiTa or te-
trachords in the lower octaves by sup-
plying the octaves of the means belonging
to the binary system. Thus we shall
have one continuous scale formed of the
two sets of intervals : we shall add two
more lines to our series of numbers,

no HAATflNOS [36 B
rptra frdvra ^vvejrX'rjpovro, XeiTTtwi/ avrwv etcdffrov fioptov, T^?
rot) fiopiov TavTijS SiaoT<z<7e&><? Xet</>#ei<r779 dpiO/jiOv Trpbs dpiffpov
e^ova-rj^ TOI)? '6pov$ eg Kal TrevrrjKovra Kal Siatcoo-iwv Trpo? rpia
teal rerrapaKovra ical &iatc6<Tia. Kal 8rj Kal TO /u^#ei>, e ov
5 ravra tcarere/jLvev, ovrws r}8r) irav dvau>Ki. ravrrjv ovv rrjv
gva-rafftv iraaav St,7rf)V Kara pfjicos a")(l<ra<s fj,<rr)V Trpos peffrjv
exarepav dijai<; olov ^t Trpo<rf3awv KarKafiffv, et9 ev KVKtp C
ijj roO: T^J 5^ roO H cum re. A. 4 ccal ST? Kai : alterum Kal omittunt SZ.
5 "" :
. 8l
8, 9, -g
,

c] TIMAI02. ii i
terms of the interval forming this fraction are in the numerical
proportion of 2$6 to 243. By this time the mixture, whence he
cut off these portions, was all used up. Next he cleft the
structure so formed lengthwise into two halves, and laying the
two so as to meet in the centre in the shape of the letter X, he
bent them into a circle and joined them, causing them to meet
satisfactory than any other I can suggest.
The scale given by Proklos is not suit-
able ; nor yet one which he attributes to
Severus, who, supposing him to start
from A minor, modulates as far as C
minor. The extent of Plato's scale, four
octaves and a major sixth, is far greater
than any that actually occurred in Greek
music, which employed at most but two
octaves. It has been suggested by Proklos
that Plato's reason for using so extensive
a scale is that faxi) has to apprehend
not only spirit but matter, which has
three dimensions; hence in the symbol
the cubes 8 and 27 were required.
T. Xcforwv avTwv eKaorov fxopiov]
Taking the first tetrachord of our scale,
E to B, if we proceed to insert as many
Tr6y8oa as we can, we find we can intro-
duce two, viz. E to D, D to C : a third
would take us to Bb instead of B. This
interval then, C to B, is the /japiov which
remains over. This is called the eifj./j,a
and has the ratio 243 :
256. The Py-
thagoreans held that the tone cannot be
divided into two equal parts, because
there is not a rational mean between 8
and 9 :
they accordingly distributed it
into a minor semitone or Xei/x/na,
^|,
and
., > /
2048 r
a maior semitone or aTroro/u/n, ---; of
2107
which two the product =-. The Pytha-
gorean i/j.fj.a is slightly less than the
'
natural
'
semitone, which is ^| or .
ID 256
The pseudo-Timaeus Locrus in his ab-
stract of this passage (96 B) says the num-
ber of terms in the series is 36 : a similar
view is held, according to Proklos, by
some of the old Platonists ; apparently
for no other reason than that 36 is the
sum of another double TerpaKTi/s given by
Plutarch, consisting of the first four odd
and the first four even numbers. This
number of terms is gained by forming the
two scales separately and then combining
them so that the apotome twice occurs ;
e.g. C, B, Bb, A: the interval C B
being a Xet/x./u.a, the interval B Bb is an
cLTTOTOfj.^. But the apotome is totally
foreign to Plato's scale, which is Sidrovov
ffvvrovov of the strictest kind. Nor is there
any Greek scale which would tolerate
three half-tones successively : even in the
X/w/ia roviaioi' only two occur in suc-
cession. Nor do I see on what plan the
apotome could be made to occur twice
and no more. Therefore, although this
view is supported by no less an authority
than Bockh, we must refuse to attribute
to Plato a scale which is altogether bar-
barous.
TTJS TOV [iopCov] rrjs 8t has been
retained by Hermann, who defends it as
coordinating Xetiruv and <?xw<r7?
J ' But it
seems to me rather clumsy.
7. otov x^ irpoo-poXwv] We are to
conceive the soul, after having been duly
blended and having received her mathe-
matical ratios, as extended like a hori-
zontal band : then the creator cleaves it
lengthwise and lays the two strips across
each other in the shape of the letter X
(i.e. at an acute angle), and so that the
two centres coincide : next he bends them
both round till the ends meet, so that
each becomes a circle touching the other
at a point in their circumferences oppo-
site to the original point of contact. Thus
we have two circles bisecting each other

112 [36 c-
as avrals re xal dXKrjXais ev reS KaravrtKpv rfj$ 7rpoo-/3o-
ij<j, KCU rf)
Kara ravra xal ev ravra> Trepiayopevrj Ktvrjo-ei Treptf
avrds ea/3e, teal rov /j,ev e&>, rov 8' ei/ro? eTroieiro rwv KVKO>V.
rrjv fjiev ovv %(!) (fropdv 7re<j)r/iJbi<Tv elvat rrjs ravrov (f>v<r e&)<>, rrjv
5 8' eVro? T7<> darepov. rrjv fiev 8r) ravrov Kara 7revpdv eVt Seîa
Treptrjyaye, rrjv 8e 0arepov Kara Sidfterpov eV dpicrrepd, Kparos
5' e8d)K rf) ravrov KOI 6/iot'ou Trepiffropa.' piav ydp avrrjv ao"%i-
D
<rrov clave, rrjv 8' eWo9 cr^to-a? eâ-^y cirra KVKOVS avlffOVS Kara
3 ai/ras :
ai)r^j A.
and inclined at an acute angle. The
obliquity of the inclination is insisted on,
because, as we shall presently see, the
two circles represent respectively (amongst
other things) the equator and the ecliptic.
2. ircpig avrds {af3e] As the soul
was interfused throughout the whole
sphere of the universe, we must regard
the two circles simply as a framework, so
to speak, denoting the directions of the
two movements. These two circles are
encompassed by a moving spherical en-
velope, being the circumference of the
entire sphere of soul, revolving Kara rainh.
KOI tv ravrif.
3. rAv jUv 8] The circle of the
Same is made exterior, because it was to
control the circle of the Other, and also
because it symbolises the sphere of the
fixed stars.
5. Kara irXevpdv] This expression
will be readily understood by means of
the accompanying diagram. ACE, CDG
are two circles in different planes, cutting
each other at the points C, D. AB and
CD are their respective diameters, bisect-
ing one another in H. The dotted lines
are a parallelogram inscribed in the circle
A CE, having its sides ED, CF parallel
to AB and having CD for its diagonal.
The rotation of the circle ACE, which is
the circle of the Same, is /card irevpai>,
in the direction of DE ;
that is, its axis is
perpendicular to DE or AB, and it re-
volves from east to west. CDG, the circle
of the Other, rotates /card diaîerpov, i.e.
in the direction of the diagonal CD, from
WSW to ENE. The Greek term 17 5ta-
/ierpos generally means diagonal, not dia-
meter. Proklos sees a special significance
in the circle of the Other moving /card
Siafj-erpov, inasmuch as (the sides of the
rectangle being expressed by integral
numbers) the diagonal is irrational. It is
quite possible thatPlato may have thought
of this : but, as Bockh has remarked, un-
less the rectangle is a square, the diagonal
is not necessarily a surd :
e.g. if the sides
are 3 and 4, the diagonal will be 5.
m Scgid.. eir dpurrcpa] This has
given rise to much discussion, because
according to the usual Greek nomencla-
ture the east was the right side of the
heavens and the west the left : and so we
have it in Laws 760 D TO 5' twi 8eia 717-
vtffOw rb irpbs &o : cf. Epinomis 987 B.
This mode of reckoning seems to have
arisen from the fact that the Greek diviners
stood facing the north in taking the
omens. I think the explanation of Plato's
present departure from ordinary custom
is simple enough. The diurnal motion

TIMAIO2.
themselves and each other at a point opposite to that of their
original contact : and he comprehended them in the motion that
revolves uniformly on the same axis, and one of the circles he
made exterior and one interior. The exterior motion he named
the motion of the Same, the interior that of the Other. And
the circle of the Same he made revolve to the right by way of
the side, that of the Other to the left by way of the diagonal.
And he gave the supremacy to the motion of the same and
uniform, for he left that single and undivided ;
but the inner
circle he cleft into seven unequal circles in the proportion of the
of the universe is visible only by the
daily motion of the heavenly bodies, espe-
cially the sun. An observer in Europe
can only see the sun's motions by looking
towards the south, when of course the
west is on his right hand :
compare Pliny
natur. hist. VI 24 (of some visitors from
the tropics) sed maxume rnirum iis erat
umbras suas in nostrum caelum cadere,
non in suum, solemque a laeva oriri et in
dextram occidere potius quam e diverse.
Plato's use of the terms right and left
seems then perfectly natural. The uni-
verse being a sphere, Plato knew that the
right and left, like up and down, are per-
fectly arbitrary terms (see 62 c foil.) and
he therefore did not hesitate to apply
them just as suited his purpose. Those
who are curious on the subject may find
(to put it
mildly) some very singular
arguing in the opposite sense in Aristotle
de caelo n ii 284
b 6 foil.
6. Kpd-ros 8' e'ScuKe TTJ TO.VTOV] That
is, while the circle of the Other retains
its independent rotation round its own
centre, it is also carried round by the revo-
lution of the Same.
<crirTov tUeurt] Note that though the
circle of the Same is one and undivided,
it contains the same mathematical ratios
as the Other: this clearly signifies that
the multiplicity of the Other is only a
different form of the unity of the Same
there exists in immaterial soul a law or
principle which, when expressed in terms
of matter (or here rather of the apprehen-
P. T.
sion of matter), assumes the form of these
mathematical ratios. Note also that the
portion of the soul which constitutes the
circle of the Same is composed both of
Same and of Other, as also is the circle of
the Same. The antithesis Same and Other
pervades all ovcria. from highest to lowest.
8. <rxfoas <SaX^l The circle of the
Other is subdivided into seven concen-
tric circles corresponding to the seven
planets which were reckoned in Plato's
day. These are ordered at distances from
the earth corresponding to the seven num-
bers of the rerpa.KT'Lis : i represents the
distance of the moon, 2 the sun, 3 Venus,
4 Mercury, 8 Mars, 9 Jupiter, 27 Saturn.
The question might suggest itself, how
would Plato have been affected, had he
become aware that the real position of
the heavenly bodies is widely different
from his supposition? In my judgment
he would have been absolutely uncon-
cerned. How these bodies are situated
is to him a matter of profound indiffer-
ence : what does concern him is that where-
ever they are and whatever they do should
be the result of the orderly evolution of
vous. For it should be borne in mind
that, strange and fantastic as this ^vo-
yovia may seem at first sight, Plato has
but one aim steadily in view throughout.
Whatever exists and happens in material
nature is simply the material symbol of
immaterial truth : it is the inevitable re-
sult of the regular evolution of spirit,
according to the eternal law of its nature,
8

nAATHNOS [36 i>-
rov Snra<riov Kal rpnrao-iov Bidcrrao~iv efcdffrrjv, ovo~<av
eKarepwv rpidav, Kara rdvavrla fiev aXX?;Xot9 7rpoo~eraêv levat
rovs KVKOVS, rd%ei, Be rpel? fj,ev 6/zot'a)9, roi)9 Be rerrapas d
Xot9 Kal Tot9 rpLo~v dvo/j,ol(i)<f, ev 6y(p Be ^)epo/iez/ou9.
5 IX. 'Eiret Be Kara vovv rw ^vvicrravn rrdcra 77 rr}9
%uo~rao-ieo"rj ^vvayaycav irpoo-rjpfJLorrev r)
8' e'/c E
fj,eo~ov 7rpo9 rov eaârov ovpavov rrdvrrj Bia7TaKeicra KVKW re
avrov egaOev TreptAcaXi/'^raa'a, avrrj ev avrfj (rrpeôfjievrj, Qeiav
10
<*PX*i v tfp aT aTravo-Tov Kal e/z.^poi/o? /3toi> ?rpo9 rov ^vp,rcavra
Xpovov. Kal TO /j,ev Brj o~wfj.a oparov ovpavov yeyovev, avrr/ Be
ev, oyio~fjiov Be fj,ereyovo~a Kal dp/j,ovia$ ^vyij, rwv 37 A
e re ovrwv VTTO rov parov pari] rv
3 dXXvjXotJ :
aXXijXoty re S.
in corporeal manifestation. Plato does
not of course mean that the immaterial
and indivisible essence of soul is com-
posed of circles and distributed in mathe-
matical proportions. The circle is with
him a common symbol of the activity of
thought : and by assigning the harmonic
numbers to soul he declares that whatever
relations or harmonies, mathematical or
otherwise, are found in the world of space
and time, these are the natural expression
in material terms of some eternal law of
soul. It is perhaps advisable to notice
this, because of the amusing literalness
with which Aristotle has treated the sub-
ject in dc ammo, I iii
4O7
a
2 foil. a piece
of criticism which at first it is hard to
believe was intended seriously.
2. Kara rdvavrfa] As seven circles
cannot all be contrary each to each, we
are to suppose that the three planets hav-
ing the same period revolve in one direc-
tion, and the four others in the opposite.
It is usually supposed that Mercury and
Venus alone have the contrary motion ;
but if Plato's theory is to be anything
like an explanation of the facts, the sun
must have the same direction as these
two: see note on 38 u rrjv 5' ivavriav el-
avT$ 5vi>a.(jut>, where the motive
8 StaTrXaKeio-a : 5iO7rXe/cet<ra A.
for this arrangement is discussed. In the
parallel passage of the Republic, 6160
617 c, it is not said that any of the planets
have a contrary motion, though it is stated
that Venus, Mercury and the Sun com-
plete their orbits in the same period.
The harmonic numbers of the Timaeus
seem to be represented by the eight
Sirens, who stood on the <r<f>!>v8voi, each
singing one tone. In the Republic there
are eight spheres, because the fixed stars
are included, which here are assigned to
the circle of the Same. For Aristotle's
views about the music of the spheres see
de caelo II ix 29o
b 12 foil.: he thinks the
idea K0fj.f/6v, û/X&, and /j.oixriKbi', but
cannot believe it.
36 D 37 c, c. ix. So when God had
ended the framing of the soul to his
mind, next he formed within her all the
visible body of the universe : but she her-
self is invisible, the noblest creation of the
most perfect creator. And seeing that
she is composed of Same and Other and
Essence, whenever she comes in contact
with aught that has being, be it divided
or indivisible, she discerns sameness in it
and difference and all else that is pre-
dicable of it. And her verdict is true
both concerning material and immaterial

37 A] TIMAIO2.
double and triple intervals severally, each being three in number;
and he appointed that the circles should move in opposite
directions, three at the same speed, the other four differing
in speed from the three and among themselves, yet moving in a
due ratio.
IX. Now after that the framing of the soul was finished to
the mind of him that framed her, next he fashioned within her
all that is bodily, and he drew them together and fitted them
middle to middle. And from the midst even unto the ends
of heaven she was woven in everywhere and encompassed it
around from without, and having her movement in herself
she began a divine beginning of endless and reasonable life for
ever and evermore. Now the body of the universe has been
created visible ;
but she is invisible, and she, even soul, has part
in reason and in harmony. And whereas she is made by the
best of all whereunto belong reason and eternal being, so she is
existence : for when, by the circle of the
Other she deals with sensibles, she forms
sure opinions and beliefs ; but when by
the circle of the Same she apprehends
intelligible being, then knowledge and
reason, which soul alone possesses, are
made perfect in her.
5. Kara, vovv] Probably, as in Phaedo
97 D, there is a double meaning in these
words '
to his mind ', and '
according to
reason '.
6. (itrcL TOUTO] TO dt pera. TOVTO n$i
XpoviKov 77-0X0/377$, dXXa Tdews arj/jLavri-
KOV, says Proklos very rightly.
7. fit'crov n&nj] Soul, being imma-
terial, has of course no centre. The
phrase simply means that the whole
sphere of material nature from centre to
circumference was instinct with the in-
dwelling vital force. iravT-g SiaTrXa/ceiera,
i.e. she interpenetrated its every particle,
being everywhere present in her two
modes of Same and of Other.
9. Ka>9v irpiKoXm|/a<ra] See note
on 34 B. Plutarch de anitn. procr. 21
says Palto is &<nrtp dTrwtfoiûevos T?)S ^'I'X'?*
TT)t> IK o-w/uaTos ytveffiv. Compare Plotinos
tnnead II ix 7 Iv yap 777 Trdffj; f/i<
<j>ij(ns SeSefdvij r/Sij ffvvSei o dV
avrr) 5 rj rod Travrbs ^vx^l owe
civ dtoiro VTT& TUV vir' avrfjs deSf/jt^vuv.
10. Y[paTo] Again of course a begin-
ning Acar' iirivoi.a.v
only.
1 1 . Kal T& (liv 8^ (Twâ] So Laws
898 D r/Xiou ?ras dvOpuiros
oi/Seis.
12. OYWTJAOV Si p.T^xov<ra Kal dp-
[j.ovias J/vxi]] Notwithstanding Stall-
baum's defence of ^vxî, I feel strong
misgivings as to its genuineness : its
position is strange and disturbs the con-
nexion.
TWV vot]To>v act rt OVTWV] It is very
significant that the drj/juovpybs is iden-
tified with the object of reason, voCs
with vorjTov. Here then we have another
token that the Sîoup'yos is merely a
mythological representative of univer-
sal voh which evolves itself in the
form of the /cieryuoy. Still more remark-
able is the use of XaytffTiK&v below in
37 c. There is no other passage in
Plato where XoyiffTiK&v is contrasted with
al<?6r)T<a> : the regular term is of course
VOTITOV. It is surely impossible that Plato
could have substituted XoyiffTiKov for voi-
82

DAATHNOS [37 A
yevvrjBevrwv. are ovv K rfjs ravrov teal rfjs Oarepov <f}v<re<i)<;
etc re ovo-las rptwv rovrwv crvyKpadelcra fAoipwv, Kal dvd 6yov
pepurOeiaa Kal gvvBeOeia-a, avrrj re dvaKVKovf4evr) TT/)O? avrrfv,
orav ovffiav ffKeBaarrrjv e%ovr6<; nvos eâTrrrjrai teal orav a/j.e-
5 picrrov, eyei Kivovfievr) Bid rcdcr^ eavrrjs, oV&> T' av n ravrov y
Kal orov av erepov, rrpds o ri re ftdXiara Kal OTry ical OTTCO? Kal B
OTTore %vn(3aivei Kara rd yiyvoaevd re TT/JO? exaarov e/cacrra
elvai, Kal trdcfêiv Kal rrpos rd Kara ravrd e%ovra dei- 6yos
Be o Kara ravrov dv)0ri<s ryiyvofievos rrepi re Odrepov wv Kal rrepl
10 TO ravrov, ev rq> Kivovfêvro v(f)
avrov (f)ep6fj,evo<>
avev (pdoyyov
Kal tfxr]?,
orav fiev rrepl TO cuf&^riv yiyvijrai, Kal 6 rov Oarepov
KVKO<$ op#o9 wv ei? irda-av avrd rrjv "^fv^v BiayyeiXy, Boâi
Kal TTicrTet? yiyvovrat /SeySatot Kal dXyOeiv orav $e av rcepl TO
oyia-riKov y Kal o rov ravrov KVKO<> evrpoôf <av avrd fj.yvv<rr), c
15 vovs eTTia-rrifiTj re e% dvdyKi)? diroreelrai- rovrw Be ev w r<Sv
1 i-vfj.f3a.ivei
:
%vfi.fia.lvt)i A. 9 uv : ov AH. 12 oirri scrips! : avrov AHSZ.
rbv until he had reached a period in his
metaphysic where he deliberately affirmed
the identity of thought and its object.
I believe also his present use both of ^077-
r&v and of <yyiaTu<bv is purposely de-
signed to draw attention to this.
3. p.pio-0to-a Kal vvS0ci(ra] ntpia-
Oftffa refers to the original distribution of
the soul according to the seven numbers
of the TfrpaKTvs, {wSefletera to the intro-
duction of the deffôl, the arithmetical
and harmonical means which mediated
between them.
avrtj T dvaxvicXovplvT] irpos avrrfv]
This is merely Plato's favourite meta-
phor describing the activity of thought,
which is complete and perfect in itself.
4. ovo-Cav o-KcSao-rijv] Formerly called
TI /caret TCI crwjuara nepitrr^ : i. e. ofiffia
which appears in the form of plurality,
sensible phenomena, opposed to dfttpuT-
TOC, which is voyrbv.
5. KLvoj(jLe'vT] Sta iraa-iis tavriis] This
is the consequence of the soul being com-
posed not only of ravrbv and Odrfpov but
of ovffia. Had the circles of Same and
Other been the only possession of the
soul, the experiences of each circle might
have been confined to it : but now, since
the elements of rairbv and 6&repov are
unified in ov<rta, the reports received
from either circle are the property of the
whole soul.
OTW T' av TI ravrAv $] Stallbaum,
affirming that no one has hitherto under-
stood this passage, takes the antecedent
of OT<J) as the subject of ^v/jLâtvei :
'
she
declares of that wherewith anything is
the same and wherefrom it is different,
in relation to what &c'. It may well be
doubted whether he has thus improved
upon his predecessors. Surely the dis-
cernment of sameness and difference is a
function necessarily belonging to soul
and necessarily included in the catalogue
of her functions :
yet Stallbaum's render-
ing excludes it from that catalogue. The
fact that we have ory ai> y, not ory ôr/,
does not really favour his view 'with
whatsoever a thing may be the same, she
declares it the same'. I coincide then
with the other interpreters in regarding the
whole sentence from ory T' an as indirect
interrogation subordinate to 4yei.
6. irpos o rl rt (idXicrra] Lindau has
justly remarked that all or nearly all

c] TIMAI02. 117
the best of all that is brought into being. Therefore since she is
formed of the nature of Same and of Other and of Being, of these
three portions blended, in due proportion divided and bound
together, and turns about and returns into herself, whenever she
touches aught that has manifold existence or aught that has
undivided, she is stirred through all her substance, and she tells
that wherewith the thing is same and that wherefrom it is
different, and in what relation or place or manner or time
it comes to pass both in the region of the changing and in the
region of the changeless that each thing affects another and
is affected. This word of hers is true alike, whether it deal with
Same or with Other, without voice or sound in the Self-moved
arising ;
and when she is busied with the sensible, and the circle
of the Other, being true, announces it throughout all the soul,
then are formed sure opinions and true beliefs ;
and when she is
busy with the rational, and the circle of the Same declares
it, running smoothly, then reason and knowledge cannot but be
made perfect. And in whatsoever existing thing these two are
Aristotle's ten categories are to be found
in this sentence.
8. irpAs TO, Kara ravrd] This phrase
is exactly parallel to (caret ra yiyvofitva.
above. The only reason for the change
of preposition is the obvious lack of eu-
phony in /card TO, Kara ravrd.
Xo-yos] 'her verdict '. 6yos = o eyei,
what she pronounces concerning that
which is submitted to her judgment.
Stallbaum aptly refers to Sophist 263 E
OVKOVV didvoia. ntv Ka.1 X<xyos ravrov ir7]i>
6 fj.ti> eVroj r^r tyvxfis irpbs avrijv SidXoyos
dvev <f>wvris yiyvop.evos TOUT' avro tj/juv
diruvo/j.d<rO-t], Sidvoia. See too Philebus
39 A, and Theaetetus 189 E, where So-
krates defines Siavoeiffdat. as 6yov ov OUTTJ
irpos avTTjv rj Jsvxrj die^pxfrat wepi uv oV
ffKOTTTJ.
9. Kara TO.VTOV is adverbial, 'equally':
there is nothing in it of the technical
sense of TO.VTOV.
10. v TU> Kivov|icvu> v<|>' avrov] i.e. iv
wxfi being ayroK/PT/ros.
1 2. op0is wv] Proklos draws attention
to the difference of the language applied
to the two circles; of the circle of the
Same it is said efirpoxos <5v. The change
of expression is readily understood if we
turn to 43 D foil, where Plato is speaking
of the disturbance of the circles by the
continuous influx, of bodily nutriment :
the circle of the Other is distorted and
displaced, but the circle of the Same is
only blocked (eir^riaav).
cis ird<rav avra. TTV fyv)($v Siayye&fl]
The ms. reading ai!roO is clearly wrong,
though Martin defends it. Stallbaum
proposes O.VTO : but as we presently have
aura referring to Xo7i<rriKci', that is per-
haps more likely to be right here.
13. p'paioi Kal aXi]0cis] There is a
slight chiasmus :
/3^/3atot is
appropriate to
jr/orets and aX^els to 5oat.
7Tpl r6 XoYurriKiv fl] Of the peculiar
use of XoyiffTiKov I have already spoken.
Note however that the verb is changed
from ylyvriTai to $ and for Siayyei'X?; we
have the more authoritative word ^vvarf.
15. TOVTW &] There has been much

HAATONOS [37
ovrwv eyyiyvecrffov, dv Trore ri<j avro ao TrXrjv ^fv^rjv eiTrrj, irav
fj,aov 77 rdXrjBes epei.
X. 'fl? oe Kivrjdev avro KOI o3i> evoyae rwv diSiwv 0edov
76701/05 uyaaa 6 yevvrjcras Trarrjp, rjydadr) re Kal ev(f)pav0el<; en
5 8rj fj,dov ofjioiov TT/JO?
TO 7rapdBeiyfj.a eTrevoijo-ev direpydcraaOai.
KaOcnrep ovv avro rvy%avei %wov diBiov ov, ical rooe TO rcav oirrtus D
t9 Svvafjiiv CTre^iptjo'e roiovrov asjroreXelv. r) fj,ev ovv rov %<ov
(pv(ri<> rvy%avV ov&a alwvios. KOI rovro /iei> 8rj rut yevvrjra)
7rapTeX.o5<? Trpo&aTrreiv ovtc rv Svvarov ei/cw 8' eirivoei tcivrjrov
10 riva alonvos Troifjaai, /cat BiaKO<Tfj.(uv a/ia ovpavov Trotel pevovros
ata)i>05 ev evl tear dpiO/mov lovcrav alwvtov elicova, rovrov ov Srj
3 ivoijae : SZ. 6 ov omittunt AS. g lirivofi : iirtvbei A.
discussion as to the exact reference of
TOI/TW. One interpretation, mentioned
by Proklos, is to refer it to the two pairs,
Sofcu irlffrets, vovs ^TTIOTT^I; : and this is
practically the view of Stallbaum, who
understands 3oa and liri<TTri/j.r). The
natural grammatical reference however is
to vovs firiffTrifjL-r] re, and so I believe we
should understand it : cf. 30 B vovv 5' a5
Xwpts ^vxfn* O.SVVO.TOV irapaytv^ffOai ry.
No doubt it is true that 5o'a and iriffris
are equally impossible xuph ^VX^ '
but
these are functions of soul in her material
relations, whereas the other two are
characteristic of soul qua soul, in the
activity of pure thought. The distinction
between vovs and ivurr^ni) is that between
the faculty of reason and the possession
of knowledge.
37 c 38 B, f. x. So when the uni-
verse was quickened with soul, God was
well pleased; and he bethought him to
make it
yet more like its type. And
whereas the type is eternal and nought
that is created can be eternal, he devised
for it a moving image of abiding eternity,
which we call time. And he made days
and months and years, which are portions
of time ; and past and future are forms of
time, though we wrongly attribute them
also to eternity. For of eternal Being
we ought not to say 'it was', 'it shall
be', but 'it is" alone: and in like manner
we are wrong in saying 'it is' of sen-
sible things which become and perish ;
for these are ever fleeting and changing,
having their existence in time.
3. Kivt]6iv OVTO Kal wv] Motion is
always for Plato the inalienable cha-
racteristic of life : cf. Phaedrtis 245 E
and Theaetetiis 153 A -rb p.lv elccu SOKOVV
KO.I TO yiyveffOcu Kivrjtns 7rap^xi TO 5^
fj.rf elvai Kal TO d.Trovffdai i}awxLa..
TWV cuSuov flcwv yeY vos a-yaXjAa]
This is a very singular phrase. The
Kofffj.os we know is the image of the
avro fov, and the creatures in it are
images of the VO^TO. $a. Therefore the
diSioi 6fol can be nothing else than the
ideas. But nowhere else does Plato
call the ideas 'gods', and the significance
of so calling them is very hard to see.
If however Plato wrote 6fuv (which I
cannot help regarding as doubtful), I am
convinced that he used this strange
phrase w:
ith some deliberate purpose in
view; but what that purpose was, I con-
fess myself unable to divine. The inter-
pretation of Proklos is naught.
6. avTJ] sc. TO irapdSfiyfj.a.
8. Mya.v(v oio-a alwvios] Pre-
sently Plato tells us that the past tense is
not applicable to eternal existence: the
use of it is however necessitated by the
narrative form into which he has thrown
his theory. This use of eTvyxavcv, in

TIMAIO2. 119
found, if a man affirm it is aught but soul, what he says will be
anything rather than the truth.
X. And when the father who begat it perceived the created
image of the eternal gods, that it had motion and life, he re-
joiced and was well pleased ;
and he bethought him to make it
yet more nearly like its pattern. Now whereas that is a living
being eternally existent, even so he essayed to make this All the
like to the best of his power. Now so it was that the nature of
the ideal was eternal. But to bestow this attribute altogether
upon a created thing was impossible ;
so he bethought him to
make a moving image of eternity, and while he was ordering
the universe he made of eternity that abides in unity an eternal
image moving according to number, even that which we have
the face of the explicit declaration a few
lines later, is an additional proof, if
more were wanted, that the creation of
the K6<T[j.os is pure allegory. For if
Plato meant to be understood literally,
he is flagrantly violating his own law.
9.
!KW 8' Imvoei] Plato's meaning
in terming time the elKuv of eternity
may thus be stated. As extension is
to the immaterial, so is succession to the
eternal. The material universe is the
dK&v of pure being or thought: that is to
say, it is the mode in which the One
manifests itself in the form of multi-
plicity. Now the two main character-
istics of material existence are (a) ex-
tension, (/3) succession. The universe
then regarded as extended is the clK&v
of poOs regarded as unextended : the
same universe regarded as a succession
of phenomena is the elic&v of POUJ re-
garded as eternal. As then space is the
image of the immaterial, so is time the
image of the eternal :
space and time
being the conditions under which the
spaceless and timeless tv evolves itself
in the apprehension of finite intelli-
gences.
ii. KttT* api0|i6v lov<rav] i.e. moving
by measurable periods: the dpiOpos is
the temporal reflection of the changeless
li> of eternity.
alwviov ttxova] This phrase surely de-
serves more notice than it has hitherto
obtained. In the present passage we
have time and eternity most sharply con-
trasted ; time being explained as a con-
dition belonging to that which is not
eternal. And notwithstanding this, time
is itself declared to be eternal. Plato's care-
ful definition of the word aiwvios entirely
precludes the supposition that it here de-
notes merely the everlasting duration of
time. In what sense then is it eternal?
I think but one answer is possible. The
universal mind has of necessity not only
existence in the form of unity, but also
existence in the form of multiplicity.
It is to the existence in multiplicity that
time appertains. But although time is a
condition of the phenomena contained in
this manifold existence, that existence is
itself eternal ; for mind is eternal whether
existing as one or as many : its self-
evolution is eternal, not in time. Tem-
porality then is the attribute of the par-
ticular things comprised in fjifpurTrj owta,
but the mode of mind's existence which
takes that form is eternal. It is in fact
part of the eternal essence of mind that
it should exist in the form of things
which are subject to time. Thus there
is a sense in which time may be termed
eternal, as one element in the eternal

120 HAATHNOS [37 D-
rj/jiepas yap /cat VVKTCIS vat fUjvaQ /cat
eviavrovs, OVK oWa<? Trplv ovpavov yeve&Oat, Tore ufia eice'iva) E
rrjv yeveo~iv avT&v firjâvaraf ravra Be TfdvTa
xpovov, /cat TO T' fy TO r e<rrai ^povov yeyovoTa ecBt), a 8/7
5 (bepovTes ai>6dvop,ev eVc. rrjv diBiov ovtriav OVK 6p0w<i. eyofj.ev
yap Brj w? iji>
eo~Ti re /cat ecrrat, rrj Be TO eo~Tt JAOVOV Kara TQV
dt]dfj 6yov irpoarjKei, TO S' // TO T' ecrTat Trepl TTJV ev xpovq) 38 A
yevefftv lovaav TrpeTret eyeo-0ar tcivij<rei<; yap ia-rov TO Se del
KCITO. TavTa e-ôv aKiviJTcas OVT Trpeo-jSvTepov OVT vewTepov irpoff-
10
rjrcet yiyvecrOai Sid %povov ovBe yeverrOai TTOTZ oi$e yeyovevai
vvv ovB' etVaOtfi? Icreo-ât, TO Trapdirav Te ov&ev oca yeveffis Tot?
ev alffdrjcreL <j)epofAevoi<i Trpoafj^lrev, aXa ^povov TavTa alwva
fUfMVfjUvov /cat /caT* dpiOfiov KVKovfj,evov yeyovev eiSr). /cat
7T/3O? TOi/TOt? eTt Ta TotaSe, TO Te yeyovos elvai yeyovos /cat TO B
15 yi.yv6/j,evov etfat yiyvofievov, CTI Be TO yevrjo-6/j.evov etvat yevr)-
aofievov /cat TO fjirj
bv /j,rj
bv elrai, <&v ovBev a/c/?t/9e? eyofiev.
Trepl fifv ovv TOVTCOV Ta-% av OVK eii) icaipbs TrpeTrcov ev T3
BtaKpiftooyeio-0ai.
4 Kal post yv inserit A. 12 aiuva : aiwva re SZ. 15 eVt 8^ : in re A.
evolution of thought. It is eternal, not
as an aggregate, but as a whole.
i. T|p.e'pa.s
. .
viavTovs] There is a
slight anacoluthon, TT^V y^vftriv avrwif
being substituted for the original object.
i. OVK OVTO.S irplv oupavdv -yevo-0ai j
That is to say, time and its divisions are
not logically conceivable without the
existence of a world of phenomena : if
there is to be succession, there must be
things to succeed each other. But as
there is no beginning of the /ciff/tos in
time, there is no beginning of time itself.
Aristotle, with his usual confusion be-
tween metaphor and substance, accuses
Plato of generating time in time :
physica
VIII i
25 i
b
17 Hdrwv 5' avrbv yevvq.
/u.6^05. In Plato's narrative no other
mode of expressing it would be ad-
missible. Proklos well says xpdvos y&p
jier' ovpavov ytyovtv, ov XP^VOV fd>ptoi>,
d' 6 irai xpovos, wore tv rip cnrcipu
Xpov<f> yivtrat 6 otpavbs KO.I
fffriv e</>' ficdrfpa Ka.06.irtp b
4. ^ryovora t8i]] i.e. forms or modes
of time, and therefore belonging to
6. TQ Si TO ?<TTI] This passage
leaves no doubt about the perfect clear-
ness of Plato's conception of eternity
as distinguished from time. Eternity is
quite another thing from everlasting du-
ration : it is that which /ue'ifei lv M, it
is apart from time and has nothing to do
with succession. Time has been and
shall be for everlasting,' but the infinity
of its duration has nothing in common
with eternity, for it is a succession.. Plato,
as he was certainly the first to form a
real conception of immateriality, was
probably the first who firmly grasped
the notion of eternity. Parmenides in-
deed uses similar language, verse 64
(Karsten), otfiror' tijv otiS' fffrai, tirei vvv
tffTiv 6/jLov irSa>
|
b> fwexe's. But the
materiality attaching to his conception
of tv renders it
very doubtful whether
he actually realised the full meaning of

38 B] TIMAIO2. 121
named time. For whereas days and nights and months and
years were not before the universe was created, he then devised
the generation of them along with the fashioning of the universe.
Now all these are portions of time, and was and shall be are
forms of time that have come to be, although we wrongly
ascribe them unawares to the eternal essence. For we say that
it was and is and shall be, but in verity is alone belongs to it :
and was and shall be it is meet should be applied only to
Becoming which moves in time ;
for these are motions. But
that which is ever changeless without motion must not become
elder or younger in time, neither must it have become so in the
past nor be so in the future ;
nor has it to do with any attributes
that Becoming attaches to the moving objects of sense : these
have come into being as forms of time, which is the image of
eternity and revolves according to number. Moreover we say
that the become is the become, and the becoming is the be-
coming, and that which shall become is that which shall become,
and not-being is not-being. In all this we speak incorrectly.
But concerning these things the present were perchance not the
right season to inquire particularly.
this. It may even be doubted whether can say it is. Compare Plutarch de eJ
Aristotle, though Plato had preceded apud Delphos 19. Again to say JJLTJ
uv
him, held an equally clear view: see for is /m? ov is absurd and contradictory,
instance de caelo I ix 279* 23 foil. With It might be rejoined that Plato has
the present passage may be compared himself proved that /XT) ov does in a
the minute discussion in Parmenides certain sense exist: Sophist 259 A ftm
140 E 142 A. ffa^ffTara, & dvayKys elvai TO /*i) ov,
8. KiVTi<ris "y^P &TOV] i.e. they im- And in Parmenides 162 A he shows that
ply succession. Set O.VTO oevubv ^xe '" r v A"? e"'a' T0 e'" at
13. KttT dpi9p.6v KVKov(ivov] i.e. ful- A"7 ov, el /ilXXct /IT) eJwu. In the Sophist
filling regular periodic cycles, such as however Plato, by elucidating the true
years months and days. nature of /ii) ov, is controverting the
14. irpos TOVTOIS ?TI rd roidBc] sc. logical and metaphysical errors which
OVK 6p6us tyo/j.ev. arose from assuming that /XT) ov was an
TO yeyovos Ivoi Y
-
YOV S1 One m" absolute contradictory of ov, and from
accuracy of which we are guilty is ignoring the copulative force of iffrt.
to apply the terms yv and &mu to Here he is complaining of that very use
eternity : a second is to apply tori to of tffriv as a copula : it is wrong, he says,
phenomena- and to non-existence. To that the word should have been employed
say that yeyovbs is yeyovos is incorrect; for that purpose: it is the inaccuracy
for even as we say 'is', it has changed of human thought represented in lan-
from what it was : it is ever moving and guage.
we can find no stable point where we 38 B 39 E, c. xi. So time is created

122 IIAATflN02 [ 3 8 B-
XI. Xpoi/o? 6 ovv /iter' ovpavov yeyovev, ti-a apa
'd/J.a Kal vdwffiv, av TTOTC v<ri
Kara Svvauiv 77'
TO // 70/3 8>) 7rapd8eijfJ.a irdvra alwvd e&riv C
5 oV, o 8' av Bid reXovs TOI> diravra %p6vov yeyovu><? re /cat aw Kal
ecrouevo?. e ovv 6jov Kal Biavoias 6eov roiavrr}^ Trpo? ^povov
lyeveo-iv, [jiva yevvrjGrj ^povos^ 77X40? Kal o~et
r
)vr) Kal rrevre aa
aarpa, eTTiKXrjv e%ovra TrXavrjrd, ets Siopicruov Kal <j)vaKi)v
dpiOuwv xpovov yeyove. awuara 8e avrwv eKacrraiv Troiija-as o
10 deos 07)Kev ei? ra9 7Tpi<f)opd<t, a? ?; Qarepov Tre/JtoSo? ^'ety, eTrra
ovo~a<? oi>Ta eTrra, <rer)vr)v fiev et? roy Trepl 717^ jrpdorov, rj.iov 8' D
et9 TOV Bevrepov virep 7779, ewafyopov Be Kal TOV iepbv 'Ep/zoO
ejouevov et9 roi)9 Taêt /êy io-6Spouov 77X40) KVKOV icvras,
vo yevvyOfi xp&o* inclusi.
13 TOIS : roV AHZ.
3 Staiwvias : aluvlas S. 7
8 TrXai^ro: TrXaviyTcu S.
along with the material universe and co-
eval therewithal, to complete its simili-
tude to the eternal type. And for the
measuring of time God made the sun
and the moon and five other planets ;
and he set them in the seven orbits into
which the circle of the Other was sun-
dered, and gave each of them its fitting
period: and being instinct with living
soul every planet learnt and understood
its appointed task. And those that re-
volved in smaller orbits fulfilled their
revolutions more speedily than those which
moved in larger. And whereas their
orbits were inclined at an angle to the
direction wherein the universe moves,
the motion of the Same in its diurnal
round converted all their circles into
spirals : and since their motion was op-
posed to the rotation of the universe,
whereby they were carried round, the
slower, as making less way against this
rotation, seemed more swift than the
swifter and to overtake those by which
they were in truth overtaken. And God
kindled a light, even the sun, in the
second orbit, that it should shine to the
ends of the universe, and men might
learn number from the heavenly periods.
For night and day are measured by the
revolution of the universe, and months
and years by the moon and the sun ; and
all the other planets give measures of
time, diverse and manifold, though they
are not accounted such by the multitude :
and the perfect year is fulfilled when all
the revolutions come round at the same
time to the same point. For these causes
were the heavenly bodies created.
i.
|T' ovpavov yYOVV] 'âs come
into being in our story ', as the tense de-
notes. Time and the material universe
are of necessity strictly coeval, since each
implies the other nor can exist apart
from it.
i. S.v TTOT X.WTIS] Proklos has some
sensible remarks on this passage, saying
<ra0ws a.yivi>T)Tov KO.! d<f>9aprov delKWffi
TOV ovpavbv. el yap ytyovtv, ev pov^
yiyovev. el d& yuera xpbvov yeyovev, OVK
ev XP V V yfyovev ovde yftp o xp VO! ev
XpovQ yeyovev, Iva. (tr) irpo XP VOV XP VO!
jf.
el apa yuera xpovov ytyovev, ov yeyove.
Sei yap trav TO yiyv6fj.evov [jxTayeveffTepov
tlvai xpofov 6 5' ovpavos ovdafj.js effTt
Xpovov fj.eTa.yeveaT(pos...5fj.oiov oftv J>s et
elvat ôvo/j,evo3 TO.S OaTepov
vfpi<l>opM eTTTadaXtyot ffvvvTrdpxeut aura?*,

TIMAI02. 123
XI. Time then has come into being along with the universe,
that being generated together, together they may be dissolved,
should a dissolution of them ever come to pass ;
and it was
made after the pattern of the eternal nature, that it might be as
like to it as was possible. For the pattern is existent for all
eternity ;
but the copy has been and is and shall be throughout
all time continually. So then this was the plan and intent of
God for the generation of time ;
the sun and the moon and five
other stars which have the name of planets have been created
for defining and preserving the numbers of time. And when
God had made their several bodies, he set them in the orbits
wherein the revolution of the Other was moving, in seven circles
seven stars. The moon he placed in that nearest the earth, and
in the second above the earth he set the sun ;
and the morning-
star and that which is held sacred to Hermes he assigned to
those that moved in an orbit having equal speed with the sun,
'iva. ta,v Trore >} cirra* apria ylyvijTai, Kal
avTai apTiai yiyvuvTai, a"r)/J.aii'ui> yui) juera-
ireffLffda.L TO.S TrepHpopas lirl TO apriov, OVTW
877 Kal vvv -qyeiffOai vofJ.iffT^ov irepl TT)J
aXucnas T^S rou /cocrjuou re Kal TOV xpovov.
5. 6 8' afl] Lindau understands
Xpofos : but this produces tautology ;
evidently ovpavos is to be supplied.
7. [Hva -yevvrjOTJ XP VOS] Although
these words are in all mss. and in Pro-
klos, they appear to me so unmistakably
a mere gloss on wpoj XPOVOV y^vecnv that
I have bracketed them. They are not
represented in Cicero's translation.
8. irKTiv ?x VTa iravt]Ta] I have
retained the reading of A, though Stall-
baum's irXavrjrai is perfectly good gram-
mar; emKr)v ^xot>Ta being equivalent to
eTTiKaXov/jLtva: compare Symposium 205 D
TO TOV tiov 6vofJ.a tffxovffl- v> fywrd rt Kal
epav Kal ipaaTai. In Laws 82 [ B Plato
condemns the term TrXa^T/rd, on the score
of irreverence, as implying that these
bodies wandered at random without law.
10. els TO.S Trepi4>opas| sc. the zodiac.
1 1. rjXiov 8' ls TOV Stvrtpov] This
was the usual arrangement in Plato's time
and down to Eudoxos and Aristotle: later
astronomers placed the sun in the fourth
or middle circle, above Venus and Mer-
cury.
12. i<>><r<J>6pov] i.e. Venus. Plato was
aware of the identity of eufffopos and
&T7re/>os. It is somewhat strange that he
gives none of the planets their usual ap-
pellations except Mercury; for these names
must have been current in his day :
they
are all given in Epinomis 987 B, c.
Other Greek names were for Saturn <pal-
i>ut>, for Jupiter QatOuv, for Mars irvpoeis,
for Mercury ffriXfiuv, while Venus was
<f>w(T<f>opos, eo>(T<o/>os, or &T7re/>os : see
Cicero di? natura deorum n 52, 53;
pseudo-Aristotle de mundo 392* 23.
13. els TOVS rau jUv l<r<58po|iov] I
have with Stallbaum adopted royy. The
reading TOV, which has best authority,
can nevertheless hardly be right, since it
would imply that Venus and Mercury had
one and the same orbit. It may be ob-
jected that, if Ki//cXous is to be supplied,
we have an awkward tautology in KvxXovt
KVKOI> t'oWas. But may we not under-
stand irXac^ras? As to the equality of
the periods assigned to the Sun, Venus,
and Mercury, compare Republic 617 B

124 IIAATftNOS [ 3 8 D-
TTJV 8' evavriav elXij^ora^ avrra Suvapiv oOev Karaap,j3dvov<rL re
teal KaTaa/j,/3dvovrai Kara ravrd inr* dijci)v r;to9 re Kal o
rov 'Ep/ioG Kal (0(T(f)6po<?.
ra 8" aa ol &rj teal Si a9 ama?
i8pv<raTo, i T4<? 7T^toi 7ra<7a9, 6 6yos Trdpepyos wv 7rov av
epyov <uv eveica eyerai irapdcr^oi. ravra fiev ovv I'tra)? ra^;' av
Kara <r%or)v v&repov rtjs a^ta? rvoi 8itia'e(o<;. CTreiBr B ovv
re Kal afj.a dXX^Xoij TOV re ?/3-
5ofMV Kal ZKTOV and V^/JLTTTOV. The author
of the Epinomis, though in rather indefi-
nite language, gives the same account,
986 E i) rerdpTri 8t <f>opa.
Kal St^|o5os a/j.a
Kal ir^wrtj rdxft. fj.tv TjXt^ <rxf56' tcr-ri, Kal
ovre ppaSvrtpa ovre ffarruv : cf. 990 B.
Probably, as Martin suggests, Plato was
led to this hypothesis by the observation
that at the end of the sun's annual revo-
lution the two planets are in close prox-
imity to him.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
I. TI^V 8' ^vavrCav clXrjxoTas avru
Svvap.iv] These words are usually under-
stood to mean that Venus and Mercury
revolve in a direction contrary to that of
the sun. This view I believe to be un-
tenable. Aristotle indeed says, metaph.
A xii IOI9
3
15, dvvafj.is tyerai i) fj.tv apxi}
Ku/ijcrewy ^ /uera/JoXi/s 17 tv trtpy rj y Zrepov.
But still Svvafjus tvavrla. cannot amount
in itself to contrary motion, only to a
contrary tendency, whatever that may be.
Moreover the facts which fell under
March
Feb.
Dec.
73Jan.
Plato's observation do not in the slightest
degree lend themselves to such a hypo-
thesis. Martin gives the following state-
ment of the facts which it is supposed
the contrary motion is intended to ex-
plain. After the conjunction of either
Venus or Mercury with the sun at perigee,
for some time the planet gains upon the
sun ; then for several days it is nearly
stationary in relation to him ; after which
it
begins to lose ground, comes into con-
junction with the sun at apogee, continues
for some time longer to lose ground, and
then again appears stationary : once more
it
begins to gain on the sun, comes into
conjunction at perigee, and so forth ad
infinitiim.
Now, as Martin observes, the theory of

TIMAI02. 12$
but having a contrary tendency : wherefore the sun and Hermes
and the morning star in like manner overtake and are over-
taken one by another. And as to the rest, were we to set forth
all the orbits wherein he put them and the causes wherefore he
did so, the account, though only by the way, would lay on us a
heavier task than that which was our chief object in giving it.
These things perhaps may hereafter, when we have leisure, find
a fitting exposition.
contrary motion is flagrantly inadequate
to account for these facts; for since the
motion of the planets will thus be ap-
proximately in the same direction as the
motion of the Same, they would regularly
and rapidly gain upon the sun. The truth
is, as I believe, that Plato meant the sun
to share the contrary motion of Venus
and Mercury in relation to the other four
planets. It is
quite natural, seeing that
the sun and the orbits of Venus and Mer-
cury are encircled by the orbit of the
earth, while Plato supposed them all to
revolve about the earth, that he should
class them together apart from the four
whose orbits really do encircle that of the
earth : his observations would very readily
lead him to attributing to these three a
motion contrary to the rest; but there
seems nothing which could possibly have
induced him to class the sun apart from
the two inferior planets. But if this is
so, what is the tvavria. 8'jva.fus? What I
believe it to be may be understood from
the accompanying figure, which is copied
from part of a diagram in Arago's
Popular Astronomy. This represents the
motion of Venus relative to the earth
during one year, as observed in 1713.
It will be seen that the planet pursues her
path among the stars pretty steadily from
January to May; after that she wavers,
begins a retrograde movement, and then
once more resumes her old course, thus
forming a loop, which is traversed from
May to August. After that she proceeds
unfaltering on her way for the rest of the
year. This process is repeated so that
five such loops are formed in eight years.
Mercury behaves in precisely the same
way, except that his curve is very much
more complex and the loops occur at far
shorter intervals. Now this is just what
I believe is the ivavria. dfoa.fj.is, this ten-
dency on the part of Venus, as viewed
from the earth, periodically to retrace her
steps. These retrogressions of the planets
were well known to the Greek astrono-
mers, who invented a complex theory of
revolving spheres to account for them.
Probably Plato meant to put forward no
very definite astronomical theory : for
instance he gives no hint of the revolving
spheres : he merely records the fact of this
retrogressive tendency being observable.
If the contrary motion of the two
planets is insisted on, the result follows
that we have here the one theory in the
whole dialogue which is manifestly and
flagrantly inadequate. Plato's physical
theories, however far they may differ
from the conclusions of modern science,
usually offer a fair and reasonable expla-
nation of such facts as were known to
him: they are sometimes singularly feli-
citous, and never absurd. I cannot then
believe that he has here presented us
with a hypothesis so obviously futile.
And if he had, how did it escape the
vigilance of Aristotle, who would have
been ready enough to seize the occasion
of making a telling point against Plato ?
It is remarkable that neither in Re-
public 617 A, nor in Epinomis 986 E (the
author of which must have been well
acquainted with Plato's astronomy), nor

126 IIAATnNOS [ 3 8 E-
eavriKero <f>opdv ru>v o<ra eSet
Seoyiofr re efjt,^rvôt<; a-cafiara Be6evra
eyevvr/Or) TO re trpocrraÔfV efiaffe, Kara Brj rrjv Barepov
dv rra^lav ovarav, Bid TIJS ravrov (fropds Iovcrdv re real
xpa- 39 A
5 rovfj,evt]vy
TO fJ.ev petôva avrwv, TO
'
drro> KVKOV lov, Bdrrov
fjiev rd rov edrrw, rd Be rov //&> ftpaSi/Tepov Trepiyeiv. rfj Br}
ravrov cpopa rd Tartara Trepuovra vrro rwv flpaBvrepov lovrwv
e<f>aivTO Karaap,ftdvovra KaraaiijBdvecr6ai' rravra<$ <ydp TOI)?
KVKOV<S avrwv o-Tpe<f>ov<ra eX,t/ca, Bid TO Bt^fj Kara rd evavria
4 lovaav :
lovffys et mox KpaTOv/j.^vt]^ AHZ. 7
pov :
(3pa.5vTtp<av A.
: T& omittit A.
yet in the pseuclo-Timaeus Locrus, who
has a rather minute paraphrase of the
present passage, is there mention of a
contrary motion as belonging to any of
the planets.
4. iovcrdv TC Kal KpaTovp.VT)v] This
correction is absolutely necessary. The
circle of the Other passes Sict T^S ravrov
<t>opas, that is, traverses it at the angle
which the ecliptic makes with the equator,
and is controlled by it, that is, it is carried
round as a whole by the rotation of the
Same. The relative motion of the Same
and the Other are precisely exemplified,
if we suppose an ordinary terrestrial globe
to be revolving on its own axis, and a
point upon its surface traversing it along
the circle of the ecliptic in a direction
approximately contrary to the globe's
rotation : thus the point, while retaining
its own independent motion on the surface
of the globe, shares the rotary motion of
the whole. Lindau would justify oi5<n?i
Ko.1 Kparovfdvqs by treating it as a genitive
absolute referring to TTJV Oar^pov <j>opav :
but this is hopeless.
5. 6irrov (iiv rd TOV IXdrrtt] Thus
the periods of revolution continuously in-
crease from the Moon to Saturn. Bockh
has sufficiently demonstrated that the
words ffGLrrov and fipadurepov do not refer
to the absolute velocity of the planets
through space, but to the celerity with
which they accomplish their revolutions:
thus the moon, having the smallest orbit
to traverse, completes it in by far the
shortest period; although her actual ve-
locity may be much less than that of Saturn
who has the largest orbit and the longest
period. Thus the Sun, Venus, and Mer-
cury, having the same period for aTroKa-
ra.ffTO.ois, differ in actual velocity in the
proportion 2, 3, 4.
6. TTJ 81) TO.VTOV <j>op<j] The difficult
passage which follows has been very
lucidly expounded by Bockh in his in-
valuable essay 'Ueber das kosmische
System des Platon
'
pp. 38 48. Martin's
note also is excellent : of Stallbaum's the
less said the better. The two chief points
requiring explanation are the apparent
overtaking of the swifter planets by the
slower, and the formation of the spirals.
To take the former first, the sentence rrj
S ravrov.,. KaraXafjL^dvfffScu is explained
by the following irajras yap...dirt<}>aivtv.
Let the circle ACBD represent the
universe, diurnally rotating from east to
west on its own axis, which is
perpendicular
to the plane of the equator AB. The re-
presentation being in two dimensions, the
straight lines A, CD must be taken to
indicate great circles of a sphere. Thus the
motion of the Same is in the direction AB.
The motion of the Other, or of the planets,
is in the direction CD. Let us suppose
two planets to be at a given time at the
point E. Now had these planets, which we

39 A] TIMAI02. 127
But when each of the beings which were to join in creating
time had arrived in its proper orbit, and had been generated as
animate creatures, their bodies secured with living bonds, and
had learnt their appointed task ;
then in the motion of the
Other, which was slanting and crossed the motion of the Same
and was thereby controlled, whereas one of these planets had a
larger, another a smaller circuit, the lesser orbit was completed
more swiftly, the larger more slowly : but because of the motion
of the Same those which revolved most swiftly seemed to be
overtaken by those that went more slowly, though really they
overtook them. For the motion of the Same, twisting all their
circles into spirals, because they have a separate and simul-
will call Pl
and P2
,
no independent motion
of their own, but were stationary relatively
to the universe, it is obvious that in
twenty-four hours the revolution of the
Same would bring them both round to
the same point E. But suppose that P"
travels twice as fast as P1
(that is accom-
plishes twice as great a fraction of its own
orbit in the same time) :
then, while during
the day P1
has arrived at f, P2
has got
as far as G. Thus, since the course of
the planets is approximately opposite to
the rotation of the whole, P2
has counter-
acted that motion to twice as great an
extent as P1
,
and accordingly is
propor-
tionally longer in being carried back
opposite E. Thus P1
, departing more
slowly from the revolution of the Same
(f3pa.dvra.Ta. airibv O.JT ai/Trjs), arrives at
the same region of the heavens earlier
than P2
, and so seems to the popular eye
to have outstripped it. The revolution
of the Same being immeasurably the
swiftest, it is the motion imparted by this
which attracts the eye from day to day ;
and when the leeway due to the planet's
own motion is made up, the slower planet
appears faster because it
accomplishes the
rotation of the Same in the shorter time.
Supposing for instance on a given day
the moon rises as the sun sets, on the
following day the moon will not rise for
perhaps an hour after sunset, thus appear-
ing to have lost an hour on the sun.
9. <rrp<j>owa gXixa] The motion of
the Same produces the spirals as follows.
In the foregoing diagram we will suppose
a planet at a given time to be at the point
E. Now, as before said, were the planet
itself stationary, this diurnal revolution
would in twenty-four hours bring it round
again to the point E; and the figure
described by the planet would be a perfect
circle. But, as it is, while the motion of
the Same is whirling it round, the planet
is travelling along its own path towards
G. At the end of twenty-four hours then
the planet is not at E but at G; and the
figure it has described under the influence
of the motion of the Same is accordingly
not a circle but a spiral. Similarly the
next diurnal revolution brings it back not
to G, but to a point between G and Z>;
so that each daily journey of the planet
caused by the revolution of the Same is

128 TIAATHNOS [39 A
afia Trpoievai, TO flpaBvrara aTTiov dfi avrrjs 01/0-779 ra%i<rrrj<; B
eyyvrara aTrecfraivev. 'iva o eirj fierpov evapye? n 777)09 a.r)a
ftpaBvrijri xal rd%ei, KaO' a Trepl rd$ OKTW (fropds Tropevotro, <&>9
6 0eo9 avfj^lrev ev rrj 7T/309 yrjv Bevrepa r<av TrepioBwv, o Brj vvv
5 KK^KafMev rjXiov, 'iva '6 rt, yuaXtcrra els cnravra fyaivoi rov ovpa-
vov firdo"%oi re dpiOfjiov rd &>a, 00*0*9 r]v Trpoarjicov, fiaOovra
Trapd rf}<? ravrov Kal 6p,olov 7repi<f)0pa<t. vug JJMV ovv rjfiepa re
yeyovev ovrax; Kal Bid ravra, 77 rrjs /ita? Kal (^povifMwrdnjf KV- C
/c7;creft)9 Tre/jtoSo?' pels Be eiretBdv o-erjm) 7repie0ovcra TOV
10
eavrfj? KVKOV rfkiov eVt/caraXa/ST;, eVtauro? Be OTrorav 7/Xto?
rov eavrov TrepieXdrj KVKOV. rwv 8' da)v ra9 TrepioBovs OVK
evvevorjKores dvOpwrroi, 7rr)v 0X170* rwv 7rowv, ovre 6vo/j,d-
%ovo~iv ovre Trpo? aXX^Xa i;vfjbfj,rpovvrai cncoTrovvres
ware tw? eVo? elTreiv OVK 'icrao-i
j^povov ovra ra9 rovrcov
15 TrXr/Oei fiev d/jirj^avw ^pwpAva^, Tre7roiKifjiva<j Be ffav/Maa-rws* D
ecrri, 8' o/ia><? ovBev tjrrov Karavoijo-ai Bvvarov, &5? o 76 reXeo<?
xpbvov rov reeov eviavrov 77X77/301 Tore, orav
3 Ko.6' d scripsi. Kal TO. ASZ. a-j ra H.
a spiral. This of course in no wise affects
its own proper movement along the circle
of the Other.
It is necessary to bear clearly in mind
that the apparent overtaking of the swifter
by the slower planets has nothing to do
with the spirals. The spirals are due
solely to the obliquity of the ecliptic.
But if there were no such obliquity, if the
motion of the Other were directly opposed
to that of the Same, the illusion concern-
ing the swifter and slower planets would
be unaltered. In that case Pl
and F2
,
instead of travelling to /' and G, would
travel to points on EA equidistant with F
and G from E. In this case no spirals
would arise; the planets would all in
good time get back to E ; but Pl
would
equally appear to have outstripped I*2
.
A few words must be said concerning
the construction, which is not quite free
from obscurity. I agree with Bockh in
joining Sia. rb $ixrj...irpo'tfva.i with the pre-
ceding clause, but not in taking iravTat
TOI)J KfoXoi't as the subject ;
for then it is
hardly possible to give a suitable sense to
Six?;. But if we regard rrjv Bartpov <f>opai>
and TTJV TO.VTOV jointly as the subject of
irpoievai we are enabled to do so. The
spirals are formed because the circles
move 3xi?, that is, separately, asunder:
i.e. they are not two contrary motions in
the same circle, but two approximately
contrary motions in two separate inter-
secting circles, icari Tavavrla does not
constitute any part of the cause why the
spirals are formed ; they would arise
equally were the motion of the Other
from D to C; but Plato is in fact con-
densing into this one clause a statement
of how the spirals are formed and how
the slower planets seem to overtake the
swifter: the first is given by Sixy, the
second by /card rdvavrla. The difficulty
of the passage mainly arises from this ex-
treme brevity.
3. K<x0* a] I have ventured upon this
correction of the ms. reading Kal ra, which
certainly cannot stand, involving as it
does the absurd conception that the hea-

D] TIMAIOS. 129
taneous motion in the opposite way, being of all the swiftest
displays closest to itself that which departs most slowly from
it. And that there might be some clear measure of the relative
swiftness and slowness with which they moved in their eight
revolutions, God kindled a light in the second orbit from the
earth, which we now have named the sun, in order that it might
shine most brightly to the ends of heaven, and that living
things, so many as was meet, should possess number, learning it
from the motion of the same and uniform. Night then and day
have been created in this manner and for these causes ;
and
this is one revolution of the undivided and most intelligent
circuit ;
and a month is fulfilled when the moon, after com-
pleting her own orbit, overtakes the sun ;
a year, when the sun
has completed his own course. But the courses of the others
men have not taken into account, save a few out of many ;
and
they neither give them names nor measure them against one
another, comparing them by means of numbers nay I may
say they do not know that time arises from the wanderings of
these, which are incalculable in multitude and marvellously
intricate. None the less however can we observe that the
perfect number of time fulfils the perfect year at the moment
venly bodies could not see their way until cerning time: they do not reflect that the
their orbits were illumined by the Sun. revolutions of the other celestial bodies
6. [iaOovra irapd TTJS ravrov] Day equally afford measurements of time,
and night are caused by the diurnal rota- 1
7. r6v rtXeov eviavrov] The perfect
tion of the universe, which is the motion year is when all the planets return to one
of the Same, round the earth : and these, and the same region of the heavens at
being smaller than any other divisions of the same time. See Stobaeus eel. I
264.
time produced by the celestial bodies, are <rxi? KeâX^, 'attain their starting-point';
taken as the unit of measurement. Hence as Stobaeus /./.
puts it, 6rav tirl TOI>J dfi
man derived the conception of number: <Sv ^pâvro rrjs Kiv/i<reus d<piKvwi>Tai rdirovs.
compare 47 A, and Epinomis 978 c foil. Alkinoos also says that the perfect number
8. 11 TI)S ("as] The circle of the Same, is complete when all the planets arrive in
it will be remembered, was left aa-ârm. the same sign of the zodiac and are so situate
The Trepi'oSos is here put for the time con- that a radius drawn from the earth to the
sumed in completing the ireptodos, the sphere of the fixed stars passes through the
wxO-/inepov, as Proklos calls it. centres of all. The phrase ffxv Kf<f>arjv
10. tjXiov liriKaToXdpt)] i.e. thesyn- seems like a technical term of astronomy,
odic month of ig days ; the sidereal but I have found no other example of it,
month, or period in which the moon com- though Stobaeus speaks of a Ke<pa)
pletes her own circuit, being about 27$. Kpbvov. As to the duration of the fdyat
14. OVK llo-aori p6vov ovra] Plato tviavrbs there is no agreement among the
means that men have not generalised con- ancients. Tacitus dial, de orat. 16 gives
P. T. Q

130 TIAATflNOS [39 n
Tft3i/ OKTW TrepioBwv rd rrpos arja ^v^rrepavOevra rd^rj
K<f>aT)V TW rOV TdVTOV KOI 6/iOlOK tOI/TO9 dva/J,Tpr)6eVTa KVKtt>.
Kara ravra Brj /cal rovrcav eveKa e<yevvrj0r) rwv ao-rpwv oo~a Bt
ovpavov TTopevo/jieva ffê rpOTrds, "va ro8' (<? ofioiorarov r) TO> E
5 rG> Kal VOIjrto %(>(> 7T/JO? Tr/V TrjS Stat&Wa? fjUfJUffft^ $U(7e&>9.
XII. Kal ra fJLev aa 1781; pexpt ^povov yevecreow djreip-
yao~ro et9 oôLorrjra <atrep aTreiKaêro, TW Be (j,i]7ra> TO frdvra
o>a evTo? ar^ToO <yjvr)fjieva TrepieiXiyêvai, ravrrj eri etêy avo-
/io/ft)?. TOUTO 817 TO âTaXotTroi/ aTreipydêro avrov Trpo? TI)Z/
10 TOI) 7rapa8et7/Aaro5 ajrorvTrovpevos <f>vcnv. yirep ovv vow evoixras
tSea? TO) o ecrrt %(ov, olaL re eveicrt, /cat ocrat, icaOopa, roiavras
Kal rocravras Sievorjdtj Selv Kal r68e cr^lv. el<rl Srj rerrapes,
fiia fjuev ovpdviov Oewv yevos, ar) 8e irrr^vov Kal deporropov, 40 A
rpLrt] Se evvbpov elSo?, Treôz/ 8e /cat %paaiov reraprov. rov
15 oyy deiov rr)v rfXeicrrrfv ISeav K rcvpos aTreipya^ro, 07T<W9 o
a//.7rporarov ISeiv re KaXXicrrov eirj, rm Be rravrl
VKVKOV eVotet, rtflffft re 6t9 rrjv rov Kpario-rov
^vveTTOfjievov, vei/Jias rcepl Trdvra KVKO> rov ovpavov,
dijdivov avra> rcerroiKL^êvov eti/at /ca^' oov. Kiv^(ret<; Be Svo
12 5^ : 5^ S.
3 iyevv/iOrj :
yfi>-/iOr) A. g dureipydfero :
air^pâro AZ.
it on the authority of Cicero at 12954
years; but Cicero himself, de natura
deorum II 52, expresses no opinion.
1. rd irpis tfXXrjXa vjiirpav06Ta
rdxi] i-e. when their several periods are
accomplished simultaneously: raxy of
course refers to the period of aTroKOTei-
O-TCKHS, not to the actual velocity.
2. T<p ravTov] Because the periods
are measured by the number of days and
nights they contain.
39 E 40 D, c. xii. Next God created
four kinds of living creatures in the uni-
verse, so many forms as he saw there
were in the type. One, the race of the
heavenly gods, he fashioned for the most
part of fire ;
the second soared in the air ;
the third dwelt in the waters ; and the
fourth went upon dry land. The gods,
who are the stars of heaven, he placed in
the sphere of the Same to follow its revo-
lution, so many of them as are fixed stars ;
and he gave them two motions, one a
uniform rotation on their own axis, the
other a forward revolution about the cen-
tre of the universe; but in the other five
motions they had no part. The planets
he set, as aforesaid, in the sphere of the
Other. But the earth he made motionless
at the centre, fast about the axis of the
universe, to be the measure of day and
night, first and most august of divine
beings. Now all the motions of these
stars and their crossings and conjunctions
and occultations it were vain to describe
without an orrery : let this account of
them then suffice.
n. roiavras Kal rooravras] The in-
fluence of oM re Kal foai preceding has
caused these words to be substituted for
rafrrri, which would regularly correspond
to $ire/>.
13. ovpaviov 0v y^vos] i.e. the stars
and planets. The 7^17 are four in number

40 A] TIMAIOS. 131
when the relative swiftnesses of all the eight revolutions ac-
complish their course together and reach their starting-point,
being measured by-the circle of the same and uniformly moving.
In this way then and for these causes were created all such of
the stars as wander through the heavens and turn about therein,
in order that this universe may be most like to the perfect and
ideal animal by its assimilation to the eternal being.
XII. Now up to the generation of time all else had been
accomplished in the likeness of that whereunto it was likened :
but in that it did not yet contain all living creatures created
within it, herein it was still unlike. So he went on to complete
this that remained unfinished, moulding it after the nature of the
pattern. So many forms then as Mind perceived to exist in the
ideal animal, according to their variety and multitude, such
kinds and such a number did he think fit that this universe
should possess. These are fourfold : first the race of the
heavenly gods, next the winged tribe whose path is in the air,
third whatso dwells in the water, and fourth that which goes
upon dry land. The visible form of the deities he created
chiefly of fire, that it might be most radiant and most fair to
behold ;
and likening it to the All he shaped it like a sphere
and assigned it to the intelligence of the supreme to follow after
it ;
and he disposed it throughout all the firmament of heaven,
to be an adornment of it in very truth, wrought cunningly over
the whole expanse. And he bestowed two movements upon
to correspond with the four elements. It is
preferable to airi?ipa.To an entirely in-
to be observed that only in the first class appropriate word. I cannot think that
does the correspondence depend upon the the authority of A ought to prevail to the
structure : the remaining three are classed exclusion of sense,
according to their place of abode. 17. els-r^v TOV Kparfrrrov 4>p6vT]<riv] A
1 5. rtv irXt<rrnv l&av] cf. Epinomis very bold substitute for ets T^V rov Kpariffrov
981 D rb yap TrXeiffrov wvpfa <?xe > ^Xet /*V irepi(f>opa.v <j>povin<i3Ta.Tr]v otiffav. T& Kpd-
777$ re Kol ci^pos, %" ^ Ka' a-irovTuv T&V TKTTOV evidently signifies the Same, cf.
&wv /3/>ax&* /J-tpfi-
The reason for the 36 c ; and the phrase means that the fixed
qualification is doubtless that were they stars, situate in the outermost sphere,
constituted solely of fire, they would be follow the diurnal rotation of the universe,
opara, but not airrd : some admixture of but do not change their positions relative
earth was necessary to give them the to it.
second distinctive property of bodily ex- 18. Koo-fxov dXijOivov] The play on the
istence; cf. 31 B. word K<So>ios is obvious, though hardly
dircipYO^CTo] This reading, which is capable of being retained in translation,
that of all mss. except A, seems certainly
92

132 IIAATflNOS [40 A
e/m<rr&>, rrjv pev ev ravrw Kara ravrn -rrep
rwv avrwv
del rd avrd eavrw Siavoovftevq), TT)V 8e et? TO TrpoaQev viro rrj<>
B
ravrov ical O/AOIOV 7repi<f>opd<; Kparovfievy rds Be Trevre Kivq<reis
dtcivrjrov fcal eo"ro<?, iv '6 TI /j,di(rra avra>i> tca<rrov yevotro &5<?
5 api<rrov. e ^? 8>) r^9 atria? yeyovev oer' a7ravrj rwv dcrrpwv
&>a 6ela ovra teal di&ia teal Kara ravrd ev ravr<a arpe(j)6fjLeva
del fjLevet" rd &e rpeTropeva /cat irdinf]v roiavrrjv i(r%ovra, tca-
daTrep ev rot? irpocrOev epprfdrj, tear e/ceiva yeyove. >yrjv 8e rpo(f)ov
p,ev q/jLerepav, elop>evr]v Se Trepl rov Sid Travrcs TTOOV rera-
3 Kparovfj^v<f :
Kparovfitvuv A. 9 rty ante irtpl habet A.
1. T^V |xiv 4v ravrw] No more is
meant than that rotation upon an axis,
being of all motions the most uniform, is
the best symbol of the unerring uniformity
pertaining to the activity of pure reason.
The stars then, being the highest of finite
intelligences, naturally have this motion.
A curious instance of false conclusion from
a true premiss is to be found in Aristotle
de caelo II viii
spo
3
25, where the rota-
tion of the heavenly bodies is denied on
the ground that the same side of the moon
is always turned towards us.
2. virA Tijs TavTOv] i.e. the motion
efc T& irpbffOev is not an advance in a
straight line, but by the revolution of the
Same is formed into a circular orbit.
7. rpeirofJitva] sc. rpOTrds txo>rrai
as
above, 39 D.
8. 4v TOIS irporflv] 38 c foil.: /car
(Kfiva is merely antecedent to Ka.6d.irep.
9. eiX.o|j.e'vT|v 8i irtpl rov 8wi iravros
iroXov] For an exhaustive and very master-
ly examination of this passage see Bockh's
essay
'
Ueber das kosmische System des
Platon'. Bockh has proved beyond all
controversy that Plato does not here
affirm the rotation of the earth upon her
axis. Grote has indeed attempted to
reply to his arguments, but only to meet
with a crushing refutation: see Bockh's
'Kleine Schriften' vol. in p. 294 foil.
It is indeed evident from one consideration
alone that Plato cannot have intended
the earth to move. The universe, he says,
revolves diurnally on its axis, and thus,
by carrying the sun round with its revo-
lution, causes the alternation of day and
night on any given region of the earth
once in 24 hours. Now if the earth had
an independent revolution of her own,
whether in the same or in a contrary
direction, it is self-evident that this whole
arrangement would be overthrown : if the
theory is to account for the phenomena,
the earth must be absolutely motionless.
The word ei'AXe<r0cu, eiXftffOai, or t-
eff0ai, though it does not necessarily
exclude the idea of motion, in itself in no
wise implies it. Its signification is forcible
compression or conglobation : the earth
is packed or balled round the centre.
Cicero's translation is 'quae traiecto axe
sustinetur'. Various forms of the word
are extremely common in Homer to ex-
press the dense packing of a crowd of
men: e.g. Iliad VIII 215. In passages
where the meaning is extended to include
motion, such as Sophokles Antigone 340
io/j.tvwi> dpbrpuv ?ros els ITOS, the real
force of the word lies, not in the motion,
but in the confinement of the motion
within certain restricted limits, as is justly
pointed out by Prof. Campbell, who says
'
the force of letv is "limited motion"'.
It is indeed safe to affirm that no con-
troversy would ever have arisen on the
subject, but for a passage in Aristotle, de
caelo II xiii 293
b
30. In the Berlin text
this reads as follows : frtot 5 Ka.1 Kfifttvijv

TIMAI02. 133
each, one in the same spot and uniform, whereby it should be
ever constant to its own thoughts concerning the same thing;
the other forward, but controlled by the revolution of the same
and uniform : but for the other five movements he made it
motionless and still, that each star might attain the highest
completeness of perfection. From which cause have been
created all the stars that wander not but abide fast for ever,
living beings divine and eternal and in one spot revolving :
while those that move in a circle and wander as aforesaid have
come into being on those principles which in the foregoing we
have declared.
And the earth our foster-mother, that is globed round the
axis stretched from pole to pole of the universe, her he fashioned
296
a 26 ol 5' eirl TOV peffov QevTes ?XXe<r0cu
Kal Kivelffdal (pavi : where the added
words distinguish the theory there stated
from Plato's.
One argument of Grote's may briefly
be noticed. The inconsistency, he says,
between the rotation of the earth on her
axis and the diurnal rotation of the uni-
verse escaped Aristotle (since he does not
advert to it), why then should it not have
escaped Plato? But Aristotle is not
criticising the cosmogony of the Timaeus,
but discussing the mobility of the earth ;
therefore he is not concerned to notice
such an inconsistency : moreover Grote is
herein guilty ofpetitioprincipii respecting
Aristotle's text. But it is really super-
erogatory to expose the weakness of a
hypothesis which has reduced so able a
reasoner as Grote, in his eagerness to con-
vict Plato of an irrationality, to insist on
importing the fir/ra/cTos from the mythical
imagery of Republic x into the serious
cosmology of the Timaeus, to serve as
a solid axis of the universe. Plato was
never guilty of such an absurdity as to
conceive the axis as other than a mathe-
matical line. If we are to find a place in
the Timaeus for the aTpaKTos, why not
also for the o-<j>6v5voi, for the knees of
Necessity, in short for the whole appara-
tus of the myth ?
M TOV KevTpov (pa.<rlv avTyv te<rdai irepl
TOV dta TTUVTOS reTa.fJ.lvov TTOOV, uffwep ev
T Tt/ucuy yeypaiTTai. This (except that
for teo-0ai they give eiei<r6a.i) is the
reading of two mss. ; three others add Kal
Ki.ve'tffOcu. Thus there arise three a/iroplai :
(i) are the words Kal KiveiarOcu, which
Simplicius had in his text, genuine? (i)
has Aristotle misstated Plato's view? (3)
if we admit Kal Kiveladai, can the passage
be so understood as to harmonise with
Plato's statement ? Bockh, adopting the
third hypothesis, interprets Aristotle thus :
<f>a.(rlv avTrjv "(ea0ai" Kal KivetaOai "irepl
TOV Sid. iravTdi TeTa.fj.evov irbov". That
is, he supposes Aristotle to be stating, not
Plato's view, but that of some who con-
ceived the earth to rotate, quoting the
words of the Timaeus, but adding Kal
KtvelffOat to adapt them to his present
purpose. This however is perhaps too
ingenious. As for the second alternative,
we have seen and have yet to see that
Aristotle has repeatedly misrepresented
Plato; and if he was here citing the
Timaeus from memory, it is impossible
to say that he may not have done so in
the present instance. On the whole how-
ever I am disposed to believe that the
words Kal Kivelo-Oai were added by some
unwise annotator, who had in his mind
the sentence which occurs soon afterwards,

134 HAATflNOS [40 c
fievov, (f>vaKa Kal 8r)/j,iovpybv WKros re Kal rjiiepas efîjâvrja-aro, c
Trpwrijv Kal 7rpecrf3vrdr'r)V uewv ocroi euros ovpavov yeyovafft.
yopelas 8e rovrwv avrwv Kal TrapaftoXds drja>v, Kal <ra>
Trepl rd<; rwv KVKWV ?rpo9 eavrovs eiravaKVKXrio-eis Kal -rrpoo--
5
/
y(apTjo'i<t, ev re rais ^vvd'^reo'iv orroloi rwv Oewv tear aX?;Xoi;9
Kal OO~OL KaravriKpv, /J,e0* ovo-rivd<$ re eiri7rpoo-0ev
IMV re Kara %p6vov$ ovarivas e/cacrrot KaraKaVTrrov-
rai Kal 7rdiv dva<j>aiv6p,evoi ^>o/3oi9 Kal cn]êla rwv /iera ravra D
yevTjo'oijievwv Tot9 ov SwafAevois oi
yiêo~uai rrepsrrovo'i, TO e<yeii>
3 ra addidi. g oil Swafj-tvoit : oil omittunt SZ.
It may be asked, must not the earth,
having a soul, possess motion, seeing that
all the other heavenly bodies move be-
cause they are t/ji^vxoi ? To this Martin
acutely replies that, had she not a soul of
her own, she must rotate on her own axis
(which is part of the axis of the universe),
following the rotation of the whole. But
her vital force enables her to resist this
rotation, and by remaining fixed to mea-
sure day and night: her rest in fact is
equivalent to a motion countervailing the
motion of the whole.
1. ejuiXaKo. Kal 8i](Aiovp'yov] Earth is
the 'guardian' of day and night inas-
much as without her they could not
be measured; the 'creatress', because it
is her shadow which causes night to be
distinct from day. Proklos says juaXXop
firjv 6 /JL^V ijXios T]/j^pa.s, y Si VVKT!)S alria.
But day, regarded as the light portion
of the vvx6"nv-epov, cannot exist unless
night exists wherewith to contrast it;
therefore in that sense earth is its drj/jnovp-
76$: without her there would be light,
but not day. Martin puts it thus :
'
[elle]
est ainsi la productrice du jour par sa
resistance au mouvement, en meme temps
qu'elle en est la gardienne par son im-
mobilit^ '.
2. o<roi VTOS ovpavov] i.e. she is in-
ferior only to the ovpavbs as a whole.
3. xP ^ as] This is an astronomical
term signifying the revolution of the
planets around a common centre, as it
were in a round dance: see Epinomis
982 E iropetav 5
OVTOL. irapaftoXri is explained by Proklos
to denote the position of two planets in
the same longitude, though different lati-
tude, or their rising or setting simul-
taneously :
Trapo/SoXds d ras /card /iTjjcoj
avrCiv (rw'Taêij, 8rav Kara TrXdros dia<f>-
puffiv, rj Kara jidOos, ras ffwavarohas tyu
Kal ffvyKaTaSvfffis.
Kal < rd > irepl rds] The vulgate
Kal irepl Tas cannot be right, nor is the
conjecture of Stephanus, ireptrrdj, much
more satisfactory than Stallbaum's iroi-
KfXaj. Acting on a suggestion of the
Engelmann translator I have inserted rd,
which at least gives a good sense. From
Republic 617 B rptrov 8 <f>opf Uvai, wj
ff<f>lffi (jxniveaOai, tiravaKVKXotiiJ.evov rbv
rtraprov we might infer that tiravaK<u-
Kt)<Tis simply means the planet's diroKa-
TaffTaffis : the
'
return of the circle upon
itself denoting the revolution of the irfpi-
<popd again to a given point. If Proklos
is to be trusted however, it means the
retardation of one heavenly body in re-
lation to another, as irpo<rxi!)frn< means
the gaining by one upon another. For
?rpo(rxwpVs it is probable that we ought
to read Trpoxwp^crets, which is given by
one ms.
5. 2v T TOIS |vvcit|/(riv] This sen-
tence is certainly complex and involved,
but I see no sufficient reason for meddling

TIMAIO2. 135
to be the guardian and creator of night and day, the first and
most august of the gods that have been created within the
heavens. But the circlings of them and their crossings one of
another, and the manner of the returning of their orbits upon
themselves and their approximations, and which of the deities
meet in their conjunctions and which are in opposition, and how
they pass before and behind each other, and at what times they
are hidden from us and again reappearing send to them who
cannot calculate their motions panics and portents of things to
come to declare all this without visible illustrations of their
with the text. The chief causes of offence
are (i) the repeated interrogative /j.ed'
ovanvas ovffnva.s, (i) the position of re
after riiuv. Stallbaum would read Kara
Xp&vovs rivds. I think however that the ms.
reading may be defended as a double indi-
rect interrogative : a construction which,
though by far less common than the double
direct interrogation, is yet quite a good
one : cf. Sophokles Antigone 1341 ouS' ea
oira irpbs irorepov iSu. The literal render-
ing of the clause will then be 'behind
what stars at what times they pass before
one another and are now severally hidden
from us, now again reappearing &c.' The
re after i)fuv really belongs to KaraKpvir-
rovrai and is answered by the following
Ka.1, quasi ^/juv...KaraKpuTrrovrai re Kal
di>a<f>aiv6/j.voi...Tre'/j:irovfft. For the irregu-
lar position of re compare Thukydides
IV 115 oi 5
'
A.6r)va1ot Tj/jLvvavro re ^/c
<j>avov reixifffJ-aros Kal dir' olKi&v eiraX-
eis tyovyutv. And instances might be
multiplied. So much for the main diffi-
culties : there remain a few lesser points.
& re rals l-vvdij/effiv (fiWi/'is is in tech-
nical language 'conjunction') must of
course be taken with /car' aXXiyXovs yiyvo-
fitvoi alone: oerot Ka.ra.vri.Kpv denotes the
contrary situation, 'opposition', yiyvo*
/j.evoi must be supplied with 8<roi Karav-
riKpv, and again with pe6' ov(rrivds re
ewlirpovOev aXX^Xou : i.e. when a given
star passes behind a second and before a
third. The whole sentence, as I read it,
is undeniably a very complicated piece
of syntax; and it is possible enough that
some mischief may have befallen the
text; but I have seen no emendation
convincing enough to warrant me in
deserting the mss. And it should be re-
membered that the Timaeus contains
much more of involved construction than
the earlier dialogues in general do. With
fjLeO' ovffTivas is to be understood ruv
9. TOIS ov Svvo.|xlvois] Although the
negative rests on the authority of A
alone, I have yet retained it, under-
standing the sense to be that the celestial
movements are held for signs and por-
tents by those who do not comprehend
the natural laws which govern them.
The ov would very readily be omitted
by a copyist living at a time when
astrology had become prevalent, and
recourse was had to the professional
astrologer for interpretation of the signs
of the heavens. If it be objected that
the negative ought to be ny, I should
reply that this is one of many cases where
the negative coheres so closely with the
participle as practically to form one
word : cf. Isokrates de pace 1
3 vofdipre
oi;s elvai TOI)S fj.f6vovras ruv
l TOI)S vovv OVK
5 (ppovovvrwv. There vovv OVK
dvorjrovs, as here ov
TOVfflV.

136 [400
avev <ru>v> Sf oi/rea>9 rovreov avrwv //.tyu-^/i-aTwt' (j,draio<; av eiy
7TWO9* aXXa ravra re t/cai/a>9 Tj/uf Tavrij /cat rd irepl 0ewv
oparatv /cat yevvijrwv elprjfêva ^>ucre&)9 e%ra> reXo?.
XIII. ITept Be rcS^ aa)v BaifAovwv et7reti> /cat yvwvai TTJV
5 yevetrtv fêiôv r)
Kad* $/J,d<;, Treicrreov Be rot9 elpqic6<rtt> e^Trpoo'dev,
etcyovots pev tfe&Ji' ovcriv, (09 e<f>acrav, cra<cw9 Se Trof roy9 ê avrwv
Trpoyovovs elSocriv dSvvarov ovv 6eu>v Traialv aTTicrTeiv, icaiTrep
E
aj/ev re et/coTa>z> /cat dvayicaiwv diroêiêwv eyovo-iv, aXX' (09
olfceia (f>aa~/c6vra>v (iTrayjeXXetv eiroêvov^ TO) i/o/iw Tricnevreov.
jo o$Ta>9 o^y ar' e/cetVou9 ^/u.t^ ?; 7eve<rt9 TTept TOVTOJV TWV Oewv
e'êra) /eat eye<T0a). F^9 re /cat Ovpavov 7rai8e<t 'H/ceai/09 re
/cat T^^t>9 eyeveaOrfv, rovrcav Be <&6pKvs Kpovos re /cat 'Pea /cat
oo-ot /w.6ra TovrwVy K Be Kpovov /cat 'Pea9 Zei)9 "H/ja re /cat 41 A
7raWe9 0(jou9 lapev d8e<f)ov<> eyopevov? avrwv, ert re royro)!'
15 aXov9 etcyovovs.
'Evret 8' ovv Trdvres, ocroi re 7repi7roov(Ti, (fxivepdos /cat o<rot
fyaivovrat, icaf? 'ocrov av eOeXwcriv, oi Beol <yeve<riv effôv, Xeyei
7T/009 avrovs 6 roSe TO TTO.V ryvvt]<ra<? rd&e' eot Qewv, wv
i avev T&V di 6ij/
ews scrips! auctore Proclo. aveu 5i6êwj AHSZ.
scripsi. aD TW^ AHSZ. 4 dcupovuv : dai/j.oi>lwv A. 9
Kov<riv SZ. 17 oZ 9eol : oi omittunt SZ.
i . avev < TWV > 81* oj/ws] Proklos,
in first citing this passage, gives avev 5t'
dtyews avrwv TOVTUV /ii/UTj/udrwj' :
presently,
quoting it
again, he says avev TUV 5t'
otyews, and this I believe to be what
Plato wrote. The vulgate avev Sioi/'ewj
TOVTUV av TUV lufirjfMTUv is so uncouth a
phrase that it surely cannot have pro-
ceeded from him : even the word 5/o^
itself seems suspicious ;
it occurs nowhere
else before Plutarch. Following the
text of Proklos then I construe &vev TUV
Si' 6êws fu/j.r)fjiaTuv avTuv TOVTUV with-
out ocular representations of precisely
these things : i.e. without a planetarium
to illustrate the movements. Ficinus
seems to have read avTwv, to judge from
the word 'ipsorum' in his rendering.
6. crcu|>ws 8^ irov] The irony of this
passage, though it seems to have gene-
rally escaped the commentators, is evi-
dent ;
more especially in the opening
sentence of the next chapter. Plato had
no cause for embroiling himself with
popular religion. To his metaphysical
scheme it is quite immaterial whether
mankind is the highest order of finite
intelligences beneath the stars, or whether
there exist anthropomorphic beings of
superior rank, such as the gods and
daemons of the old mythology.
40 D 41 D, c. xiii. Let us then
acquiesce in the account given by chil-
dren of the gods concerning their own
lineage and accept the deities of the
national mythology. When therefore all
the gods of whatsoever nature had come
into being, the Artificer addressed the
work of his hands, and showed them
how that, since they had a beginning,
they were not in their own nature im-
mortal altogether, yet should they never
suffer dissolution, seeing that the sover-
eign will of their creator was a firmer

4i A] TIMAI02. 137
very movements were labour lost. So let thus much suffice on
this head and let our exposition concerning the nature of the
gods visible and created be brought to an end.
XIII. But concerning the other divinities, to declare and
determine their generation were a task too mighty for us :
therefore we must trust in those who have revealed it here-
tofore, seeing that they are offspring, as they said, of gods, and
without doubt know their own forefathers. We cannot then
mistrust the children of gods, though they speak without pro-
bable or inevitable demonstrations ;
but since they profess to
announce what pertains to their own kindred, we must conform
to usage and believe them. Let us then accept on their word
this account of the generation of these gods. Of Earth and
Heaven were born children, Okeanos and Tethys ;
of these
Phorkys and Kronos and Rhea and all their brethren : and of
Kronos and Rhea, Zeus and Hera and all whom we know to be
called their brothers ;
and they in their turn had children after
them.
Now when all the gods had come to birth, both those who
revolve before our eyes and those who reveal themselves in so far
as they will, he who begat this universe spake to them these words:
Gods of gods, whose creator am I and father of works, which
surety for their endurance than the vital that of Hesiod. For the construction
bonds wherewith their being was bound compare Phaedrus 272 E TTO.VTUS 4yovra
together. But the universe was not yet TO 5?) elxos diuKrtov : the idiom is common
complete : three kinds of creatures must enough.
yet be born, which are mortal. Now if 16. ocrou re TrtpwroXovo-i <J>avpo>s]
the Artificer created these himself, they Those who 'revolve visibly' are of course
must needs be immortal, since he could Plato's own gods, the stars of heaven;
not will the dissolution of his own work ; the others are the deities of popular
they must therefore derive their birth belief, who elvoi<riv toiKores do6airoiffiv,
from the created gods. Receiving then wavroioi TeMOovres, tiri<TTpw<t>wfft voXrjas.
from him the immortal essence, the gods There seems again to be a quiet irony in
should implant it in a mortal frame and the words <palvovrai KaO' o<rov av t6t-
so generate mortal living creatures, that Xwcrtv.
the universe may be a perfect copy of its 18. 0ol 8cwv] The exact sense of these
tvPe-
words has been much disputed. Setting
9. cirojxfrovs TW vojio) iruTTCVT&v] aside neoplatonic mystifications, which
cf. Laws 904 A ol Kara vo^ov ojrej 6eoL the curious may find in the commentary
Plato indifferently acquiesces in the estab- of Proklos, the interpretations which
lished custom. His theogony is said by seem to deserve notice are as follows.
Proklos to be Orphic; it differs from (i) 'Gods born of gods'. This, though

138 HAATHNOS [41 A
'0? Trarijp re epycov, a 6Y e/j,ov yevoêva dvra efiov ye
fir} e6eovro<f' TO jj,ev ovv Brj BeOev rcav vrov, TO ye JJLTJV /caXe3<?
dp/jioa'Bev not eôv ev vetv e6e,eiv tcaicov' Si' a /cal eTtenrep B
yeyevrja-de, dOdvaroi /j,ev OVK ecrre ovS" dvroi TO TrafiTrav, ov TI
5 fjuev 81} v6rjcrecf6e ye ovBe revêcrOe Oavdrov /Wpa?, T^<? e/w;?
/SouXT/creeo? peiôvos eri Bea/Mov fcdl icvpicorepov a%6vr<> eiceivwv,
ol? '6r eyiyveade %vve8ei<rde. vvv ovv o eyo) TT/JO? v/J,d eo~rai' rd yap arcavr ev avrfi
10 76^7; a>a>v ov^ ejfei, Bel Be, el /zeXXei TeXeo? iicava><> elvai. 81* C
e/toO Be ravra yevofieva /cat ftiov fieracôvra Oeols l<rdoir av
i tfjiov ye /J.r) (OtXovros :
e/j.ov y edtXovTOi SZ. 8 a-yevinfra :
dyfryra A.
roi/TWf 5^ : Totiruv ovv S.
supported by Martin as well as Stall-
baum, seems to me inadmissible, for the
plain reason that the only source whence
they derived their birth was the dy/juovp-
ybs himself; the plural 9ewt> then is with-
out propriety or meaning. (2) 'Gods,
images of gods', cf. rutv aiSiwv Oe&v
yeyovbs ayaXpa. But '
images
'
is not in
the Greek, nor can be got out of it : and
even granting that it could, the obscure
words just quoted are far too unstable a
basis for such an interpretation. (3) In
my own judgment the phrase is
simply
an instance of rhetorical 6yKos, well suited
to the stately pomp characterising the
whole passage.
'
Gods of gods' comes near-
est, I believe, to the sense of the original,
signifying solely the transcendent dignity
of the ovpdvioi 6eoL, the first-fruits of
creation. Superlatives of this kind, though
not perhaps common in Greek, certainly
exist: compare Sophokles Oed. Col. 1237
Iva TrpoiravTa KaKa KaK&v vvoiKel : also
Oed. Tyr. 465 o.pp-rjr'
1
appr/ruv reXtaavTa
<f>ou>lai<Ti epaLv: Aeschylus Persae 68 1
u iriara, iriffTwv. Plato may have in his
mind a comparison between the highest
gods and dalfjioves of a lower rank, such as
those of Phaedrus 247 A or Epinomis
984 E : but this is not necessary.
i. wv ryw Sr][uovp-y6s irarijp TC ^p^wv]
These words are almost as much debated
as the preceding, (i) The clause may
be taken in apposition with 0eoi : sc. tpya,
uv eyu Sijfuovpybs irarrip re :
(2) uv may
be governed by tpyuv, as Stallbaum takes
it: (3) or by 8r]/j.iovpyfc. It can hardly
be doubted that the interpretation is to
be preferred which best lends itself to the
majestic flow of Plato's rhythm ;
and on
that ground I should give the preference
to the last, making we masculine :
'
whose
maker am I and father of works which
through me coming into being &c.'
The construction will thus really fol-
low the same principle as the familiar
idiom whereby a demonstrative is sub-
stituted for the relative in the second
member of a relative clause : as for
instance in Euthydemus 301 E ravra
fiyei (ra elvai, uv av apZys xoi ej; <roi
auTois pija6ai 8 TI av /SotfA?;.
Badham (on Philebus 30 D) proposes
to read the opening clauses thus :
0eol,
Saujv ty& dr)(juovpybs iraT/ip re tpyuv, are
5i' t/uiou yfv6/JLeva, dXvra /JLOV y' eO^Xovros.
This is grammatically faultless, but, it is
to be feared, sorely inadequate to the
'large utterance' of the Artificer. The
omission of /tr; before eOtorros has the
support of most mss. and gives an equally
good sense : I retain however the reading
of A, which is confirmed by Cicero's
'
me invito '.

c] TTMAI02. 139
by me coming into being are indissoluble save by my will :
Behold, all which hath been fastened may be loosed, yet to
loose that which is well fitted and in good case were the will of
an evil one. Wherefore, forasmuch as ye have come into being,
immortal ye are not, nor indissoluble altogether ;
nevertheless
shall ye not be loosed nor meet with the doom of death, having
found in my will a bond yet mightier and more sovereign than
those that ye were bound withal when ye came into being.
Now therefore hearken to the word that I declare unto you.
Three kinds of mortal beings are yet uncreate. And if these
be not created, the heaven will be imperfect; for it will not
have within it all kinds of living things; yet these it must have,
if it is to be perfect. But if these were created by my hands
and from me received their life, they would be equal to gods.
i. TO |iiv o5v 8ij] It is impossible not
to admire the serenity with which all the
editors set a full stop after edtXovros, and
then make a fresh start, as though the
words from deol to edtXovros were a sen-
tence ;
as though yiyvercu stood in place
of yevoneva. It were easy to convert this
into a sentence through milder means
than Badham employed, by substituting
TO, for a. But a certain unpleasing curt-
ness is thereby introduced, which leads
me to shrink from tampering with the
text. I regard then all the words down
to eflAojros as constituting an appella-
tion. The difficulty then arises however,
that the particles pv oh STJ seem to in-
dicate the commencement of a fresh sen-
tence. Yet the objection is not, I think,
fatal: for although the words Oeol...edt-
XOJ'TOS are not in form a sentence contain-
ing a statement, they do practically convey
a statement; and the Trpoarjyopla being
somewhat extended, Plato proceeds as if
the information implied in a description
were given in the form of a direct asser-
tion. The massive form of the opening
address seems to justify a stronger combi-
nation of particles at the commencement
of the main sentence than could ordi-
narily be used.
4. oi! TI &v Si]] For this strong adver-
sative formula compare Theaetelus 187 A,
PhiUbus 46 B, Phaedrus 259 B ; and,
without ye, Theaetetus 148 E.
7. ots or* yC*yvc<r6c uv8i<r0] Com-
pare 43 A t-wKo<ai> ov rots dXuroij, ols
avrol ZweixovTO, dfcr/j-dts: and 73 D KaO-
airep ef ayxvpuv /SaXXo/u.ei'os e/c rovruv
Traa-7/s i/'ux''?
5 5e<r/j.ofa.
8. Y^vt] Xoiird rpCa] i.e. those which
made their habitation in air, in water,
and on land.
u. Ocois l<rdoiT' av] This assertion
of the drj/juovpybs that whatsoever immedi-
ately proceeds from him must be immortal
is, I think, not without its metaphysical
significance. The creation of the universe
by the 8rj/jiiovpy6s, we take it, symbolises
the evolution of absolute intelligence into
material nature, i.e. into the perceptions
of finite intelligences. Now this evolution,
the manifestation of supreme thought in
the material world, is per se eternal it
is an essential element in the being of
eternal thought. But, the evolution once
given, the things that belong to it as such
are all transitory. Considered as making
up the sum total of phenomenal nature,
the infinite series of phenomena is eternal:
but the phenomena themselves belong not

140 nAATHNOS [41 c-
f
iva ovv Bvrjra re $ TO re irav Tooe OVTWS cnrav 77, TpeireffOe Kara
(frvcriv t'ftet? eir TTJV TWV %rpwv &r)fj,iovp
i
yiav, fîfiov/jievoi TTJV efj,rjv
Bvvafjiiv Trepl rrjv v/jbTepav yeveo-iv. Kal icaff oaov jiev avT<av
dOavrirois O/JLWVV/AOV elvai TrpoaijKei, Oelov j6/jLevov ij
5 re ev aiJrot? TWV del 8i/cy KOI V/JLIV ede6vTwv eirecrdai,
Kal virap%dp,evos eyeo Traa&eocrar TO Be OLTTOV
ov Trpoo~v<f)aivovTe<f, aTrepydêade &>a Kal lyevvdre rpo^rjv re D
av^dvere Kal <^6Lvovra 7rdiv Seêcrde.
XIV. TaOr' elire, teal 7rdtv eVt TOV irporepov /cparijpa, ev a>
10 rrjv TOI) 7rai>T09 "^v^rjv Kepavvvs /J,ta-<ye,
ra T<Z> Trpoadev wiro-
oi7ra Kareêlro fj.i<rya)v rpojrov pkv rtva TOV avrov, d/tijpaTa S'
OVKCTI KaTa TavTci (ticravTO)<f, dd SevTepa Kal TpiTa.
Be TO TTCLV Sieie i/ryâ? urapiBpuvs rot9 a&Tpots, eveiê 0' e/cac
to eternity, but to yfreffis. In other
words, the exi'stetue of time and space is
part of the being of absolute intelligence :
the apprehension of things in time and
space pertains to finite intelligences.
Therefore, as phenomena apprehended in
time and space do not directly pertain to
absolute intelligence, so in the allegory
mortal things are not directly the work of
the Sriiuovpyos.
i. Kva ovv 6inyra T $] Mortality is
necessary in this way. The scheme of
existence involves a material counterpart
of the ideal world. To materiality be-
longs becoming and perishing : accord-
ingly aiffOijTa fa, the copies of the
VOIJTO. fya, must, so far as material,
be mortal. Mortality must correspond
to immortality as inevitably as multi-
plicity to unity. Even the stars, which,
being the handiwork of the Artificer
himself, are immortal, contain within
them the processes of ytvecri.* and (f>0opd.
Kara, 4>vo-iv] In the way of nature :
i.e. /SX^Trojres 7jy>6s rb dlStov.
3. KaO' So-ov] It has been proposed
to omit Ko.9': but I think the text is suffi-
ciently defended by Stallbaum.
4. dOavarois 6ji,wvv|xov] The alffOrjrd
f<a are ajOdvara, in so far as they possess
the indestructible vital essence supplied
by the creator ; but only 6fjLwvvfj.us, since
their present mode of existence as indi-
viduals is transitory.
ifytfxovow] Here seems to be the
first suggestion of a word which after-
wards became a technical term common
in the Stoic philosophy rd rryt/j.oviKov,
the reason. We have it
again similarly
used in 70 C : cf. Laws 963 A vovv 64 ye
iravruv rofrruv rfte/jLova. The genitive TUV
t6e6vTuv is governed by riyeôvovv.
6. vrrapo|i.vos] This transitive use
of the middle of this verb is not quoted in
Liddell and Scott.
7. Tpo4]v T 8i8ovTs] How they did
this we learn in 77 A. The gods of course
had no need of sustenance ; for, like the
KOfffios, they avrol eavrois rpo<pT]v ryv eav-
riav ipdtffiv ira.pe'ix.ov. With <f>6lvovTa TraXiv
S^xeff^ compare 42 E Saveifo/j-tvoi /j.6pia
us d.TroSo0ricr6/ji:va irdXiv :
they created
mortals out of the substance of the uni-
verse, and at their dissolution restored
the elements of them thither whence they
were borrowed.
41 D 42 E, c. xiv. Thus having
spoken, the Artificer prepared a second
blending of soul, having its proportions
like to the former, but less pure. And of
the soul so formed he separated as many
portions as there were stars in heaven,
and set a portion in each star, and
declared to them the laws of nature : how

TIMAIO2. 141
Therefore in order that they may be mortal, and that this All
may be truly all, turn ye according to nature unto the creation
of living things, imitating my power that was put forth in the
generation of you. Now such part of them as is worthy to
share the name of the immortals, which is called divine and
governs in the souls of those that are willing ever to follow
after justice and after you, this I, having sown and provided it,
will deliver unto you : and ye for the rest, weaving the mortal
with the immortal, shall create living beings and bring them to
birth, and giving them sustenance shall ye increase them, and
when they perish receive them back again.
XIV. Thus spake he ; and again into the same bowl wherein
he mingled and blended the universal soul he poured what was
left of the former, mingling it somewhat after the same manner,
yet no longer so pure as before but second and third in pure-
ness. And when he had compounded the whole, he portioned
off souls equal in number to the stars and distributed a soul to
that every single soul should be first
embodied in human form, clothed in a
frame subject to vehement affections and
passions. And whoso should conquer
these and live righteously, after fulfilling
his allotted span, he should return to the
star of his affinity and dwell in blessed-
ness; but if he failed thereof, he should
pass at death into the form of some lower
being, and cease not from such transmi-
grations until, obeying the reason rather
than the passions, he should gradually raise
himself again to the first and best form.
Then God sowed the souls severally in
the different planets, and gave the task
of their incarnation to the gods he had
created, to make them as fair and perfect
as mortal nature may admit.
10. rcL TWV irp6(T0V viroXonra]
Not the remnants of the universal soul,
as Stallbaum supposes ; for that, we are
told in 36 B, was all used up ; but of the
elements composing soul, ravrov Odrepov
and ovffla.
1 1 .
d.KTJpara 8' OVK^TI] That is to
say, the harmonical proportions are less
accurate, and the Other is less fully
subordinated to the Same : in other
words, these souls are a stage further
removed from pure thought, a degree
more deeply immersed in the material.
Compare Philebus 29 B foil. Plato's
scheme includes a regular gradation of
finite existences, from the glorious
intelligence of a star down to the humblest
herb of the field : all these are manifes-
tations of the same eternal essence through
forms more and more remote.
13. SiciXe x|n>xds UrapWjiovs rots
dorpois] There is a certain obscurity
attending this part of the allegory, which
has given rise to much misunderstanding.
It is
necessary to distinguish clearly
between the vo/j-rj of the present passage
and the <rir6pos of 42 D. What the
dti/Movpybs did, I conceive to be this.
Having completed the admixture of soul
he divided the whole into portions,
assigning one portion to each star.
These portions, be it understood, are not
particular souls nor aggregates of par-
ticular souls :
they are divisions of the
whole quantity of soul, which is not as
yet differentiated into particular souls.

142 HAATHNOS [41 E
TT/OO? CKCHTTOV, teal efjL/3i/3d(ra<f a>s 6? o^na TTJV TOV Travrbs
e, VO/AOVS re roi)? tlftappfoov? elirev avrais, oVt yeveais
evoiTO TTayfMvrj pia 7rd<rtv, 'iva /Mtj rt? eXarrotTo VTT avrov,
Beoi Be (nrapeicras avra<j et9 TO, Trpo&ijfcovra etcda-Tais etcacrTa
5 opyava %povov <f>vvai %a>a)v TO Oeoae/Sea-TaTov, Bnrrjs Be ovtrr)? 42 A
TTJS dvBpwjriwrjs <j>v<Ta)s TO Kpeirrov TOIOVTOV etrj yevos, o real
eTreira KKijcroiro dvijp. oirore 8rj o-ut^iaaiv e^vrevOelev el;
, real TO fikv irpoo'ioi, TO 8' curloi TOV crcaftaTos avTwv,
fiev aiffdrjcriv dvaytcaiov ir) piav Trdcriv eic jSiaiwv ira-
vfi,<f)VTOv yiyve&Oat, SevTepov Be 77801/77 Kai virr) fi-
epa>Ta, ?rpo? Be TOVTOIS (f>6f3ov teal OvfJiov oa-a T etro-
fieva avTois teal oiroaa evavTiws 7re<j)VK BiecrTijicoTa' oov el [lev
B
i ^* : e/j S. 5 xpovov :
xpi'w AHSZ.
It is hardly necessary to observe that
these ^uxl Iffdpi6/j.oi TO?S dffrpois are
quite distinct from the souls of the stars
themselves. Next the 5r)/uovpy&s explains
to these still undifferentiated souls the
laws of nature; after which he redis-
tributes the whole quantity of soul among
the planets (Spryava xfdvov, 42 D) for
incarnation in mortal bodies. From the
language of 42 D, roily n&...Tofa d, it
would seem that the differentiating of the
souls into individual beings was done by
the Srjfuovpybs himself, before they were
handed over to the created gods : in fact
this is metaphysically necessary.
Martin's interpretation appears to me
wholly unplatonic, indeed unintelligible.
He regards the if/vx^ Iv6.pi0ij.oi. as distinct
from the soul that was afterwards to
inform mortal bodies. 'C'est a ces
grandes ames confines aux astres, c'est a
ces vastes depots de substance incorporelle
et intelligente, que Dieu revele ses
desseins.' This he himself most justly
terms an '
etrange doctrine ', and certainly
it is not Plato's. It is surely indubitable
that what the Sriniovpybs mixed in the
Kparrjp was the whole substance of soul
intended to be differentiated into par-
ticular souls ;
that this whole substance
was first distributed in large portions
among the fixed stars, to learn the laws of
5 XPO"v X
existence; and that finally it was redis-
tributed among the planets for division
into separate souls incorporated in bodies.
But what is the purpose and meaning
of this distribution among the fixed stars ?
I think the explanation is suggested by
Phaedrus 252 c, D, where different gods are
assigned as patrons for persons of various
temperament. The apportionment to
diverse stars is thus a fanciful way of ac-
counting for innate diversity of character
and disposition ; each individual being in-
fluenced by the star to which the division
was assigned of which what was after-
wards his soul formed a part.
i. ws & oT)|xa] The same word is
used in 69 D to express the relation
of body to soul in the human being,
although the relation is different to that
here indicated ; for these fsvxal do not
inform and vitalise the body of the star,
which is to them solely a 'vehicle '.
TI]V TOV iravTAs <fnj<riv l-Sci^c] It
is interesting to observe that here in
Plato's maturest period we have some- !
thing closely resembling the avap.vriais of
the Phaedo and Phaedrus. To say that
the laws of the universe were declared to
soul before it became differentiated into
individual souls is very much the same
thing as to say that the soul beheld the
ideas in a previous existence. At the same

42 B] TIMAI02. 143
each star, and setting them in the stars as though in a chariot,
he shewed them the nature of the universe and declared to
them its fated laws; how that the first incarnation should be
ordained to be the same for all, that none might suffer dis-
advantage at his hands ;
and how they must be sown into the
instruments of time, each into that which was meet for it, and
be born as the most god-fearing of all living creatures ;
and
whereas human nature was twofold, the stronger was that race
which should hereafter be called man. When therefore they
should be of necessity implanted in bodily forms, and of their
bodies something should ever be coming in and other passing
away, in the first place they must needs all have innate one and
the same faculty of sense, arising from forcible affections ;
next
love mingled with pleasure and pain ;
and besides these fear
and wrath and all the feelings that accompany these and such
time the tendency to merge the individual
existence of the soul is characteristic of
the Timaeus and of Plato's later thought.
2. y^v0'
l5 irpwrri] i.e. their first
embodiment in human form. Stallbaum
is obviously wrong in understanding by
irpuTrj 7^i/ecrts the distribution among the
stars, since the devrtpa ytvevis is the
incarnation eh yvvaixos <pvffiv, 42 B. Here
however a point presents itself in which
the allegory appears prima facie incon-
sistent. At 39 E Plato says there are
four etSri of voijTa f<po in the avrb f<fot> :
yet
of al<?6T}T&, ipa. we only have two efSr; at the
outset : how then is the sensible world a
faithful image of the intelligible world ?
The answer would seem to be that the
di]fj.iovpyds foresaw that many souls must
necessarily degenerate from the irpurrri
Kal dpiffrr) is, and therefore left the
perfect assimilation of the image to the
type to be worked out and completed in
the course of nature, with which he did
not choose arbitrarily to interfere, in
order that no soul might start at a
disadvantage through his doing : 1W /it?}
rts ACITTCKTO UTT' ai^roO. It is remarkable
however that the perfection of the copy
should be accomplished through a process
of degeneration.
4. 86n 8i orrapeCo-as] Stallbaum for
some incomprehensible reason would in-
sert /nerd, before ff7rapet<ras. The Sijfu-
ovpybs is referring to the inropos of 42 D,
which must take place before the incar-
nation in mortal bodies can be accom-
plished. 6pyava xpovov, a phrase recurring
in 42 D, = the planets : the vulgate x/>o-
vwv is clearly a copyist's error. The rea-
son why one planet was more suitable for
some souls than another does not appear.
5. u><ov T& Otoo-ep&rraTOv] i.e. man-
kind : cf. Laws 902 B d'yu.a teal 6to<refiea-
TO.TOV ai/ro e<rrt TT&VTUV fyuv a.v6p<atros.
7. 4 dvd-yKT)s] This phrase expresses
the unwilling conjunction of spirit and
matter, the reluctance of soul to accept
corporeal conditions : cf. 69 D (rvyicepa.-
ffdfjLfvoi ravra. dva.yKa.lws, and a little
above Setv d. ical dvayKaia irad-fif^ara iv
eavry txov- The whole account in 69 c, D
is full of echoes of the present passage.
8. rd jxiv irpo<roi r<J 8* dirfoi] i.e.
the body is undergoing a perpetual pro-
cess of waste and reparation : cf. 43 A
tvtSovv e/s firippvrov ffwfj.a Kai airbppvTov.
9. piaCcov ira0T||j,aT6>v] I take ftmluv
to mean vehement and masterful, though
it might be understood like dvayKaia in
690.

144 ITAATHNOS [42 B
IO
Kparijcrotev, 8iKrj fttracroivro, KparrjOevret &e do'iKtq. Kal 6 fj,ev ev rov
Trpoo-rJKovra %povov ftiovs, Trdiv et9 T>}V rov ^vvvoftov rropevdels
oiKrjcriv do-rpov, ftLov ev&aifiova Kal (rvvr/Or) eor o~(f)ael<; 8e
rovrcov ei9 <yvvaiKo<> (bvcriv ev rrj Sevrepa yeveo~ei u,Ta/3aot' u,r>
r>v , , v
'
/ ,v
Travopevos oe ev rovrois eri KaKias, rporrov ov KaKvvotro, Kara C*,r ta,
rrjv ofioiorijra T^9 rov rporrov yeveo-ecos et9 riva roiavryv del
/,./!/ , I >^>> ' I I
- If-
yaerapaXot vrjpeiov <pvo~iv, aarra)v re ov rrporepov irorwv ,r/got,
rrplv rfj ravrov Kal ofioLov TrepioSw rfj ev avrq> ^vvercLcnroêvo^ rov
irovv o'faov Kal varepov irpoafyvvra e/c
rcvpos Kal vbaros Kal
depot Kal 7^9, Oopvftw&r) Kal doyov ovra, 6y(a Kparrja-as e/9 TO T^9 D
7rp&)T?79 Kal dpto~rv)<> d<j)LKoiro etô9 eê<09. SiadearfjLoderri&as 8e
Trdvra avrols ravra, Iva rrjt ejreira eltj KaKias eKao~rwv avairios,
i Kpo.T-f]<roifv :
Kparfiffeiav S, qui mox tv Slxy dedit. 2 povov /3<ous :
/9toi)j
Xpovov S, nescio an recte. 5 irav6fj.evos 5^ :
iravofxvos re AHZ. 8 i-vveiri-
ffTTo/jLevos :
vveiriffiribtJ.fi>os AHZ.
1. riv irpo<r^KOvra povov] No defi-
nite period is ordained in the Timaeus,
as is the case in the myths of the Phaedrus
and Republic.
2. rot) wvo|w>v] i.e. the star to
which was distributed the portion of soul
whence his individual soul afterwards
proceeded, aw-^Bij = congenial : the con-
ditions of life in the vuvvonnv aarpov
would be familiar from the soul's former
residence in it, though she was not then
differentiated.
4. As ywaiKos 4>^<riv] Here, it must
be confessed, we have a piece of ques-
tionable metaphysic. For the distinction
of sex cannot possibly stand on the same
logical footing as the generic differences
between various animals ;
and in the
other forms of animal life the distinction
is ignored. It is somewhat curious that
Plato, who in his views about woman's
position was immeasurably in advance of
his age, has here yielded to Athenian
prejudice so far as to introduce a dis-
sonant element into his theory.
p-cTdpoXoi] After this word the old
editions insert x'-^loffTV ^ ^Tet a/j,tj>6-
Tff>ai aQiKvotifJievai tirl KT?IP<J}<TIV Kal
atpfffiv TOV Sevr^pov filov alpovvrai &t> av
filov fKOffTTrf tv9a Kal fit
I}/VXT) aQiKvelrat. These words,
which stand in the margin of two mss., are
simply quoted from Phaedrus 249 B.
5. Kara Tqv 6|Aoiorr]Ta] That is to
say, they assumed the form of those
animals to whose natural character they
had most assimilated themselves by their
special mode of misbehaviour ; cf. Phaedo
8 1 E tvSovvra.1 St, diffirtp elKos, ets roiavra
fjQri OTTOI' &TT' av Kal fjêfjifXerriKviai rti-
<i)ffiv tv T<f pl(j} : and presently we see
that the sensual take the form of asses,
the cruel and rapacious that of hawks
and kites.
8. TTJ TO.VTOV Kal OflOLOV TTpl.68u)j
Even in the lower forms the principle
of reason is present, only more or less
in abeyance. But once let the soul listen
to its dictates, so far as in that condition
it can make itself heard, and she may
retrieve one step of the lost ground at the
next incarnation.
12. tva TTJS ?irtiTa] Here as in the
Republic Plato absolves God from all re-
sponsibility for evil: cf. Republic 3790
oW dpa 6 6eos, eirttdr) ayaffos, iravruv av
efy afrios, ws of TroXXoi fyovaiv, aX'
6lyuv fttv TOIS dvOpwirois atnos, TTOUV
5^ dvalrios' iroXb yap eXarrw rdyada ruv
KO.KWV r]fuv. Kal TUV jj.tv dyaduv ovdtva

TIMAIOS.
as are of a contrary nature : and should they master these
passions, they would live in righteousness ;
if otherwise, in un-
righteousness. And he who lived well throughout his allotted
time should be conveyed once more to a habitation in his
kindred star, and there should enjoy a blissful and congenial
life: but failing of this, he should pass in the second incar-
nation into the nature of a woman ;
and if in this condition he
still would not turn from the evil of his ways, then, according
to the manner of his wickedness, he should ever be changed
into the nature of some beast in such form of incarnation as
fitted his disposition, and should not rest from the weariness of
these transformations, until by following the revolution that is
within him of the same and uniform, he should overcome by
reason all that burden that afterwards clung around him of fire
and water and air and earth, a troublous and senseless mass,
and should return once more to the form of his first and best
nature.
And when he had ordained all these things for them, to the
end that he might be guiltless of all the evil that should be in
aXXoj' airtarfov, rQiv dl KO.KUIV aXX' arra Set
ftyTeiv ra atria, a'XX' 01) rbv Oeov. See too
Republic 6170, Laws 900 E, 904 A c, and
especially Theaetetus 176 A dXX' otir' airo-
4ffOat ret (ca/ca Svvarov, w QeoSupe' virevav-
rlov yap TI ry dyady del elvai avdyKy o&r'
eV Oeois avra ISpvcrdai, TTJP 5 Ovijrj]v <f>v<riv
Kal rovde rov TOTTOV irepiiroXei e avdyKrjs.
In other words, to soul, as such, no evil
can attach in any form whatsoever. Ab-
solute spirit then in itself has no part in
evil nor can be the cause of any. With
the evolution of absolute spirit into finite
souls arises evil ; it is one of the condi-
tions of limitation as much as space and
time are. Evil then attaches to finite
souls, not qua souls, which were impos-
sible, but qua finite. Yet, seeing that in
the Platonic system the evolution of the
infinite into the finite is a necessary law
of being, can it be said that God, or ab-
solute spirit, is irresponsible for evil,
since that spirit necessarily must mani-
fest itself in a mode of existence to which
P. T.
Plato declares that evil must inevitably
attach? and why is it that evil must a-
rise together with limited existence ? To
these questions Plato has returned no
explicit reply :
only we may deduce thus
much from his ontological scheme since
the realm of absolute essence is a stable
unity, the realm of finite existence is a
moving plurality, a process. And if a
process, we can only conceive, on Plato's
principles, that it is a process towards
good. Therefore imperfection must al-
ways attach to it, since it is ever ap-
proaching but never reaches the good.
Were perfection predicable of it, it would
be the good the eternal changeless unity :
the two sides of the Platonic antithesis
would coalesce ; motion and plurality
would vanish, and we should relapse into
the Eleatic (v which has been proved un-
workable. In this sense Plato may say
that evil is necessary and that it
belongs
to matter, not to God. At the same time
since the absolute cannot exist without
IO

146 TIAATflNOS [42 D
TOI)? fj,ev ei? yfjv, TOI)<? 8' et<? <Trjvr)v, TOI)<? o ei<? TXXa
o<ra opyava y^povov TO 8e fjLerd TOV cnropov rot? z/eot? Trape&w/ce
0eol<t (rcbfjuara TrXarreiv OvijTa, TO re eV/XotTroz/, oeroy ert /i>
tyvxijs dvOpwirivr)
1
* &eov Trpoayevea'Ocu, TOVTO KOI Trdvff ocra E
5 dicoXovda Kivoi<f ctTrepyacrafjievov*; ap%iv, Kal Kara ^vva^nv o Tt
K(ii(7Ta Kal apta-ra TO OvrjTov SiaKvftepvav oooi>, o TI pr) KCLK&V
aiiTo eavTw yiyvoiTO afciov.
XV. Kat 6 /lev &rj aTravTa TavTa Siardâ<; epevev ev T<a
eavTOv Kara Tpojrov rjOei' pevovTOS Be vo-rjaavTes ol 7rat8e<? TTJV
10 TOU TraTpos SiaTagiv eireiOovTO avTy, Kal Xa/So^Te? dOdvaTov
dpxfjv 6vr)Tov ^(aov, fj,ifj,ov/JiVO(. TOV afy&Tepov 8r)jjuovp<y6v, Trvpbs
Kal 7779 vSaTO? T Kal aepo? dtro TOV KOO-/AOV Saveiôfievot pbpia,
i
a 7rdiv, et? TayToy T a^âvoêva <TvveKoK.a>v, 43 A
ol? ai^Tot %vveiyovTO Se<r/ôt9, aXXa Bid
/v
15 TrjTa aopaTOi? TTVKVOIS 70/i^>ot5 gvvTr/KovTes, ev eg
d7repya^6/j,evoi <ra)fj,a eKacrTov, T? TJ?? ddavaTov
10 Siara&j' :
Ta^t< A pr. m. S.
ov TOi?
manifesting itself as the finite, and since
to the finite belongs evil, the ultimate
cause of evil is really carried back to the
absolute, though not qua absolute.
i. 6'pYo.va xpovov] This sowing
seems to have been confined to the earth
and the seven planets; for these alone
appear to be recognised as instruments of
time in 39 c, D. It would presumably
follow then that to these gods only was
committed the formation of the mortal
races.
3. r6 T &iroiirov] This clearly re-
fers to the Ovrirbv eWos i/vxfy of 69 D :
i.e. those functions and activities of the
soul which are called into being by her
conjunction with matter.
7. avrA !avr$] Evil in some shape
or other is, as we have seen, an inevitable
concomitant of material existence. But
if we follow after pure reason, this evil
is kept at the lowest minimum; if we
perversely forsake her, it is needlessly
aggravated. So that while we are not
answerable for whatsoever of evil is in-
separnble from limitation, for all that is
the result of our own folly we are an-
swerable. Compare Laws 904 B T?}S S
yevtcreus TOV iroiov rivbs a<f>fjice rais fiov-
rpeau> fKaffruv raj oiV/as
1
Siry yap av
eiriOv/j.^ Kal OTTOIOS TIS uv Trjv ^vxyv, Tatirr)
<rxfS6v exaffTore Kal rotouros yiyvfrai anas
Tjfj.uv aw rb TroXy. A further discussion of
Plato's position as regards the problem
of free will is to be found in note on
86 D.
42 E 44 D, c. xv. And the eter-
nal God was abiding in his own unity.
But the created gods, following the
example of their creator, fashioned mor-
tal creatures, fettering the motions of
the soul in a material body, whereof
they borrowed the substance from that of
the universe. And the soul, being im-
prisoned in a body subject to ceaseless
inflowing and outflowing, is at first con-
founded and distracted. For the per-
petual stream of nourishment that enters
in, together with the bewildering effect
of external sensations, throws her into
disorder and tumult: the revolution of
the Same in her is brought to a stand.

43 A] TIMAI02. 147
each of them, God sowed some in the earth, some in the moon,
and some in the other instruments of time. And what came
after the sowing he gave into the hands of the young gods, to
mould mortal bodies, and having wrought all the residue of
human soul that needed yet to be added, to govern and guide
as nobly and perfectly as they could the mortal creature, in so
far as it brought not evil upon its own head.
XV. So when he had made all these ordinances for them
God was abiding after the manner of his own nature : and as he
so abode, the children thinking on the command of their father
were obedient to it, and having received the immortal principle
of a mortal creature, imitating their own artificer, they bor-
rowed from the universe portions of fire and of earth and of
water and of air, on condition that they should be returned
again, and they cemented together what they took, not with the
indissoluble bonds wherewithal they themselves were held to-
gether, but welding it with many rivets, invisible for smallness,
and making of all the elements one body for each creature, they
confined the revolutions of the immortal soul in a body in-
while that of the Other is distorted or
reversed : its harmonic proportions cannot
indeed be destroyed, save by the creator
alone, but they are in every way strained
and perturbed. Accordingly, when she
has to judge concerning anything, that it
is same or other, her judgment is wrong,
and she is filled with falsehood and folly :
and reason, which seems to rule, is really
enslaved by sensation. For all these
causes the soul, at her first entrance into
a body, is devoid of reason. But presently,
as the disturbance caused by the require-
ments of nutrition and growth diminishes,
the circles of the Same and the Other
gradually resume their proper functions,
and reason regains her sway. But
careful and rational training is requisite
in order that a man may enjoy his full
intellectual liberty :
lacking this, his life
will be maimed, and imperfect and un-
reasonable he will pass beneath the shades.
This chapter supplies a theory to
account for the abeyance of reason in
infants and young children.
8. '4i.vtv (V TW lavroiJ] This phrase
is significant. Plato does not say that
the dt)/j.iovpyds returned to his own rjOos,
but that he 'was abiding' therein. The
imperfect expresses that not only after
he had given these instructions, but
previously also, he was abiding. The
eternal essence, while manifesting itself
in multiplicity, still abides in unity. The
process of thought-evolution does not
affect the nature of thought as it is in
itself: thought, while many and manifold,
is one and simple still.
13. s diro8o0T|<r6|Mva] Plato always
insists that the sum of all things, whether
spiritual or material, is a constant quantity.
Accordingly the gods had to borrow from
the store of materials already existing ;
there could be no addition.
15. irvKVOis y<
^F
l<
}
><HS] i' e> l ^e ^ aw f
cohesion in matter. The word 76^04,
as contrasted with Se<rp.ol, gives the
notion of inferior durability.
IO 2

148 IIAATftNOS [43 A
eveSovv et9 eTrippvTOV cr</j,a Kal aTroppvTov. at 8' 19
eV8e#et<rat -TroXvv OVT e/cparow OVT CKpaTovvTO, /3ia S'
e<f>epovTo
Kal <})pOV, WCTT6 TO [AV '6OV KiVeio~6ai %G)OV, ttTaKTO)^ /Jbr/V OTTrj B
yap TO 7rp6o-0 Kal o7ri(T0v /cat TrdXiv et9 Se^ta /cat dpiaTepd K.O.TW
TC Kal ava> Kal jrdvTp KaTcL TOV? 6% TOTTOVS 'jrXavwjJ.eva Trporjeiv.
TTOOV yap oi>T09 TOV /cara/cXu OVTO<> Kal diroppiovTOS KV/MITO^, o
TTJV Tpo<j>rjv 7rapet%ei>, en /iet^w 06pv/3ov aTretpyd&To ra TWV
TrpoaimrTovTwv iraQrîaTa e/ca<TTOt9, ore TTf/Jt TrpocrKpoixreie TO C
>
(Tco/ia Ttvo9 eô)0v aXXorptw TreptTvôv 77 /cat o-Tepeo> 7^9 vypolf
T6 oicr0r/iJ,a<Tiv v&aTwv, efre aX# TrvevpdTWv VTTO depos
KaTarj(f)0ir], Kal VTTO irdvTwv TOVTOJV Sid TOV <r<w/iaro9 at
<ret9 eTTt T?}I> î>X^v <
f>
e
po/J'vai' TrpocrTriTTTOiev' at 8?) /cat eTretra
Sta raura Kij0f)0'dv re /cat z/Oy ert ala0rjcrei TW TrapovTC 7rei(TTr)v Kal fjLeyicrTijv
7rap6%6fivat, Kivrjo-iv, ^tera TOV peovTos eV8eXe^<09 oêroi) Kivovaai D
/cat cr(f)oSpc39 o~elovcrai ra9 T7?9
/
v/''i/Y^9 7reotoSou9, TJ?I> itey rauroO
r9 ro
Kal lovcrav,
evavTia avTrj peov&ai Ka
'
ai5
0aTepov 8te<jet<rai/, o
:
trpoff^vai A. 5 irpbcrOe :
irpovQev S. n <t>epo/j.tvuv :
fapofdvov A.
I. 4irppVTOV craSâ Kal <X7r6pp)TOv]
Plato's Herakleitean theory of matter
could hardly find stronger expression than
this. Fresh particles are being perpetually
added to the body's substance to supply
the place of others which are for ever
flying off. Compare Theaetetus 159 B
foil.
at 8' tls iroranov] It may be this
expression was suggested by the well-
known words of Herakleitos (fr. 41
Bywater) Trora/JLoiffi. Sis rdiffi avroifft OVK
S.v lfj.fia.lv &repa y&p Kal Zrepa ttripptei
vSara : cf. Cratylus 402 A. According to
Aristotle metaph. F v ioioa
13, Kratylos
fpund this statement not thorough-going
enough: 'Hpa/cXefTy iirtrlna. dir6vTi OTI
Sh T(f avrif iroTa/jiQ OVK fora* tfj.fi'ijt'ai'
aOroj ybp yero ovd' a.Tra.%. Proklos is
perhaps right in supposing Plato's irora/j.t>s
to include not the body only in which the
soul resides, but generally the region of
ecrtj in which she is placed : 6 /^P 5rj
Tafj.6s ov rd avBp&wivov Si) <rw/j.a ffrj-
vei /j-bvov, dXXa xai iraffav TTV ireptKei-
avrrjs Kal ad'Ta6fi.'r}Tov pvfjv.
i. êpovTO Kal ?4>pov] The vepioSoi
could not be altogether passive, that
being impossible for an animate being ;
the external impressions and the subjective
consciousness mutually interacted and
conditioned each other.
4. roLs ij; cnrdVas] These six are
reckoned as all for the present purpose,
since the seventh, or rotary motion,
belongs only to beings of a higher order.
It may be noted that a completely
different classification of Kivrpeis is given
in Laws 893 C foil., where 10 kinds are
enumerated.
7. iroXXov ydp ovros] Two chief
causes are assigned by Plato for the
dormant state of the intellect in the case of

D] TIMAIO2. 149
flowing and out-flowing continually. And they, being confined
in a great river, neither controlled it nor were controlled, but
bore and were borne violently to and fro ;
so that the whole
creature moved, but advanced at random without order or
method, having all the six motions : for they moved forward
and backward and again to right and to left and downward and
upward, and in every way went straying in the six directions.
For great as was the tide sweeping over them and flowing off
which brought them sustenance, a yet greater tumult was caused
by the effects of the bodies that struck against them ;
as when
the body of any one came in contact with some alien fire that
met it from without, or with solid earth, or with liquid glidings
of water, or if he were caught in a tempest of winds borne on
the air, and so the motions from all these elements rushing
through the body penetrated to the soul. This is in fact the
reason why these have all alike been called and still are called
sensations (atcr^o-et?). Then too did they produce the most
wide and vehement agitation for the time being, joining with the
perpetually streaming current in stirring and violently shaking
the revolutions of the soul, so that they altogether hindered the
circle of the Same by flowing contrary to it, and they stopped
it from governing and from going ;
while the circle of the Other
infants: the first is the continual influx of 14. Bid raura 4KTJ9r)(rav] What is
nutriment, which the growing child re- the etymology intended is not very
quires ; the second and yet more potent obvious from the context ;
but probably,
cause is the violent effect produced by as Martin says, Plato meant to connect
outward sensations, which bewilder and afcr^crts with dicraru. Proklos also pro-
overwhelm the soul but newly arrived poses the Homeric word atedu : cf. Iliad
in the world of becoming and inex- xvi 468 6 3 Ppae 6v^v dlirOuv : but
perienced in its conditions. this suggestion has not very much to
10. dXXorpCw irepiTvxov] Plato says recommend it.
'
alien
'
fire, because, as we learn in 45 B, 1 6. jwrd TOV p^ovros v8fexs 6x-
there is a fire, viz. daylight, which is TOV] i.e. combined with the (cu/ua T^S
akin to the fire within our bodies and Tpo<f>7Js.
therefore harmless to us. All the four 18. -iravrairao-iv lir^Srjo-av] It should
elements are described, each in its own be observed that the effect on the two
way, as conspiring to the soul's confusion. circles is different : that of the Same is
The poetical tone of this passage is very stopped ; i.e. the reason does not act :
noticeable. that of the Other is dislocated; and dis-
13. lirl TT|V ^vx^y] This theory is torted ; i.e. the reports of the senses are
fully set forth in 64 B foil. : see also confused and inaccurate.
Philebus 33 D.

150 tlAATHNOS [43 D
Bt7ra(TLOv Kal rpnra<riov rpels etcarepas diroa-rdaeis ical rd<j rwv
rjp,LOia)V Kal emrplrwv Kal eiroyBoatv //.ecror^ra? Kal
eireiBr) 7rai>Te<w<? vral OVK r)<rav TrXrjv vrro rov gv
7ra<ra? p,ev o-rpe-^rai, arpo(f>d<;, iracras Be Kdo~eis Kal
5 r<av KVKtov e/jLTTOielv, oaa^fJTTep rjv Bvvarov, &o~re per* dij(ov
fAoyts vv%o/jLeva<; <j>epe<rdai fêv, dXoyws Be <j)epe(r6ai, rore fj,ev
dvrtas, dore Be TrXayias, rore Be inrrias' olov orav Ti9 VTTTIOS
e'pe/cras Tr)v K<j)ar)v ftev eVi 7775, TOI)<? Be TroSa? dvo) 7rpocr/3a<av
*X!J 'R'pos TIVI, Tore ev TOVTW TW Trddet rov re rrd&'xpvros Kal rwv
10 opwvrwv rd re 8eid dpicrrepd Kal rd dpiarepd Bet,d e/carepot?
rd eKarepwv <f>avrderai. ravrbv Brj rovro Kal roiavra erepa at,
Trepufropal 7rd<r%ovcrai a(f)oBpw<f, orav ye rq> rwv e^wOev rov ravrov 44 A
yevovs 17
rov Oarepov irepirvôxn,, rore ravrov rw Kal Odrepov
rov rdvavria rwv dr}0oov Trpoo-ayopevovaai tyevBeis Kal avorjroi
15 yeyova&w, ovSe/Jiia re ev avrais rore rrepioBos dpôvaa ovB'
qye/AWV ecrriv al? S' dv e%u>6ev alcrdijo'eif rti/e? (frepo/mevai, Kal
rrpoarreaovGai vve7ri,<r7rdo~a>vrai, Kal TO T^? V''
L
'%^ <? dvrav Kvros,
roO* avrat Kparovpevai Kparelv SoKOV(7t. Kal Bid Brj ravra Trdvra
rd readypara vvv /car'
dp^d^ re dvovs "^v^rj ryiyverai TO rrpwrov, B
20 oVai> et? o-wfia evBe6fj Qvrjrov. orav Be TO T^9 avj;r)<; Kal rpo<j)r)s
12 Srav ye: STOP re AH. 15 tv avrais : & eavrous A. 16 als 5' dv : dv 5' au S.
2. (j,<r6TT)Tas Kal <rvv8ô-is] These Proklos. Suppose a man to stand facing
words merely signify 'means and con- the north; then he will of course have
necting links'; they contain no special the east on his right hand, the west on
reference to the Aet)tt/t, as Stallbaum his left: then let him lie down on his
imagines. back, still keeping the east on his right,
3. Xvral OVK ^rav] The dissolution and then raise his feet in the air, so that
of the fj.e<rt>Tr)Tes Kal <rvv5tffeis would of he stands on his head : he will now be
course involve the destruction of the looking south, while east and west will
soul. still be to right and to left as before.
7. dvTfa,s...irXa
i
ytas...vjrras] It is But a person looking south in the natural
not very clear what is the precise import way has east to the left, and west to the
of these terms. Perhaps we may under- right. Therefore our inverted one, know-
stand the meaning to be that the false ing that he is looking south, will feel as if
report of the senses may be either a the east were on his left, though it is not
negation of the truth, or diverse from it, so. Thus along with his inverted position
or contrary to it :
e.g. fire is not hot, fire his notion of right and left is inverted.
is smoke, fire is cold. So far as the It seems to me however that such a
figure is concerned, it would seem im- display of athletic skill is unnecessaiy.
possible to draw any distinction between All that Plato's meaning requires is this :
eb'Tfas and i/Trlas. if A and B stand face to face, B's right is
to. Ta rt Stjjid dpwrrtpa] The nature of course opposite A's left. But if A
of this inversion is thus expounded by stand on his head, still facing B, then

44 Bl TIMAIOl 151
they displaced, so that the double and triple intervals, being
three of each sort, and the means and junctures of f and f and ,
since they could not be utterly undone save by him that joined
them, were forced by them to turn in all kinds of ways and to
admit all manner of breaking and twisting of the circles, in
every possible form, so that they can barely hold to one another,
and though they are in motion, it is motion without law, some-
times reversed, now slanting, and now inverted. It is as though
a man should stand on his head, resting it on the earth and
supporting his feet against something aloft ;
in this case the man
in such condition and the spectators would reciprocally see right
and left reversed in the persons of each other. The same and
similar effects are produced with great intensity in the soul's
revolutions : and when from external objects there meets them
anything that belongs to the class of the Same or to that of the
Other, then they declare its relative sameness or difference quite
contrariwise to the truth, and show themselves false and irra-
tional ;
and no circuit is governor or leader in them at that
time. And whenever sensations from without rushing up and fall-
ing upon them drag along with them the whole vessel of the soul,
then the circuits seem to govern though they really are governed.
On account then of all these experiences the soul is at first
bereft of reason, now as in the beginning, when she is confined in
a mortal body. But when the stream of growth and nutriment
B's right will be opposite A's right ; the irepioSoi, and is the antecedent to aft.
normal relation being inverted. When, Plato says, any sensations rush
17. airov KVTOS] The soul is, as it
upon the ireploSoi and carry the whole
were, an envelope containing the Trepupopal. soul along with them, then the Treptodoi
Stallbaum compares Laws 964 E, where seem to govern, though really they are
the city is compared to a KVTOS. governed. That is to say, the motion of
1 8. avrat Kparovptevai Kparciv 80- the circles which is imparted to them by
KoCo-i] Stallbaum, after Proklos, refers the impulse of the alffOfoeis is mistaken
O.VTO.I to alffOrjefis, interpreting 'they (the for their own proper motion: their report of
sensations) seem to rule the soul, which the perception is received as true, though
by rights rules them'. But this cannot be in fact it is untrustworthy. The notion
admitted, because the important addition in airav KVTOS seems to be that when the
'
by rights
'
is not in the Greek and cannot sensations are very overpowering, they
be dispensed with. Moreover the sensa- give an impulse to the whole soul : there
tions do really and not only in appearance is no hesitation nor conflict of opinion,
govern the soul under these circumstances. Since then the soul ratifies without
Martin's interpretation seems to me question the report of the senses, she
unquestionably right, avrai refers to seems to be acting regularly and rightly

152 HAATftNOS [44 E
earrov eiriy pevfta, iraXiv B at irepioBoi 7m/*/3av6fj,vai
rr)v eavratv 68ov taxrt /cat KadicrTWVTai /*aXXoi> eTTiovros rou
Xpovov, Tore 1787; 7ry?o<?
TO Kara <j>v(nv IOVTOJV o-^f/yaa e/cao-rtoi/ rwy
KVKo)v at 7repi(f)0pai fcarevBvvofjievai, TO Te Odrepov /cat TO TauTov
5 Trpocrayopevovaai KOST opdov, e/Ji<j)pova
TOV eôvra avrds yiyvo-
fjLevov dirorekovffiv. av pev ovv 77 /cat ^vveTTiXa^^dv^raL Tt?
opOrj rpo<f>rj TraiBevffeaJS, oXoX??po9 vyirfs re Traj/TeXcS?, n}v fif- C
yiaTijv aTrotyisycbv vocrov, yiyverai, /caTa/ieX^cra? Be, %a)Kr)v rov
/Stou Sicnropevdels %cotjv, aTeX?)? /cat dvor)TO<s et9 "AtSou irdXiv
10
ep%Tcu. Tavra p,ev ovv fto-repd TTOTC yiyverai' trepl 8e rwv vvv
Set Ste6etv dtcpifiecrTepov, rd Be Trpo rovrcov Trepl
Kara pepy T^9 yevea-ecos /cat irepl û^;^?, 81 a9 Te atVta9
/cat Trpovoias yeyove Oewv, TOV /AaXt<7Ta et;oT09 a^Teô/iej/ot9
O0TO) /cat /caTa TayTa iropevofiivoi^ Biejfireov. D
9 dvorjros :
apprehending the phenomena, whereas
really she is obeying an external impulse.
i. IXaTTov firtn pv(*.a] That is to
say, as the child grows older the im-
perious necessities of nutrition become
less predominant ; also the sensations
from without grow less distracting. Ac-
cordingly the intellect has freer play to
exercise its functions.
5. |uf>pova...Yi'yvo|i,cvov] Note that
he is
only put in the way to become
rational.
7. o'p0r| Tpo<f>i] TrcuSevcrfios] These
words must be taken together, the geni-
tive depending upon rpo^r). Stallbaum,
governing iraiSetiffeus by tTriXa/j.fidvrirai,
wrongly understands 6p6j] rpo<prj to refer
to the diminished influx of nutriment.
oXoKX-qpos] This is a technical term
of the Eleusinian ritual. Plato is fond
of borrowing such terms : cf. Phae-
drus 250 C 66ici)pa 5t Kal dwd Kal
drpe/j.7) Kal evdaifj.ova <f>dff/Mra fj.voijft.tvoi
re Kal tiroirretiovrts iv avyrj Ka6ap$,
Ka.0a.pol ovres Kal dffrifiavroi rovrov 5
Tpoirov 5t5efffj.fvfi.^voi. See too Laws 759
C. Similarly dreXrjj is a ritual term. It
is also possible that in TTJC nfylarrjv diro-
pr. m. S.
(f>vy&v voffov we have an echo of the
ejaculation of the initiates, tyvyov KaKov,
evpov dfj-eivov : cf. Demosthenes de corona
p. 312 259.
8. Xw^nv] Compare 87 r>, where
it is said that if a disproportion exists
between soul and body, the 8ov ffiov
is dûfj.fj.trpov rals ptyiffrais %vfj./j.rpiais.
TOV PIOU SiairopevOds <>*] v] j3iov
fi)=
'
the conscious existence of his life-
time', fw?) being a more subjective term
than /3/os. Compare on the other hand
Euripides Herculesfurens 664 a Svvytveia
5' dirav av efye fwas fiiordv.
10. v<rTpd iroT yfyVT(u] i.e. be-
long to a later part of our exposition :
the subject is in fact dealt with in chap-
ters 4143.
TWV vvv irpoTtOt'vTwv] I concur with
Stallbaum in referring rd vvv wportBtvra
to the inquiry into the operation of the
several senses, while rd trpb rovrwv signifies
the investigation vepl ffundruv /card fdpr)
yevtaews Kal irepl ^vx^'
13. TOV i*aXiora elKOTos] We are
now fairly in the region of the physical,
where we must be content with the
'
probable account '.

TIMAIO2. 153
flows in with smaller volume, and the revolutions calming down
go their own way and become settled as time passes on, then
the orbits are reduced to the form that belongs to the several
circles in their natural motion, and declaring accurately the
Other and the Same, they set their possessor in the way to
become rational. And if any just discipline of education help
this process, he becomes whole altogether without a blemish,
having made his escape from the most grievous of plagues ;
but
if he neglect it, he passes the days of his life halt and maimed,
and unhallowed and unreasonable he comes again to Hades.
These things however belong to a later time : we must discuss
more exactly the subject immediately before us. And as to
the matters which are previous to this, concerning the genera-
tion of the body in all its parts and concerning soul, and the
reasons and designs of the gods whereby they have come into
being, we must cling to the most probable theory, and by pro-
ceeding in this way so give an account of all.
forth into the darkness is quenched ;
and
when the eyelids are closed, the flow
of it is turned inwards, and calming the
motions that are within, it
produces sleep,
more or less dreamless according as the
calm is complete.
Then it is shown how images in mirrors
arise through the reflection of the com-
bined fires when they meet upon a smooth
shining surface; how in plane mirrors
right and left are reversed in the re-
flection ;
and how in a concave mirror,
when it is held in one position, right and
left are not transposed, but if it be held
in another, the image is inverted.
But we must remember that all these
physical laws are but a means to an end ;
we must learn to distinguish between
spiritual causes, which are primary, and
material causes, which are only sub-
sidiary : and though both must be ex-
plained, the first alone is the true object
of the wise man's search. Now the true
motive of the gods in bestowing sight
upon man was the attainment of phi-
losophy by him : for had we never seen
the celestial motions and from them
44 D 47 E, c. xvi. The two revolu-
tions of the soul were enclosed in a sphe-
rical case which we call the head : and
all the rest of the body was framed that
it might minister to the head, aiding
it to move from place to place and pre-
serving it from harm. And to man the
gods assigned a forward progress as his
most natural motion ;
for this was more
dignified than the contrary. To dis-
tinguish front from rear they set the face
with its organs of sense in one part of
the head ; and this they made the for-
ward and leading side. The first organs
they fashioned therein were the eyes that
lighten the body. Now vision comes to
pass on this wise. From the eyes issues
forth a stream of clear and subtle fire,
of the same substance as the sunlight
in the air; with which it
mingles, and
the two combined meet the fire pro-
ceeding from the object which is in the
line of vision ;
and so the united fires,
becoming one body, transmit the vibra-
tions from the object to the eye. But
at night, when there is no more light
in the air, the visual fire on passing

1
54 HAATftNOS [44 D
XVI. Ta9 fjikv Brj 6eia$ TrepioBovs Bvo oi/Vas TO TOU 7rai>To<?
(r^fia dTTO/Mifjirjo'djjbevoi 7repi(f>epe<;
bv et<? o~(f)aipoeiBe<; awpa eve-
Bi]0~av, rovro o vvv Ke<f>ar)v eirovo^dôp.ev, o Oeiorarov T etrrt
Kal ru>v ev rjjjuv irdvrwv Beo~7rorovV a> teal irdv TO adofia TrapeBoaav
5 VTTTjpecriav avrw %vva6polcravres Oeoi, Karavorjo-avres, ori iracrwv
oa-ai Kivrja-eis eo-oivro /u,eTe%ot.
'iv ovv fir) KViv8ov/j,evov eVt 7^5
vtyij re Kal ftdOij TravroSaTrd eôvar}^ aTropol rd /j,ev i/Trepftaiveiv,
E
evdev 8e etcftaLvew, o^rjfju
avrw TOVTO Kal einropiav eSovav' Wev 8rj
ftrfKos TO o-w/ia eaêv, efcrard re Kwa Kal Ka/Airrd e<f>va-e rerrapa
10 Oeov fjir)xavr)crafAVov iropeiav, ot? dvriafA/3av6fj,evov Kal direpe&o-
(tevov Bid Trdvrajv TOTTWV TropeveaOai Svvarov yeyove, rrjv rov
Oetordrov Kal leptardrov <f>epov oircrjariv eTrdvooOev rjfjiwv. tr/ceX?; 45 A
fjiev
ovv %eipe<> re ravry Kal Bid ravra Trpocrecfrv Trdcri' rov 8'
O7rio-0ev TO TrpocrOev riftiwrepov Kal dpîKU>repov vo/J,iovre<t 6eol
15 ravrrj TO TTOI) T^? iropeia^ rîiv eBocrav. eBei Brj BKOpta/jievov
e%eiv Kal dvofjioiov rov crwfj,aro$ TO TrpoaOev dvOpwrrov. Bio Trpwrov
fj,ev Trepl TO rfjs /ceâX^? Kvros, virodevres avroae TO irpocrwjrov,
opyava eveBrjaav rovrw Trda-rj rfj rfjs ->|rv^? Trpovola, Kal Bieragav B
TO fêreôv JfaftpOvfaK TOUT' elvai TO Kara <f>vcnv rrpoaOev. rwv
20 Be op<ydvo)v Trpwrov JMGV (fjaxrôpa ^vvereKrrjvavro op/iara, roiaBe
evBrjo-avres airla. rov TTU/JO? oo-oz> T^ fjiev Kaieiv OVK eo-ê, TO Be
a)9 r/fjiepov, OIKCIOV eKaarij^ T/yu-epa?
10 iropeiav :
iropela SZ. 18 rj omittit A. Ste'rafav TO /jLerexov
'
dieragavro
SZ. 22 post r)fj.{pas commate vulgo interpungitur.
learnt number, philosophy could never aicrOdverat re p.diffra Kal at tpptves. rrjs
have been ours. But now we are able ^VTOL <j>povri<ri.os otidertpy fj^recrnv, dXd
to rule and correct the errant movements irT<av Tovrtuv 6 ^7/c^(/>aos curios tffTiv.
of our soul by contemplating the serene This view was afterwards upheld by
unswerving revolutions of the skies. And Galen against the Peripatetics and Stoics,
to the same end too they gave sound who made the heart the sole dpxri- With
and music and harmony and rhythm, dfffirorovv compare a phrase in one of the
that we might bring order from disorder Hippokratean epistles, m 824 Kiihn:
in our souls. 5e<rir6r-r)v 0tfa/ta diavoirjs KaXinrrovffiv
i. r6 TOVI iravros rxTJ|ia a'7ro|ii|XTj(rd- tyK<j>aot>.
luvoi] Cf. 73 c: see too 81 A, where 5. wcwwv] i.e. all the six, excluding
the whole human frame is regarded as a rotation : cf. 43 B.
microcosm working on the same princi- 10. iropefav] This reading has over-
pies as the universe. whelming ms. support, and may very
3. 8 vvv K<|>aXriv] Plato, in placing well signify
'
as means of locomotion
'
:
the apx*l of consciousness in the head, there seems no sufficient ground for
agrees with Hippokrates : cf. de morbo changing it to wopeia.
sacro vol. I
p. 614 Kuhn Siori r] Kapdli} 13. irpoortc^v] With this remarkable

45 B] TIMAI02. 155
XVI. Imitating the shape of the universe, which was sphe-
rical, they confined the two divine revolutions in a globe-shaped
body, the same that we now call the head, which is the divinest
part of us and has dominion over all our members. To this the
gods gave the whole body, when they had put it together, to
minister to it, reflecting that it possessed all the motions that
should be. In order then that it might not have to roll upon
the earth, which has hills and hollows of all kinds, nor be at
a loss to surmount the one and climb out of the other, they gave
it the body for a conveyance and for ease of going : whence the
body was endowed with length and grew four limbs that could
be stretched and bent, which the god devised for it to go withal,
and by means of which clinging and supporting itself it is
enabled to pass through every place, bearing at the top of us
the habitation of the most divine and sacred element. In this
way then and for these reasons were legs and hands added to
all mankind ;
and the gods, deeming that the front was more
honourable than the back and more fit to lead, made us to move
for the most part in this direction. So it behoved man to have
the front part distinguished and unlike the back. Therefore
having set the face upon the globe of the head on that side, they
attached to it organs for all the forethought of the soul, and
they ordained that this which had the faculty of guidance should
be by nature the front. And first of the organs they wrought light-
giving eyes, which they fixed there on the plan I shall explain.
Such sort of fire as had the property of yielding a gentle light
use of the singular compare the still nose and mouth, on the same side of
stronger case in Symposium 188 B ical the head, forming the face ; and this side
yip rraxva-t xa.1 x<*^afat Kai tpvfflfiai K they called the front.
irfove%ias nal dKOfffJ-las irepl ai)a T&V 18. SUroljav TO |XTov] This read-
TOIOUTUV jiyverai IpuriKuv. The con- ing is distinctly preferable to 8ieroam>
struction is of course distinct from the ptroxov- For /u^roxoc if-ye/jcw/as must be
so-called 'schema Pindaricum', in which the predicate: the meaning however
the verb precedes its subject, and which plainly is that the gods, to distinguish
is not so very uncommon in Attic writers. front from back, ordered that the face,
15. $>i 8i]] Forward motion is more which held the leading position (because
dignified than retrograde ; and man is it contained the opyava rfj rrjs ^vxys
to have the more dignified. But to at- irpovoiq.), should be TO /card <t>v<nv irp6<r-
tain this there must be something to dis- ffev.
tinguish front from rear; therefore the 22. oUciov Kacrn]S TJji^pas <rw(xa] This
gods placed the sensory organs, eyes punctuation is due to Madvig, who by

1
5 6 HAATHNOS [45 B
ylyvecrdat' TO yap eVTo? r)p,wv dBe<f>ov ov TOVTOV irvp elitcpive<;
eTroiijo~av Bid T(5v ofjiâTcav pelv elov ical TTVKVOV, oov ftev, fJ-a-
io~Ta Be TO /j.eo~ov vfjnri'>jo~avT<i TWV o/iyu-aTtoy, So~Te TO fJiev c
do OQ-QV Tra^vTepov a-Teyeiv irav, TO TOIOVTOV Be p,6vov avTO
5 KaOapov BirjOeiv. OTav ovv fJLedrjpepLVOV f) (^cS? Trepl TO T^? OT/re<u<?
pevfjui, TOT' eKTrtTTTOv ojioiov 7rpo<? opoiov, vjj,7raye<> yevofievov, ev
crtw/ia ol/ceiQ)dev o~vveo~Tr) tcaTa TT/V TWV o^p>aT(av evdvwpiav, oirrjTrep
av avTepelBrj TO irpoo'irlirTov evBodev TTÔ? o TU>V ea> o'vveTreo'ev.
ofioioTraOes Brj oY 6/j,oioTr)Ta irdv yevoaevov, OTOV Te av avTO TTOTC
10 e(pdTTTr)Tai Kal o av d'XXo eicelvov, TOVTMV TCZ? tcivijo~ei<i BiaBiBov D
T) Brj opdv (frauev. d7re06vTO<; Be elf VVKTU TOV vyyevov<; irvpos
dTroTeT/ArjTai' Trpos yap dv6fj,oiov eiov dXkoiovTai T avTO Kal
tcaTao-ftevvvTat, ^vjMJjves ovtceTt Tc3 7rr)crlov dept yiyvofjievov, a.T
7 orjjirep av: av omittit A. 9 orou re dv : OTOV re lav A.
merely expunging a comma has restored
sense to the passage. Ordinarily a comma
is placed after i^fyas, leaving us to face
the inconvenient problem, how could the
gods make into body that which was
body already? For Martin's attempt to
specialise the use of ffuâ in the sense of
'
definitely formed matter
'
is hopeless.
Eschewing the comma however, we get
quite the right sense they made it into a
substance similar to tha' daylight, which
is a subtle fire pervading the atmosphere.
Thus too the yap immediately following,
to which Stallbaum takes exception, is
justified ; it introduces the explanation
how the gods made the fire within us
similar to the fire without. There is an
obvious play between tjfj.epov yutpas.
For Plato's etymology of -fi^pa. see Craty-
lus 418 C.
4. T& TOIOVTOV] sc. ri> etXiKpivis Kal
eioi> Kal irvKvbv*
6. iv <rw|ia olKiw9^v] That is to say,
wherever the eye is directed, the stream
of fire from the eye and the fire in the
atmosphere, which is of one and the same
substance with it, combine and form a
ray of homogeneous fire all along the
line of vision.
10. TOVTUV TO.S Kivt]cris 8ia8i86v] Pla-
to's theory may thus be briefly explained.
There are three fires concerned : the fire
that streams from the eye, the fire of day-
light in the air, and the fire in the object
seen, which is the cause of its visibility.
The first two are absolutely homogeneous
one with the other and combine into a
perfectly uniform substance. This sub-
stance, on meeting the rays from the
object, receives their vibrations and trans-
mits them to the eye, whence they are
delivered to the seat of consciousness, at
which point of the process perception
takes place. The problem with which
Plato has to deal is, how is action at a
distance effected? This he ingeniously at-
tempts to explain by the hypothesis of an
extension of the substance of the perci-
pient in the direction of the object : for
the tyews peO/xa is just as much part of
ourselves as the brain or hand : this is
clear from 64 D. If this passage be com-
pared with the statements in Theaetetus
156 A foil, or 182 A, it will be seen that
the physical theory of the Timaeus fits in
perfectly well with the metaphysical doc-
trine of perception in the Theaetetus.
It is plain too that Plato's theory is

TIMAIOS. 157
but not of burning, they contrived to form into a substance akin
to the light of every day. The fire within us, which is akin to
the daylight, they made to flow pure smooth and dense through
the eyes, having made close the whole fabric of the eyes and
especially the pupils, so that they kept back all that was coarser
and suffered only this to filter through unmixed and pure.
Whenever then there is daylight surrounding the current of
vision, then this issues forth as like into like, and coalescing with
the light is formed into one uniform substance in the direct line
of vision, wherever the stream issuing from within strikes upon
some external object that falls in its way. So the whole from
its uniformity becomes sympathetic ;
and whenever it comes in
contact with anything else, or anything with it, it passes on the
motions thereof over the whole body until they reach the soul,
and thus causes that sensation which we call seeing. But when
its kindred fire departs into night, the visual current is cut off:
for issuing into an alien element it is itself changed and quenched,
having no longer a common nature with the surrounding air,
peculiar to himself and quite diverse from
the Empedoklean (or Demokritean) doc-
trine of effluences, with which Stallbaum
confuses it ; although the two theories
have some points in common, as appears
from the statement of Aristotle de sensti
437
b ii foil. Empedokles, as Aristotle
informs us, wavered in his explanation,
sometimes adopting the airoppoal afore-
said, sometimes comparing the eye to
a lantern, sending forth its visual ray
through the humours and membranes
which correspond to the frame of the
lantern. But as propounded in the pas-
sage quoted by Aristotle (302 310 Kars-
ten), this notion amounts merely to a
metaphor or analogy and is not worked
up into a physical theory : it agrees how-
ever with Plato in taking fire for the
active force of the eye. The doctrine of
effluences from the object corresponding
to iropoi in the percipient is attributed to
Empedokles in Meno 76 c : see too Ari-
stotle de gen. et corr. I viii y." 35 foil.
Plato himself assumes an effluence of rays
from the object, but this has little resem-
blance to the Empedoklean diroppoai.
An exposition of the peculiar theory of
Demokritos will be found in Theophrastos
de sensu 49 foil. Aristotle's theory of
vision is expounded in de anima II vii and
de sensu ii, iii.
n. fw'xpt T1is ^X^s] See note on
43 c.
12. $ 8ij] 'whereby' we see. The
physical process is the soul's instrument :
cf. Theaetetus
84 c.
14. Karao-p^vwrai] Plato explains quite
clearly what he means by
'
extinguished '.
The visual fire, issuing into air destitute
of light, finds no kindred substance with
which to coalesce : it is thus modified,
and losing its proper nature becomes un-
able to carry on the process of vision.
Aristotle however, catching at the word
Ka.TO.ff^lvvvra.1, asks ris yap diro<r)3eiJts 0w-
TOS iffriv ; ff^vvvrai yap fj vyp<$
rb 8epfj.bv KO. ripov, olov 5o*te? TO T' iv TO?J
dvOpaK&Sefftv elvat irvp Kai rj <p6, wi> T<
<f>url ovStrepov Qalvtrcu vtrap^ov
:
. It is

I
5 8 ITAATHNOS [45 D
OVK e'yovrt. rraverat re ovv opwv, eri re erraywyov vrrvov
a-Qjrrjpiai' yap r)v oi 6eol rr)<; o^/re&>9 e^rjâvrja-avro, rrjv
rwv j3e<f>dp(i)v (frvcnv, orav ravra f^vjAfAvcrrj, tcaOeipyvvat rr)v E
TOU rrvpos evrof Biivapiv, rj
Be Bia%ei re teal 6/j,avvei T9 evro?
5 (civr/vets, 6/j,avv0eicr(av Be rjavîa yvyverai, <yevofjt,evr)s Be rror)<j
[lev r)<rvyia<s ftpayvoveipos vrrvof e^rrircret,, Karaei<^)deLau>v Be
rivcov Kivrjcrewv fietôvwv, olai teal ev otbt? av rorrois eirra)vrai, 4G A
TotaOra /cal roo-avra rrapea-ôvro d(f)OfjLoia)9evra evros e&> re
eyepOeiGiv drro^vrjôvevofjieva (fravrda-fjuara. TO Be rrepl rrjv r(5v
10 Karorrrpwv el8(oorroi,iav, /cal rrdvra ocra efi(j>avr} teal Xeta, KariBeiv
ovBev eri r
âerr6v. e/c
7^^ T^9 evrcs eT09 re rov rrvpos etcarepov
KOivwvias dr)oi<$, evos re av rrepl rrjv ei6rrjra etcdarore ye-
vo/jievov /cal rroX,a^ fierappvO/jua-Qevros, rrdvra rd roiavra ej~ B
dvdyfcr)<; /j,<f>aiverat,,
rov rrepl TO TTpoa-forrov Trvpos TW rrepl rrjv
15 OÎTIV rrvpl rrepl TO elov Kal afjt,rrpov %vp,rr0701)9 yiyvofjievov.
Beid Be (fravrdêrai rd dpicrrepd, ori Tot9 evavriois fj-epetri rrjs
1 6 Kara post <f>avrderai habet A.
lates
'
images semblables a des objets soit
interieurs, soit exterieurs '. But what can
be meant by
'
objets interieurs
'
? I had
thought of substituting QwOev for w re,
'copied within from without': in which
case eytpOeial r' must be read. But
though this gives a good sense, it over-
throws the balance of the sentence. And
the text may, I think, be explained as it
stands : the images are copied within
that is, in the dream-world, and recalled
to mind without that is, when we have
emerged from the dream-world. For Ari-
stotle's theory of dreams see the treatise
irepl (vvirvli>.
it. IK -yap Tfs ivr6<$] Plato proceeds
to explain the phenomena of reflection in
mirrors. The rays from the object reflected
are arrested by the smooth shining sur-
face of the mirror, which they cannot
penetrate : the combined <tyews pevfw.
and /j.e0rjfj.fpivbv <j>ws are arrested on the
same surface and thus come into conjunc-
tion with the rays from the object. Thus
the mirror is the cause of contact be-
tween the fire of the subject and the fire
of the object, and so an indirect vision is
I Sirvov ylyverat :
ytyverai tiirvov S.
impossible to exonerate criticism of this
kind from the charge of bvopAruv Or/pev-
<rts. The reference in de anima in xii
435
a
5 i s apparently to Empedokles, not
to Plato.
4. q 8i Siact] sc. 17 TOU trvpbs 86-
va/j.is, not, as Stallbaum has it, y ru>v
f)t(j)<ipuv (pfois : to say nothing of the
sense, the 17 3 is sufficient to show that
the subject of Siaxei is different from that
of Kadfipyvvffi. Plato's view is that when
the eyes are closed, the visual stream, un-
able to find an outlet, is directed inwards,
and the smooth and subtle flow of fire
mollifies and calms all the motions within,
thus inducing sleep.
8. d.4>ojioLco0VTa ivros] Dreams are
the result of motions which are not tho-
roughly calmed down, whereby semblances
of external things are presented to the
mind from within : the Kivrjffis correspond-
ing to any particular external impression
producing a likeness of that impression
in the sleeping consciousness. The sense
is plain enough ; but some difficulty at-
taches to the words tivfc (u re. Martin,
construing them with a<pop.oiu0evra, trans-

4613] TIMAIOS. 159
which has in it no fire. Therefore it ceases from seeing and
moreover becomes an allurement to sleep. For the gods had
devised as a safeguard of the sight the structure of the eyelids ;
and when these are closed, they shut up the force of fire within ;
and this smoothes and calms the motions within ;
and when
these are calmed, quiet ensues. And if the quiet is profound,
sleep with few dreams falls on us ;
but if some of the stronger
motions are left, according to their nature and the places where
they remain, they engender visions corresponding in kind and in
number; which are images within us, and when we awake are
remembered as outside us. Now the explanation of reflections
in mirrors and all bright smooth surfaces is no longer hard to
discern. For because of the communion of the internal and
external fire, which again is united on the smooth surface and in
manifold ways deflected, all these reflections take place ;
the fire
that belongs to the face coalescing with the fire of the visual
current upon the surface of the smooth bright object. And left
appears right and right left, because mutually opposite particles
effected, rov irvpbs eKartpov signifies not
the visual stream and the daylight, but
the visual stream (combined with the
daylight) and the rays from the object.
These two fires combine upon the surface
of the mirror (^/cros), and the /civf/crtis of
this combination are transmitted along
the visual stream and impressed upon the
retina (^CTOS). The foregoing interpreta-
tion gives the best meaning I can put
upon the curious phrase rfjs tvrbs ticros
re Koivbivlas, unless we may suppose that
Plato rather loosely said
'
the internal
and external combination of the two fires'
for
'
the combination of the internal and
external fires'. But I have strong sus-
picions that &TOS {KTOS re is a marginal
gloss upon eKartpov. Seneca natur. quaest.
I v i clearly expresses the distinctive cha-
racteristic of Plato's theory of reflections:
'de speculis duae opiniones sunt ;
alii
enim in illis simulacra cerni putant, id est
corporum nostrorum figuras a nostris cor-
poribus emissas ac separatas, alii non
imagines in specula, scd ifsa adspici cor-
pora, retorta oculorum acie et in sc rursus
reflcxa '. The italicised words express
Plato's opinion. iroXXaxfj fteTappvO/JUff-
Otvros refers, I conceive, to the various
angles at which the rays are reflected,
corresponding to the different angles of
incidence.
14. ji<f>avT(u] 'are reflected', tf*.-
<paive<r0ai is the technical term. The
word yu0acris, 'reflection', does not occur
in Plato but is frequent in Aristotle and
Theophrastos.
TOV irpl ri -7rp6(rwirov 7rvp6s] i.e.
the fire belonging to the" face, which is
the object reflected. We must suppose
the case of a person looking at his own
face in a mirror : what happens is that
the ray from the face, rb irepl TO wpoffu-
irov, is checked on the surface of the
mirror and is then amalgamated with the
visual stream, TO irtpl TTJP fyiv, which
meets it at that spot. Plato's theory of
course applies to all reflections, although
in this sentence he is
speaking as of a
particular
case.

i6o [46 B
cn^reft)? Trepl rdvavria pep?) yiyverai eVae^?) Trapd TO
eOo? T7/9 TrpO(T/3or}<?' Beîd 8e rd Seîd Kal ra dpurrepa dpurrepd
TovvavTiov, orav fjLra
f
rrea"r} avfjL7rijyvv/j,vov (a
crvfjiTnjjvvrai ^xw?'
TOVTO 8e, orav 77 rcav KaroTrrpwv XeiorT??, evOev teal evdev v-^rrj
C
5 aj3ov<ra, TO Beîbv et? TO dpt(TTpbv fiepos dirtacrr) T^? otyews /cat
6a.TpOV 67Tfc
0CLTpOV. KttTO, B TO fifJKOS (TTpa<f)eV TOV TTpOCTWTTOV
TavTov TOVTO vTTTtov eTroirjcre irav (paivecrOai, TO tcaTW Trpos TO avco
T^9 avyrj^ TO T OVdD TTpOS TO KflTCO TToXlV aTTWCraV.
TaOr' ovv TrdvTa e&Tt TOOV ^vvaiTiwv, ol? ^6o<> v7rr)pTOv<rt
10
xprJTai TT/V TOV dpi<rTov Kara TO SWCLTOV ISeav aTTOTeXdSv' So^d-
erat Se VTTO TWV 7reicrTcov ov vvaiTia a' aiTta elvai TOOV irav- D
TO>V, ^rvôvTa ical Oep/naivovTa TrrjyvvvTa re teal
BiaêovTa KOI ova
ToiavTa aTrepyaô/jLeva' 6jov Be ovSeva ov8e vovv et<? ovSev SvvaTa
ecrrt. TWV yap OVTWV cS vovv fiovw KTaaQai Trpoa-rjicei, KTeov
i. irtpl rdvavrfa l^pi]] Plato's
meaning will be readily understood by
means of a diagram, which, together with
the explanation, is borrowed from
Martin.
AB is a line in the mirror where it is
cut by a plane which also passes through
the eye of the observer and through the
object reflected. CD is the line where
the plane cuts the eye, EF the line where
it cuts the object. DH, CG are two rays
of the visual fire impinging upon the
mirror in the points G, ff: EG, FH are
two rays from the objects impinging upon
the mirror and meeting Dff, CG in the
same two points. Then it will be seen
that the ray Dff, which proceeds from
the right side of the eye, meets the ray
FH, proceeding from the right side of the
object : therefore (the angle of reflection
being equal to the angle of incidence)
the ray from F is reflected along HD
to the right side of the eye. Similarly
the ray EG, issuing from the left of the
object, is reflected along GC to the left
side of the eye. This is a reversal of
what happens in the case of direct
vision (irapii rb KaOevrbs tOos rrjs irpoa-
jSoX^j). For if A and B look each other
in the face, A's right eye will be opposite
JS's left, and so forth : but if A look at his
own face in the glass, the eye in the
reflection, which should be the left
relatively to the reflection, will be the
reflection of the right eye : for if A close
his right eye, the eye in the mirror
opposite his right will be closed. Plato's
theory then is designed to explain why it
is that in a reflection the right side of the
visual current comes in contact with the
rays from the right side of the object,
whereas in direct vision it meets the rays
from the left of the object. Compare
Sophist 266 C SiirXovv 8 rjvlK S.v 0tDs
olKfUv re ical d6rpiov irepl TO. afj.irpa.
ical e?a e/s /
fweXWy TT?J tfj.irpoff6ei>
etdiBvlas tfêws ^vavrLav atcrOrjffiv irap^xof
etdos aTrepydfrrai.
4. v0cv KCU fv0v in] Xa.pox/0-a]
i.e. a concave mirror. Plato conceives
the reversal of the phenomena of reflection
as appearing in a plane mirror to be due
to the concavity deflecting the rays at the

TIMAIO2. 161
of the visual current and of the object seen come into contact,
contrary to the wonted mode of collision. On the other hand right
appears as right and left as left, when in the act of combination
with that wherewith it combines the ray changes sides. This
happens when the smooth surface of the mirror is curved up-
wards on each side and so throws the right portion of the visual
current to the left side and the ccfoiverse. But if it is turned
lengthwise to the face, it makes this same reflection appear
completely upside down, thrusting the lower portion of the ray
to the upper end and the upper to the lower.
All these things are among the secondary causes which God
uses to serve him in carrying out the idea of the best so far
as is possible. But the multitude regard them not as secondary
but as primary causes, which act by cooling and heating, con-
densing and rarefying, and all such processes. Yet they are
incapable of all reason or thought for any purpose. For the
only existing thing to which belongs the possession of reason
moment of impact. In the case of a con-
cave mirror the section AB would be
a curved line instead of straight ;
and
thereby a ray from the right side, just at
the moment of impact, while it is in act
of amalgamating with the ray from the
object, is shifted to the left side, and vice
versa- It must be remembered that the
concave mirrors of which Plato speaks
are not of the sort with which we are
most familiar, namely hemispherical
mirrors :
they are hemicylindrical : there-
fore when the mirror is held laterally, so
that the curvature is from right to left,
the position of right and left as compared
with a reflection in a plane mirror is
inverted ;
if it is held vertically (Kara.
pfJKos <TTpa<f>ei> TOV irpocrwirov), so that the
curvature is from top to bottom, the
reflection is
upside down. See Munro's
note on Lucretius iv 317. If the mirror
were hemispherical, or one which is
concave all round from centre to circum-
ference, both right and left and top and
bottom would be inverted, as may be
seen by simply looking into the bowl of
P. T.
a silver spoon. This case is not noticed
by Plato, nor by Lucretius /. /. Martin
gives a mathematical explanation of the
phenomena.
9. TWV jjvvaiTCwv] Plato now pro-
ceeds to guard against being supposed to
mean that the physical principles which
he has just laid down are the real cause :
they are merely the means through which
the true cause works, viz., poCs operating
^?ri rb (3Tiffrov. Compare Phaedo 99 B.
The whole of this latter part of the
chapter contains a polemic partly against
Anaxagoras, partly against Demokritos.
Anaxagoras did indeed postulate vovt
as his prime force, but he used it
simply
as a mechanical agent, without attributing
to it a conscious effort to produce the best
result. Demokritos conceives a blind
unconscious force, avdyKi), to be the
motive power of the universe. Thus
whereas the opposition between Demo-
kritos and Plato is fundamental and
essential, Plato's controversy with Anaxa-
goras is due rather to inconsequence or
incompleteness on the part of the latter.
II

1 62 HAATHNOS [46 u
'
TOVTO Be dopaTOV, Trvp Be real vBcop teal 777 ical dr)p o~(o-
fiara irdvra oparci yeyove' TOV Be vov Kal e-Trta-TT;/^? epaa-rrjv
dvaytcrj ra? T^? fjb<f>povo<; tfrvcrews atrta? irpwra^ fj.TaBia>Kiv, ovai
Be VTT dcov fjuev KivovfjLevwv, erepa Be eg dvdyKijs KIVOVVTWV E
5 ytyvovTai, BevTepas. Troirjreov Brj Kara ravra Kal rjplv' eicrea
fj,ev dfj,(f>6repa rd TWV alriwv <yevr), %(apl<? Be ocrat ftera vov fca(av
Kal dyaOwv Srjfjiiovpyol Kal ocrat povwOeltrai <f>povr)(Ta)<; TO
araKTOv eKaa-rore eêpjdôvrai. rd fj,ev ovv rwv ofijjbdrwv
airia irpos TO e%iv rrjv Bvvafiiv rjv vvv eir}êv elpr)<r0co' TO Be
10
fieytffTov avTwv et? (ti<f)eiav epyov, oY o ^609 avff yjuv BeBwprjrai, 47 A
TOVTO prjTeov. oîs Brj Kara TOV e/jiov 6yov aiTia T^? fieyi-
eJêXeta? yeyovev tffuv, OTI TWV vvv 6ycov vrepl TOV TTCH/TO?
eyofjLevwv ovBels dv TTOTC eppijOr) fiiJTe do~Tpa piJTe TJLOV /^re
ovpavov IBovTcov' vvv B* qpepa Te Kal vvg o<f>6elo-at /J,rjve<; re Kal
15 eviavTWv TrepioBoi fie/Jiij^dv'rjvTai pev dptOpov, %p6vov Be evvotav
Trepl T T^9 TOU Tra^TO? </>vo-eo)9 r)Tr)o~iv eBoo-av' eg d>v eTropiffdêOa
(f)ioo~o(j>ia TTOT TCO B
6vr)T(p yevei BcapijOev CK dewv. Xeya> Brj TOVTO ofifjidTwv fieyio-TOV
dryaOov' TaXXa Be, oo~a eaTTo>, TL dv vuvolftev', &v 6 firj <f>i6o~o(f)o<>
4 auv fj.ev :
aXX?}Xa>j> A. g fyeiv : o
3. rds TTJS ?(Jt}>povos 4>v<rews airos] the following chapter. Plato does not
That is to say the final causes, the design mean that there is a blind force existing
of Intelligence, as distinguished from the in nature, acting at random and producing
physical means used to carry out the hap-hazard effects. Such a conception is
design. Thus in the case of vision the totally foreign to his system, in which the
Setirepai alrtai are the physical laws which one cause, the one dpx7
? Kivnffetas, is
Plato has set forth, the irpwrri alrla is ^vx^~ What he does mean is this. It
what he is presently about to state. Both is idle to treat the physical forces of
classes of cause are to be investigated by nature as causes, since in themselves they
the lover of truth, but the secondary only have no intelligence or purpose. They
for the sake of the primary :
compare are indeed designed and set in motion by
68 E. Intelligence for the best ends; but the
6<rai 8i vir' aXXwv Kivovp^vcav] KIVOV- conditions of their action may be such
fj^vuv, Kivotivruv are partitive genitives that sometimes their immediate results
'such as are among things which are are not good, and they have no power in
moved by others'. ^ dvAyK-qs, i.e. with- themselves to avoid such results; they
out an intelligent purpose (since these must operate inevitably according to the
have 6yov otiStva otiSt vovv els law of their nature. The point is well
), and not of their own free will. put by Mr D. D. Heath in an able essay
7. o<rai p.ovio0ierai <j>povri crews] The in the Journal of Philology, vol. vii p.
nature of the two causes is dealt with in in, where he is dealing with Aristotle's
the note on avdyicr) at the beginning of views of causation. 'Any agent', he

47 B] TIMAI02. 163
we must affirm to be soul : and this is invisible, whereas fire
and water and air and earth are all visible creations. Now
the lover of reason and knowledge must first seek for the
causes which belong to the rational order ;
and only in the
second place those which belong to the class of things which
are moved by others and move others in turn. This then is
what we must also do : we must declare both classes of causes,
distinguishing between those which with the aid of reason are
the creators of fair things and good, and those which being
destitute of reason produce from time to time chance effects
without design. Enough then of the auxiliary causes which
combine in giving the eyes the power they now possess ;
but
the great result, for the sake of which God bestowed them on
us, must be our next theme. Sight, according to my judgment,
has been the cause of the greatest blessing to us, inasmuch
as of our present discourse concerning the universe not one
word would have been uttered had we never seen the stars and
the sun and the heavens. But now day and night, being seen
of us, and months and the revolution of the years have created
number, and they gave us the notion of time and the power of
searching into the nature of the All ;
whence we have derived
philosophy, than which no greater good has come neither shall
come hereafter as the gift of heaven to mortal man. This I
declare to be the chiefest blessing due to the eyes : on the rest
that are meaner why should we descant ? let him who loves not
says, 'natural or artificial, may produce sequence of the 'casual relation' which is
effects which do not naturally or necessarily thus established between it and the coal,
flow from those qualities which give it its But this is in complete conformity with
name or constitute its kind, but which the natural laws which arise solely from
result from properties common to it and the evolution of voh.
other kinds, or from circumstances which 16. l| <3v erropurdiwOa] The true
bring it into casual relation with the final cause of sight then is the attainment
thing it acts upon : a coal may break of philosophy, which is the ultimate result
yovir head as well as warm you '. See of the knowledge of number, acquired by
Aristotle physica n iv i95
b
31 foil. In observation of the celestial bodies. The
this sense only is an effect produced which sciences of number and astronomy were
is TO Tvxbv O.TO.KTOV. The falling of the for Plato a propaedeutic to philosophy,
coal is the natural effect of its gravity, a as we learn from Republic 525 A foil. :
property bestowed upon it by vovs : and and it is well known that he regarded
if your head happens to be in the line of geometry as an indispensable part of a
the coal's descent, it is broken in con- liberal education.
II 2

1
64 ITAATHNOS [47 B
av 0pr)voi fjidr'rjv. dd rovrov
Trap" rjpwv avrrj eVt ravra atria, 0eov rîiv dvevpelv
T oifnv, iva ra<? ev ovpavw Karioovres TOV vov -rrepioSovs
jj,e0a eirl rd<; Trept<f)0pd<; ra? rfjs Trap' rjpJiv Stavor/o-eax;, tfvyyeveis
5 eKelvai? ovtras, drapaKroi? rerapaypevas, etcfjiaOovres &e Kal o- C
yL<7fJLwv Kara <$>V<TIV op06rrjro<j fjieracrôvre
1
;, fjaôvfievoi rax TOV
0eov Trdi/TW? aTrXavet? oixra^, ra? ev rjîlv TreTrXav^/jieva^ Karaffrv)-
(raiêOa. <^covr)<; re 8ij Kal dtcorj<; Trepi TraXtv 6 avro? Xoô?, ejn
ravra rwv avr&v Gveica Trapd 6ewv BeScaprjaOai. 6yos re yap eV
10 avrd ravra reraKrai, rrjv iLe<ylcrTi]v v/A(3a6[j,Vo<> ei9 avra
fiolpav, cxrov T' av fj.ov<riicf)<; (jxavfj %pij<Ti,/jiov [77/^09 dicoijv], eveica
earl Sodev' r) Se dp/novla, ^vyyevelf eôva'a <f>opd<; rat? eV D
fyv'xfis TrepioSois, rc3 perd vov Trpoo-^pwêvw Moiô-at?
OVK <f> TjSovrjv aoyov, KaOaTrep vvv elvat SOKGI xprjo'ifios,
a
15 7rl rrjv yeyovviav ev r^/jfiv dvdpôo~rov -^rtn^? irepioBov et? icara-
Kocr/j,r}criv Kal <TVfj,<f>(oviav eavrf) o'vâô^ VTTO MoycreSy SeSorai'
Kal pv0fjU)<i av Bid rr/v dperpov ev rjîiv Kal ftaptrav ejnSed yiyvo- E
ev TO?? 7rXet(rTO49 eîv eiriKOVpos 7rl ravrd VTTO r<av avrwv
20 XVII. Ta fjiev ovv jrape
i
rfkv66ra rwv elptjfAevav 7rr)v {3pa-
i rofrrov : TOVTO SZ. 2 avrr) iirl ravra airla :
avrfj eirl ravry alrlq. S.
2 avevptlv :
eiipeiv A. 10 rty ante /j-fylffryv omittunt SZ. u <f>uvy: <J>uvr)
A pr. m. <j><av9)S HSZ. mox inclusi Trpds ancnqv. 18 ^Tri ravra : tiri ravra Z.
i. Op^voi JXCITTJV] This, as Lindau case to such /UOIXTIKIJ as consists of musical
and Stallbaum have pointed out, is an and vocal sounds, which he says were
echo of Euripides Phoenissae 1762 dXXA given us for the sake of harmony. The
yap rl ravra Opijvw Kal /jLarrjv ddtipopai ; high educational value which Plato set
3. tva ras Iv ovpavw] Compare upon music and harmony is again and
Republic 500 C, where we read of the again emphasised in his writings : see for
philosophers els reray^va drra Kal Kard. instance Republic 401 D, Laws 666 D.
Tairri del fyovra bp&vras Kal Oeufdvovs Stallbaum's reading and punctuation are
o#r dSiKovvra ovr' a3iKovfj.eva vir d- alike unsatisfactory. The words TT/OOS
ifluv, /c6(T/-t(jj 8^ irdvra Kal Kark 6yov aKoyv appear to me superfluous and un-
fxovra, ravra /j.ijj.e'iffOa.i re Kal ort fiaXurra meaning : I conceive them to have been
axf>of*.oiovffdai. a marginal gloss on <puvrj.
n. &rov T* a.v (J.OVO-IKTJS] The reading 12. |vvYVis J:owa <j>opds] Thus
of the text, although I cannot consider it is brought out the significance of the
altogether satisfactory, affords a fairly harmonic ratios in 35 B: the laws of
good sense, ôwud] is a comprehensive harmony and the laws of being are the
term, including much more than 'music' same ; the former being just one special
in the modern sense. Plato is therefore aspect of the latter.
limiting the signification in the present 47 E 48 E, c. xvii. Hitherto our dis-

E] TIMAIOS. 165
wisdom, if he be blinded of these, lament with idle moan. But
on our part let this be affirmed to be the cause of vision, for
these ends : God discovered and bestowed sight upon us in
order that we might observe the orbits of reason which are
in heaven and make use of them for the revolutions of thought
in our own souls, which are akin to them, the troubled to the
serene; and that learning them and acquiring natural truth
of reasoning we might imitate the divine movements that are
ever unerring and bring into order those within us which are
all astray. And of sound and hearing again the same account
must be given : to the same ends and with the same intent
they have been bestowed on us by the gods. For not only
has speech been appointed for this same purpose, whereto it
contributes the largest share, but all such music as is expressed
in sound has been granted, for the sake of harmony : and
harmony, having her motions akin to the revolutions in our
own souls, has been bestowed by the Muses on him who with
reason seeks their help, not for any senseless pleasure, such
as is now supposed to be its chiefest use, but as an ally against
the discord which has grown up in the revolution of our soul,
to bring her into order and into unison with herself: and
rhythm too, because our habit of mind is mostly so faulty
of measure and lacking in grace, is a succour bestowed on us
by the same givers for the same ends.
XVII. Now in our foregoing discourse, with few exceptions,
course has been entirely or mainly con- blessing let us set forth on a new and
cerned with the works of Intelligence ; strange journey of discovery,
but now we must likewise take account 20. TO, p,iv ovv irapcXrjXvOoTa] Up
of the operations of Necessity. For all to this point Plato has been treating of
the fabric of this universe is the effect of the general design and plan of creation,
Intelligence acting upon Necessity and TTTJV Ppaxtwv, with some small excep-
influencing it to produce the best possible tions, e.g. the account of the ffv/j-nerairta
result. Therefore in our account of crea- which contribute to the process of vision,
tion we must find room for the Errant The inquiry into the effects of necessity,
Cause. And first we must set forth the to which a great part of the remainder
origin of fire and the other elements, of the dialogue is devoted, consists of
which no man has yet declared. But in physical and physiological speculations
dealing with things material we cannot concerning the various properties and
find any infallible first principle where- forms of matter and their interaction
upon to base our discourse ; we must be one on another. This inquiry is how-
content, as we have always said, with the ever introduced by a metaphysical theory
probable account. And so with heaven's of the first importance, without which it

1 66 TIAATflNOS [47 E
CTTtBeBeiKTai TO, Bid vov BeSijfjiiovpyrjpeva' Sei Be Kal rd Si
yiyvofieva rc3 o<y&) TrapaOeffOai. fêfiiyfêvfj yap ovv r)
TOvBe TOV KOGflOV 761/6(769 % dvdyKIJS T6 KOI VOV (TVCTrdo'eW^ JV- 48 A
vr)6r)' vov Be avary/cys dpôvro^ T&> Treideiv avrrjv rv yiyvoftevwv
5 rd TrXetcrra eVi TO /3eTi(TTOv dyeiv, ravrrj Kara ravrd re oY
dvdyKtj
1
; rjTTWpevr)*; VTTO ireiOovs e(ji<j)povo<;
ovra> tear dp%ds gvvi-
crraro roBe TO irdv. ei ri<s ovv 77 yeyove Kara ravra 6W&)<? epei,
Kal TO T??? 7raz>&>/4eV79 elSo? atria?, 77 <f>ept,v 7re<j)VKV,
else would vovs be at variance with it-
self. Therefore all nature's forces must
follow their proper impulse according to
the conditions in which they are for the
time being : if fire and a hayrick come in
collision, it is dvdyicr) that the rick be
burnt, though fire was not designed to
burn ricks. But this implies no origi-
nating power in matter; it means only
that voOs, having once evolved itself in the
pluralised form, the laws of its existence
in that form are constant. Material na-
ture is a machine wound up to go of
itself; vovs is not for ever checking or
correcting its action in detail see Laws
903 B foil. But there is something more
to be said. It is a necessary law for vovs
to exist in the form of material nature :
and within this sphere we see that things
do not always work, at any rate imme-
diately, M rb /3tTurToi>. It was im-
possible, we must suppose, for vovs to
assume the form of a multitude of phy-
sical forces, all in themselves and in
their design beneficent, which should
not, amid the infinite complexity of
their interaction, inevitably under some
conditions produce effects which are not
beneficent. This necessity and this im-
possibility constitute dvdyKr]. It is then
in the final analysis the law by which
vovs necessarily has a mode of existence
to which imperfection attaches: and the
very constancy with which the law acts
is the cause of the friction which arises
in its manifold and complex operation.
But this is no law imposed upon vovs
by any external cause, for there is none
is not too much to say that no concep-
tion of Platonism as a coherent whole
could be formed. A thorough study of
the eighteenth chapter of the Timaeus is
absolutely essential before we can even
think of beginning to understand Plato.
To this theory the present chapter is
prefatory.
3. t
avd-yKT|s T Kal vov <rvcrrdurcs]
The first point which it is indispensable
precisely to determine is the meaning
of dvayKr) and 17 iravu/j.tvr) alria, which
clearly signify one and the same thing.
I have already in the note on 46 E to
some extent indicated what I conceive to
be Plato's meaning. In the first place it
is necessary once for all to discard the
notion that dvayicr) is in any sense what-
soever an independent force external to
vovil this would be totally repugnant, as
I have said, to the cardinal doctrine of
Platonism, that the only a.px'n /cipijtrews is
j/vxn- For this reason we must not sup-
pose that there is in matter as such any
resisting power which thwarts the efforts
of yoDj: this is an absolute misconcep-
tion. Matter, qua matter, being soul-
less, is entirely without any sort of power
of its own : whatever power it has is of
faxy- What then is dvoiyKi} or the irXa-
vwfdvtj alrlaf It signifies the forces of
matter originated by vovs, the sum total
of the physical laws which govern the
material universe: that is to say, the
laws which govern the existence of PoOs
in the form of plurality. Now these
laws, once set in motion, must needs
act constantly according to their nature;

48 A] TIMAIOS. 167
we have been declaring the creations wrought through mind :
we must now set by their side those things which come into
being through necessity. For the generation of this universe
was a mixed creation by a combination of necessity and reason.
And whereas reason governed necessity, by persuading her
to guide the greatest part of created things to the best end,
on such conditions and principles, through necessity overcome
by reasonable persuasion, this universe was fashioned in the
beginning. If then we would really declare its creation in
the manner whereby it has come to be, we must add also the
nature of the Errant Cause, and its moving power. Thus then
such : it is in the very nature of vovs itself
in its pluralised form. The problem of the
iravw[j.&r] alrla is the same as the problem
concerning the nature of evil, of which
Plato has offered us no explicit solution.
6.
iJTT(Uvt]s uiro irciOovs |A<j>po-
vos] In these words is indicated the
difference between the dvaymi of Plato
and the dvdyicr} of Demokritos. For Plato,
although the forces of nature are inevit-
able and inexorable in their action, yet
these forces are themselves expressly de-
signed by Intelligence for a good end.
And though in detail evil may arise from
their working, yet they are so ordained
as to produce the best result that it was
possible to attain. Necessity persuaded
by intelligence means in fact that ne-
cessity is a mode of the operation of in-
telligence. The necessity of Demokritos,
on the other hand, is an all-powerful un-
intelligent force working without design ;
and whether good or evil, as we term
them, arises from its processes, this is
entirely a matter of chance. Thus in
Plato's scheme evil is deliberately limited
to an irreducible minimum, while with
that of Demokritos the whole question of
good and evil has nothing to do.
8. TO TTJS irXava>(j^VTis ctSos alrCas]
The name irXavufj^vrj alrla does not sig-
nify that Plato attributed any degree of
uncertainty or caprice to the operation of
Every effect is the result of a
cause; and just that effect and nothing
else whatsoever must arise from just that
cause. And were we omniscient, we
could trace the connexion between cause
and effect everywhere, and we could con-
sequently predict everything that should
happen. As it is, so obscure to us are
the forces amid which we live, and so
complex are the influences which work
upon one another, that in innumerable
instances we are unable to trace an effect
back to its causes or to foresee the action
of dvdyKi). Hence Plato calls dvayK-rj the
iravu/j.{i'r] atria, because, though work-
ing strictly in obedience to a certain law,
it is for the most part as inscrutable to us
as if it acted from arbitrary caprice. We
can detect the relation of cause and effect
in results which are immediately due to
the design of vovs, but frequently not
in those which are indirectly due to it
through the action of dvayicri. It is ex-
tremely inaccurate in Stallbaum to say
that the irXavufdviri alrla is
'
materia cor-
porum'.
Q 4>t'piv ir&J>vKev] Literally 'how it
is its nature to set in motion'. The
Travwfj.{vr} alrla is the source of insta-
bility and uncertainty (relatively to us)
in the order of things ; whence Plato
terms it the moving influence. What
Stallbaum means or fails to mean by his
rendering 'ea ratione, qua ipsius natura
fert', it is difficult to conjecture.

i68 ITAATHNOS [48 A
(S8e ovv TrdXiv dva^coprjreov, real a/3ovo~iv avrdav rovrwv Trpoar)- B
Kovo~av erepav dp^rjv av0i<; av, Kaddirep Trepl ra>v Tore, vvv ovrco
Trepl rovrcov irdiv dpxreov OTT' dp^r}?. rrjv 8r) rrpo rfjs ovpavov
yevea-ecos Trvpos v&aros re KOI aepos /cat 7179 cf>v(riv ffeareov avrrjv
5 real rd Trpo rovrov TrdOr). vvv yap ovSek TTCO yevecnv avrcov pefjirj-
VVKCV, aXA* 009 elSoo-t, irvp '6 rl rcore ecrrt real etcacrrov avrwv,
eyofiev ap%9 avrd TiQeftevoi, Vroi^eta roO Travros, Trpoo-fjrcov
ai)rot9 ovS
1
av 0)9 ev (rvaj3f)s i8e<ri JJLOVOV CIKOTW^ VTTO rov /cat C
^pa'xy (frpovovvros d7reitca<r6fjvai. vvv Be ovv TO 76 Trap'
10 58e 6%erft)' rrjv (J,ev Trepl d-rrdvrwv elVe dp^v eire dp%d<? etre
rovrcov Trepi ro vvv ov prjreov, 81 ao /JLCV ovSev, 8id 8e r&
elvat, Kara rov irapovra rpovrov rfjs 8ief;6Sov ^XcScrat rd
SoKovvra. yu-^r' ovv vfAels oieaOe Beiv e/*e eyeiv, ovr* ai5ro9 av
7rei6eiv epavrov eirjv av 8vvaTo<;, a>9 opOws eyxeipolp av roaovrov
'5 eVt/3aXXo/Aei>o9 epyov' ro 8e tear dp%d<; pfjdev 8t,a<f>vdrra)V, rr/v D
rwv elfcorwv 6ycov Svvajjuv, Tretpd&o/jiai, firjo'evos rjrrov eiicora,
fj,dov 8e, Kal e/^irpoo'dev air"
dp%r) w coniecit H. oi55a/tws A. oi>8' ws SZ.
i. Ka6airp ircpl TWV TOTC] i.e. as we
began at the beginning in expounding
rci 5tct vov 6e8T)/MOvpy7ifji.tvat
so we must
begin at the beginning again in our ex-
position of rd 5t' avayicTjt yiyvb/jieva.
3. irpo TTJS ovpavov y W<retos] The
question next arises, what is meant by
the nature of fire, &c before the gene-
ration of the universe, and the conditions
anterior to this? Plato evidently means
that we have to analyse these so-called
elements into their primary constituents.
Earlier thinkers had treated them as if
they were simple primary substances :
Plato, however, justly maintains that
they are complex. Now as these sub-
stances exist in the K6<r/j.os, they are
everywhere more or less complete and
in their finished forms ; therefore in ana-
lysing them into their first beginnings,
we are dealing with rudimentary forms
which nowhere exist in the K<40>u>s, but
which are analytically prior to those
forms which do exist in the ccoo^tos. But
the priority is in analysis only; there
never was a time in which the elements
existed in these forms. Indeed when we
come to see the nature of Plato's orot-
Xet, it will be apparent that they never
could have an independent existence, irpb
Tofrrov = irpb rov yevtcrOai rbv ovpavov the
state of fire, air, &c prior (in analysis) to
their complete form.
8. iv o-uXXaprjs t8o-t] This is an
allusion to the common meaning of OTOI-
Xeia = letters of the alphabet. So far
from belonging to this rank, fire and
the rest are more composite even than
syllables. For, as we shall see, Plato's
ultimate aroi-xflov is a particular kind of
triangle, out of which is formed another
triangle, and out of that again a regular
solid figure, which is the corpuscule of fire.
10. Art dpx^v Art opxdsj Plato
says he will not, like the early lonians,
attempt to find some principle or prin-

D] TIMAIOS. 169
let us return upon our steps, and when we have found a second
fitting cause for the things aforesaid, let us once more, pro-
ceeding in the present case as we did in the former, begin over
again from the beginning. Now we must examine what came
before the creation of the heavens, the very origin of fire and
water and air and earth, and the conditions that were before
them. For now no one has declared the manner of their
generation ;
but we speak as if men knew what is fire and
each of the others, and we treat them as beginnings, as elements
of the whole ;
whereas by one who has ever so little intelligence
they could not plausibly be represented as belonging even to
the class of syllables. Now however let our say thus be said.
The first principle or principles or whatever we may hold it
to be which underlies all things we must not declare at present,
for no other reason but that it is difficult according to the
present method of our exposition to make clear our opinion.
You must not then deem that I ought to discourse of this,
nor could I persuade myself that I should be right in essaying
so mighty a task. But holding fast the principle we laid down
at the outset, the value of a probable account, I will strive to
give an explanation that is no less probable than another, but
more so ; returning back to describe from the beginning each
and all things. So now again at the outset of our quest let
us call upon God to pilot us safe through a strange and un-
ciples to serve as an dpxr) for matter, %xeiv-
solely for the reason that in a physical 17. Kal $i.Trpo<r9tv air' dpxtjs] Stall-
inquiry (/card rbv irapovra rpoirov TTJS baum, who joins pa.ov 5 with what fol-
5te 68ov) it is hardly possible to arrive lows, proposes to read Kara ret tuirpoaOev.
at such an dpxn
'
a real a-PM can only be But no change is necessary. tfj.irpoff6ei>
attained by dialectic. The Ionian dpx<d means 'where we were before', viz. at
were no dpxo-l at all. And so we may the starting-point of the inquiry. I think
analyse matter into the ultimate geo- Martin is justified in his rendering 'reve-
metrical forms, which are the law of its nant sur mes pas jusqu'au commence-
composition, but these are not properly ment'. Liridau suggests fj.aov 8' i) KO.T'
speaking dpxai- In the following chapter fyirpoffttcv, which is not Greek, as I
Plato, treating the subject metaphysically, think.
does at least propound an apxy for matter 18. 4 aroirov Kal aiiOovs SiTjyqcrews]
by far more recondite than any which had The metaphor is evidently taken from
yet been conceived. mariners embarking on a voyage of dis-
ii. TTJS 8ie68ov] Cf. Parmenides 1
36 E covery in some new and unexplored
dvev ravTTjs TTJS 5ta irdvruv 5ie65ou re Kal ocean. Plato prays to be delivered from
ddvvarov ivrv^vro. T$ di)6tt vovv the perils of the voyage and brought safe

I/O HAATHNOS [48 D
CLTOTCOV teal dr/0ov<; Si^yâ-ems Trpos TO rutv eltcoTWV Soypa Bia-
<r<o%eiv T}/J,d<> eTrucaXecrdfjievoi irdiv dp%(0jji,e6a eyeiv.
E
XVIII. 'H 8' ovv av0t<; dp^rj Trepl TOV rravTos o~Ta> fj,ei%6v(a$
T^? TrpocrOev 8ippr)fj,evr}. Tore fJ,ev yap 8vo ei8r) 8iei6fjt,eOa, vvv
5 8e TPLTOV ao 761/09 ^piv 8r}a)Teov. rd jj,ev yap 8vo iKavd yv
eir rot? efj,Trpoo~6ev XeÔelcnv, ev pev 005 TrapaSeiyfAaros el8o<;
VOTJTOV teal del Kara ravrd ov, jJii^â 8e 7rapa8eiy- 49 A
Sevrepov, yeveviv e%ov /cat oparov rplrov 8e Tore /lev ov
vofiio-avres TO, 8vo eêtv iaj/(09, vvv 8e 6 6yo$ eoitcev
10 eio-avay/cdêiv %a7rbv teal dftvo'pov elSos 7rt%ei,peiv 6yois ejj,(f)a-
via-ai. TIV ovv e%ov Svva/Aiv Kara <f>v<riv
avTo vTror)7rTeov ;
TOidvSe //.aXtcrra, 7rdo~r)s elvai yevea-eto^ vTroSo^v avTijv, olov
i &T)Oovs :
dXijffovs A.
to the haven of probability. Martin is
certainly mistaken in translating 'pour
qu'elle nous preserve de discours inco-
herents et bizarres'. Plato shows him-
self fully alive to the difficulty of the
subject he is about to treat and the entire
novelty of his speculations. A glimpse
of his theory of matter has been afforded
in the Philebus, but here he carries his
analysis far deeper. Compare 533, where
he calls his very peculiar corpuscular
theory 0^77$ 6yos.
48 E 52 D, c. xviii. We must extend
the classification of all things which we
formerly made. To the ideal model and
the sensible copy which we then as-
sumed must be added the substrate in
which generation takes place. For con-
sider: the four elements, as men call
them, fire, air, water, earth, are con-
tinually changing places and passing one
into another, so that we can never with
any security say, this is fire, or this is
water. Indeed we should not apply the
word this to them at all, nor any other
expression which signifies permanency:
the most we can do is to say they are
'such-like'. To the substrate alone is it
safe to apply the term 'this'. For it
alone never changes its nature ; but is as
it were a matrix receiving all the forms
that enter into it, which forms are the
sensible semblances of the eternal ideas.
So then we must distinguish these three,
the eternal type, the generated copy, and
the substrate wherein it is generated.
This substrate must be without form or
quality, else it would not faithfully ex-
press the images that enter into it, but
would intrude its own attributes. It is
not then fire nor any other of the ele-
ments, but a viewless and formless nature,
which takes on it now the form of fire,
anon the form of water, and all per-
ceptible things. But since we talk of
images entering in, we must ask, is there
a type, an idea of fire and the rest where-
of we behold the images? or are the
visible images themselves the most real
existence which is? We cannot dwell on
this question at length: but we may
briefly answer it thus. If knowledge
differs from true opinion, then the ideas
exist beyond the sensible images ; if not,
then sensibles alone are realities. Now
it is a fact that knowledge differs from
true opinion; for one is the result of
teaching, the other of persuasion ; one is
the possession of all men, the other of
the gods alone and but a few among man-
kind. Therefore the ideas exist eternally,
neither passing forth of their own nature
nor receiving aught therein, apprehensible
by thought alone : next there are the

49 A] TIMAIO2. 171
familiar discourse to the haven of probability ;
and thus let
us begin once more.
XVIII. Our new exposition of the universe then must be
founded on a fuller classification than the former. Then we
distinguished two forms, but now a third kind must be disclosed.
The two were indeed enough for our former discussion, when
we laid down one form as the pattern, intelligible and change-
less, the second as a copy of the pattern, which comes into
being and is visible. A third we did not then distinguish,
deeming that the two would suffice : but now, it seems, by
constraint of our discourse we must try to express and make
manifest a form obscure and dim. What power then must we
conceive that nature has given it ?
something like this. It is
the receptacle, and as it were the nurse, of all becoming. This
images called after their names, sensible
and perishable and ever in transition:
thirdly the receptacle of all becoming,
which is space, imperishable and imper-
ceptible, apprehended by a kind of
bastard reasoning. This third is the
cause why, like men in a dream, we de-
clare that everything which exists must be
in some place, and what is nowhere in
heaven or earth is
nothing. And this
dream we carry into the region of waking
verity, even the ideas; we do not remem-
ber that, since an image is not its own
type, it must be imaged in something else,
or else be not at all : for true reason de-
clares that, while the type is one, and the
image another, they must be apart; for
they cannot exist one in the other and so
be one and two at once.
3. |ii.6vs] i.e. the classification must
be more comprehensive: the former left
no room for one of the most important
principles in nature.
4. TOTS |iiv yo.f>] The reference is to
28 A, where Timaeus divides the universe
into ov and ytyv6fj.evov.
5.
TO. p.ev -yap Svo IKO.VCI rv] This
remark is most characteristic of Plato,
who always confines himself to the limits
of the subject in hand. He is like a good
general, who does not call upon his re-
serves till
they are wanted. So in the
Philebus he carries his analysis of dSrei-
pov no further than to describe it as in-
definitely qualified, because that served
all the purpose of that dialogue. And in
the same way at the earlier stage of
Timaeus's exposition he distinguishes
only such principles of the universe as
then concern the argument.
7. |x(|xi]|xa] It may be as well to
draw attention to the fact that through-
out all the dialogue the relation of par-
ticular to idea is one of /il/M?(rts : the old
Ai^0eij has disappeared never to return.
10. xoXcir&v Kol d(iv8p6v ctSos] Plato
repeatedly in the most emphatic language
expresses his sense of the difficulty and
obscurity attaching to this question con-
cerning the substrate of material existence.
The difficulty is recognised also in the
Philebus, though in less forcible terms, cf.
24 A xXei'ii' /J.tv y&p Kal &fj.<f>ia-prjT^ffifj.ov
o KeXetfw <re ffKOireiv. It must be remem-
bered too that Plato's conception was an
absolute novelty in philosophy. Aristotle
has a curiously perverse reference to the
theory of the Timaeus in de gen. et corr.
II i
329* 13 foil.
12. viroSoxijv] The substrate is the
'receptacle' of all things that become,
inasmuch as it provides them with a place

i/2 HAATflNOS [49 A
ridr/vrjv. eiprjrai (lev ovv dXrjOes, Set Be evapyecrrepov elrrelv
trepl avrov' %a7rdv Be, ao)9 re Kal Biori, TrpoaTroprjOrjvat, rrepl
B
Trypo? ical rwv fjuerd Trvpos dvajKaiov rovrov xdpw rovrwv <ydp
elirelv eKavrov, orrolov ovrws vBwp ^prj ejeiv /-taXXov rj rrvp /cat
5 orrolov oriovv fjiaov rj
Kal arravra Ka& eKaarov re, oim>9 ware
Tivl TTKTTM Kal /8e/3ai&) xprja-aaOat, 6<yq), âerrov. TTCO? ovv Brj
TOUT' avro KOI irrj Kal ri irepl avrwv etVcoTO>9 SiaTroprjOevres av
eyoifj,i> ; irpcorov (jiev,
o Srj vvv vSatp eJi/o/aa/ca/iei/, TT^VV^GVOV, a5? C
8oKovfj,v, i6ovs Kal <yijv jiyvofêvov opw/j^v, r^Koêvov Se Kal
10
BiaKptvofievov av ravrov rovro 7rvevp>a Kal depa, ^vjKavOevra Se
dipa Trvp, avarca(,v 8e irvp <rv<yKpidev Kal Karacrft<r6ev et? ISeav
re diriov av0is depos, Kal iraXiv depa gvviovra Kal TrvKvovpevov
vtyos Kal 6/j,i'x'r)v,
eK Se rovrfov ert fjidov vfjL7riovfj,eva)v peov
v8o)p, e% v&aros Se 7171^ Kal Xtôi/9 av0i<?, KVKOV re ovra) SiaBi-
15 Sovra 6t? aX7;Xa, <? (paiverat, rrjv <yeve(riv. ovra) 8rj rovrwv D
ovSeTTore rwv avrwv eKdarcov (pavraô/jLevwv, rcolov avrwv eo<? ov
oriovv rovro Kal OVK do Trayicos Stt<rûptô/Ltei/09 OVK aiayy-
velrai rt? eavrov ;
OVK eartv, d' aa-tâXecrrara jj,aKp(a rrepl
rovrwv rtêyaez/ov? wSe eyeiv del o KaOop&p,ev dore arj
10 <yiyv6fjievov, 0)9 Trvp, pr) rovro dd TO roiovrov e/cacrrore rrpoa'-
raXi)0& SZ. 6 TTWJ oSv 5-f) : TTWJ ovv Stf irov A.
to become in: it is their 'nurse', because course = air, water, earth.
it fosters them, so to speak, and is the 5. airavra Ka9' i-Kao-n&v TC] i.e. to
means of their existence; without it they call it all or (some one) severally. The
could not exist in any way. Stallbaum's slight change of construction in ica.6'
account of it as a vessel containing sensi- &CCWTOI' is not at all harsh, and certainly
ble things is most erroneous; indeed his Stallbaum's plan of joining the words
treatment of the whole subject is as con- with the following is not an improvement.
fused as it can well be. It will be con- Seeing that the four elements are per-
venient to defer a fuller discussion of petually interchanging there can be no
Plato's viroSoxy until this conception re-
propriety in giving any fixed name to any
ceives its final development at the end of one of them : while we apply the term
the chapter. appropriate to one form, the substance
2. irf>oa.Tropi9r]va.. ircpl irvpcJs] This may have passed into another.
necessity arises because the conception of 7. clKorws should be joined with 8ia-
the virodoxh as an unchanging substrate iroptj&vTcs. 'raising what reasonable
involves the conception of fire and the question'.
rest as merely transitory conditions of this 9. XtOovs Kal yfjv] Plato here speaks
substrate : therefore we must put the as if all four elements were interchange-
question, what is the real nature of this able : this statement is corrected in 54 c,
appearance which we call fire? And this where we find that earth, as having a
in its turn raises the question of the ex- different base, will not pass into the other
istence of the ideas, rwv perd. irvpbt of elements, nor they into it : the other

D] TIMAIOS. 173
saying is true, but we must put it in clearer language : and this
is hard ; especially as for the sake of it we must needs inquire
into fire and the substances that rank with fire. For it is hard
to say which of all these we ought to call water any more than
fire, or indeed which we ought to call by any given name,
rather than all and each severally, in such a way as to employ
any truthful and trustworthy mode of speech. How then are we
to deal with this point, and what is the question that we should
properly raise concerning it ? In the first place, what we now have
named water, by condensation, as we suppose, we see turning
to stones and earth ;
and by rarefying and expanding this same
element becomes wind and air ;
and air when inflamed becomes
fire : and conversely fire contracted and quenched returns again
to the form of air; also air concentrating and condensing
becomes cloud and mist ;
and from these yet further com-
pressed comes flowing water ;
and from water earth and stones
once more : and so, it appears, they hand on one to another
the cycle of generation. Thus then since these several bodies
never assume one constant form, which of them can we posi-
tively affirm to be really this and not another without being
shamed in our own eyes ? It cannot be : it is far the safest
course when we make a statement concerning them to speak
as follows. What we see in process of perpetual transmutation,
as for instance fire, we must not call this, but such-tike is the
three however are interchangeable. Note aWis. KVKOV is perfectly right, being a
however that the present statement is
predicate to yiveaiv: 'handing on their
guarded with the qualification ws doKov- generation as a circle': the re is also right,
/j.fv. Of course this limitation of the in- coupling diadiS6vra and yiyvofievov. There
terchangeability does not affect Plato's is more to be said for omitting re after
argument, which is probably the reason ISiav ;
in which case vvyKpidtv and KO.TO.-
why it is not mentioned here. fffieeOtv would be subordinate to dirioV :
n. dvdiroXiv &] This is just the 656$ but as it is in all the mss. I have not
dvu K&TU ula. of Herakleitos. Stallbaum thought fit to expunge it.
wishes to omit re after I8tav and after 20. >.r
TOVTO dXXd TO TOIOVTOV] That
ictKov, which he would alter to /cv/cXy. is to say, we must not speak of it as a
There is really no occasion for any of substance, but as a quality : in Aristotelian
these changes. The main participles in phrase, it is not inroicelfjievov, but ica.0'
the sentence ytyvopfvov, ffvyKpi8{v, Kara- vwoKfi^vov. TOVTO denotes what a thing
fffifffetv, &iri6v, Siadid6vra, are governed is, TOIOVTOV what we predicate of it. Fire
by opw^ev, while the rest are subordinate is merely an appearance which the inro-
to yiyv6fj.cvov, which has to be supplied SOXTJ assumes for the time being: we
again with the clauses ical irdiv... l6ovs must not say then 'this portion of space

174 IIAATHNOS [49 D
ayopevetv Trvp, fjLfjBe vBwp TOVTO dd TO TOIOVTOV del, jj,r)Be aXXo
TTOTe /jurjBev <W9 Tiva e%ov /SeftatorrjTa, ocra BeiKvvvT<; raj pr/pari E
TCO roSe Kal TOVTO Trpoo-^pcafêvot Bijovv tfyovneOd rr (f>eiyei yap
> f / /5> rf
OVK VTTOp,eVOV TTJV TOV T006 K(Ll TOVTO fCCtl TT)V Tft)O tCdl TTCLCraV OCTT]
5 fjiovifia o$9 OVTCL avTa evBeiKWTai (frdais. aXXa TavTa fj,ev etcacrTa
fir) eyeiv, TO be TOIOVTOV del Trepifapofievov d/io/W etcdcrTov irkpi
Kal %vpTrdvT(av OVTW Kaelv Kal &rj ical irvp TO Bid Trai/ro? TOI-
OVTOV Kal cnrav '6<rov7rep dv e%r) yevecnv. ev c5 Be eyjiyvo/jieva del
eicacrTa avTWV (fravTaêTat Kal Tcdiv eKeiQev aTroXXurat, fiovov
10 eKelvo av Trpoo-ayopeveiv rc3 re TOVTO Kal TO> ToBe Trpoa"xpa)/j,evov<;
50 A
ovopaTi, TO Be OTTOIOVOVV TC, depfjibv r) VKOV fj
Kal OTIOVV TWV
evavTicov, Kal trdvff' o<ra CK TOVTCOV, jjt,r)8ev eKelvo av TOVTWV Ka-
eiv. eri Be <ra$e<TTepov avTOv vrepi irpoOv^Teov avOis elirelv.
el jdp TrdvTa T49 o-^âra 7rXa<ra9 e/c
%pv<Tov fjirjBev /AeraTrXaTTtwv
15 iravoiTo eKaffTa et9 airavTa, BeiKvvvTos Bij TWOS avT&v ev Kal
epopevov rt TTOT' ecrrt, fiaKpw irpos di]0iav d(r<f)ae<rTaTov eljrelv B
art ^/ovo-09, TO Be Tpvycovov '6<ra re aXXa o-^âra eveyljveTO,
4 TOV r6Se Kal : TOV r65e KO! rrfv S. TOVTO'. TOVTOV AS.
6 6/to/ws scripsi suadente S. ceteri ofioiov. 16 tpo^vov: irpoffepofjitvov S.
is fire', but 'this portion of space has the speaks of material phenomena.
property of fire for its present condition '. 6. |M] Xfyeuv] The infinitives still de-
For the same portion of space may pend upon do-âX^crTara in D.
presently assume the appearance of air ircpuf>p6|xvov opoCcos] On the sug-
and of water; whence we see that the gestion of Stallbaum I have adopted
only permanent thing is the space; fire, d/iofos for ofioiov. The meaning is that
air, water are merely its transitory attri- the term TOIOVTOV keeping pace with the
butes derived from the 6fj.oiwfj.aTa im- elements in their transformations (jrept-
pressed upon it.
<pfp6fj.fvov) can always be applied to any
3. r&v Xo7oj, ovre TI ^vyxwP ^v o$Te T v not denote a permanent substance but a
otfr' t/jiov oCre rode our' iKfivo our' aXo variable attribute: therefore we can apply
ovStv 6vofj.a, & TI dv iffTrj. Also 183 A it to fire &c without fear of treating such
5et 5 ovSt TOIITO TO OVTW tyeiV oi8 yap qualities as substantial fixities. If opoiov
av ?TI KIVOITO TO OVTW ovo' a& IJ.T] OVTW be retained, it must be regarded as a
ovdt yap TOVTO Kli>ri<ris
'
dXXd TIV' aXX^** predicate, and the sense will still be the
<t>(avT]v 0fTôv TO?S TOV 6yov TOVTOV tyov- same : but I think the construction is too
ffiv, us vvv ye wpbs T^V avTtav viroOeffiv OVK awkward to have come from Plato. For
txov<ri-
f>"niJ-aTa, el HTJ apa TO ovd' SITUS. Trepi<f>ep6/J.evoi> compare Theaetetus 202 A
Thus we see that what is in the Theae- TO.VTO. fiev yap irepiTpeovTa iraffi irpoff-
tetus described as the olKeioraTrj StaXexroj <f>epea6ai. : where TOUTO = aiVo, eKeiv ,
of the Herakleiteans is here expressly a- exaffTov and the like.
dopted by Plato as his own, when he 7. TO Bid iravro's] i.e. fire is the name

50 B] TIMAI02. 175
appellation we must confer on fire ;
nor must we call water
this, but always such; nor must we apply to anything, as if
it had any stability, such predicates as we express by the
use of the terms this and that and suppose that we signify
something thereby. For it flees and will not abide such
terms as this and that and relative to this, and every phrase
which represents it as stable. The word this we must not
use of any of them; but such, applying in the same sense to
all their mutations, we must predicate of each and all : fire we
must call that which universally has that appearance ;
and so
must we name all things such as come into being. That
wherein they come to be severally and show themselves, and
from whence again they perish, in naming that alone must
we use the words that and this; but whatever has any quality,
such as white or hot or any of two opposite attributes, and all
combinations of these, we must denote by no such term.
But we must try to speak yet more clearly on this matter.
Suppose a man having moulded all kinds of figures out of
gold should unceasingly remould them, interchanging them
all with one another, it were much the safest thing in view
of truth to say that it is gold ;
but as to the triangles or any
we give to such and such a combination <f>6opa, dSwarov tKeivo irpotrayopevevdai ^
of attributes wheresoever in nature it may ov ytyovev. Kairoi yt <t>rj<ri (j.a.Kp$ a.i)6ta-
appear. TO.TOV elvai xPVff^v Myeiv %Ka<TTOi> flvai.
g. p.6vov IKCIVO] To the viroSox'n, How this criticism applies I fail to see.
on the other hand, we can and must apply That which suffers yve<ri$ Kal -
tpOopa. is
the word rovro, because it is ever un- the shapes, whether in the virodoxh or in
changing. The manifold forms it assumes the gold. These shapes have not their
are merely impressed on it from without ; ytve<ris from the vTroSoxrj nor from the
underlying them all its own nature is the gold : Plato accurately describes the viro-
same. doxy not as rd ^ o5, which it is not, but
n. OTIOVV TWV evavrCwv] Not the as rb tv $ ylyvtrai, which it is. When
opposites to hot and white, but any of Plato bids us say 'this is gold', not 'this
the ivavriorriTes which are the attributes is a cube', he does not mean that the
predicable of matter. o<ra K rovruv sig- cubic shape is gold, or that a cubic shape
nifies any combination of simple qualities. is generated out of gold ; but that in
14. irXcwras K xPv<ro^l Aristotle calling it gold we designate the substance,
gives a strange turn to this, de gen, et whereas if we call it a cube, we are desig-
corr. II i
32p
a
17. Referring to the nating an attribute which is accidental
illustration of the golden figures he says, and transitory. In the golden cube the
Kairot Kal TOVTO 01) KaXws 4yercu, TOVTOV gold is (or rather serves to illustrate) TOV-
rov rpoirov XeyofAevov, d' wv /*>> d- TO, the substance, the cubic form is rot-
Xoiwcru, i<mv OUTWS, uv 8t yfreffis Kal OVTOV, the quality.

[50 B
eyeiv TavTa w? ovra, & ye êra^v TiOepevov
t, aXX* edv apa teal TO TOIOVTOV per acr^xxXeta? e6er) Be-
i TIVO$, dycnrdv. 6 avTos Brj Xo'yo? Kal Trepl r^? ra Trdvra
wâra <f>v<rew TCLVTOV avrrjv del Trpoo-prjTeov etc yap
5 Trjs eavrfjf TO irapairav OVK e^/crraTat Bvvd(j,ea)<;. 8e%Tal re yap
ael rd iravra, Kal /j,op<j)r)v ovBepiav iroTe ovBevl roav elffiovTcov c
opolav eir](pv ovSafAp ovBa/juwf Kfj,ayelov yap fyva-ei Travrl /cei-
rai, Kivovpevov re Kal Siacrîj/jiariôfievov VTTO rwv elaiovrcov,
<paiVTai Be Si eiceiva dore aX-Xoto^* rd Be el<Ti6vTa Kal efftovra
10 TWV ovroiv del fJLi^jMara, rvTrfoOevra air avroav rpojrov rivd
8v<r<ppa(TTOV teal Oavâa'rov, ov elcravdis fj,eTifj,ei>. ev & ovv rcS
Trapovri ^prf yevij BiavorjBrjvai rpirrd, TO fiev yLyvbp,evov, TO 8' ev
q> yiyveTai, TO 8' odev d(f)0fj,oiovfj,evov <pveTai TO ytyv6/j,evov Kal D
Brj Kal TrpoGeiKCKrai TrpeTret TO fj,ev Be%6fj,evov p^rjTpL, TO S' odev
15 TraTpl, Trjv Be /êrafi) TOVTCOV <f>v(Tii> exyova), vorjaal re, e9 OVK
dv aXXa)9, eKTVTrwfjiaTos eveo-Oat, /LteXXoi/ro9 IBetv TTOIKIÔV Tratra?
TroiKtXias, TOUT' ai/TO, ev c5
eKTVTrovjAevov evio-TaTai, yevoiT dv
Trape&Kevacr/jLevov ev, 7rr)v dôpôv ov eKelvwv dirao'wv TWV IBewv,
10 dvTa. post del dedit A.
2. lav apa Kal TO TOIOUTOV] Plato
warns us that we have gone to the ut-
termost verge of security in venturing
to describe phenomena even in terms
of quality : the advanced Herakleitean
point of view is as conspicuous here as
in the passages quoted above from the
Theaetetus.
4. ravrov avnjv del wpoo-piyHov]
We are not here to take ravrov in the
technical sense in which it is used in
35 A. For as the tiiroSoxrj is the home
of ytyvo/JLeva, as it is the region of thought
as pluralised in material objects, it must
belong to the domain of Oarepov : and
thus TO.VTOV will simply denote the change-
lessness of the substrate contrasted with
he mutability of the phenomena. Never-
theless, as we saw that there is a sense
in which time may be spoken of as eter-
nal (see 37 D), so there is a sense in
which the principle of ravrbv may be
said to inhere in ffarepov. The phe-
nomena which belong to the sphere of
pluralised thought are transient, but this
mode or law of their appearance under
the form of space is changeless. Con-
sidered as the law or principle of pluralised
existence the tiro5or) may be termed
eternal.
IK ydp TTJS tavrfjs] Thus we have
two immutable fixities, the ideas and the
uTroSox'?, between which is the fluctuating
mass of sensible appearances.
7. tK^xa-yeiov] That is to say, as it
were a plastic material capable of being
moulded into any form, like a mass of
soft wax or the molten gold in the simile
above. Plato seeks by frequently varying
his metaphor to bring home to the under-
standing his novel and unfamiliar con-
ception of the substrate.
g. TO. 8i tlo-iovra Kal e'giovraj These
forms which pass in and out of the sub-
strate are of course not the ideas, which
go not forth into aught else : here comes
in the difference between the Platonism of
the Timaeus and that of the Republic and

D] TIMAIO2. 177
other shapes that were impressed on it, never to speak of
them as existing, seeing that they change even as we are in
the act of defining them ;
but if it will admit the term such with
any tolerable security, we must be content. The same lan-
guage must be applied to the nature which receives into it
all material things : we must call it always the same ;
for it
never departs from its own function at all. It ever receives
all things into it and has nowhere any form in any wise like
to aught of the shapes that enter into it. For it is as the
substance wherein all things are naturally moulded, being
stirred and informed by the entering shapes ;
and owing to
them it appears different from time to time. But the shapes
which pass in and out are likenesses of the eternal existences,
being copied from them in a fashion wondrous and hard to
declare, which we will follow up later on. For the present how-
ever we must conceive three kinds : first that which comes
to be, secondly that wherein it comes to be, third that from
which the becoming is copied when it is created. And we
may liken the recipient to a mother, the model to a father,
and that which is between them to a child ;
and we must
remember that if a moulded copy is to present to view
all varieties of form, the matter in which it is moulded cannot
be rightly prepared unless it be entirely bereft of all those
Phacdo :
they are, like the ir^/aaj txovra 1 1 ov cl<rav9is JJ^TIJMV] This refers
of the Philebus, the form, as distinguished probably to the conclusion of the chap-
from the substance of material objects, ter, 52 c.
apart from which they have no inde- 15. KY<>VW] The IKJOVO. are the ma-
pendent existence ; they are in fact (apart terial phenomena formed by the impress
from their relation to the ideas) practi- of the tlaiovra upon the ttc/j.ayfioi>.
cally indistinguishable from Aristotle's 16. I8tiv iroucCXov] Ideiv follows troi-
elSoj as opposed to vi). These are the iclov, to which irdffas irouciXlas is a cog-
visible semblances of the invisible verities nate accusative. Plato is rather fond of
of the ideal world, whereupon they are this construction with Idfiv, cf. Phaedo
modelled in a mysterious manner hard 84 c, Republic 615 E, Phaedrtis 2 SOB.
to explain : for if is not easy to under- 18. &i.op4>ov Sv] Aristotle has de-
stand how the immaterial is expressed rived from hence his description of the
in terms of matter, or the invisible repre- thinking faculty, de anima in iv 429* 15
sented by a visible symbol. The elffiovra diraOes apa del flvai, SKTIKW 5 TOV etSovs
must then be distinguished (logically, for nal Swdfj.fi roiovrov, da /j.fi TOVTO
they are never actually separable) from dvdyicr) apa, tirel irdvTO. voei, d/j.iyrj thai,
the material objects which they inform ; uffirep <f>rj<rlv 'Avaaycpas, tva xparri, TOVTO
these objects are dffiovTa. + CKnayaov. 5' tffTiv tvo yvwplfrj irap(fj.<j>a.iv6nti>ov yap
P. T. 12

178 DAATHNOS [50 D
oaa<t /ieXXot BeêaOai TroOev. ofioiov yap ov TWV tTreiatovrcov TIV E
TO. T//? evavTiav rd re rfjs TO trapdirav ar)? (frvcrews, OTTOT' e0oi,
Be%6fj.vov /ca/cct><? av dtyofiotoi, rrjv avrov Trape/jufralvov o^nv. Bio
Kal TrdvTwv e/cro9 elBoav elvai xpewv TO TO, TTOVTCL eVSe6/iei>oz> eV
5 avro) yevr), KaOdirep irepl TO, aXet/i/iara, oTrocra evwBrj, Te^vr]
fj,r)%avot)VTai irpwTOv TOUT' avro inrdpôv, TTOIOVO~IV o TI /iaXtcrra
dvouBrj TO, Se6/jieva vypd Ta? ocr//,a9* ocroi Te ev ncrt r&v /iaXa/coCv
a")(rjpUTa ajrofjidTTeiv eVtêtpoOcrt, TO Trapdirav <7^yu.a o^Sey ev-
Br)ov VTrdpêiv e<ao~t, irpoojjiaXvvavTCS Se o TI eioTaTov direp-
10 ydôvTai. TavTov ovv Kal TU> TO, T<av irdvTwv dei Te OVTWV Kara 51 A
irav eavTov ?roXXa/ct9 d<f>ofj,oi(afj,aTa /caXcS? //.eXXo^Tt
eT09 ai/T&i Trpoo-ijfcet, Trefyvicevai, TWV elSrov. 8to ST)
opctTov Kal TrdvTWS aio~07)Tov injTepa KCU
yrjv /i^Te depa jj.r/T irvp firjTe vBwp Têywfiev, fj,r}T
Baa e/c
15 TovToiv jAijTe eg (ov TavTa yeyovev aXX' dvoparov etSo? TI Kal
dfjioptyov, Trai'Seê?, (jLTaafj,(3dvov Be djropwTaTd Try TOV vor/rov
Kal Bvo-a(i)TOTaTov avTO Xeyo^Te? ov tyevaopeda' KaO' oaov 8' e'/c B
TU>V Trpoeiprjfievwv BvvaTov e<f>i,Kveto~0at T^? î/trew? ai/Tov, T//8' av
7 avdiSrj :
evJiSrj A. dwSij HZ.
TO doTpioi> Kal avTi<pp6.TTei. It
will be observed that the passage of
Aristotle is full of verbal echoes of the
Timaeus : and his aTraOts applied to the
mind is exactly equivalent to Plato's
d/j.op<j)oi> applied to the vTroSox^.
18. TWV I83v] Not the ideas, which
do not enter into the virodoxrf, but the
shapes which symbolise them the ei<r-
toVra /cai tt&rra.
3. T^V avrov -n-apffufjaivov o|/iv] If
the vTrodox'n had any quality of its own,
this quality would mingle with that im-
pressed upon it by any of the elffiovra
and mar the faithfulness of the
The only condition which the in
imposes upon our sensuous perceptions
is that they shall exist in what we term
space : we can perceive nothing that is
not in space. Sensuous perceptions, as
we have said, are symbols of the ideas :
now it is quite free to the senses to sym-
bolise an idea by the perception of round
or square or any other shape, without
any interference from the vwoSox^ The
latter ira.pfjuj>aivei TTJV avrrjs 6jsiv just
in so far as round square and the like
are and must be shapes that have ex-
tension.
6. |*T|XttVwvTai...Troiov(riv] These two
words are in a kind of apposition. Corn-
pare Euripides Heraclidae 181 dWf, vTrap-
xei ^" T0'^' ^ rV ^5 X^ "^
flirfii> aKovaal
T tv /j.{pei Trdpeffri pot. This same simile
of the unguent is used by Lucretius II
848 to illustrate the necessary absence of
secondary qualities from his atoms.
10. TWV Trdvrwv eU T 6'vrwv] Stall-
baum would omit the re, and VOTJTUV has
been proposed instead of itavrwv. But
iravruv is indispensable : it is because the
itcâ-ye'iov has to receive all forms that it
can have no form of its own. Nor is the
omission of re satisfactory. Plato would
probably have written irdvruv TWV del
OVTWV. I think the text may be defended
as it stands, del re OVTUV being added to
explain what is meant by TU>V

5i B] TIMAIO2. 179
forms which it is about to receive from without. For were
it like any one of the entering shapes, whenever that of an op-
posite or entirely different nature came upon it, it would in
receiving it give the impression badly, intruding its own form.
Wherefore that which shall receive all forms within itself must
be utterly without share in any of the forms ; just as in the
making of sweet unguents, men purposely contrive, as the
beginning of the work, to make the fluids that are to receive
the perfumes perfectly scentless : and those who set about
moulding figures in any soft substance do not suffer any shape
to show itself therein at the beginning, but they first knead it
smooth and make it as uniform as they can. In the same way
it behoves that which is fitly to receive many times over its
whole extent likenesses of all things, that is of all eternal ex-
istences, to be itself naturally without part or lot in any of the
forms. Therefore the mother and recipient of creation which is
visible and by any sense perceptible we must call neither earth
nor air nor fire nor water, nor the combinations of these nor the
elements of which they are formed : but we shall not err in
affirming it to be a viewless nature and formless, all-receiving,
in some manner most bewildering and hard to comprehend par-
taking of the intelligible. But so far as from what has been said
we may arrive at its nature, this would be the most just account
all things, that is, all eternal existences. that Aristotle is treating from a physical
Perhaps however we should read del TTOTS point of view a subject which Plato
OVTUV. deals with metaphysically.
12. avTu> irpo<rf[Kti] Stallbaum er- 16. fieTaX.a[i|3avov 8i airopcoTara ITT)
roneously considers O.UT$ to be redun- TOV VOTJTOV] Plato's meaning is more
dant : it is emphatic 'must itself be fully expressed in 52 B. The puzzle
destitute of all forms'. arises from the fact that this viroSoxn,
14. (xrjTt Ynv] It is indeed hard to though it does not form part of real ex-
conceive how Aristotle would attempt to istence, is yet grasped by the reason and
justify his assertion rn.de gen. et corr. n i not by the senses. In the metaphysical
329* 13 ws 5' tv T$ Ttfj.al(f ytypcurrai scheme represented by the Phaedo we
ot/S^et %x(l SiopifffMV 01)
yap ftpijxe ffa<f>u)s should find that constituting the test of
TO iravoex^s, ft xuptffTat T^"' <rroixeiwv .
reality, the object of reason being a real
If Plato has not most explicitly charac- existence, the object of sense an un-
terised the relation between the iravSfxts reality. But now we have found an
and the vroixeta, then there is no such anomalous principle which defies this
thing as precision in language. But the test. It is not surprising then that Plato
truth is, as not rarely happens when describes it as SwraXwriraTw.
Aristotle is at cross purposes with Plato,
12 2

i8o nAATflNOS [51 B
-
Tt<? opdorara zyoi, Trvp fiev e/cacrroTe avrov TO ireTrvpwêvov /ze/?o<?
<j>aiveo~6ai, TO Be vypavdev vBwp, >yfjv Be Kal depa, Ka.0* ocrov av
fj,tfj,rjfjLara TOVTWV Be^rjrai. Xd^w Be Brj /j,aov TO ToiovBe Bio-
pio/j,evov<; irepl avrdov BiavtceTTTeov dp
1
ecrrt TI irvp avTo e<'
5 eavTov teal TrdvTa, Trepl wv del Xeyoîev ourw? avTa tcaO' avTa C
ovTa etcao-Ta, r; ravTa, airep teal /3A,7ro/iez/ ocra re da Bid TOV
o-w/iaro? alo-0av6fj,eOa, [Aova <rrl TotavTrjv e-ôvra dij6eiav, aa
Be OVK eo~Ti Trap-j. raOra ovBa/J,f) ovBa/Acas, dX,d fiaTTjv eicdo~TOT
elval Ti <j>afiev elSo? eKaarov VOTJTOV, TO Be ovBev ap
1
tfv Trrjv
10
Xoyo9 ;
ovTe ovv Brj TO Trapbv aicpiTOV Kal dBitcaa-Tov d(f)evra dîov
<j)dvai Biio-^vpi^6fjievov eêtv ourw?, OVT eTrl Xcyov parcel Trapep-
yov do fjbr,ico<; eVe///SX?7Teozr el Bt ri? opo? 6pio-0el<; /ieya? Bid D
^pa-êwv (fraveir}, TOVTO p,dio-T e^KatpiwraTov Devoir av. wBe
ovv T-qv 7' ftr)V ai;T09 TiOefiai -fyfjfyov'
el p*v vovs teal Sofa dXrjOr/s
15 eaTOV Bvo yew), TravTaTraaiv elvai Kaff avTa raOra, avaiaQrTa
v<fi rjiiwv eiBrj, voov/jueva JJLOVOV el B w? TIO~L <fiaivTai, B6a
dr)0rj<; vov Bia<j)epei TO fj,r)Bev, TrdvO* OTCOCT av Bid TOV cr&jîaro?
alo~dav6fji,eda, OeTeov {3e/3aioraTa. Bvo Brj etcTeov etceivw, BIOTI E
^w/oi? yeyoi'aTov dvop,oi(a<; re eyêTOv. TO fjuev yap avTwv Bid
20
8tSa^/7<?, TO 8' VTTo TreiOovs rjjjilv eyyiyveTai" /cal TO /j,ei>
del /ier'
s oyov, TO Be ao<yov Kal TO fj,ev dtclvrjTov ireiOol, TO Be
yrjv 8t: yrjv re A. -3 S^xâi :
S^xerai H typographi culpa.
:
5iopio/j.tvots S.
3. (ii|it](iaTa TOVTWV] .e.TovotffTiv n. Siwrxvpijoiwvov ?X tv ovrws] It is
arjp and TOV o ten yr/. not often that Plato addresses himself to
4. dp &TTI TI irvp] When we say prove the existence of the ideas ; the
the vvodox'n receives the fj-i^p-a. of fire, mere fact that it is impossible'to find any
we are assuming the existence of an stable reality or basis of knowledge in
essential idea of fire: it is now time to the material world is sufficient warrant for
justify this assumption. The list of ideas affirming the existence of the immaterial.
in the Timaeus includes, in addition to Here the existence of ideas stands or falls
ideas of living creatures, only the ideas with the distinction between knowledge
of fire air water and earth : see Intro- and true opinion. Compare the discus-
duction 33. Presently in the words sion in Republic 476 E 480 A, also Meno
eldos eKdffTov voifrbv we are to understand 97 A foil. In the Phaedo a different line
by ^Kdtrrov only every class naturally is taken, the existence of the ideas being
determined, ruv 6irb<ra <f>vcrfi. deduced from av6ift,vqffi%.
9. TO 8i ovS^v ap' -fv tr-fv Xo-yos] 18. fltr&v ptpaiorara] i.e. we must
By 6-yos Plato means a mental concept, or accept them for the truest realities that
universal : the question is in fact between exist, however fleeting and mutable they
Sokraticism and Platonism ; that is to may be. For if there are no ideas, par-
say, between conceptualism and idealism. ticulars are more real than the 6yoi,

E] TIMAIO2. 181
of it. That part of it which is enkindled from time to time
appears as fire, and that which is made liquid as water, and as
earth and air such part of it as receives the likenesses of these.
But in our inquiry concerning these we must deliver a
stricter statement. Is there an absolute idea of fire, and do all
those absolute ideas exist to which in every case we always
ascribe absolute being ? Or do those things which we actually
see or perceive with any other bodily sense alone possess such
reality ? and is it true that there are no manner of real existences
beyond these at all, but we talk idly when we speak of an in-
telligible idea as actually existent, whereas it was nothing but a
conception ? Now it does not become us either to dismiss the
present question unjudged and undecided, simply asserting that
the ideas exist, nor yet must we add to our already long dis-
course another as long which is subordinate. But if we could
see our way to a great definition couched in brief words, that
would be most seasonable for our present purpose. Thus then
do I give my own verdict : if reason and true opinion are of two
different kinds, then the ideas do surely exist, forms not per-
ceptible by our senses, the objects of thought alone ;
but if, as
some hold, true opinion differs nothing from reason, then all
that we apprehend by our bodily organs we must affirm to be
the most real existence. Now we must declare them to be two,
because they are different in origin and unlike in nature. The
one is engendered in us by instruction, the other by persuasion ;
the one is ever accompanied by right understanding, the other is
without understanding; the one is not to be moved by per-
which are merely formed from observa- lines enclose a space. It will be observed
tionofthem: but if the ideas exist, then that the difference between knowledge
6yoi are more real than particulars, be- and opinion rests here upon the same
cause the former are the intellectual, the reasoning as the final rejection of the
latter only the sensible images of the claims of ai)0r)s Sofa in Theaetetns 201
ideas : cf. Phaedo 99 E. A c, where Sokrates, after showing that
19. copXs yeyova.TOV dvopoCcos T 2- a jury may be persuaded by a skilful ad-
TOV] They are of diverse origin, because vocate to hold a right opinion on a case
one springs from instruction and the other the facts of which they do not know,
from persuasion; of diverse nature, be- concludes his argument thus: OVK a.v, u>
cause one is immovable by persuasion, <f>if, ef 75 ravrbv ?Jj> 56et re dXijtfjjj nal
the other yields to it. You may persuade ^TTIOTTJ/UI;, 6p9a ITOT' ay SIMKTTTJS airpos
a man that pinchbeck is gold, but you (So^a^tv dvfv fTriorj/yiu/s
'
vvv 5t toiKtv o
never can persuade him that two straight TI fKdrepov thai.

182 [SI E
Kal TOV fiev iravra avBpa fiereêii' (frareov, vov Be
vs, dvffputirwv Be <yero9 ftpa'xy n. TOITOJV Be OVTCOS eôvTwv
6/jLo.oyr}Tov ev fjt,ev
elvai TO Kara ravra eZSo<? e%ov, dyewrjTov Kal 52 A
dvw0pov, ovre et? eavTo elaBeôfêvov aXXo aXXodev ovre avro et?
5 aXXo trot lov, doparov Be Kal aXX&>9 (ivaladrjrov, TOVTO o Brj 1/0770-45
TTKTKOTreiv TO o' 6/j,(avvfiov 'bpoicv re eVeu/opr]nvoi> :
i . irdvra oivSpa |MTeiv] cf. Thcae-
tctus 206 D.
4. OVT avro tls dXXo iroi lov] Here
we have a perfectly unmistakable asser-
tion of the solely transcendental existence
of the ideas. The difficulties raised a-
gainst the doctrine of immanent ideas in
Parmenides 131 A are fatal and insur-
mountable. From that time forth napov-
ala and fj.fdeis (in connexion with avrb
KO.&' avra fISr)) disappear from Plato's vo-
cabulary, and fj.lfj.r)ffis takes their place.
It may be added that the previous words
oifre eis eavrb elffSfxofntvov aXXo ao6tv
would seem enough in themselves to dis-
pose of Zeller's theory of particulars in-
herent in the ideas.
8. 8or| fur' oUrihfows] Cf. 28 A,
where a6yov is added.
9. fit Tt)s X"Pas *6^J Thus then we
have materiality in its ultimate analysis
reduced to space or extension. It may
now be desirable to scrutinise Plato's con-
ception a little more closely. First then as
to the relation of x^P - t the absolute in-
telligence and to finite intelligences. Ab-
solute vovs or ^vx!n evolves itself into the
form of a multitude of finite intelligences.
For these it is a necessity of their nature
that they should apprehend, qua finite, un-
der certain unalterable forms, which we
call time and space. Therefore whatever
they perceive, they perceive somewhere.
But this somciohere is relative to them and
purely subjective (for we know that Plato's
A.
Herakleiteanism so far as concerns the
region of sensibles was complete). All
sensible perceptions then have no ex-
istence except in the consciousness of the
percipient. But the law which binds par-
ticular f/vxal to apprehend in this mode is
immutable and eternal: hence space must
be eternal; for ^VXT) must exist not only
in the mode of unity but in the mode
of plurality, in the form of limited souls.
There must then always be finite intelli-
gences percipient of a material universe
existing in space. So far then as we con-
fine our view to the relation of the ma-
terial universe to the finite percipients,
we find Plato's position to be a form of
subjective idealism. But as soon as we
consider the relation of finite percipients
and their perceptions to the absolute in-
telligence, we shall find that the subjec-
tive is merged in an absolute idealism.
For these percipients and percepts with
the law which binds them to perceive
and be perceived in this mode, though
regarded as individuals they are severally
transient and subject to time and space,
yet regarded as a whole constitute one
element in the eternal and spaceless pro-
cess of thought, the element of Oarrtpov.
And thus are material phenomena said to
be /junri/jLaTa TUV &VTUV :
they are percep-
tions existing in the consciousness of finite
intelligences, which perceptions are the
mode in which finite intelligences, acting
through the senses, apprehend the ideas

52 A] TIMAI02. 183
suasion, the other yields to persuasion ;
true opinion we must
admit is shared by all men, but reason by the gods alone and a
very small portion of mankind. This being so, we must agree
that there is first the unchanging idea, unbegotten and imperish-
able, neither receiving aught into itself from without nor itself
entering into aught else, invisible, nor in any wise perceptible
even that whereof the contemplation belongs to thought. Second
is that which is named after it and is like to it, sensible, created,
ever in motion, coming to be in a certain place and again from
thence perishing, apprehensible by opinion with sensation. And
the third kind is space everlasting, admitting not destruction, but
as existing in infinite intelligence. The
phenomena are material symbols of ideal
truths: and it is only by these symbols
that a finite intelligence, so far as it acts
through the senses, can apprehend such
truths.
Plato's identification of iheviroSoxy with
Xwpa arises from the absolute &Tra0eia of
the former. The manner of approaching
it may perhaps be most readily seen in the
following way. Let us take any material
object, say a ball of bronze. Now every
one of the qualities belonging to the
bronze we know to be due to the nlfnjua.
which informs the viroSox'f;' therefore to
reach the uTroSox^j we must abstract, one
after another, all the attributes which be-
long to the bronze. When these are
stripped away, what have we remaining?
simply a spherical space of absolute va-
cancy. The viroSoxT] then, as regards the
bronze ball, is that sphere of empty space.
But still this void sphere is something;
because it is defined by the limits of the
air surrounding it : it is in fact a sphere of
emptiness. But now suppose, instead of
abstracting the qualities from the bronze
alone, we abstract them from the whole
universe and all its contents: then we
have vacancy coextensive with the uni-
verse. But mark the difference. The
empty sphere we could speak of as some-
thing, because it was the interval between
the limits of the surrounding air. But
our universal vacancy there is nothing to
limit, there is nothing to be contrasted
with it to give it a differentia, it is va-
cancy undefined : that is to say, it is just
nothing at all. Thus we see that space
pure and simple is an abstract logical
conception ; extension without the exten-
ded is nothing, for space can no more ex-
ist independently of the things in it than
time can exist without events to measure
it. Thus in its most abstract significance
X^Pa is the eternal law or necessity con-
straining pluralised fox^ to have its per-
ceptions under the form we call space :
since then foxy does, and therefore must,
evolve itself under this form and not an-
other, x^Pa ultimately represents the law
that fox^l shall pluralise itself.
Between Plato's x^Pa and Aristotle's
vrj the only difference physically seems
to me to lie in the superior distinctness
and definiteness of Plato's conception : it
was the intense vividness of Plato's in-
sight that led him to the identification
of the substrate with space. Aristotle,
whose VTI is taken bodily from Plato,
ought to have made the same identifica-
tion: that he did not do so is due to
the mistiness which pervades his whole
thought as compared with Plato's.
A few words are demanded by Aris-
totle's reference to the Platonic theory
in physica IV ii
2<>9
b n. Aristotle there
affirms that Plato identifies the /tera-
XtjvTiKiiv with x^pa, but that he gives one
account of the /teTaXrprriKii' in the 7'i-

1
84 TIAATHNOS [52 B-
e'Bpav Be irapexov ocra e%ei yevecriv Tratriv, avro Be per dvaia-Orj- B
via? dirrov oyio-/J.q) nvl v60q>, /j,6yis Tna-rov 777)09 o Brj Kal
oveipoTToXov/jLev ySXeTroi/re? Ka'i (fxifiev dvaytcaiov elval TTOV TO ov
airav ev TIVI TOTTW /cat Kareôv XPav Tlv(i> r Be fJir/r ev yfj
5 fjujTe TTOV KCLT ovpavov ovBev elvai. ravra Br) Trdvra teal TOVTWV
da a'Se0a /cat Trepl rrjv avirvov /cat dT)0(2<; (j)v<riv VTrdp-ôvaav
TUTTO Tai/TT/9 T^? oveipaiêax; ov Svvarol <yiyvo/j,eda eyepOevres Bio- C
pityfievoi rdr)6e<f eyeiv, eJ? eiKovi, fj,ev, eTretVep 01}$ avro TOUTO,
efi o5 jeyovev, eavrrjs eVriV, erepov Se rivo<j del <j>epeTat, <j>dvTacrfj,a,
10 Bid ravra ev erepy Trpovrjicei rivl I
yi<yve<r0ai, overlap a/zco? 76 TTW?
dvTe%ofj,wr)V, r) fJMjBev TO TrapaTrav avrrjv elval, rut Be OVTWS ovn
ySo^ô? o Bi aV/JtySeta? di)0r)? dv ri TO pev do rj,
TO Be do, oiBeTepov ev ovBerepy TTOTC yevopevov ev djj,a rav-rov
KOI Bvo yevrja-ecrdov.
13 yevtt/JLfvov :
yeyfvij/j.^vov HSZ.
waetis, another fv TOIS Xeyo/uôis &ypd-
<f>ots d6y/j.a<riv. What the account in the
&ypa.<f>a. Sbytiara was, Aristotle does not
tell us ; presently however he says, 2O9
b
34, nXdrwrt fjifrroi KTOV, el Set irap-
6/c^ctJ'Tas elireiv, did ri owe iv roirif TO,
61877 Kal 01 api0(j.ol, efaep ri> fj.e6tKTiKov 6
T&TTOS, efre TOU fj.eyAov Kal TOV fUKpov
JJTOS TOV fieOtKTiKov efre T^S CXijs, uffirep
iv T(f Ti/jLaty ytypafav. Now as to this
airopia, it may be observed that it does
not affect Plato at all :
by the time his
theory of x^Pa was worked out, the
doctrine of /ue'flefis was abandoned : Aris-
totle has in fact no right to apply to the
OjroSoxr; the terms neOeKTixbv, /teroXijTr-
riKov, in relation to the ideas. Next it
will be evident to any one who reads the
whole discussion in the physica that the
object of Aristotle's inquiry is a purely
physical one, what is roVos? meaning
by TOTTOS the place in which any object
is situate, which he ultimately defines
to be TO ir^paj TOV jrepi^xot'Tos (7u>/iaToj.
This has evidently nothing in the world
to do with the metaphysical question of
the Timaeus : yet Aristotle makes as
though it were the same. Zeller is per-
fectly just in his criticism (platonische
Studien p. 212); 'wahrend also Platon
ini Timaus die Frage aufwirft : was ist
die Materie? und darauf antwortet : der
Raum ;
so fragt Aristoteles : was ist der
Raum? und lasst Platon darauf ant-
worten : die Materie'.
i.
(xer avaKrOtjcrCas airrov XoYrn<3
nvl v60a>] None of our senses can inti-
mate to us the existence or nature of
space ; it is attained only by an effort
of logical analysis, Xoyw/xy. Yet space
is no real existence; therefore it cannot
be the object of reason properly so called,
which deals with ideal truth. Plato says
then it is reached by a kind of bastard
reasoning, which is indeed a purely
mental process, unaided by the senses,
yet distinct from the true activity of the
soul when she is engaged on her proper
objects of cognition. It is, as I have
said, the anomaly of these conditions from
which the obscurity of the subject arises.
The compiler of the Timaeus Locrus
(94 B) seeks to explain vbdy by the words
T<fJ fj-T^TTU KO.T' evOvupiav voTjffOai. dXXi /car"
avaXoylav.
i. fioyis irurr<5v] TriVm is the word
used in the sixth book of the Republic
to denote the mental ira0r}fj.a which deals
with sensible objects. Space then is /uo^ts
oV, because, although it is the mode

TIMAIO2. 185
affording place for all things that come into being, itself appre-
hensible without sensation by a sort of bastard reasoning, hardly
matter of belief. It is with this in view that dreaming we say
that all which exists must be in some place and rilling some
space, and that what is neither on earth nor in heaven anywhere
is nought. All these and many kindred fancies have we even
concerning that unsleeping essence and truly existing, for that
by reason of this dreaming state we become impotent to arouse
ourselves and affirm the truth ; namely, that to an image it
belongs, seeing that it is not the very model of itself, on which
itself has been created, but is ever the fleeting semblance of
another, in another to come into being, clinging to existence as
best it may, on pain of being nothing at all ;
but to the really
existent essence reason in all exactness true comes as an ally,
declaring that so long as one thing is one and another thing
is other, neither of them shall come to be in the other, so that
the same becomes at once one and two.
in which sensible things are perceived, it
is not itself an object of sensation : it is
an ambiguous and doubtful form, hard to
grasp and hard to trust.
irpds S 8if] It is this that causes
our vague and dreamy state of mind re-
garding existence. Because everything
of which our senses affirm the existence
exists in space, we rashly assume that
all things which exist exist in space, and
that what is not somewhere is nothing.
For we are held fast in the thraldom of
our own subjective perceptions, and sup-
pose, as dreamers do, that the visions
within our own consciousness are ex-
ternal realities. It must be remembered
that Plato was the very first who had any
real conception of immaterial existence.
6. TTJV avirvov] i.e. the region of
objective truth, which we apprehend
with our waking faculties, that is to say,
by pure reason unhampered by sensa-
tion. We do not conceive of the ideal
world as it really is, independent of all
conditions of time and space.
8. hrtiirtp ovS' avri TOVTO] I be-
lieve the true construction of these words
has escaped all the editors and translators,
who are consequently in sore straits
what to make of tavrris. The construc-
tion seems to me to be a very simple and
very Platonic <TXWa "7>os T0 vnv-a-wbuevov.
What is meant by avrb TOVTO <j> $ y-
yovev ? of course the irapd5eiytJ.a, and the
whole phrase governs eayr^j just as if
Trapa.dfiy/j.0. had been written :
'
since it
is not the original-upon-which-it-is-mo-
delled of itself.
10. 4v tT^pw Tivf| Since the image is
not identical with the type, it must be
manifested in some mode external to the
type, that it may be numerically different.
This external mode is what we term
space. Space then is that which differ-
entiates the image from the idea and
thereby enables the former to exist, oi>-
crlas ci/u.w<r7^7rwj dvTfxo^vi). It is a
dubious kind of existence that is in space :
but, such as U is, it is owing to space :
for did not space exist, nothing would
remain but the idea : and since the image
cannot be in that, it could not be at all.
13. oi38repov tv ovStrepw] Here
again we have a distinct repudiation of

1 86 DAATflNOS [52 D
XIX. Ouro9 fiev ovv 8t] Trapd rrjt 6/4779 fr>')(f)ov XoyiaOels ev
K<f>aatG) SeSoaday 6yo<j, ov re Kal ^capav Kal yevecriv elvai, rpia
Tpivf}, Kal TTplv ovpavov 'yevecrOat' TTJV Be 8rj 'yevea'ecix; riOtjvrjv
vypai.vofjievrjv Kal Trvpov/jievrjv Kal ra? 7179 re Kal depot /zop<>a?
5 Se^ofjievijv, Kal 'ocra aa TOUTOI? TrdBrj ^vveTrerai 7rti<r'%ov<rav,
TravroSaTrrjv fiev ISeiv $>aivecr6ai, Sid Se TO /*;$' OJJLOIWV Svvdfieoav E
icroppoTrwv fjL7ri7racr0ai icasr
1
ovSev avrrjt laroppOTretv,
JXX'
Trdvrrj TaXavTov/jievrjv creieaOai jj,ev VTT' eKeivwv avrrfv,
5' av irdXiv eKeiva creieiv rd Se Kivov/J,eva aXXa aXXo<re
10 del <^epecr0ai SiaKpivo/jieva, axnrep ra VTTO rwv ifkoKavatv re Kal
irepl TYJV rov airov KaOapcriv (reiofieva Kal dvatK-
rd p,ev TTVKvd Kal fiapea aXX?;, rd 8e /j,avd Kal Kov<j>a elf 53 A
'
3 rrjv 5 5i} :
77 omittunt ASZ. 5 d!XXa TOUTOIS : TOVTOIS aXXa S. 7 ffjLirl-
i: t/j,irifjLira.ff()ai A. n avaiK/j.wfj.fva :
dvaiKvt!)/j.fi>apr.A.S. dnKfi.wfj.eva. If.
and fro over its whole expanse. And
thus too it sways in turn the things that
arise in it and sifts them, so that the
lighter bodies fly off to one region, and
the heavier settle in another. Thus, even
in the rudimentary state, wherein without
the working of intelligence they would
have been, the different bodies tend to
occupy different regions in space ; and
yet more, when all is ordered by intelli-
gence for the best, as we affirm to be the
truth. And now we must set forth the
order and generation of them.
1.
XoYi<r6ls...X6-yos] Compare 34 A
Xo-yio>i<}j Geov vepl rbv voTf tff&fj.(vov Ocbv
oyiff0ets.
2. rpa Tpixip] This seems to mean
no more than '
three things with three
distinct natures': cf. 80 E rpia TOJYTJ
y r r /vJ
ifrvXT)* & W"'' ttS'n KartpKiffTat. Of course
this triad is not in any way to be con-
founded with the former triad of ravrbv
0a.Ttpov and ovyta.
3. Kal irplv ovpavov yv&r6ai] This,
it need hardly be said, is again to be
taken logically : these three are prior in
analysis.
6. pj9' opiofwv SvvafJLCwv] The mani-
fold bodies which are generated in space
have most diverse and unequal forces,
and inequality is the parent of motion, as
the old doctrine of irapovvia. That
doctrine affirmed that the idea existed
(1) in its own independent nature,
(2) inherent in the particulars. The
latter mode is now declared to be im-
possible for the plain reason that things
cannot be two and one at the same time,
nor can the same thing be at once
original and copy. If the copy were
inherent in the original, or the original
in the copy, the difference between them
would be lost ;
and we should once more
be reduced to a bare denial of the ex-
istence of the material world. It will
be observed that the rejection of /thefts
is here based upon a different ground
from that taken up in the Parmenides,
although the criticism in that dialogue
remains perfectly valid. We see then
the truth of Aristotle's statement in
metaph. I vi that Plato was led, in
opposition to the Pythagoreans, to place
the ideas irapa, ra alffd^ra through his
logical speculations, did T-TJV Iv TOIS 6yois
ffK^lV.
52 D 53 c, c. xix. All the universe
then is divided into Being Space and
Becoming, these three. And space, re-
ceiving the forms that enter in, and being
thereby filled with unbalanced forces, is
nowhere in equipoise but ever swaying to

53 A] TIMAIO2. 187
XIX. Such then is the statement for which I give my
sentence, as we have briefly reasoned it out: that there are
Being and Space and Becoming, three in number with threefold
nature, even before the heavens were created. And the nurse
of becoming, being made liquid and fiery and putting on the
forms of earth and air, and undergoing all the conditions that
attend thereupon, displays to view all manner of semblances ;
and because she is filled with powers that are not similar nor
equivalent, she is at no part of her in even balance, but being
swayed in all directions unevenly, she is herself shaken by the
entering forms, and by her motion shakes them again in turn :
and they, being thus stirred, are carried in different directions
and separated, just as by sieves and instruments for winnowing
corn the grain is shaken and sifted, and the dense and heavy
parts go one way, and the rare and light are carried to a different
we are informed in 58 A. Thus a vi-
bratory motion is set up throughout the
whole extent of the virodoxrj and commu-
nicated to the objects contained in it,
which are thereby sifted as by a winnow-
ing machine. This vibration of the viro-
SOXTJ and the irlXijcri.* hereafter to be
mentioned are the two most important
physical forces in Plato's scheme ; nearly
all the processes of nature being due to
them in one way or another.
9. K.vovUviv 8" a3 irdXii/ IKUVO,
<riiv] What Plato means by this ac-
tion and reaction existing between the
tTrodoxv and its contents may thus be
explained. If we abstract every sort of
determination from sensuous perception,
the residuum is space pure and simple.
Now this, being without content, can of
course have no motion. But once it is
determined by the elfftovra Kal tirvra,
motion becomes possible ; so that it is
from these that the nrooox~n receives mo-
tive power. On the other hand the motion
thus initiated has to obey the law of exist-
ence in space: i.e. (i) it is a <f>opd, or
motion in respect of place, (2) it sifts the
clivers objects into different regions. Mo-
tion then begins with the dviovra. Kal
Qiov-ra, but once begun it is controlled
by the law of the viroSoxri. In starting
motion with the daiov-ra. Kal Quovra Plato
distinctly intimates that there is no inde-
pendent force in matter : therefore the
iravtiifj^vrj atria cannot be regarded as an
independent principle of causation.
10. irXoKavov] This was a kind of
wicker sieve used for winnowing. Plato
may have got the hint for his sifting mo-
tion from Demokritos :
compare a frag-
ment given by Sextus Empiricus adv.
math. VII 117, 118 Kal yap f$a 6/j.o-
yevtffi fyoiffi %vvay{dTai, ws irfptffTfpal
irepiffTeprjffi Kal ytpavoi yepdvoiffi, Kal tirl
T&V dtav a6y<av. werairrwj Si Kal wtpl
Tuiv dij/irxtav , Kardirep bpijv irdprTi tiri re
irapa ryffi Ki//narary^<rt ^(piStav SKOV ply
yap irapa rbv TOV KOffKlvov o"ivov 3ia/cpiTt/cc2s
<paKol fjifra <paK<3v raffffovrai Kal KptOal
fj.fTa KpiOtuv Kal irvpol /J.era irvpuv SKOV
8 Kara rrv TOV Kvparos Klvrj<rii> at ptv
^T70ies e/j TOP avrbv TOTTOV rrjffi
udtovrai, al dt irepuptptes rrjat.
i' ws a.v ^waywyo
TUV irprjyuaTuv TT)S tv TOVTOHTI o/
Cf. Diogenes Laertius ix 3r, 32. As
Mr Heath observes (Journal of Philology

1 88 HAATHNOS [53 A-
CTepav ta <f>ep6fj,eva eSpav Tore OVTW TO. rerrapa fblf
VTTO Trjs B%afj,6VT)s, Kt,vov/jLevr)<; aur/;? olov opydvov aeicfjibv Trape-
ÔI/TO?, ra /j.ev dvo/j.oioTaTa TrXetcrroi/ aura a</>'
avTwv opiêiv,
Ta 8" o/iotorara //.aXtcrra et? raurof ^vvwdelv Bio By Kal
5 raOra aXa aX?;y i<r%eiv, irplv Kal TO TTCLV e% atTwv B
<yevea-0ai. Kal TO ftev Bij TT/JO TOVTOV TrdvTa raOr' ex iv a^
Kal a/A6Tpct)?' ore 8' eTreêipelTO Koa-/j,elcr0ai TO rrdv, Trvp TrpwTov B
Kal vBwp Kal yfjv Kal depa, i^yi) [lev eôj/ra avT&v arra, Travrd-
Traat 76 fjbrjv BiaKeifJieva wcnrep et/co? Xeiv a7rav>
oTav aTrfj
10 0eo?. OVTO) Bn rare Tred>VKOTa raOra TTO^TOV Biea-vrjuaTio~aTO
'IT I /v '
re /cat dpidfAois. TO Be y SvvaTov w? /cc/XXicrra dpia-Ta re e
OUTW? exovTQJV TOV deov avTa ^vvia-Tavai, irapd TrdvTa rjpuiv a>9
aet roOro eyo/jievov )Tcapyj?rw vvv S' ovv TTJV BiaTaîv avT<av eVt-
XeiprjTeov Kd<7Tcov Kd ryevtcriv drjdei 6r
yw Trpos u/ia? Br)ovv, aXXa C
15 jdp eVet /Ltereêre rwi' ara TraiBevaiv oBoov, Bi wv evfaiKWcrOat,
ra Xeyo/iei/a dvdjKr), ^vveêcrde.
frjv Kal dtpa :
yijv Kal atpa /cat vdwp S.
14 drjdft :
aXêl corr. A.
:
ea/x.ej/77s ASZ. 8 vdup Ka
avrwv drra : airruv avrd A.
vin p. 162),
'
it is remarkable that Plato
sees the dynamical reason of the thing ;
while Democritus draws the fanciful and
false inference that " like seeks its like ".'
i. virA TTJS 8eo,|j^vT)s] Stallbaum is un-
questionably wrong in reading de%a/j.e>>rjs,
which means a cistern and nothing else :
cf. Critias 117 B.
5. irplv teal TO irav] Plato's meaning
I take to be as follows. From the plural-
isation of Being as such (the nature of
Being remaining undefined) we get only
the necessity of material perceptions :
and all that is thereby necessarily in-
volved is the existence of matter in some
chaotic or rudimentary form. But when
Being is defined to be Intelligence, the
pluralisation of it must involve the order-
ing of matter according to some intelli-
gent design. This metaphysical meaning
Plato clothes in a mythical form borrowed
from Anaxagoras. In this chapter he
gives us a completion of Anaxagoras and
a polemic against Demokritos. Anax-
agoras, though he postulated vote as a
motive cause, failed to represent the uni-
verse as the orderly evolution of intelli-
gence everywhere working eTri TO [3{Tia-
rov : he confined himself to giving an
account of the physical agencies through
which he supposed vous to work. Plato,
in explaining these physical agencies, is
careful to insist that they are merely sub-
sidiary to the final cause : the real expla-
nation of each thing is to be found in its
motive. Demokritos held that the pre-
sent order of the universe was the effect
of a blind force working without intel-
ligence, which by fortuitous collisions
and combinations formed a symmetrical
system. This view Plato controverts,
urging that such fortuitous conjunctions
could not amount to more than a rudi-
mentary and chaotic condition of material
existence :
form, arrangement, symmetry
imply intelligence in the motive power.
Properly interpreted then, matter as it is
irplv yevfoOai rov obpavov is matter evolved
on the Demokritean plan as contrasted
with the Platonic. Plato does not mean
that there was a time when matter existed
in this form.

c] T1MAI02. 189
place and settle there. Even so when the four kinds are shaken
by the recipient, which by the motion she has received acts as
an instrument for shaking, she separates the most dissimilar
elements furthest apart from one another, and the most similar
she draws chiefly together ;
for which cause these elements had
different regions even before the universe was ordered out of
them and created. Before that came to pass all these things
were without method or measure ;
but when an essay was being
made to order the universe, first fire and water and earth and air,
which had certain vestiges of their own nature, yet were alto-
gether in such a condition as we should expect for everything
when God is not in it, being by nature in the state we have said,
were then first by the creator fashioned forth with forms and
numbers. And that God formed them to be most fair and perfect,
not having been so heretofore, must above all things be the
foundation whereon our account is for ever based. But now the
disposition of each and their generation is what I must strive to
make known to you in speech unwonted : but seeing ye are no
strangers to the paths of learning, through which my sayings
must be revealed to you, ye will follow me.
8. O.VTWV &TTO] This is an obviously ever been propounded.
certain correction of the senseless a.vr<Z,v 15. TWV icard iraCSevo-iv 68iov] Pro-
avra of the mss. Fire and the rest, be- bably with especial reference to geometry,
fore the universe was framed, that is in without some knowledge of which Plato's
a universe framed on the Demokritean theory could not be comprehended. bSwv
theory had some incipient indications of is here practically equivalent to fieSodwi',
their present nature, but only in an incho- a sense in which it is not unfrequently
ate condition. found ; cf. Phaedrus 16$ B OVKOVV rbv
9. S-rov dirjj nvds Otos] i. e. in a fj.^ovra r^x"7!" pi>ropiK^v ptrievai wpurov
world which is not the evolution of Ofos, fJ.lv Set ravra 65$ Si-yprjcrffat : and Cratylus
but the result of mere chance and coinci- 425 B aXXws 3 trweipeiv /J.T) <JMUOV fj Kal
dence. ov Ka.0' oSov.
10. t8r T Kal ap i0(j.o Is] 'with forms 53 c 55 C, c. xx. This is the genera-
and measures '; i.e. with bodies definitely tion of fire air water and earth. All these
qualified and quantified. apiff/j.ol has not are solid bodies, and solid bodies are
the meaning it so frequently bears in bounded by plane surfaces. Every recti-
Aristotle,
'
the ideal numbers
'
; for this linear plane surface can be divided into
never occurs in the Platonic writings. triangles: the triangle then is the primary
14. dijOti Xo-ycp] Plato's expression is plane figure. The triangles which we
fully justified. When we come to exa- affirm to be the fundamental form of all
mine his atomic theory (if so it may be matter are two in number, the rectangular
called), we shall find it exceedingly pecu- isosceles, and the rectangular scalene
liar and totally unlike any other that has which is obtained by bisecting an equi-

190 [53 c-
Tlpoarov [lev Brj trvp Kal yrj Kal vBwp Kal dr/p on <r(a-
d ecrTt, Brj6v TTOV Kal rcavri' TO Be rov awfiaro<j eISo9 rtav
Kal /8a#09 %ei' TO Be /Sa#o9 av Tracra dvdyKtj rrjv erriTreBov rrepi-
5 ffvvearrjKf. rd Be rplywva rrdvra e'/c Bvotv dp%erai rpiywvoiv, D
/JLLCIV fjiev opurjv eyovros eKarepov ywviav, Ta9 Be oêia9* (av TO
fjiev erepov eKarepwOev eêt /Mepo9 ywvia? opOrjs 7Tevpai<f icrat9
Bir)pr]iJ,evT)$,
TO S' erepov dvi<roi<$ dvicra fJ>epr) vevefivj/jievr)*;. ravrijv
Brj Trvpof dp^rjv Kal rdov awv crcapdrcov vrroriOeiieOa Kara rov
>o
fier dvdyKrjs elKora 6yov rropevofJievoL* Ta9 8' en rovrcov dp%d<;
dvwOev Oeof olBe Kal dvBpdov 09 av eKeivw <f)los y. Bel Brj eyeiv,
Trota /caXXtcrTa awfâra yevoir av rerrapa, dvopoia fjuev eauTofc, E
Bvvard Be e dX,rj(ov avrwv drra Biavo/jiva yiyveaOai. rov-
15 Kal 7rupo9 r&v re dvd 6yov ev pecro)' roBe yap ovBevl <rvy%ci)-
?a, Kaio) rovrcav opwueva awpara elvai rrov KCL& ev
eKaarov ov. rovr" ovv trpodv/j,r}reov, rd Bia(j>epovra Kaei
rerrapa yevij avvapnoaaaOai Kal (f>dvai rrjv rovrwv
<pi(Tiv iKavws eltj(f)evai. rolv Br) Bvotv rptyatvoiv TO fêv 54 A
5 Svoiv : dveiv S. 6 rots 5^: TO.J 5^ Suo S. 15 r65e : r'jre SZ.
lateral triangle. From the latter the
three elements fire air and water are
framed : from the former earth alone. It
follows then that while fire air and water
can interchange and pass one into an-
other, earth cannot pass into any of them
nor they into it, because its base is dif-
ferent. But since the other three are
formed on the same triangle, they can
interchange, when a figure formed of
many triangles breaks up into several
formed of fewer, or vice versa. The way
in which the figures are formed is as fol-
lows. Six of the primary scalenes placed
together constitute an equilateral triangle;
and four equilaterals form the sides of a
regular solid, the tetrahedron or pyramid,
which is the constituent particle of fire :
eight such equilaterals are the sides of the
octahedron, which is the particle of air;
twenty equilaterals are the sides of the
icosahedron, being the particle of water.
These are all the forms constructed on
the rectangular scalene. From the rect-
angular isosceles, by placing four to-
gether, is formed a square; and six
squares are the sides of a fourth regular
solid called the cube, which is the particle
proper to earth. A fifth regular solid
still exists, namely the dodecahedron,
which does not form the element of any
substance ; but God used it as a pattern for
dividing the zodiac into its twelve signs.
3. Tqv firiir&ov] Every solid is
bounded by plane surfaces. Aristotle,
in criticising the Platonic theory (see de
caelo III i
2g8
b
33 ; de gen. et corr. I ii
3 r 5
b
3) objects (i) that you cannot
make solid matter out of planes, (2) that
there are no such things as indivisible
magnitudes. To the first objection it is
sufficient to reply that Plato, who was
presumably as well aware as every one
else of the impossibility of forming solids
by an aggregation of mathematical planes,
does not attempt to do anything of the

54 A] TIMAIO2. 191
XX. In the first place, that fire and earth and water and air
are material bodies is evident to all. Every form of body has
depth: and depth must be bounded by plane surfaces. Now
every rectilinear plane is composed of triangles. And all
triangles are derived from two triangles, each having one right
angle and the others acute: and one triangle has on each side a
moiety of a right angle marked off by equal sides, the other
has it divided into unequal parts by unequal sides. These
we conceive to be the basis of fire and the other bodies, follow-
ing up the probable account which is concerned with necessity:
but the principles yet more remote than these are known but to
God and to whatsoever man is a friend of God. Now we must
declare what are the four fairest bodies that could be created,
unlike one another, but capable, some of them, of being gene-
rated out of each other by their dissolution : for if we succeed in
this, we have come at the truth concerning earth and fire
and the intermediate proportionals. For we will concede to
no one that there exist any visible bodies fairer than these, each
after its own kind. We must do our diligence then to put
together these four kinds of bodies most excellent in beauty,
and so we shall say that we have a full comprehension of their
nature.
Now of the two triangles the isosceles has but one kind,
sort : to the second, that Plato's solids vided into one or other of these by simply
are not indivisible, but are the minutest drawing a perpendicular from one of the
forms of organised matter which exist. angles to the opposite side. Of the rect-
When they are broken up, they are either angular isosceles there is of course but
reformed into another figure, or the mat- one kind ; of the rectangular scalene an
ter of which they are composed goes on endless variety. Out of these Plato
existing in a formless condition. There chooses as best that which is obtained
is however a real difficulty not noticed by bisecting an equilateral triangle; the
by Aristotle, which will be discussed on reason for this choice becomes presently
56 D. obvious.
4. IK Tpi/yuvwy <rvW<rrr]K] Because 10. rds 8' ri TOVTWV dpx<is] Plato
every rectilinear plane of whatever shape will not affirm that there is any physical
can be divided up into triangles, three dpx7) which is absolutely ultimate,
straight lines being the fewest that can 13. avTwv arra] This anticipates the
enclose a space. correction given in 54 B of the statement
5. IK 8voiv apxTai Tpi-yoSvoiv] All in 49 C.
triangles are reducible to two, the rect- 15. TV rt civd Xo^ov] i.e. the mean
angular isosceles and the rectangular proportionals, air and water, between fire
scalene, because any triangle can be di- and earth; see 32 A.

192 IZAATHNOS [54 A
tVoo7ceXe9 [tiav eir)%e <pv<riv, TO Be TT
polices direpavTow irpo-
atpeTeov ovv av TWV direipwv TO fcdi<rTov, el /u,eXXo/iez> dpe(r6at
Kara TpoTrov. av ovv Ti9 e^rj /cdiov e/cXefa/nei/09 eiirelv 619 TTJV
TOVTUV %v(TTa(riv, eiceivos ov/c e%6po<; oav aXXa $4X09 Kparel- Tide-
5 fj,0a o ovv TOIV TToXXoGi/ Tpiycovwv Kdi(rTov ev, V7rep/3dvT<;
TaXXa, e' ov TO icr67revpov Tpiywvov etc
Tpirov (rvve<TTr)K. BIOTI B
Be, 6yos 7Tift)v aa TO> TOVTO eêXeyâvTi ical dvevpovTi fjitj
ovrws e%oy KCITCM <J>lta TO, adXa. irporjp^crdoj Br} Bvo
e'f (av TO T TOV Trvpos teal TO, Ta)V dwv 0-tw/iara
10 TO [lev arocrtfeXe?, T^ Be Tpnrrjv KdTa Bvva/J,iv %ov
TTJV /ieia> TTevpdv del. TO Brj TrpoeOev dcrafyws pt]0ev vvv
Biopia-Teov. T& yap TcTTapa jevr) Bi' dija)v et? a'XX^Xa tyai-
veTO irdvTa yeve<riv ex iv>
OVK opdoo^; <pavTa6fjiva' ylyveTcu fiev c,
yap etc Tcav Tpiycavcov oav irporjprjp,e6a yevrj rerrapa, Tpia fj,ev eg
15 evb<i TOV ra? 7rXeu/5a9 dvi<rov<; eôvro?, TO Be TerapTov ev fiovov
ex TOV laoa-tceXovs Tpiywvov ^vvapôaOev. OUKOVV BvvaTa TTCLVTO,
et9 aXX?;Xa BiaXvofjueva etc TroXXcCz/ crpiicpwv oiya fieyda teal
TOvvavTiov yiyve&Oat, Ta Be Tpia olov Te f
etc
yap evos djravTa
1 fieo/J.ei> :
fj.otfj.ev A.
p.'fi: 5ij A. 5^ iu SZ.
7 6yos : 6 6yos SZ. S 6 erasit A.
8 <j>lia :
<t><.la AHSZ.
i. rd 8i irp<S|jiT]Ks] i.e. the scalene.
irp6(j.T)Kes denotes that one side exceeds
the other in length : the word is applied
to almost any shape which is longer than
it is broad; in Theadetus 148 A to a
rectangle which is not a square; there
and in Reptiblic 546 c to a number ex-
pressing such a rectangle ; to a long
vault, Laws 947 D; to the elongated
heads of beasts, T'imaeus 91 E :
or/joyytfXa
Kal TrpofjLTJKrj
= cylindrical, said of the spine,
Timaeus 73 D.
6. IK rpl-rov <rvvl<rnKt]
i.e. the two triangles com-
bined form a third, which is
equilateral.
The extreme drjdfia. of Plato's theory
will be at once seen by a brief com-
parison with those of his predecessors.
Empedokles limited the primal elements
to four and conceived them as indefinitely
divisible; and he treats as primary those
which Plato says are oi/5' if <nAXa/3ip
ctde<rii>. Anaxagoras reduces matter to
qualitatively determinate corpuscules, in-
finitely numerous, infinitely various, and
infinitely divisible. The atoms of De-
mokritos are infinite in number, in-
definitely varying in size shape and
weight, in other respects perfectly
similar, and indivisible. Plato differs
(i) in the derivation of his particles from
his two primal triangles; (2) in limit-
ing their varieties to four; (3) in assign-
ing to these four certain specified geo-
metrical forms; (4) in the peculiar con-
ditions he imposes upon their divisibility;
(5) in allowing two or more of the smaller
particles to coalesce into one larger this
is directly contrary to the view of De-
mokritos ; (6) in allowing within limits a
diversity of size in the primal triangles,
Plato seeks to explain differences of
qualities which Demokritos ascribes to

c] TIMAIO2. 193
but the scalene an endless number. Out of this infinite multi-
tude then we must choose the fairest, if we are to begin upon
our own principles. If then any man can tell of a fairer kind
that he has selected for the composition of these bodies, it
is no enemy but a friend who vanquishes us : however of
all these triangles we declare one to be the fairest, passing
over the rest; that namely of which two conjoined form an
equilateral triangle. The reason it were too long to tell : but if
any man convict us in this and find that it is not so, the
palm is ready for him with our right good will. Let then
two triangles be chosen whereof the substance of fire and of the
other elements has been wrought ;
the one isosceles, the other
always having the square on the greater side three times
the square on the lesser. And now we must more strictly define
something which we expressed not quite clearly enough before.
For it appeared as though all the four classes had generation
through each other and into each other, but this appearance was
delusive. For out of the triangles we have chosen arise four
kinds, three from one of them, that which has unequal sides,
and the fourth one alone composed of the isosceles triangle. It
is not then possible for all of them by dissolution to pass
one into another, a few large bodies being formed of many
small, and the converse: but for three of them it is possible.
varieties in the size and shape of the
atoms; (7) whereas Demokritos insisted
upon the necessity of void, Plato
eliminates it so far as possible and makes
no mechanical use of it; (8) though
Plato agrees with Demokritos as to the
sifting of like bodies into their proper
region, he differs from him toto caelo on
the subject of gravitation. There is
moreover a still more fundamental pecu-
liarity in the Platonic theory, which will
be discussed later : see 56 D.
10. TpiirXtjv Kurd Svvajuv] i.e. having
the square on the longer side three times
the square on the shorter.
Let ABC be an equilateral triangle
bisected by the perpendicular AD.
Then the square on the hypotenuse
But A
therefore therefore
P. T.
or AD : DC ::
^3 : 1.
cf. Timaeus Locrus 98 A.
ii. rA 81} irpdo-Oev] Referring to the
statement in 49 c that all the elements
are interchangeable. Aristotle makes all
four interchangeable: see for instance
meteorologica I iii
339* 37 <f>a.^v 8t irvp
Kal atpa Kal vdup Kal -ffv ylveffffai ^ ay-
Xwv, Kal UKaffrov tv tKaffry virapxeiv roti-
TUV dwdfiti.
13

194 [54 c
7re(pvKora v6evra)v re rwv fieiôvcov TroXXa oyu/c/>a CK rdov av-
rrav %V(mj(rerai, Seô/zeva ra irpoa-^Kovra eaurot? o^/xara, Kal D
<r/JUKpd '6rav av TroXXa Kara TO. rpiywva BiacrTrapy, yevofjievos els
dpi0/j,os evof oytcov fj,eya d7roreecreiev av aXo elSos ev. ravra
5 fJiev ovv e%da) irepl 1-779 ei9 arf.a yevecreax;' olov Be eKaarov
avrfov yeyovev elSos Kal e cxrcov a-vpTrearovrwv apiOfitov, e<yeiv
av eTTOfievov eif], ap%et, Brj TO re Trpwrov elSos Kal a-fiiKpoTarov
gvvia-rdfAevov, cnoLêlov 8' avrov TO rrjv VTroreivovo-av rfjs ear-
roi/09 7rXeu/3a9 Snracriav %ov iirjicei' %vvSvo Se TOIOVTWV Kara
10
Siaperpov %vvTidefJ,eva)v Kal rpi9 TOVTOV ryevopevov, ra? Biafjierpov<; E
Kal ra? ^paêia^ irevpa<s eh ravrov <u? Kevrpov epeicrdvTwv, ev
IcroTrKevpov rpiywvov e el; rov dpi0/j,6v ovrwv yejove' rpiycova be
IcrcnrXevpa ^WKTrdêva rerrapa Kara avvrpeis eTrnre&ovs ywvias
/j-iav arepeav ymviav Troiei, T^9 dfifSKvrdr'ris rwv eTrnr&wv ywvitiov 55 A
15 e<f>efjs ye<yovviav rotovrtov Se d7roreeo-0eia-<av rerrdpwv irpwrov
arepeov, oov vrepifyepovs Siave/JirjriKOV 619 to" ^PV Kai
: oil <rfj.iKp& A. Kard. ri rplytava : rd. omittit A. 6 6ffuv : uv S.
8. rfv viroreCvovo-av] The same tri-
angle given above, having its sides in the
proportion i, ^3, 2.
9. vv8vo 8f] Take two equal rect-
angular scalenes A OF, AOE, of the
form aforesaid, and place them so that
their hypotenuses coincide. Thus we
have a trapezium AFOE. In the same
way form two other equal and similar
trapeziums J3FOD, CEOZ), and place
them so that in each of them the two
sides which are the shortest sides of the
triangles coincide severally with a similar
side in each of the two others, FO, O,
DO. The juxtaposition of these three
trapeziums gives us an equilateral triangle
ABC formed of six rectangular scalenes
similar in all
respects to the triangle ob-
tained by bisecting ABC. For let ABC
be an equilateral triangle, and draw the
three perpendiculars AD, BE, CF, each
bisecting it. Then it is easy to prove
that the three perpendiculars intersect in
the point O: and since in the triangle
A OF the angle AFO is a right angle and
the angle FAO is J of a right angle,
therefore the angle A OF must be | of a
right angle; and the triangle A OF is
consequently similar to ADB, as also are
the other five. Accordingly the juxta-
position of six rectangular scalenes of the
form and in the manner described will
make up a single equilateral triangle.
Kara Sidperpov] That is, placed so
that the hypotenuse of one coincides
with that of the other : the common
hypotenuse AO of the two triangles A OF,
AOE becomes the diagonal of the tra-
pezium AFOE.
ri. ls TQ.VT&V <a$ K^vrpov] i.e. at the
point O.
12. 4^ ? TOV cipiOfxov] It is notable
that Plato uses six of the primary scalenes
to compose his equilateral triangle, when

55 A] TIMAI02. 195
For since they all arise from one basis, when the larger bodies
are broken up, a number of small ones will be formed from
the same elements, putting on the shapes proper to them;
and again when a number of small bodies are resolved into
their triangles, they will become one in number and constitute a
single large body of a different form. So much for their gene-
ration into one another : the next thing will be to say what
is the form in which each has been created, and by the com-
bination of what numbers. We will begin with the form which
is
simplest and smallest in its construction. Its element is the
triangle which has the hypotenuse double of the shorter side
in length. If a pair of these are put together so that their
hypotenuses coincide, and this is done three times, in such
a way that the hypotenuses and the shorter sides meet in
one point as a centre, thus one equilateral triangle has been
formed out of the other six triangles: and if four equilateral
triangles are combined, so that three plane angles meet in
a point, they make at each point one solid angle, that which
comes immediately next to the most obtuse of plane angles;
and when four such angles are produced there is formed the first
solid figure, dividing its whole surface into four equal and similar
he could have done it
equally well 12. Tpfywva 81 I<r6irvpa] Next we
with two. Similarly he uses four rect- take four equilateral triangles thus con-
angular isosceles to compose the square, structed each of six elementary scalenes,
whereas he could have formed it of two. and place them so as to make a regular
The reason is probably this: the sides tetrahedron or pyramid; each of whose
of the primary triangles mark the lines solid angles is bounded by three planes
along which the equilaterals are broken meeting in a point. The pyramid is the
up in case of dissolution. Now had simplest of the regular solids, having
Plato formed his equilaterals of two sea- four equilateral triangles for its sides,
lenes only, it would have been left in and therefore containing 24 of the primal
doubt whether the triangle ABC would scalenes. This is the corpuscule com-
be broken up along the line AD, or posing fire.
along BE, or CF. But if they are com- 14. TTJS dnpXvraTT]$] The most
posed of six, the lines along which dis- obtuse plane angle (expressed in integral
solution takes place is positively deter- numbers) is 1 79 degrees, one degree short
mined ; since there is only one way in of two right angles, or a straight line,
which six can be joined so as to form one The solid angle of a pyramid is, as we
equilateral. The same remark applies to have seen, bounded by three equilateral
the composition of the square. Also by triangles. The angle of an equilateral
taking one-sixth of the equilateral, in- triangle is two-thirds of a right angle,
stead of one-half, we get the smallest that is, 60 degrees. Therefore the angle
element possible for our primal base. of the pyramid contains 180 degrees, or
133

196 IIAATHNOS [55 A
, %vvi<TTaTai. . BevTepov Be etc /j,ev rwv avrwv rpiywvwv, Kara
Be IcroTrXevpa Tpiywva OKTW ^vcravrmv, fiLav aTrepyaa-afJbevfDv crre-
pedv ywviav e/c
rerrdpcov eTrtTreBwv ical yevoftevav e roiovrwv
TO BevTepov av a-wîa oi/ra><? etrê reXo?. TO Be rplrov etc Si?
5 e^r/KOVTa TWV crroiêlwv ^vfATrayevTaiv, crrepewv Be ywviwv Ba>- B
,
UTTO Treme eTTiTTeBcav rpvywvwv IcroTrXevpwv 7repieôfjievr)<f
,
etACOcrt )Qa<ret9 fyov I<ro7revpovs Tpiycavovs yeyove. icai
TO fj,ev Tpov aTTijXX.aKTO TWV (TTOiêiwv TavTa yevvfjcrav TO Be
e9 TptfWOV eyevva Trjv TOV reraproi; fyvcriv, ara rerrapa
, et? TO KevTpov T9 6p6a<$ f/ttvfas ffvvdyov, ev lao-
irXevpov TeTpdywvov aTrepyao-dftevov ef Be ToiavTa ^v/jLTrayevTa
ywvias o/CTca areped? aTreTeXeo-e, Kara Tpeis eTrnreBovs op6d<s %vvap- C
fioa~6ei<rirj<j e/cao-T^?
1
TO Be a-^rîa TOV ^VCTTCIVTOS <rtB/LtaTo? yeyove
Kvfli/cov, e^ 7rnre8ov<; TeTpaywvovs i<ro7revpov<; /3ao-et<? côv. IT*
15 Be otiffifi vo'Tdo~a)S /zta? Tre/iTTTi;?, eTrt TO Tfav 6 0eb<> avrfj
8 raOra yevvrj<rav :
yevvrjuav ravra S.
one degree more than the obtusest pos-
sible of plane angles.
2. I<r6irvpa rpC-ywva <5KTw] The
next figure is the octahedron, the second
regular solid, having eight equilateral
triangular sides, and six angles, each of
them bounded by four planes: this then
contains 48 of the primal scalenes. This
is the constituent corpuscule of air.
4. TO 8i Tpfrrov] The third regular
solid is the icosahedron, which has
twenty sides, of the same shape as the
former, and twelve angles, each bounded
by five of the equilateral planes; this
consequently contains no less than 120
primal scalenes. This forms the element
of water. And now the rectangular
scalene, out of which the equilateral is
formed, has finished its work : since
these three are the only regular solids
whose sides are equilateral triangles.
g.
Kara T^rrapa |vvi<rra|j^vov] The
corpuscule of which earth is formed is
based upon the other element, the rect-
angular isosceles : four of which, joined
in the manner shewn in the accompany-
ing figure, make a square. Six of these
squares set together form the fourth regu-
lar solid, which is the cube, having eight
solid angles each bounded by three planes :
the cube then contains 24 of the ele-
mentary isosceles. The reason why Plato
forms his square of four instead of two
triangles has been already suggested : it
is obvious however that he might have
constructed it of any number he chose:
for by bisecting the triangle A OS we
should obtain two precisely similar tri-
angles, which again might be bisected into
precisely similar triangles usque ad in-
Jinitum. Plato however had to stop short
somewhere in the number of triangles
which he assigned to the square; and
naturally enough he stopped short at
the smallest number which gave him

c] TIMAIO2. 197
parts. The second is formed of the same triangles in sets of
eight equilateral triangles, bounding every single solid angle by
four planes ;
and with the formation of six such solid angles the
second figure is also complete. The third is composed of 120
of the elementary triangles united, and of twelve solid angles,
each contained by five plane equilateral triangles ;
and it has
twenty equilateral surfaces. And the first element, when it had
generated these figures, had done its part : the isosceles triangle
generated the fourth, combined in sets of four, with the right
angles meeting at the centre, thus forming a single square. Six
of these squares joined together formed eight solid angles, each
produced by three plane right angles : and the shape of the
body thus formed was cubical, having six square planes for its
surfaces. And whereas a fifth figure yet alone remained, God
used it for the universe in embellishing it with signs.
determinate lines of cleavage.
14. ?TI 8i ovo-rjs
ir^|AirTT|s] There is in existence yet a
fifth regular solid, the dodecahedron.
This has twelve sides, each of which is
an equilateral pentagon; it has twenty
solid angles each contained by three
planes. This is of course not based upon
either of the elementary triangles ; nor
is it the corpuscule of any material sub-
stance. God, says Plato, used it for a
pattern in diversifying the universe with
signs: that is it served as a model for
the twelvefold division of the zodiac.
The writer of the Timaeus Locrus (see
98 E rd 5 SwSeKdedpov elK6va. rov iravrbs
tffTa<ra.To, gyyiffra crQaipas lov) is quite
in error in supposing that the shape of
the dodecahedron has anything to do
with that of the universe: the spherical
shape of the latter is the material symbol
of the avrb ffiov. Plato was bound to
find some significance for the only re-
maining regular solid; and he found it
as suggesting the twelve signs of the
heavens. Compare Phaedo no B -jrpCirov
fj.ti>
elvai roiavTi] 1} yrj avrri Idetv, ft TIS
avwOev 6e$To, uairep al SwdeKaffKvroi fffau-
pai, where obviously the 'twelve-patched
ball
'
represents the duodenary division.
There is a curious blunder in Plutarch
quaestiones platonicae V i :
<rw^/9/uo<rrai
5 KO.I
T&V TTpwruv aKoXfivuv
dib Kai SOKSI rbv fadiaKbv a/tta
Kal rbv tviavrbv a.iromfj.eiffdai TCUS Sia-
i>o/j.cus TUV fjwipuv i<rapi9/j.ois ovffiv. Al-
kinoos has a similar statement: this
would involve the consequence that every
side of the dodecahedron can be divided
into five equilateral triangles, each con-
sisting of six primal scalenes; an opinion
which Stallbaum welcomes with joy,
saying that it 'mirifice convenit' with
the 360 degrees into which the circle is
divided. It is perhaps strange that neither
Stallbaum Plutarch nor Alkinoos took the
trouble even to draw a regular pentagon
in order to verify this theory, which is
of course geometrically absurd : Martin
goes so far as to give, not without sarcasm,
a mathematical demonstration of its im-
possibility.
55 c 56 c, c. xxi. Now if the ques-
tion be put, are there more cosmical sys-
tems than one? the reply that there are
an indefinite number would be a very in-

198 HAATflNOS [55 c
XXI. <V
A Bij Tt9 el Trdvra oyi%6/j,evo<; e/i/ieX&k diropol, Trore-
pov aTrei'pof? %pr) KOff/Jiovs elvat eyetv rj trepan eôvra^, TO /xei/
direipovs vyr/a-aiT* av 6W&>9 aTreipov TWOS elvai Boypa wv e/jiTrei- D
pov xpewv elvaC Trorepov Be eva r) -rrevTe avrov? dr)0eia 7re<pv-
5 KOTO,? eyetv Trpoo-ijKei,, fj,dov av ravrrj <rra9 et/corw? BiaTroprjaai.
TO fjiev ovv Br) Trap' rj/juav eva avrov Kara rov eiKora 6yov 7re<pv-
Kora [Aijvvei, O9 Be et? da TTTJ ySXeâ? erepa Bo^na-ei. KCU
TOVTOV fiev fieOereov, ra Be yeyovora vvv TO> 6<ym yevrj Biavei-
IMWfAev et9 Trvp real <yrjv /cal ftBcop teal depa. 777 jj,ev Br/ TO Kvfiiicdv
10 eI8o9 B(0fji,V dfCivrfTOTaTi} yap TWV TeTrdpwv yevwv yij KOI T<UV E
Be dvdj/crj yeyovevat, TOIOVTOV
TO ra? y8acret9 a Be r re /car
Tpiyoovwv inroTeOevTWV ao-âXecrrepa /fara (j)V<riv, y TWV i
5 TTOT post XeYeiv dat A, quod inclusum retinet H. cum SZ eieci. or<is :
Trfij S. 7 0eds post (j.i)v6ei, addit A. uncis inclusum servat H. 8 TOVTOV :
TOITUV SZ.
definite answer: but to affirm that there
are five might be more reasonable. We
however in conformity with our principles
assert that there is but one. We must
now assign our elementary solids to the
natural substances which they severally
compose. Earth is the most unyielding
of the four; therefore to it we assign the
cube as its constituent; for this is the
most stable solid, being formed of the
rectangular isosceles. To water, which
next to earth is the most sluggish, we
give the icosahedron ; and to fire, which
is of all the most mobile, the pyramid ;
while for air there remains the inter-
mediate form of the octahedron. Now
all these corpuscules are separately so
small as to be invisible ; it is only when
they are collected in large numbers that
they can be seen by us: but God as-
signed them to the four substances with
due regard to proportion in respect of
multitude and motion and all other
powers.
3. dir(povs...dir6tpov] For the play
on the word compare Philebus 1
7 E rd 6
&ireip6v ffe tKdffTuv Kal if e/cdorois irT)6os
aireipov ^/cdoTort Troiet roO <f>povelv Kal OVK
6yi/J.ov oftS' i>dpi6(J.ov, S.T' OVK els apiO-
nbv ovStva iv ovdevl irwiroTe ctortSoVra.
Plato is at issue with Demokritos, who
consistently with his whole physical
theory maintained that the number of
KOfffj-ot, was infinite : Plato is equally con-
sistent in affirming that there is only one.
The oddest fancy in this way is one
ascribed by Plutarch de defectu oraculorum
22 to Petron of Himera, who declared
there were 183 KOCT/OIOJ, disposed in the
form of an equilateral triangle. The
eternal fitness of this arrangement is not
explained by Plutarch.
4. iroTtpov 8i tva TJ irivrt] Plato re-
gards as a comparatively reasonable sup-
position the view that there may be five
Kofffjioi, because there exist in nature five
regular rectilinear solids. Compare
Plutarch de el apud Delphos 1 1 TroXXd
5' oiXXa TotaCrct, %<t>-iv eyu, irapeXOw, rbv
IlXdruva irpocrdl-0/Ji.a.i tyovra KOCT/J.OV fra,
ws etirep elffl irapa TOVTOV ?Tepoi Kal /J-TJ
/j.6vos oSros els, irevTt TOVS iravTas 6vTas
Kal list) irelovas. ov ft,rjv da KO.V tls
OVTOS fiovoyevys, us oteTai Kal 'A/HOTO-
S, TpOTTOV Tivd Kal TOVTOV K TTfVTf
Kal ffvvr)pfj.o<r/j,evov

TIMAIOS. 199
XXI. Now if any man, reflecting upon all these things,
should fairly ask himself whether the number of cosmic systems
is indefinite or definite, he would deem that to believe them in-
definite was the opinion of one who thought very indefinitely on
a matter where he ought to be most definitely informed : but
whether we ought to say that there is but one, or that there are
really in nature five, he might, if he stopped short there, with
more justice feel doubtful. Our verdict declares that according
to the probable theory it is by nature one ;
another however,
looking to some other guide, may have a different view. But
no more of him ;
let us assign the figures that have come into
being in our theory to fire and earth and water and air. To
earth let us give the cubical form ;
for earth is least mobile
of the four and most plastic of bodies : and that substance must
possess this nature in the highest degree which has its bases
most stable. Now of the triangles which we assumed as our
starting-point that with equal sides is more stable than that
elvai' uv o [J.v tan. yrjs, 6 S' d'Saros, rplros
8t irvp&s, Kal Ttrapros tepos' rbv d TT^UTT-
TOV, ovpavov, oi 5 <j>w, ol 5' aldtpa /caXou-
ffiv, ol 5' avrb TOVTO, TT^/XTTTTJJ' ovffiav, rj rb
/card <pv<rii> iarlv, OVK e avdynris ov5' d-
Xws (ru/a/Se^TjKos. The latter part of this
extract does not accurately represent
Plato's opinion, since the dodecahedron
was not a constituent of any substance
existing in nature, but simply the model
for the distribution of the zodiac into
twelve signs.
5. TavTQ <TT<S] This is evidently the
true reading. If the inquirer were to
stop short at the number five and declare
that so many K&T/AOI existed, he would be
more reasonable, says Plato, than he who
should go on to a larger or indefinite
number. Stallbaum's iraj, which has but
slight support, is quite inappropriate :
Plato could not say that it was reasonable
for every one to doubt whether there are
five KOff/j-oi or one; it would not be
reasonable in his own case, as we see in
31 B.
6. i'va avrov Kara riv eUora Xo^yov]
It will be noted that here, where he is
dealing with physics and the region of
opinion, Plato only pronounces the unity
of the universe to be probable and con-
sonant to his theory of nature. But at
31 B it is authoritatively declared to be
one on the infallible principle of meta-
physical necessity. After /jLtjv^ei, 0eoj
cannot possibly be genuine.
7. aXXos Si els aXXa irg] Obviously
aimed at Demokritos : a philosopher who
has no place for poDs in his system may
very well maintain an infinity of KOffpot.
8. TOWTOV] i. e. Demokritos, who is
dismissed with something more like con-
tempt than Plato is wont to show for
other thinkers.
T<1 84 yeY v Ta vvv r*P Xoyw] Com-
pare 17 A dvffpuirovs T yeyovoras.
ii. irXaoriKftmiTT]] The other three
are too subtle to be plastic. Aristotle's
objections to the present theory will be
found in de caelo in viii 3o6
b
3: they
are not for the most part very forcible.
The most pertinent is that of Plato's geo-
metrical figures only the pyramid and the
cube can fill
up space continuously : the

200 nAATONOS [55 E
tuy, TT;? TWV dvio-wv, TO re ef etcarepov gvvreOev eiriTreBov
laoTrevpov rerpdycovov rpiycavov /card re fJ*epr)
KCU
Ka0* oov o-Tao-ifjiWTepws e dvcuyicrjs fteftrjice. Sib 777 fiev TOVTO
aTTOi/e/AOZ/Te? Tov el/Cora 6yov Biatrmô/jiev, vSaTi 8' av r<av onrwv 56 A
5 TO Bva-KivrjTOTaTOV eZSo?, TO 8' evKivijTorarov irvpL, TO Se fj,eaov
depi' real TO /iey oyutf/ooVaTOz/ o"c5/ta irvpL, TO
'
ai5 fêyto-Tov vBaTi,
TO Be jj,e<rov depi' Kal TO /x.ei/ ogvTarov av irvpL, TO Se Sevrepov
depi, TO Be TpiTov vBaTi. Tavr ovv Br} jrdvTa, TO (J,ev %ov oi-
<yi<TTa<> fidcreis evKivrjTOTCiTOV dvdytcr) Tretyvicevai, Tfj,r)TiKa>TaTov Te
10 KOI oi>TaTov ov irawrr) irdvTwv, TI Te ea<j)poTaTOv, ej; 6iyio'T(ov B
os TWV OVTWV [iep(ov TO Be SevTepov BevTepcos Ta avTa
Lv, T/3tT&)9 Be TO TpiTov. (TT(0 Brj KaTa TOV opOov 6yov
TOV eiKOTa TO fiev Trjs vrvpa/jilBos o~Tepebv 76701/05
(TTOi'êlov Kal cnrepfj,a' TO Be BevTepov KaTa yevecriv
15 [lev depof, TO Be TpiTov vSaTO?. iravia ovv Brj TavTa Bei Bia-
voeia'dai cr/AiKpa OVTWS, w? Ka& ev CKaaTov ftev TOV yevov? eKacrTOV
Bid o-fjUKpoTijTa ovBev opcapevov v<j> rjfi&v, gvvaOpoio-OevTwv Be C
TToXkdov TOI)? OJKOVS avT&v 6pdo~0ai' Kal Br) Kal TO T<OV dvao-
<yiwv wept T TO. TrXijOrf KOI Ta5 tcivrfo-eis Kal Ta? da<f
10 TravTaxf) TOV 0e6v, oirrjirep tf T^? dvdjKr)? eKovva treio'Oeio'd
8 dXiylo-ras :
6lyas r&s A. dXiyoffr&s S. 10 Kal ante tj-fcarov omittit S.
14 etirufiev :
etwofjiev A.
bearing of this will be discussed a little the right meaning; the sense requires
later; see note on 58 A. 'very few': for the mobile and penetrat-
i. K0.ro. T jUprj Kal Ka6' 8Xov] i.e. as ing nature of fire is due to the small num-
the rectangular isosceles is more stable, ber of its sides and the consequent acute-
owing to the equality of its sides, than ness of its angles. Plato evidently con-
the rectangular scalene, so the solid based siders that the sharp points of the pyramid
on the former is more steady than that most readily cleave their way through
based on the latter. other bodies ; and so Aristotle understood
6. TO (ilv o-pKpoTarov] No com- him to mean, de caelo in viii 307* 2.
parison in point of size is made with the It is curious to observe how the meaning
corpuscules of earth, because the latter of TroXAoords and of dXiywrrbs sometimes
has a different base : but in the case of seems to be inverted :
compare the passage
the other three the size of the figure of the Antigone aforesaid, irpaa-crei S' 6i-
varies according to the number of the yoffrov xpbvov ZKTOS aras (v. 1. 6lyiffTov)
radical triangles contained in it. with Demosthenes /caret 11/j.oKpdrovs 196
8. oXi/ytoras pd<ms] Stallbaum seems TO TO. TO&TUV ITOO<TT$ xpovy /MIS Kal
perverse in reading dXiyocrrds. For even a.KovTa.s...Ka.TO.T<.dtva.<.. In the first case
if (5Xi7<>(rraj could mean 'very small' the meaning will be 'he is free from woe
(which is quite dubious: see Campbell for a time which is one of a few (sc. of a
on Sophokles Antigone 625), this is not few times when he is free)'; i.e. he is

56 c] TIMAIOS. 201
with unequal ;
and of the surfaces composed of the two triangles
the equilateral quadrangle necessarily is more stable than the
equilateral triangle, both in its parts and as a whole. There-
fore in assigning this to earth we preserve the probability of our
account ;
and also in giving to water the least mobile and to fire
the most mobile of those which remain ;
while to air we give
that which is intermediate. Again we shall assign the smallest
figure to fire, and the largest to water and the intermediate to
air: and the keenest to fire, the next to air, and the third to
water. Now among all these that which has the fewest bases
must naturally in all respects be the most cutting and keen of
all, and also the most nimble, seeing it is composed of the small-
est number of similar parts; and the second must have these
same qualities in the second degree, and the third in the third
degree. Let it be determined then, according to the right ac-
count and the probable, that the solid body which has taken
the form of the pyramid is the element and seed of fire ;
and
the second in order of generation let us say to be that of air, and
the third that of water. Now all these bodies we must conceive
as being so small that each single body in the several kinds
cannot for its smallness be seen by us at all ;
but when many
are heaped together, their united mass is seen : and we must
suppose that the due proportion in respect of their multitude
and motions and all their other powers, when God had com-
pleted them with all perfection, in so far as the nature of neces-
seldom free; the second 'they paid at a agreement with Uemokritos, in making
moment which is one of many moments his atoms so small as to be individually
(sc. in which they had not paid)', i.e. invisible, and only perceptible in masses,
after a long interval. But neither of 18. TO TWV dvoXo-yuov] That is to say,
these constructions countenances 6iyo- observing the proportional relations pro-
<TTcts here. In assigning the pyramidal pounded in 32 A, B.
form to fire Plato differs from Demokritos, 20. imo-Oeicra] cf. 48 A. i-vi>yp/j.6cr0a.i
who attributed the mobility of fire to the is sometimes regarded as an anacoluthon ;
roundness of its atoms : cf. Aristotle de but there can be hardly a doubt that it is
caelo 307* 1 6. a middle. The middle of this word is
10. ^Xa<j>poTaTov] Not light, but used twice elsewhere by Plato, each time
nimble, mobile. in the aorist : see above 53 E crufMTWf
13. ortpcov yeyovos] For the bearing rfrrapa yfri) ffwapfjiocraffffai, and Politicus
of this see note on 56 D. /card y&effiv, 309 c 6ei<f i-vvap/j-offa/dvij 8e<r/jup. .
i.e. in order of generation, having the 560 57 D, c. xxii. When earth then
next fewest sides. is resolved by fire, it drifts about until it
1 6. <r|UKpd OVTWS] Here Plato is in can reunite with earthy elements, and so

2O2 tlAATONOS [56 c-
<j>v(Ti<; VTrei/cev, ravrrj Trdvry Si d/cpifieia? d-jroreeo'6ei,o'wv VTT
avrov, vvr)piji,6a-0ai ravr* dvd 6yov.
XXII. 'EiK Srj Trdvrtov wv Trepl rd yevr) TrpoeipiJKa/juev
cSS' dv
/card TO el/cos /taXtaV av eôi. yfj pev ^vvrvydvovaa Trvpl o~ia- D
5 v0etcrd re vrro rrjs of;vTr)TO<; avrov <pepoir' dv, etV ev avr<a Trvpl
v0eicra eir ev depo? err' ev vSaro? oy/C(p rvôi, /j,e%piTrep
dv avrfjs
fry gvvrvxovra rd pepr), Trdiv ^vvap/jLoaBevra avrd ai5rot5, 777
<yevoiro' ov <ydp et? do ye etSo? e0oi TTOT' dv. vScop Be VTTO
Tru/305 fjipio-0ev, elre ical VTT depots, ey^copel yiyvecrBai gvcrravra
i vweiicev : vireiKe HSZ. 4 a.v
post /J.&I<TT omittit S.
6 fj.txpnrep : 5 êxpnrep A.
resume the form of earth ; for, owing to
the dissimilarity of base, it cannot be
changed to any of the other three. But
when water is resolved by fire or air, it
can be reformed in the shape of fire and
air. So when air is resolved, one of its
particles make two of fire, or two particles
and a half form one of water. Of fire
also two particles mtiy coalesce into one
of air. And, in general, when a smaller
mass of any of the three is overcome by a
larger mass of any other and resolved, its
resolution ceases the moment it assumes
the form of the victorious element, but
not until then. So the vanquished ele-
ment must either escape away and seek
its own region in space, or else accept
the form of the other. It follows then
that, owing to this incessant conflict be-
tween the elements, perpetual changes of
form are taking place, and perpetual
changes of position in space.
All this has been said in view of the
primary and typical kinds in the four
forms, fire, air, water, earth : but a variety
of kinds are found within the limits of
each form. These are due to a variation
of size in the primal triangles, of which
there are so many sizes as there are kinds
in each form. Such kinds by manifold
intermixture produce an endless number
of varieties in phenomena, which it is our
business to investigate.
5. 4>e'poiT' &v] Earth has not the
alternative, which is open to the other
three, of coalescing with the dominant
element : it must therefore drift about in
a chaotic condition, until it can escape
into its own place and so regain its proper
form.
6. tHr' Iv dUpos] The form of this
sentence suggests that the dissolution
takes place by the agency of fire within
a mass of air or of water. But clearly
the same result follows whether the agent
be fire air or water.
9. |wrrdvTo] Ast and Stallbaum would
read v<TTdi>. But ^vffrdvra agrees, by an
easy attraction, with v /jv dvo d follow-
ing. It might be considered however
that, since the single particle of water is
resolved into two of air and one of fire,
would be more correct than
Plato's word however is per-
fectly accurate, if his theory be rightly
understood. And this leads to a discussion
of the chief peculiarity and difficulty of
that theory.
First then Aristotle <& caelo in i
299 i
brings against it the fundamental ob-
jection that it is impossible to form solid
matter out of mathematical planes. Now
it is entirely preposterous to suppose that
the most accomplished mathematician of
his time was not fully alive to a truth
which, as Aristotle himself admits, &rt-
TroXrjs toriv idflv. The theory of an over-
sight in this respect must therefore be

TIMAI02. 203
sity, consenting and yielding to persuasion, suffered, were every-
where by him ordained in fitting measure.
XXII. From all that we have already said in the matter of
these four kinds, the facts would seem to be as follows. When
earth meets with fire and is dissolved by the keenness of it, it
would drift about, whether it were dissolved in fire itself, or in
some mass of air or water, until the parts of it meeting and again
being united became earth once more ;
for it never could pass
into any other kind. But when water is divided by fire or by
air, it may be formed again and become one particle of fire and
dismissed out of hand. Howbeit, if we minates void as far as possible from his
regard these geometrical figures as solid
bodies which interchange their forms,
they will not produce the combinations
required. For instance, the apposition
of two pyramids will not produce an
octahedron, as it ought according to
Plato, but an irregular six-sided figure :
and by dividing the octahedron we obtain
not a regular tetrahedron, but a five-sided
figure having four equilateral triangles
meeting in the apex, and a square for
the base. Similarly the icosahedron re-
fuses to play its prescribed part. Again
it is incredible that Plato was unaware or
oblivious of these elementary facts.
Martin has a theory so neat and in-
genious that, although I do not see my
way to accepting it, yet it
ought not to
be left unnoticed. His view is that
Plato's tiriireda. are not mathematical
planes at all, but thin laminae of matter,
'
feuilles minces taillees suivant les figures
rectilignes qu'il a decrites.' Thus our
four geometrical figures are not solid
bodies, but merely envelopes or shells,
void within. In this way no doubt
Plato's transformations would be perfectly
practicable. Supposing that an octa-
hedron were shattered icard. T&. rptyuva,
then its eight triangular sides would be
recomposed in the form of two pyramids ;
and all the other transmutations would
be equally feasible. This explanation,
despite its ingenuity, is nevertheless not
to my mind satisfactory. For Plato eli-
material system ; and though we shall
presently see that it cannot be entirely
banished, it is reduced to an absolute
minimum. It is hardly credible then
that he should have admitted an ad-
mixture of void into the very foundation
of his structure of matter. Again, if he
had intended to propound so very novel
and extraordinary a theory as the con-
struction of matter out of hollow particles,
surely he must have stated it with a little
more definiteness. Moreover on this
hypothesis Plato sadly misuses technical
terms : he denominates planes what are
really solid bodies, though very thin ;
and he terms solid what is really but a
hollow shell : for the phrase in 56 B
is quite definite as to this point, TO
ftv TTJS Trvpafjddos crrepeov yeyovos tldos,
Finally how could hollow particles es-
cape being crushed by the tremendous
constricting force described in 58 A? In
the face of all these objections, the force
of which is in part admitted by Martin
himself, it seems difficult to accept this
explanation.
The following is the solution which I
should propound as less open to ex-
ception. We must bear in mind that
matter in its ultimate analysis is just
space. We must not look upon the
geometrical solids as so much stuff which
is put up into parcels, now of one shape,
now of another ; but as the expression of
the geometrical law which rules the con-

2O4 HAATflNOS [ 5 6 D-
eV fAev Trypo? (Tafia, Bvo Be ae'/)O5* ra Be depos r^îara eg 61/05
pepovs 8iav0evTo<; oV av yevola-Orjv a-cofiara irvpos. /cat TraXtz/, E
'6rav depi irvp vBaa-iv re 17
Ttvt 717 êpiXa/jLâvofievov ev TroXXot?
6i<yov, KIVOVpevov ev fapofjievois, fâôfievov KOI vitcvjOev /cara-
5 OpavffOy, Bvo 7TU/305 <7a>/J,ara et? ep %vvi<TTa<T0ov 6*805 depos' Kal
os depof Kep/J,aTia'0VTO<> re etc Svolv ooiv teal 77/410-605
eZ8o5 ev oov ea-rat gv/jLirayes. (uSe yap ST) oyio-atfJie0a
avTa 7rdiv, (5 '6rav ev irvpl ap,f3av6p,evov rwv da>v inr* avrov 57 A
TI 761/0? rfj rwv ywiwv Kal Kara ra? TrXeu/â? o^vr^n refjivrjrat,
10 gva-rdv p>ev et? TTJV etcelvov (pvffiv TreTravrai re/Avo/jievov TO yap
Kal ravrov avrw 761/05 eKaarov ovre rtvd fjLeraftoXrjv efj,-
Bvvarov ovre TI Tradetv VTTO TOV Kara raura o/u.oia>5 re
e&)5 8' av et5 aXXo rt yiyvo/Aevov $TTOV ov KpeiTTOVi
i, v6/jievov ov TraveTai. TO. re av (rfjiiKpOTepa OTav ev
VdaaiHSZ.
stitution of matter: they are definite
forms under which space by the law of
nature appears in various circumstances.
The planes are real planes ; but they do
not compose the solid; they merely ex-
press the law of its formation. Given
certain conditions, the geometrical law
obtains that matter shall receive form as
pyramids : alter the conditions, e.g. in-
crease the pressure, and the pyramids
disappear, their place being taken by
octahedrons ;
and so forth. It is not
then that two of the former particles
have combined to make one of the latter,
but that the matter in its new condition
assumes a shape in which the radical
form, the rectangular scalene, appears
twice as many times as in the former.
Increase the pressure again, and the
triangle will appear five times as often as
in the first. And if the triangles are
equal, the second and third contain twice
and five times as much stuff as the first.
In short, when matter which has been
existing in the pyramidal form is prevented
from doing so any longer, it must not
assume any random figure, but one which
is constructed on either twice or five
times as many primal triangles as the
6 Svoiv'. Sveiv S.
pyramid. The tirtireda then are, I be-
lieve, neither to be regarded with Aristotle
as planes out of which we are expected
to construct solids, nor with Martin as
thin solids ; but as the law of the structure
of matter. Thus, instead of having two
or more corpuscules combined into one, or
one resolved into several, we have the
whole mass fused, as it were, and re-
moulded. This interchange however can
only take place where the law of form-
ation is one and the same. Earth, obey-
ing a different formative law, cannot go
beyond one sole form. For matter which
has once been impressed with either of
the primal figures can never pass into
the other figure : in the rudimentary
condition to which it is reduced by the
fracture of its particles, the force which
forms it as a pyramid or a cube is in
abeyance, but not the law which im-
pressed it with the rectangular scalene or
the rectangular isosceles.
On this showing then the correctness
of |v<7TdiTa is clear :
though I admit it is
equally justified by Martin's hypothesis,
could the objections which I have urged
against the latter be overcome.
i. ?v jJiiv irvpos] The sides of the

57 A] TIMAIOS. 205
two of air : and the divisions of air may become for every particle
broken up two particles of fire. And again when fire is caught
in air or in waters or in earth, a little in a great bulk, moving
amid a rushing body, and contending with it is vanquished and
broken up, two particles of fire combine into one figure of
air: and when air is vanquished and broken small, from two
whole and one half particle one whole figure of water will be
composed. Let us also reckon it once again thus : when any
of the other kinds is intercepted in fire and is divided by it
through the sharpness of its angles and its sides, if it forms into
the shape of fire, it at once ceases from being divided : for a
kind which is uniform and identical, of whatever sort it be, can
neither be the cause of any change nor can it suffer any from
that which is identical and uniform with itself; but so long as
passing into another kind a lesser bulk contends with the
greater, it ceases never from being broken. And when the
icosahedron, being 20 in number, are
equal to the sum of the sides of two
octahedrons and one pyramid.
2. Kal irdXiv] Having given instances
of smaller corpuscules arising from the
resolution of larger, Plato now passes to
the formation of larger particles from
the resolution of smaller.
4. KaTaOpaverOfl] This is the converse
of wTaira above: the pyramids, being
the smallest particle, could not literally be
'
broken up
'
into the larger bodies. The
same applies to /cara/cep/uaTto-^i'Toj cifyos
below.
7. <38e -yap Si) XoyurwixcOa] Having
set forth the rules governing the transition
of one kind of particle into another,
Plato proceeds to point out that, when
one element is overpowered by another,
the only mode in which it can recover
any form, in default of escape to its own
region, is to assimilate itself to the
victorious body.
9. Kara rds Trvpds] i.e. cleft by the
sharp edges of the sides.
10. T& -y^P ofioiov] This view was
universally held, with the sole exception
of Demokritos: cf. Aristotle de gen. et
corr. I vii 323
b
3 ol /JLV yap TrXetcrrot TOVTO
ye o/iOPOT/TtKcDs 4yovffiv, ws TO fjv 8/j.oiov
VTTO TOV 6/j.olov irdv diraffts <TTI did TO fj.ij-
Siv /j.aoi> TroirfTiKov rj iraOriTiKov elvat
Odrepov dartpov (irdvTa yap o/xoi'ws virdp-
Xetv TO.VTO. rots o/uofois), rd 5' dv6fj.oia Kal
TO. diarpopa iroielv Kal iratT-)(e<-v et's oXXi;Xo
irl<t>VKev .
...Afj/uo/cpiTos 5 irapa TOI/S aX-
Xouj tdtws Xee /JLOVOS' <f>ij<rl yap TO avrb
Kal ofiotov elvai TO Te TTOLOVV Kal TO irdcrxov
ov yap tyxupeiv TCL frepa Kal di.a<f)4povTa
irdffxei" vir' driuv, dXXa KOI> %Tepa 6vra
Trotj TI fls aXXijXa, OVK rj Zrepa, dXX' rj TO.V-
T0l> Tl {iTTCtpXei, TWUTr) TOVTO
awToij. Theophrastos however considers
that the view of Demokritos is uncertain :
see de sensu 49. This doctrine of fj.t)8tv
iradflv TO Sfj.oi.ov viro TOV bftolov only refers
to physical change, and does not affect
the principle 'like is known by like'.
14. ra. T at! o-iuxpoTcpa] There seems
at first sight a good deal of iteration in
this chapter; but there is no real tau-
tology. Plato (i) explains how (a) the
larger figures are dissolved by the smaller,
(/3) how the smaller are dissolved by the
larger; (2) he declares that (a) a small
mass of the larger figures, intercepted by

206 ITAATHNOS [57
rots fjii%o(ri TToXXoi? i
jrepiafiftavoêva oiya BiaOpavojAeva tea- B
raa-êvvvijrai, ^vvia-racrOai pev e0e.ovra ei<? rrjv rov Kparovvros
IBeav vreTravrai tcaracrfievvvfjieva yiyverai re IK jrvpos dijp, e
ae/90? iiScop' edv 8' eh avrd ip fcal TOOV do)v ri vviov yevwv
5 pdxyrai, v6fj,eva ov iraverai, Trplv r) TravraTraaiv (aOovfjêva KOI
BiaXvdevra etc(f)vyp 777)0? TO f;vyyeve<;, rj vi/ctjOevra, ev etc 7roXXft>z>
ofAoiov TO) Kparijcravri yevopevov, avrov %VVOIKOV fjuelvr). Kai Brj
KOI Kara ravra ra TraOij/jâra Siaêl/Serai ra? ^co/oa? airavra' C
Siea-Trj/ce p,ev <ydp rov yevov? e/cacrrov ra irr)6tj Kara TOTTOV iBtov
10 8ia rrjv T?;<? Seôpevrjf tcivr)(riv, ra Be dvop,oiovfieva e/cdcrrore eav-
rois, aXXot? Se op,oiovp,va, (freperat Bid rov aeia-fiov Trpo? rov eicel-
vcov ol<? av ofioitoOf) ro7rov.
"Qaa pev ovv dicpara tcai Trp&ra awâra, Bid roiovrwv airiwv
yeyove" rov B
1
ev rot? eiBecriv avrcov erepa ep/jre^)VKevai yevt] rrjv
15 etcarepov rwv aroiêimv airiareov <rvcrra(riv, fjirj JAOVOV ev e/carepav
(jieyeOos e%ov TO rpiywvov <f)vrevaai icar apâ?, aX' eXarTw T D
teal pellet), rov dpi0fj,ov Be eôvra rocrovrov, ocraTrep av p rdv Tot9
eiBeo-i yevr). Bio Brj o-vpfjuyvvfjieva avrd re 7rp09 avrd KOI
14 rd A. iv : v A.
a large mass of the smaller, (/3)
a small
mass of the smaller, intercepted by a
large mass of the larger, can recover a
definite form by becoming assimilated to
the victorious element.
4. !dv 8' ls avrd, tg] The case put
here seems to differ from the foregoing in
this. Hitherto we have supposed a small
mass of one kind intercepted by a large
mass of the other : now we take the case
of a prolonged struggle between pretty
equal forces, when the process of dissolu-
tion continues without intermission, until
one side is vanquished and either escapes
away or is assimilated.
6. 8v K iroXXwv] This ensues of
course only if the victorious side is the
kind formed of the larger figures.
8. SiafJicCperai rds c6pas] Any kind
by changing its figure changes the region
of its affinity, as will be explained in the
following chapter.
9. rd irXijOrj] i.e. the main bulk of the
substance. Detached portions of every
kind may from various causes be found
scattered everywhere through space, but
the great mass of each is in its own
region : cf. 63 B oO /cai TrXetoroc av
i)0poiff[j.vov ett) irpos o <f>{perai.
10. rrv -rfjs 8xK^VT]s K^VTJO-IV] The
vibration of the virodoxi) described at
52 E.
13. ocra [j.ev
ovv aKpara KO.L
irptora
owpaTa] i.e. the primary and typical
forms of the four so-called elements.
Hitherto we have been dealing merely
with the broad distinctions between fire,
air, water, and earth. We shall here-
after find it
necessary to treat of a number
of different varieties. These diversities
are accounted for by a diversity in the
magnitude of the primary triangles.
1 7. oo-airep av fj
reiv TOIS ttSeo-i y^1
]]
The elSos of course signifies some one of
the four, as distinguished from the other
three; say fire. There are a certain
number of sizes in the radical triangles,
and consequently an equal number of

D] TIMAIO2. 207
smaller figures few in number are caught in a multitude of
larger figures and are being broken in pieces and quenched, if
they consent to combine into the form of the stronger they
then and there cease from being quenched ;
and from fire arises
air, from air water. But if they assail the others, and another
sort meet and contend with them, they cease not from being
shattered until, being entirely repelled and dissolved, they find
refuge with some of their own kind, or being overcome, form
from many of their own figures one similar to the victorious
element, and there remain and abide with it. Moreover on
account of these conditions they all are changing their places ;
for the bulk of every kind are sorted into separate regions of
their own through the motion of the recipient : and those which
are altered from their own nature and made like some other
are carried by reason of this movement to the region proper to
the element to which they are assimilated.
All unmixed and primary bodies have thus come into being
through the causes we have described : but for the fact that
within the several classes different kinds exist we must assign as
its cause the structure of the elementary triangles ;
it does not
originally produce in each kind of triangle one and the same
size only, but some greater and some less ;
and there are just so
many sizes as there are kinds in the classes : and when these
sizes in the pyramid. Now every sub- smaller than the smallest octahedron, and
stance which is composed entirely from the largest octahedron than the smallest
pyramids of some one size constitutes a icosahedron for instance we find in 66 D
y^i/os of fire; there are therefore just so that the 0X^3es of the nostrils are too
many -ytvri of fire as there are sizes of wide for the densest form of air and too
pyramids. But there are also substances narrow for the subtlest form of water,
which are composed of pyramids of dif- 57 D 58 c, c. xxiii. Our discourse
ferent sizes: such substances will not be now requires that we should set forth the
typical of any 7^05, but will approximate causes of rest and motion. Motion im-
to some 7^cos according as any special plies the mover and the moved, without
size of pyramid preponderates in its fabric. which two it cannot be. These two must
Accordingly we have in nature an in- be dissimilar; therefore dissimilarity is
definite number of substances belonging an essential condition of motion. And
to each eI5oj, graduating from one ytvos the cause of dissimilarity is inequality,
to another. The investigation of these Now the reason why all things are not
begins in chapter xxiv. It is obvious sifted once for all into their proper regions
that the variation in the size of the and so become at rest is as follows. The
triangles must be confined within definite whole globe of the universe is subject to
limits, for the largest pyramid is
always a mighty constricting centripetal force,

208 HAATflNOS [57 D
aXXT/Xa rr)v TrotKiXiav ecrrlv aireipa' 775 8rj 8ei Oecopovf yuyvecrOai
Tov<f /ieXXoi/ra<? Trepl <f)v<retos el/con 6ya) ^rjaecrdai.
XXIII. Ktz/77(reft><> ovv <TTatre<w? re trepi, rLva rpoTrov KOI peO'
&VTLVWV yiyvevdov, el firj rt? 8t,ofioo<yij(reTai, TroXX' av eii) e/i7ro-
5 8<av T&> KdTOTTia-dev oyio-fj,<. ra fj,ev ovv rj8ij Trepl avr<av eipyrai,
E
7T/005 8' eiceivoif ert raSe, ev fiev 6fiaOTV)Ti pijBeTroTe e0eeiv KI-
vrjcnv evelvai. TO yap Kivrjcrofievov avev rov Kivr)<rovTOS rj TO
Kivrjcrov avev TOV Kivr)<rofjLvov ^aXeTroy, jj,aov 8e dSvvaTOV elvaf
Kivtjais Se OVK ecrrt TOVTWV anrfamnr ravra 8e 6/iaXa elval TTOTC
10 dovvaTov. OVTCO 8rj a-Taaiv fjusv ev o/LtaXor^Tt, Kiwrjo'iv 8e elf avw-
fiaOTtjTa del TiQwfiev atria 8e aVtcror^? av Trjs dvw^aXov <f>v-
58 A
crews. dvicroTrjTOS 8e yevecriv fj,ev 8iet)v6a/j,v 7T(W9 &e Trore ov
Kara ryevr) Bta^copicrOevTa eKacrra TreTraurat r^? 8i dr/(i)v
tcivrfffecos ical
<popa<;, OVK e'iirofiev. w8e ovv 7rdn> epovpev. r
15 TOV TravTos TreptoSo?, eVeiS?) crvpTrepieXafte TO. yevij, fcvicoTepr)S
ovcra fcal Trpos avTrjv 7re<f)VKvla ftovecr6ai ^vvievai, crtyiryyei Trdvra
n it ante avi<r6ri)s dederunt SZ.
which crushes its whole mass together
and will not suffer any vacant space with-
in it. This forces the subtler elements
into the interstices of the coarser ; and so
by the admixture of larger and smaller
forms, dilation and compression is every-
where at work; thereupon ensues the
transmutation of one element into an-
other, and by consequence a change of its
proper region to which it tends. Thus a
perpetual shifting of forms ensures a per-
petual shifting of place.
3. KivT]orws otfv] Concerning motion
Plato sets forth in this chapter (i) whence
it originates, (2) why it never ceases.
6. Iv fiiv 6|iaX6rT]Ti,] We saw above
at 57 A that like could not affect like
nor be affected by it: it follows then
that in a perfectly uniform mass motion
cannot arise, since motion is the effect of
a moving cause upon the object moved.
The KIVOVV then and Kivotiiuvov must be
dvtbfj.aa, heterogeneous.
7. TO -yap KivTj<ro(Mvov] cf. Aristotle
physica III i 2oob
31 rb y&p KivrjTiKbv
TOV Kivqrov Kal TO Kunjrov KWIJTQV
vwo TOV KivijTiKov : and below 2O2a
1 3
fffTiv 17 Ktvrjcris iv ry KU>r)T$' tvTex*i&
ydp t<TTl TOVTOV KO.I VTTO TOV KtVrjTlKOV.
g. TdWTd] SC. TO KlVTjffOV Kdi TO KLV1)-
cr6/jievov.
10. ^v 6|iaXoTi]Ti...ls dv|iaX6Tt]Ta]
Rest exists in uniformity, motion is attri-
buted to dissimilarity : thus we may ex-
press the change of preposition.
12. <xvi<r6TT)Tos 8i yivtirw] How
inequality originates we have seen in the
account of the structure of matter. It
arises (i) from the dissimilarity of the
two primal triangles, (2) from the diffe-
rent geometrical figures which are based
upon one of the triangles, (3) from in-
equality in size of the triangles them-
selves.
irs 8^ ITOT ov Kara Y&tj] This sen-
tence is misunderstood by Lindau and
Stallbaum. Plato means to explain how
it is that the four etdi) have not settled
each in its proper sphere, and thus avoided
interfering with each other and so pro-
ducing irregularity and consequently
motion. For the vibration of the wo-

58 A] TIMAIOS. 209
are mixed up with themselves or with one another, an endless
diversity arises, which must be examined by those who would
put forward a probable theory concerning nature.
XXIII. Now concerning rest and motion, how they arise
and under what conditions, we must come to an agreement, else
many difficulties will stand in the way of our argument that is
to follow. This has been already in part set forth, but we have
yet to add that in uniformity no movement will ever exist. For
that what is to be moved should exist without that which is to
move it, or what is to move without that which is to be moved,
is difficult or rather impossible : but without these there can be
no motion, and for these to be uniform is not possible. So
then let us always assign rest to uniformity and motion to its
opposite. Now the opposite of uniformity is caused by in-
equality ;
and of inequality we have discussed the origin. But
how it comes to pass that all bodies are not sorted off into
their several kinds and cease from passing through one another
and changing their place, this we have not explained. Let us
put it again in this way. The revolution of the whole, when it
had embraced the four kinds, being circular, with a natural
tendency to return upon itself, compresses everything and suffers
tends to keep them all assorted and he makes of it.
apart from each other; and this would <r<f>yyt travra] Compare Empe-
actually be the condition of things, dokles 185 (Karsten) IIT&V yS' aWrip
were it not for the irir](Tis presently crQtyyuv irepl xtixXov airavra. This vast
to be mentioned. Stallbaum supposes circular constriction squeezes all matter
that the elements are (carot -ytvr) Siaxw- together with so overpowering force, that
piffOivra. : but Plato's reasoning turns no vacancy is allowed to remain any-
precisely on the point that they are not : where ;
but wherever there is room for a
never completely, that is; for the bulk smaller particle to penetrate the inter-
of each is to be found in its own home. stices between the larger, it is at once
16. irpds avn^v ir<|>vKvia] The notion forced in. So that not only are hete-
is that the whole universe globes itself rogeneous elements forced into combi-
about its centre with a mighty inward nation, but the subtler and acuter figures
pressure, elXeircu irepl TOV did, iravTfa divide the larger KO.T& rk rplyuva and
Tfra.fj.tvov ir6ov, so that everything within so change their structure : while they
it is packed as tightly as possible. The in turn are themselves compressed by
force may be compared to that exerted the larger until they assume the form
in winding a hank of string into a round of the latter. Consequently we have
ball. This is the second of Plato's two side by side perpetually the 63os *rdrw,
great dynamic powers: we shall after- fire through air to water, and the oSot
wards see what varied and extensive use avu, water through air to fire.
P. T. 14

2IO [ 5 8 A-
teal tcevrjv ^copav ovBepiav ea XetVecrâfc. Bio Brj irvp fiev ei9
cnravra Bie^vde fjuaXiara, drjp Be BevTepov, to? XCTTTOTIJTI BevTepov B
6<f>v,
Kal Taa Tavry ra yap etc fieyia-TWv pepwv yeyovoTa fj,e-
yiO'T'tjv KevoTtfTa ev TTJ ^vcrrdaei. Trapaeonre, ret, Be crjjiiKporara
5 ea^L(TTi]v. 77 Brj rr)<i 7rtr;creft)9 %vvoSo$ TO.
(TfjUKpd els ra TWV
fMydo)v BiaKeva vv(o0ei. ar^LKpwv ovv irapd fj,eyda TiOe/j,evo)v
Kal TWV eXarrovcov TO, fieiôva Biatcpivovrwv, rwv Be peiôvcov eiceiva
(TvyicpivovTcov, Trdvr avco Karw jjberaêperai irpo<t TOI)? eavrwv
TOTTOVf fiTa/3dov yap TO peyeOos etcacrrov Kal rrjv TOTTWV pera- C
10 /3di a-rdo'iv. ovTQ) Br/ Bid ravrd re 77 rr)o TO re diro Trj<f <pioy6$ dvriov, o /caiei ftev ov,
15 $&>5 Be rot? ofifAacn Trapeêi, TO re (f>oy6<; diroaêa-Oe10-779 ev rot9
8ia7Tvpoi<s KaTdheiTrofievov avTOV. icaTa rai5ra Be aepos TO /u-ey D
devrepov...devTpov: S.
14 a.Tri6v: airrbv A.
3. yxyt<rrtv Kv6T>]Ta] This expres-
sion shows plainly enough that Plato
was well aware of the fact which Aris-
totle urges as a flaw in his theory, namely
that it is impossible for all his figures
to fill
up space with entire continuity.
In the structure of air and of water there
must be minute interstices of void ; there
must also be a certain amount of void
for the reason that, the universe being
a sphere, it is impossible for rectilinear
figures exactly to fill it up. But, it is
to be observed, Plato's theory does not
demand that void shall be absolutely
excluded from his system, but only that
there shall be no vacant space large
enough to contain the smallest existing
corpuscule of matter. The larger cor-
puscules have larger interstices between
them than the smaller. So long however
as these interstices are not large enough
to afford entrance to the smallest particle
of any element, the effect is the same
as of a solid mass without any cavities ;
but when once they are large enough
to contain any particle, jrfXîriy instantly
g /j.Taf)<iov :
fnfTa[iabi> A pr. m.
xctet ASZ.
forces one into the vacancy. This is
all Plato means by Kevrjv x^pav ovSeplav
tq. elireaOai : he denies void as a mechani-
cal principle, but not its existence al-
together in the nature of things.
Besides the atomists, the existence of
void was affirmed by the Pythagoreans ;
see above, 33 C, and Aristotle physica
iv vi 2i3
b 11: it was denied by the
Eleatics, by Empedokles, by Anaxagoras,
and by Aristotle: see physica iv vii.
5. r TTJS iriXifo-tws |vvo8os] cf.
Phaedo 97 A rj iW5os roC TrXrjfflov dXXi}-
<av reOrjvai.
g. |ATa{3oXXov Yap TO p.e'-ye9osl For
example, particles of fire, by being trans-
formed into particles of water, not only
changed their magnitude, but also the
region of space to which they belonged.
Hence any fire in the home of fire which
became water would instantly struggle
to reach the home of water ; and similarly
with air and water; so that a perpetual
flux and reflux is kept up between one
region and another. In this manner the
production of heterogeneity

TIMAIO2. 211
no vacant space to be left. Therefore fire penetrates most of
all through all things, and in the second degree air, since it is
second in fineness, and the rest in proportion. For the sub-
stances which are formed of the largest parts have the most
void left in their structure, and those made of the smallest have
the least. Now the constriction of this contracting force thrusts
the small particles into the interspaces between the larger : so
that when small are set side by side with great, and the lesser
particles divide the greater, while the greater compress the
smaller, all things keep rushing backwards and forwards to their
own region; since in changing its bulk each changes its proper
position in space. Thus owing to these causes a perpetual dis-
turbance of uniformity is always kept up and so preserves the
perpetual motion of matter now and henceforth without cessation.
XXIV. Next we must remember that of fire there are many
kinds: for instance flame and that effluence from flame, which
burns not but gives light to the eyes, and that which remains in
the embers when the flame is out And so with air : the purest
TOS ytveffis) is maintained, and the per- tides is gold, an offshoot of which is
adamant. A metal resembling gold, but
harder owing to an admixture of earth, is
bronze. And so we might describe all
the rest, following our theory of proba-
bility, which serves us as a harmless
and rational diversion in the intervals of
more serious speculations. To proceed :
when water is mingled with fire and flows
freely, we call it liquid: but when fire
abandons it and the surrounding air com-
presses and solidifies it, according to the
degree of solidification we call it on the
earth ice or hoar-frost, in the air hail or
snow. The forms of water which circu-
late in the structure of plants we call in
general sap: four only have peculiar
names, wine, oil, honey, and verjuice.
14. TO T OTTO TTJS ifAoY05 diriov] The
reading diriitv is unquestionably right
although confirmed by only one ms. and
by Galen. Plato then regards light as an
effluence, issuing from the flame ; the third
species of fire being the red glow left in
the embers whenthe flame has burnt down.
1 6. avrow] sc. irupo's.
142
petuation of motion secured. Compare
Aristotle de gen. et corr. II x 337* 7 oytta
5 8rjov CK rovrtav o rt^es caropovaiv, 5td
rl fKacrrov TUIV ffu/j-drw eh rty
(pepofj-tvov xupav kv T<f> dirftp<f)
ov ditffTdffi ret ffw/J.ara. oitriov y&p TOVTOV
effrlv 17 eis aX?;a /xerd/Sacris' el y&p
rrj avrov 'X&PQ Ka^
W
/xeTa/3aXXet nev ovv 5id TTJV
<f>opav 5iiri)v ovffav dia. dt TO jUera/JdXetj>
ofiK tvSexerai fjAveiv otiSev avruv ev OVQC/J.IO.
580 60 B, c. xxiv. Of fire there are
three kinds, the flame, the light radiated
from it, and the glow remaining after the
flame is extinct. Of air there are many
kinds, the purest being aether, the gross-
est mist and cloud. Water falls into two
main classes, liquid and fusible : the first
is ever unstable and flowing; the second
is hard and compact, but can be fused
and liquefied by the action of fire aided
by air. Of fusible water that which is
formed of the finest and most even par-

212 IIAATfiNOS [58 D-
evayea-rarov eTrttcXrjv alOrjp tcaXovpevos, ?j Be 0oepwraro<; O/LU
re KOI oveoTO9, erepa re dvcovvfjia eiBrj yeyovora Bid rr)v TWV Tpi-
yatvwv avMTOTijTa. rd Be vSaTos 8i%f? fJ*ev irpwrov, TO fiev vypov,
TO Be %VTOV yevos avTOV. TO pev ovv vypov Sid TO fiTe%ov elvai
5 TWV yevwv TWV vBaTOS, ova fffiitcpd, dvi<ra>v OVTCOV, tcivrjTov avTO
T teaff
1
avTO teal VTT aXXov Sid TT}V dvw/jLaXoTrjTa teal TTJV TOV
o~')(ij[j,aTos
IBeav jeyove* TO Be etc fj,eydQ)v ical 6/j,ao)v (TTaari^w- E
Tepov fjuev etceivov teal /3apv ^7777705 VTTO 6/iaXoT77T05 ecrriv, viro Be
Trupo? elo~LWTO<> teal Siavoi>TO<> avro TTJV 6fiaOTr)Ta [aTroySaXXet,
10 TavTijv Be] aTroXecrai/ /iertVêt fjuaov Kivr)(rews, yevopevov Be
evtcivrjTOV, VTTO TOV TTi]<Tiov aepo? ooOovfievov teal Karareivopevov
ir yijv, TijKea-0ai fj,ev Trjv TWV oytcwv teaOaipeaiv, porjv Be
eirl <yf)v eirwvvfîav eteaTepov TOV irddov^ eXaySe. 7rdiv
Be etcTrlTTTOVTos avToOev TOV irvpo^, are ovte et9 teevov e&ovTos, 59 A
15 (oOovfievos 6 7rr}(Tt,ov drjp evteivrjTov ovra ert TOV v<ypov oyteov eis
9 TOV TTu/309 eBpas ffvvtodwv avTov avT(p ^v/Afjiiyvvo-w 6 Be gvvw-
diroaiJ,fBdva)v re Trjv 6fjLaOTijTa 7rdiv, are rot) Trjs
SrjfjLiovpyov Trvpos aTriovTos, et? ravTov ainw tcaOi-
<TTaTai' teal T^V pev TOV Trvpos aTraXXaj^v "^vîv, Trjv Be %vvoBov
20 aTreXOovTOS etceivov TreTrrjybs elvai 761/09 Trpoa-epprjOrj. TOVTWV Srj
,
o<ra %vra TrpocreLTroêv vBaTa, TO fiev etc XeirTOTaTfov teal B
5 Kivt]TOv :
KivrjriKbv AH. 9 diro/SdXXei, ro.iriv 52 habet corr. A. omittunt SZ.
13 Ka.TO.Ta.ffiv : Karda-Tafftv A. 19 TTJV fj^v : Tbv n& H per typographi incuriam.
10 dire9ovTOS tKetvov : tKeivov dire06vTO$ S. 21 ourbv post Tb fdv habet A.
TIJ y-Q ffwiffTa/J^vwv TO, fj.v iffTiv i/5aroy,
Ta 5^ yijs- vSaroj nv ret /j.frafv6fj.eva,
KaOdirep apyvpos ical xPv(r^s Ka-t TaXXa.
5. TWV YVWV TWV v'SaTos] This
seems a very strange phrase to denote the
corpuscules which constitute water :
ought
we perhaps to read TUV fj,epuv ?
9. T^V 6(ioX6Tr|Ta <liroX^rav] Mar-
tin quite mistakes the meaning of this.
He supposes that fire has the power of
dilating the elementary triangles and so
introducing a difference of size in the
corpuscules of water. This can in no
wise be admitted by the theory. Plato's
meaning is that the particles of fire by
interposing themselves between those of
water, to which they are of course greatly
inferior in size, destroy the homogeneous-
i. aHhqp Kaov(Avos] Hence it is
evident that Plato did not regard aether
as a distinct element: cf. Phaedo in A,
where aWty is simply the pure air of
which our atmosphere is the sediment.
opCxîl tal O-KOTOS] This is the dr?p
fttg. fvorAj of 61 c.
3. rA ji^v trypov, ri 8e vr6v] The
vypbv includes all fluids which are ordi-
narily so regarded by us : that is to say,
all substances which at the normal tem-
perature are liquid and flowing: xnTdi*
comprises metals, which are normally
solid but are liquefied by the application
of strong heat. To rank metals as forms
of water seems no doubt a strange classifi-
cation : it is however adopted by Theo-
phrastos also: see de lapidibus i TUV iv

59 B] TIMAI02. 213
is that which is called by the name of aether, and the most
turbid is mist and gloom ;
and there are other kinds which have
no name, arising from the inequality of the triangles. Of water
there are two primary divisions, the liquid and the fusible kind.
The liquid sort owes its nature to possessing the smaller kinds
of watery atoms, unequal in size ;
and so it can readily either
move of itself or be moved by something else, owing to its lack
of uniformity and the peculiar shape of its atoms. But that
which consists of larger and uniform particles is more stable
than the former and heavy, being stiffened by its uniformity:
but when fire enters into it and breaks it up, it loses its uni-
formity and gains more power of motion : and as soon as it has
become mobile, it is thrust by the surrounding air and spread
out upon the earth: and it has received names descriptive of
either process, melting of the dissolution of the mass, flowing
of the extension on the ground. But when the fire goes forth
from it
again, seeing that it does not issue into empty space, the
neighbouring air receives a thrust, and while the liquid mass is
still mobile, it forces it to fill up the vacant places of the fire and
unites it with itself. And being thus compressed and recovering
its uniformity, seeing that fire the creator of inequality is
quitting it, it settles into its normal state. And the departure of
fire we call cooling, and the contraction that ensues on its with-
drawal we class as solidification. Of all the substances which
we have ranked as fusible kinds of water, that which is densest
ness of the whole mass. At the same we call flowing.
time, by the interposition of the fiery 13. irdXiv 8' tKirfrnrovros] Solidifi-
particles its bulk is expanded, so that cation is explained thus. The particles
it comes into forcible collision with the of fire, on quitting their place amid those
surrounding air, which gives it the of water, thrust against the immediately
impulse that sheds it (/raTarekei) on surrounding particles of air, since of
the ground. It now is subject to the course there is no vacant space to receive
same conditions as vypbv vdwp, which them. Now the metal, though the fire
flows owing to the inequality of its own has left it, is still mobile and yielding,
particles. Thus the fusion and flowing because its particles are dislocated. The
of molten metal is due to two causes : air then, on the impulse of the outgoing
(1) the intrusion of particles of fire and fire, thrusts against the metal and corn-
consequent dislocation of the particles of presses it, forcing its particles to fill
up
water, rendering the mass dv<a/j.aot> and the vacancies left by the fire.
Thereby
therefore evKlvrfrov this we call melting; the particles are restored to their old
(2) the yielding of the now heterogeneous places and the metal regains its equi-
substance to the pressure of the air, which librium and solidity.

2I4 TIAATONOS [59 B-
6fj,a(0rdTQ)v rrvKvbrarov yiyvoftevov, povoeiBes 761/09, o-n'X/Soz/Tt KOI
gav0q> 'xpwfiari KotvwOev, rt,p,a<êo-rarov Krrjfjia 'xpvaos r)0r)(*vo<;
Bid Trerpas errcvyr)' %pv(rov Be oo9, Bid TTVKVorijTa <TK,riporarov ov
Kal fjLeav0ev, aSa/u,a9 eKrj6rj. TO 6 6771)9 f*>ev %pv<rov rwv pepwv,
5 1877 Be 7rXeoi/a ez/09 e%oy, TrvKVorijTi 8' en yttei/ %pvo-ov rcvKvbrepov
ov, Kal 7*79 fj,6piov 6iyov real XeTrroi/ /jberaa-ôv, ware a-Kr}porepov C
elvai, To3 8e fjLjda euros avrov SiaXef/i/nara. eêiv Kov<f>6repov, rwv
afirrpwv Trrj/croov re ev 761/09 vSdrcov â/co9 crvaraOels yeyove'
TO 8' etc 7^9 aura) fjLi%0ev, orav TraXaioy/iei/w Bia^wpi^rjo-Bov TfdLV
10 OTT' aX?;Xa)i/, e'/c^>ai/69
a^' auro yiyvofjievov ^09 eyeTat. raXXa
Se T(3i/ TOLOVTWV ov8ev TTOLKLOV en Siaoyicrao~0ai Trjv rwv eltcbrwv
ftvOojv fieraSiwicovTa ISeav, fjv orav Tt9 dvaTravo-eax; evetca TOVS
Trepl TWV OVTWV del KaraTi0fjievo<; 6yovs 7-01)9 7epeo-ea>9 Trept Sta- D
^6(w/i.6i/09 elrcoTas dfJLeTafieXtjTov rjSovrjv /crarat, perpiov av ev ro5
15 /3i'p 7rcu8tdv Kal <j>povtfj,ov
Trototro. TavTy Br) Kal TO. vvv e<j)evTe<;
TO perd TOVTO TOJV avTwv rcepv rd 6^9 elKora Bufj,ev rfjBe. TO irvpl
4 tKr,6r) omittit A. 5 5* ri : 5^ rg A. omittunt SZ. 13 Kara.TiOtiJ.evos :
SZ. 15 TrcwSidj' : jratSeiai' A. IfovTes :
dtpfrres AZ.
comes auri, nee nisi in auro nasci vide-
batur. The six kinds he goes on to de-
scribe are evidently all crystals. It is
clear that Plato's xPvff v <>foj was not
a crystal: for the term dSci/ias is not
applied to any precious stone by writers
before Theophrastos ; moreover a crystal
could not be a species of XVT " vSup, all
such being forms of earth. Professor W. 1
J. Lewis, who has been kind enough to
make some inquiry into this matter on my i
behalf, formed the opinion, on such data
as I was able to lay before him, that
Plato's a8a/j.as was probably haematite.
5. ITVKVOTTJTI 8' ?TI [i^v] This is
'
Baiter's conjecture, followed by Her-
mann. I have adopted it as possibly
accounting for the rrj ptv of A.
7. prydXa Ivros 8ua(Ji(i,aTa] These
would appear to be cavities in the sub-
stance of the metal filled with air, which
cause bronze, notwithstanding its superior
density, to be lighter than gold. Plato
is of course mistaken in supposing that
bronze is denser than gold. He attri-
i .
crrfXpovn KaV |av6w]
'
infused
with a glittering and yellow hue." (rr/j3ov,
as Lindau says, is a x/^* coordinate with
t-avOtv : its ytveffts is described in 68 A.
3. xPwr0'' ^ oos] What this sub-
stance was it is very difficult to determine,
further than that it is some hard dark
metal always found, as Plato supposes,
with gold and closely akin to it It is
mentioned again in Politicus 303 E yuerd
S ravra eiverai ^Vfj-fj^fuyfJifva TO. !-vyyevrj
ToO xpwrov rlfjua KO! irvpl fwvov d<f>aiperd,
Xa/c6s /ecu apyvpos, (<TTI 8' ore Kal aSdyuas.
In Hesiod Scut. Her. 137, 231, and
Theog. 161 it signifies a hard metal, pro-
bably something like steel, of which
armour and cutting instruments were
made. This cannot be meant here, far
less a mixture of copper and gold, as
Stallbaum thinks. Pliny not. hist, xxxvii
15 says maximum in rebus humanis, non
solum inter gemmas, pretium habet ada-
mas, diu non nisi regibus et iis admodum
paucis cognitus ; ita appellabatur auri
nodus in metallis repertus perquam raro,

D] TIMAIOS. 215
and formed of the finest and most uniform particles, a unique
kind, combining brightness with a yellow hue, is gold, a most
precious treasure, which has filtered through rocks and there
congealed : and the
'
offspring of gold ', which is extremely hard
owing to its density and has turned black, is called adamant.
Another has particles resembling those of gold, but more than
one kind; in density it even surpasses gold and has a small
admixture of fine earth, so that it is harder, but lighter, because
it has large interstices within ;
this formation is one of the
shining and solid kinds of water and is called bronze. The
earth which is mingled with it, when the two through age begin
to separate again, becomes visible by itself and is named rust.
And it were no intricate task to explain all the other substances
of this kind, following the outline of our probable account.
For if we pursue this as a recreation, and while laying down the
principles of eternal being find in plausible theories of becoming
a pleasure that brings no remorse in its train, we may draw from
it a sober and sensible amusement during our life. Now there-
fore setting out in this way let us go on to discuss the proba-
bilities that lie next on the same subject
bated the greater hardness of bronze the plainest terms Plato's opinion of the
partly to its superior density, partly to value of physical science. In itself it
the admixture of earth: he was not is but a harmless recreation, a pleasure
aware that hardness does not depend leaving behind it no regrets, with which
upon density. As to the StaXefyt/ttaTct, a philosopher may reasonably solace him-
compare Theophrastos de sensu 61, self, when wearied with his incessant
speaking of Demokritos, aKKyporepov fdv struggle after the truth. This passage
elvai ffLSrjpov f}apfrrepoi> 8t /Mvfldov TOV should be read in connexion with 68 E
lv y&p fflSypov &vfi.&us ffvyne'iff6ai Ka.1 810 ST) xH W alTlasetdr)diopie(rOaiK.T..,
rb Kfvbv feiv iroaxv Kal Kara peydXa where we learn that the study of dvay-
Kal Kard tvia * ,
dirXws Si Kaiov, that is to say, of the forces of
evbv TOV 8t poXvpSov laTTov material nature, is useful just so far as it
Kevbv d/toXws vvyKeiffdai Kara TTO.V bears upon the investigation of Oelov, that
opolw, Sib paptrepov ph /aaXa/cwrepov 5 is, of primary causes. Physical specu-
TOV ffid-qpov. This is identical with Plato's lations then are profitable only in so far
view, except that Demokritos held the as they can be made subservient to meta-
cavities to be absolutely void. physical science ; to suppose that they
9. STO.V iraaiov|x^vw 8iax<op^1<r- have any intrinsic merit is an egregious
8ov] Plato considered that the rust on error :
they can only be pursued for their
bronze, or verdigris, was the intermingled own sake with a view to recreation. As
earth, which in course of time works its regards the construction there is a slight
way to the surface. anacoluthon ; ijv being presently super-
13. fjv OTCIV TIS] Here we have in seded by TOI>J yevfofw trtpi.

2l6 ITAATHNOS [59 D
vBcop, o<rov TTTOV vypov re Bid rrjv Kivr)<riv teal rrjv
6B6v, rjv KvXivBovpevov eVt 7779 vypov eyerai, paaKov re av rtp
Ta9 ySacret? tfrrov eBpaiovs ov<ra<; rj ra? 7779 vTreiiceiv, rovro orav
Trvpos d7ro%(0pio-0ev ae/309 re povwOf}, yeyove /JLCV 6p,a(arepovy
E
5 j*vve<t)<rrai Be VTTO rwv eîovrcov et? avro, Trayev re ovrws TO pev
VTrep 7779 futia"ra iraOov ravra %daa, TO S' eirl yrjs Kpv<TTao<;,
TO Se rjTTOv TyfjMTrayes re ov eri, TO /ley v?re/3 yf9 av %i(av,
TO 8' eTU
e/c Spoo-ov yevopevov ira^vrj Xeyerat,. ra Se Sr)
t'S?; n,ep,iyp,eva dijoi<;, %vfj,7rav p,ev TO yevos,
10 8t Tc3i/ e; 7^9 (JJVTMV riOijpeva, %f//-ot ey6pevot' 8ta Be T9 /itêt? 60 A
ai/o/iotoTT/Ta e/cao-TOt o-^WT69 Ta /u-ey aXXa vroXXa dvwvvfia yevr)
Trapea-%ovTO, rerrapa Be, oaa epirvpa eiBij, Bia<f>avf) fiakucrra yevo-
peva ir)<f>ev 6v6fj,ara avrwv, TO /*ei/ T^9 tywxfis fierd rov o-a>/j,aro<;
0epfj,avriKoi> oti>o9, TO Be eiov ical
BiatcpirtKov otyecos Bid ravrd re
15 IBeiv afA7rpov ical <rri{3ov frrap6v re (f>avra%ofj,evov e.aiijpov
eJSo9, Trirra fcal Kitci /cat eaiov avro ocra T aXXa T^9 auT^9
OGOV Be Bia^vriKov fê^pi <f>va-eci)<;
rwv irepl TO arofia B
2 ai5 rf :
airnj? A.
9 rcDv ante iiSdruv habet A.
I. o<rov Xeirriv vypov TC] Although
Stallbaum asserts that this sentence is
'turpi labe contaminatus ', I see no ne-
cessity for alteration: his own attempts
are certainly far from fortunate. The
repetition of vyp6v, which offends him
so sorely, is, I think, due to the fact
that we have, as Lindau saw, an ety-
mology implied in the words fy... Mytrcu
'the mode of rolling on the earth which
has in fact gained it the name of vyp6v
'
:
as if vypbv
= inrtp yfjs ptov. Thus under-
stood, the objection to the second vypov
vanishes. /j.aaKov re is then coordinate
with eirrttv vypov re, and Tfi...viretKiv
with Sia Try Kivi)fftv.
4. irvpds diroxttpwrOfr] Water then
in its pure and unmixed form is in a
state of congelation : the liquid condition
being due to the intermixture of fire
which disturbs the uniformity of the
whole. What we ordinarily term water
then is a compound of fire and water.
d*'pos TC] It is rather hard to see
3 TOVTO : TOVTO tf S.
1 6 JC/KI :
nj/cet A pr. m.
what air has to do with the matter : no
air entered into the composition of the
vypbv vdup, which merely yielded to the
impact of the air which pushed it from
without. May not atpos re be an inter-
polation from the hand of some copyist
who thought it necessary to separate
water from both the kindred elements?
The copyists have an unconquerable de-
sire to drag in all the elements, whether
they are wanted or not: see note on 61 B,
where there is an indisputable interpo-
lation.
5. VTTO TWV |IOVTV] That is to
say, by the agency of the outgoing fire
that thrusts the surrounding air, which
in turn communicates the impulse to the
water. Plato classifies the congealed
forms of water according to the intensity
of the compression and to the situation :
when completely condensed it is on the
earth ice, in the air hail; if partially con-
densed, it is on the earth hoar-frost, in
the air snow.

60 B] TIMAIO2. 217
Water mingled with fire, such as is rare and liquid (owing to
its mobility and its way of rolling along the ground, which gets
it the name of liquid), and is also soft, because its bases give way,
being less stable than those of earth, when relinquished by fire
and deserted of air, becomes more uniform and is compressed
by the outgoing elements ;
thus it is congealed, and when above
the earth this process takes place in an extreme degree, the result
is hail ;
if upon the earth, it is ice : but when the process has not
gone so far but leaves it half-congealed, above the earth it is snow,
and when congealed from dew upon the earth, it is called hoar-
frost. Most forms of water, which are intermingled with one
another, filtered through the plants of the earth, are called by the
class-name of saps ;
but owing to their intermixture they are all of
diverse natures and the great multitude of them are accordingly
unnamed : four kinds however which are of a fiery nature, being
more conspicuous, have obtained names : one that heats the soul
and body together, namely wine ;
next a kind which is smooth
and divides the visual current and therefore appears bright and
shining to view and glistening, I mean the class of oils, resin
and castor oil and olive oil itself and all others that have the
same properties ; thirdly that which expands the contracted
7. rd Si ^TTOV] sc. iradbv TOVTO. Cf. SioKpirucbv 6f/eu3 is white. 6f/is here =
Aristotle meteorologica I x 347* 16 iraxw) ctyews peu/ia.
ltv orav T] arid? irayr, irplv th v8up <rvy- 16. KKI] This is castor oil, obtained
KpiOrjvai Trdu>. from the Ricinus communis. See He-
8. rot 84 81) irXcwrra] A complex rodotus II 94, where he says that the
form of water, composed of many sorts Egyptians use this oil for anointing them-
combined, are the juices of plants of selves and for illuminating purposes : it
which the general appellation is sap. is said to be still put to the latter use in
Of these Plato distinguishes four kinds, India. The word K(KI is affirmed by He-
having peculiar properties and specific rodotus to be Egyptian. Cf. Pliny nat.
names. hist, xv 7.
12. Sa-a. {(jLirvpa tt8t]] Plato infers 17. o<rov 8i 8iavTiK6v fw'XP1
<|>v<ra>s]
the presence of fire from the brightness The construction and meaning of these
and transparency of these saps, not words seem to have escaped all the
from any pungent or burning quality, editors, r&v irfpl rb ffTopa ^vvoSuv de-
which olive oil, for example, does not pends upon SiaxuriKov, not upon <f>v<reus,
possess. and the meaning is
'
that which expands
14. 8io.KpiTi.K6v otyews] That is to the contracted pores of the mouth to
say, having a bright and glistening ap- their natural condition'. In 640 we
pearance, see 68 E, 69 A. We must un- learn that a pleasurable sensation is the
derstand Plato to mean 5ia.Kpirud>i> otyews perceptible transition from an abnormal
for what is merely to a normal state: TO 5' e/j Qwiv diribv

218 HAATONO2 [60 B
%Vv68(i)V, TaVTp TT) 8wdfJ,l, jXvKVT'TjTa Trap%6fJLVOV, fJil TO KttTa
TrdvTfov /j,dicrTa 7rpoo~prjfj,a ecrê
1
TO 8e TT)^ trap/co? 8iaVTtKov TU>
Kaietv d(f)pa>8es 761/05 e'/c Trdvrcav d<f>opio~6ev TWV ^vp.wv OTTO? eVw-
XXV. TTJS Se io~r), TO fiev Jjdvjfjievov Sid #oWo<? ToiyBe
idivov. TO u/iynt<ye<? v8(op OTav ev Trj i
et<? depo? I8eav yev6/j,vo<t 8e dr)p et<? TOV
TOTTOV dvaOet. KCVOV 8' ov Trepiefyev avTOv ov8ev TOV ovv TrXycrlov
eaxrev depa- 6 8e are wv ftapvs, caa-Oel? KOI Trepi'xyOeis TW r^? 7^?
10 OJKW, o-ôSpa eOi^ gvvewo-e re avTov et? ra? eSpas, oOev dvr/ei 6
drfp' ^vvaxj'deio'a 8e UTT' ae/jo? 'dvT(a<> v&arl yfj vvio~TaTai
,
Kaiwv fj.ev r
TWV lawv Kal ofiaXwv Staâ^^? fiepwv,
8e r) evavTia. TO Be VTTO irvpo^ raôi/9 TO voTepov irav
ttn>&* *<: , 'A>s * "
8 ov wepieixev O.VTOV : sic corr. A. virepelxev avrwv pr. m.
10 dvyet: dvyeiv SZ.
3 Kaleiv : Kdeu> SZ.
SZ.
bov -^66: and in 66 C we find
that this is just the effect produced on
the tongue by a pleasant taste : rd 3
Trapa 0i5<rti' ^weorwra ^ Kexv^va, rd ptv
wa7?7, TCI 8^ xa^?> Ka^ ""aVfl' o TI fj.dt,ffra
lSp6y Kara <t>i><riv. For the use of Siax"?
compare 45 E, Philebus 46 E; and for
w65<ai> see 586, 59 A, and 6 1 A. Com-
pare also Theophrastos de sensu 84 TO
5^ fftiv rrj vypOTrjTi ry iv rfi yXwrrr) Kal
Kal ffVffTariKa eh T^V <pv<riv
3. oir6s] This is another substance
which it seems impossible precisely to
identify. Martin understands opium;
but this in no wise agrees with the de-
scription. It rather is some powerful
vegetable acid, perhaps the juice of the
silphium, as in Hippokrates de morbis
acutis vol. II p. 92 Kiihn. In Homer
Iliad V 902 it is a liquid used for curd-
ling milk, said to be the juice of the
wild fig : see Aristotle historia animalium
III xx 522
b 2 Trriyvvcri Si r6 70X0 6jros re
ffVKijs Kal TTverla: cf. meteorologica IV vii
384
a
20 : see too Pliny natural history
xvi 72, xxin 63. The name would
seem to have been applied to vegetable
acids in general, not confined to the sap
of one particular plant : wherefore, al-
though I have acquiesced in the usual
explanation of K ndvruv a<f>opia6tv rdv
Xvuuv, it is a question to my mind
whether Thomas Taylor is not more
correct in rendering these words 'is se-
creted from all liquors'. For 6ir6s is no
more 'distinguished' from the other saps
than are wine, oil and honey; if any-
thing, less so. I have adopted the term
'
verjuice
'
as the nearest rendering I
could find, although this, I believe, is
properly confined to the juice of the wild
crab.
60 B 6 1 C, c. xxv. The chief forms
of earth are as follows :
(i) stone is
formed when in a mixture of earth and
water the water is resolved into air and
issues forth ; then the earth that remains
behind is strongly compressed by the
surrounding air and compacted into a
rocky substance :
(2) earthenware or pot-
tery is produced in a similar way, except
that the expulsion of the water is much
more violent and sudden through the ac-
tion of fire, and therefore the substance
produced is more brittle than the former :
(3) the so-called
'
black stone
'
is formed
when a certain portion of water is left

c] TIMAIOS. 219
pores of the mouth to their natural condition, and by this
property produces sweetness to the taste, of this honey is the
most general appellation ; lastly that which corrodes the flesh
by burning, a sort of frothy substance, distinct from all the other
saps, which has been named verjuice.
XXV. Of the different kinds of earth, that which is strained
through water becomes a stony mass in the following way.
When the commingled water is broken up in the mixing, it
changes into the form of air ;
and having become air it darts up
to its own region. Now there was no void surrounding it ;
ac-
cordingly it gives a thrust to the neighbouring air. And the air,
being weighty, when it is thrust and poured around the mass of
earth, presses it hard and squeezes it into the spaces which the
new-made air quitted. Thus earth, when compressed by air
into a mass that will not dissolve in water, forms stone ;
of
which the transparent sort made of equal and uniform particles
is fairer, while that of the opposite kind is less fair. But that
behind, rendering the stone fusible by
fire :
(4) alkali and salt are composed of
a mixture of earth and water, consisting
of fine saline particles of earth from which
a large part of the water has been ex-
pelled, but which has never been tho-
roughly compacted, so that the substance
is soluble in water :
(5) there remain
compounds of earth and water which
are fusible by fire, but not soluble in
water. The reason why this is so is as
follows : Earth in its unmodified form is
dissoluble by water alone ;
for its inter-
stices are large enough to give free passage
to the particles of earth and fire : but the
larger particles of water, forcing their
way in, break up the mass. Earth highly
compressed can only be dissolved by fire,
for nothing else can find entrance. Water,
when most compacted, can be dissolved
by fire alone ; when in a less degree, by
fire or air. The highest condensation of
air can only be dissolved by conversion
into another element ; the less condensed
forms are affected by fire only. Now
into a compound of earth and water the
particles of water from without can find
no entrance : but fire entering in dislocates
the particles of water, and they dislocate
the particles of earth, so that the whole
compound is broken up and fused. Such
substances are, if water predominates in
the compound, glass and the like ; if
earth, all kinds of wax.
7. Koirg] sc. Kara TO. rpiyuva. The
water, becoming air, rushes to join the
surrounding air; which then thrusts the
earth together, exactly as described in
the solidification of metals, 59 A.
11. dXvTws vSari] There can be little
doubt, I think, that these words are to
be taken together,
'
insoluble by water '.
Martinjoins SSari withww<r0e?<ra, 'forced
into indissoluble union with water '. But
Plato does not say that any of the water
is left behind ; and we find that when this
takes place, the substance is fusible by
fire, which is not here the case. Nor is
it easy to see how such an inseparable
conjunction could exist. The phrase seems
pretty clearly contrasted with VTU TrdXiv
i)0' uSaros in D.
12. i]
TWV fo-wv] i.e. precious stones
and crystals. It is clear from this that

22O HAATflNOS [60 c
> Kal Kpavporepov eKelvov gvcrrdv, eS yevei Kepajwv eV&>-
TOVTO yeyovev etrri Be ore voriBos V7roei(f>0ia"r)<> YVTT)
777 yevouevr) Bid Try/309, orav tyv%0fj, ylyverai TO /j,eav ^pm/Mi
e^wv L6o<f r<a 8' av Kara ravrd fiev ravra CK gvpfilgecos vBaros
5 aTrofAovovaevQ) TroXXoO, 7rrorpa>v Be CK 7779 fjuepdov d~,fjuvpo) re
ovre rifiLTrayrf yevofievm Kal vrca 7rdiv v<f> vBaros, TO pev eaiov
Kal 7779 KaOapriKov 761/09 irpov, TO 8' evdpfôcrrov ev Tat9 KOI-
v(oviai$ rat9 vrept T^y rov crrofAaros aiaQi](Tiv dwv Kara 6yov
vofjiov 0eo(f>ie<$ awfjua eyevero. rd Be KOIVCL eg dfttyoiv vBan /j,ev
3 ylyverai :
yeyove S. 4 %xuv '
^Xot> HSZ. l&os : eI5os H e sua coniectura.
TW et cetera dualis numeri scrips! e Schneideri coniectura. r<
ceteraque con-
cordantia HSZ. ret A, qui tamen in sequentibus dativum habet.
d5d/xas cannot be the diamond or any xPâv /J-erafiaXXeiv Kal r-tv irvKv6rr)Ta, fd-
1)
other crystal.
i. apira<rOlv] The construction with
this verb seems unique, though it is of
course common with QaipelaOai. The
rapid evaporation of the water by fire
and the consequent sudden violence of
the compression causes the pottery to be
hard and brittle. For the rather elaborate
form of expression $ ytvei ..TOVTO ytyovev
cf. 40 B Ka.06.irep tv rots irp6ff0ev tp/rfiOrj,
/car' ^Keiva yeyove.
i. vrf Y^ Y VOK^VTl]
The reason
why the continuance of moisture in the
stone renders it fusible by fire is ex-
plained below at 61 B.
3. TO p.e'Xav xpH-a ^XCDV XiOosl There
is evidently some corruption in the text
of the mss. The vulgate fyov cannot be
construed at all :
&xwv is supported by A,
but the article is not wanted with fdav
Xpw/u.a. Hermann restores grammar by
writing eZSos for tOos; yet this is not
convincing. Nor yet can I acquiesce in
the suggestion of the translator in the
Engelmann edition, to read l9ov, sup-
plying 7&oj from the previous sentence.
Retaining ?x.wt>, we might perhaps insert
6 before T& (dav XP^M - As to the nature
of this yitAas Xi0oj, it would seem to be
a substance of volcanic origin, probably
lava. Compare Theophrastos de lapidibus
140 5 iirapcuos 4K<f>opovrat re rrj Kowret
KCU 7êrat Kiffi)poei8ys, uxrO' a/ta re TTV
Xas re 701^ Kal Xet6s effTt, Kal irvKvbs aKavvros
<2>v. This Xt7ro/)a?os is a volcanic stone
from the Lipari islands, which Theo-
phrastos classes among the irvpl rrjKrd :
on being subjected to the action of fire it
leaves a residuum which is light and
porous like pumice stone. The descrip-
tion of it while still a/cawros seems to
agree very well with Plato's /^Xas LOos.
Compare too Aristotle meteorologica iv vi
3^3
b
5 T^Kerai 8 Kal o l0os 6 Trupfyxaxos,
ware ffrdfeiv Kal pew" rb 8e infjyvviJ.evov
orav pvrj, iraXiv ylyverai <rKt]p6v, Kal al
/j.vai rrfKovrai wore peiv rt> 8 peov irqyvv-
pevov rb fj.ev xpwîa fifXav. The /tu'Xeu
certainly were made of lava : see Strabo
vi ii
3,'where he says of the matter ejected
from the Liparaean craters, vffrepov Se
TrayTJvai. Kal yeveffffai rots fj.vlrais XôtJ
eoiKora rbv wayov. It is to be observed
that Theophrastos assigns the same cause
as Plato for the fusibility of some stones :
see de lapidibus 10 r6 yap T-TIKTOV eviK-
/JLOV elvai 5ei Kal vyporfir' ?xel" irXe/w.
4. TW 8' aiJ] Schneider's correction
seems indispensable : I can see no rea-
sonable way of construing the dative :
and why the Engelmann translator de-
clares the emendation to be '
zum Nach-
theil des Sinnes' I cannot understand.
Soda and salt are compounds of earth
and water only partially compacted and
consequently soluble in water; which is

TIMAIOS. 221
which is suddenly deprived of all its moisture by the rapid
action of fire and is become more brittle than the first forms
the class to which we have given the name of earthenware.
Again when some moisture is left behind, earth, after having
been fused by fire and again cooled, becomes a certain stone
of a black colour. There are also two sorts which in the
same manner after the admixture are robbed of a great part
of the water, being formed of the finer particles of earth with
a saline taste, and becoming only half solid and soluble
again by water; of these what purifies from oil and earth is
alkali ;
while that which easily blends with all the combinations
of tastes on the palate is, in the words of the ordinance, the god-
beloved substance of salt. The bodies which are composed of
not the case with bodies wherein the
water and earth have been brought into
a complete and stable union.
6. ri i&v IXafov Kal yijs] I do not
know that soda is specially applicable to
the elimination of earth, and the words
Kal 7775 seem to me to be dubious. Lin-
dau, imputing to Plato '
brevitatem prope
similem Thucydidis ', somehow extracts
from the words the manufacture of soap
and of glass : but such more than Pythian
tenebricosity of diction, I think, even
Thucyclides would shrink from. By lrpov
we are to understand natron, or carbonate
of soda.
7. rA 8* tvdpjiOOTOV tv rats KOIVW-
vCcus] By this Plato means that salt is an
agreeable adjunct to many flavours and
combinations of flavours.
8. Kara Xo-yov vojiov] This seems
plainly to indicate, what would in any
case be a natural supposition, that Plato
quotes the expression 6eo<pits <rufj.a from
some well-known ordinance relating to
sacrificial ceremonies or from some for-
mula used therein : but I have not been
able to trace the phrase to any such
origin.
9. OecxfuXis <r<3fia] The application
of the epithet 0eo(f>its to salt is, as afore-
said, probably due to its use for sacrificial
and ceremonial purposes, though this is
not suggested by Plutarch in his curious
little disquisition on the subject, quaest.
conv. v 10. Salt was mixed with whole
barley (oiXoxvrat) and sprinkled on the
head of the victim. This appears to have
been the only use of salt in sacrifice
among the Greeks ; but both in ancient
and modern times it was held to be a
potent preservative against witchcraft and
evil spirits, and many curious customs
connected with it are to be found in me-
diaeval folk-lore. It was likewise used in
purifications see Theokritos xxiv 94
irvpuffare 5<2(j.a Oeely
irparov, tireiTa 5' ae<r<ri fjiffjuy^vov, ws
VfVO/JMTTCU,
vdup.
Homer terms it
'
divine ', Iliad ix 214
irdfffff
'
dXos Oeloio. According to a fable
mentioned by Aristotle meteorologica n
iii
359
a
27 it was a gift of Herakles to
the Chaonians. In Tacitus annals xm 57
we read that a spot where salt is found
was held by the ancient Germans to be
peculiarly sacred and in proximity to
heaven. The passage of Athenion (apud
Athenaeum xiv 79) which Stallbaum
quotes as establishing the sacrificial use
of salt has an opposite tendency :

222 HAATHNOS [60 E
ov vrd, irvp Be, Bid ro roiovBe ovro) ^v/jnr^yvvrai' 7779 oyKOV?
Trvp [tev dr)p re ov rr)Ki~ rrjs yap i<7Tacrea>9 rutv BiaKevav avrrj<;
crfjiiKpofjuepecrrepa ire^vKora, Bid 7rofj<> vpv%a>pia<; lovra, ov ftta-
ôfieva, avrov avrrjv edcravra drrjKrov Trapeerê' rd Be vBaro?
5 eTreiBrj /Aeift> TretyvKe pepij, ftiaiov iroiovpeva rr)v BiegoBov, vovra
avrr)v TT}KI. yrjv fiev yap d^vararov VTTO /8ta? ovrws vBiop fj,6vov
61 A
vei, %vve<rTr]Kvlav Be 7rr)V Trupo? ovBev e'l<roSo<; yap ovBevl 7rijv
Trvpl eenrrai. rrjv Be vBaTos av gvvoBov rr^v pev ^laiorar^v
7rvp fiovov, rrjv Be acrOevearepav dfiôrepa, 'jrvp re teal dr^p, Bia-
10 %etrov, 6 /jiev Kara ra Btdiceva, TO Be KOI Kara rd rplywva. (Biq Be
depa %vo-rdvra ovBev vet 7rrjv Kara ro o-roi%elov, dftiacrrov Be
KararrfKei, /JLOVOV Trvp. rd Be Br) rwv ^Vjjbp>iKro>v K 7^9 re Kal
vBaros crwfidrow, /JLe^piTrep dv vBwp avrov rd rrjs 7^9 BiaKeva Kal B
)Sta gv/jwreTTiXrjfjLeva Kare^y, rd fiev vBaro? einovra ega>9ev eio-oBov
15 OVK eôvra fiepij Trepippeovra rov
f
6ov oyKov arrjKrov eiacre, rd Be
%v/J:injyvvTai :
80ev tri Kal vvv TUV
TO?S Oeolfftv 6irr<2<nv (poyl
aXas ov Trpocrdyovres' ov y&p rjffav ov-
ek r-ffv rotauTTjf xp^fftv
Originally, says the author, men both
ate and sacrificed without salt ; and even
after they discovered that salt was good
to eat, they went on sacrificing in the old
way. Among some other nations, e.g.
the Jews, salt was very extensively used
for sacrificial purposes.
TO. 8e Koi-vd ijj d|ju{>oiv] We now
come to compounds of earth and water.
We have indeed had already one such
combination, which is vrov v<f> #5aros:
but there the water is hardly a constituent
of the solidified mass; the substance has
parted with nearly all its moisture, but
still remains rifjuirayts. Before explain-
ing why these compounds are dissoluble
by fire alone, Plato digresses a little to
explain the mode in which the several
elements are dissolved. Solution and
A. 3 <f>alverai ante ireipvKOTa habet A.
7 irvpos :
irvpl A.
dilatation alone are treated here, not the
transmutation of one element into an-
other.
i. Y1
! 5 o^1*01*5] Earth in its normal
condition, a^vvTaros virb /3/as, is dissolved
by water alone, for the interstices in its
structure are so large that the minute
particles of fire and air can pass in and
out without obstruction and do not dis-
turb the fabric: but those of water are
too large to make their way without dis-
locating the particles of earth. When
however earth is firmly compacted, we-
oTTjKina, the interstices are so small that
only fire can find an entrance.
8. TI^V Av piau>TaTT|v] Clearly metals
are meant.
g. TIJV Si do-0V<rr^pav] Ice, snow,
hail, and hoar-frost : cf. 59 E. Air dis-
solves these Kara T& 5t&icet>a, i.e. by sepa-
rating the particles; for ice or snow ex-
posed to the air above a certain tempera-
ture will melt; but it still retains the form
of water. Fire on the other hand, may
vaporise it; which means that the cor-
puscules of water are dissolved and recon-

61 B] TIMAIO2. 223
earth and water combined cannot be dissolved by water, but
by fire alone for the following reason. A mass of earth is
resolved neither by fire nor by air, because their atoms are
smaller than the interstices in its structure, so that they have
abundant room to move in and do not force their way, wherefore
instead of breaking it up they leave it undissolved : but whereas
the parts of water are larger, they make their passage by force
and dissolve the mass by breaking it up. Earth then, when it
is not forcibly solidified, is thus dissolved by water only; but
when it is solidified, only by fire, for no entrance is left except
to fire. And of water the most forcible congelation is melted by
fire alone, but the more feeble both fire and air break up ;
the
latter by the interstices, the former by the triangles as well. Air,
when forcibly condensed, can only be resolved into the ele-
mentary triangles, and when uncondensed fire alone dissolves
it. In the case of a substance formed of water and earth com-
bined, so long as water occupies the spaces in it that are
forcibly compressed, the particles of water arriving from without
find no entrance but simply flow round and leave the whole
stituted as corpuscules of air : this is dis- air. Plato must have observed the fact
solution Kara ra rplyuva. that air expands when heated. Of course
10. (Jtoj 8i cUpa jjv<rrdvTa} Air in its it is Kara rd SidKeva that air yields to the
highest condensation can only be resolved influence of fire alone; for it
may be
Kara rd, rplywva, that is by transmuta- resolved Kara rd rplyuva by either fire or
tion into another element. Stallbaum, water, on the principles laid down in
not understanding this sentence, desires 56 E.
to corrupt it by altering irXrjv to irdii>. 12. TdSiS-ijTwv |ju|ip,CKTa>v] Now we
But the text is perfectly sound and has come to the reason why substances com-
been rightly explained by Martin. Con- pounded by earth and water are fused by
densed air means cloud : and cloud is fire alone. So long as the interspaces
ordinarily dissolved into a shower of between the earthy particles are occupied
rain; or, in the case of a thundercloud, by the particles of water belonging to the
lightning issues from it. Plato therefore, rforewtj, the particles of water external
holding as he does that the cloud is a form to it, supposing the body to be plunged
of air, conceives it to be resolved /card in water, can find no entrance ; conse-
ra rplyuva, in the one case into water, quently they can produce no effect upon
in the other into fire. The agent which it. But the particles of fire, finding their
produces the metamorphosis is not speci- way in, force themselves between the
fied in this instance. particles of water and disturb them : and
11. dptaoTOv 8i KaTanfKti] In its these in their turn, being thrust against
normal state air is subject to the influence the particles of earth, dislocate the latter,
of fire alone, which dilates it by insinu- and so the structure of the whole mass is
ating its own particles between those of broken up and fused.

224 ITAATHNOS [6 1 B
*v '
els rd r<v v&drcov Bidiceva elffiovra, cnrep v8a)p yrjv, rovro
a7Tpya^6fjLva, rrjÔevri ru> fcoiv<p aobpan pelv fjiova atria
f3e/3ijKe. rvyxdvei Be ravra ovra, rd fj,ev earrov e-ôvra v
rj yrjs TO re Trepl rr/v vaov <yevo$ arrav cxra re i6wv %yrd
5 icakelrai, rd Se ireov vSaros av Trdvra oaa KrjpoeiBrj Kal Ov/juanicd C
XXVI. Kat ra pev Brj cr^fiaa-i teoivwviais re Kal fieraa-
7<x?9 et? drja 7r7roiKi/j,eva eiSr) crêSoy cTriSeSeiKrai' rd Se
iraOâra avrwv St' a? atr/a? yeyove Treipareov eâvLêiv. irpwrov
N , f/ tf/1 5.^ / / ^S>
fjbev ovv vTrap%eiv aicruri(n,v oei roi<> heyofAevois aet* (rapicos be icai
rwv irepl crdpica yevecriv, ^vxrjf re ocrov Ovrjrov, OVITW Bierj,v-
i
post TOVTO delevi trvp atpa, quae dant codices omnes et HSZ. TOVTO 84 S.
7 ffxtfuafft. :
<rx'h(JI
- aTa HSZ. 8 etdij :
ijSr) A.
by the two intruding elements, irvp atpa :
its insertion would be a gain to the sense.
4. Xt0wv xvr<^ t^S'nl For example the
/j.{av xPâ ?xw" Woj mentioned above,
which we saw to have an admixture of
water in its composition.
61 c 64 A, c. xxvi. In order to set
forth thoroughly the properties of matter,
we ought to explain the nature of their
action upon our bodies and the nature of
the bodies that are so affected. As both
these subjects cannot be dealt with at
once, let us first examine the sensible
qualities of things. The sensation of
heat is due to the penetrating power of
fire, which enters and divides the flesh :
cold is a contraction of the flesh under
the influence of moisture. Hardness
and softness depend on the form of the
constituent corpuscule, the cube being
most stable and therefore most resisting.
Concerning heavy and light, it is neces-
sary to clear away some popular mis-
conceptions. It is common to speak as
if the universe were divided into two
regions, upper and lower, to the latter
of which all heavy bodies naturally tend.
But the truth is that, the universe being
a sphere, there is no such thing as an
upper and a lower region in it. For if
one were to travel round the universe he
I .
oiTfp v8wp yij v, TOVTO ciirep Ya6fi
va ]
The words irvp dtpa, which in the mss.
follow TOUTO, I have rejected for more
than one reason; the chief of which is
that they are absolute nonsense. We
have seen above that water acts upon
earth by thrusting its particles between
those of earth and forcing them asunder :
likewise we have just seen that fire acts
upon water by thrusting its particles be-
tween those of water and forcing them
asunder. Therefore, as Plato says, fire has
precisely the same action upon water that
water has upon earth. But what con-
ceivable sense is there in introducing
air? Air neither is any constituent of
the compound nor plays any part in its
fusion : it is altogether beside the ques-
tion. A minor, though still substantial,
reason for rejecting the words is the
grammar. If we retain irvp atpa, not
only is irvp out of all construction, but
direpya^fj.eva is left forlorn of any sub-
stantive wherewith to agree. On the
other hand the rejection of those two
words, which I conceive to have been
inserted by a copyist in an over antitheti-
cal frame of mind, restores both sense
and grammar. I suspect however that
Plato's original words were ro00' i!3w/>
and that fiSup was expelled

c] TIMAIO2. 22$
bulk undissolved; but those of fire enter into the interstices of the
water, and acting upon it as water does upon earth, can alone
cause the combined mass to melt and become liquid. In this
class those which have less water than earth are all kinds of glass
and all stones that are called fusible; and those which contain
more water include all formations like wax and frankincense.
XXVI. Now all the manifold forms that arise from diverse
shapes and combinations and changes from one to another have
been pretty fully set forth; next we must try to explain their
affections and the causes that lead to them. First we must
assign to all the substances we have described the property of
causing sensation. But the origin of flesh and all that belongs
to it and of the mortal part of soul we have not yet discussed.
would be forced to call the same point
successively above and below: since it
would at one time be overhead, at another
beneath him. The true explanation of
gravity and attraction is as follows. Ow-
ing to the vibration of the universe, every
element has its proper region in space ;
and every portion of any element which
is in an alien sphere endeavours to escape
to its own sphere. For this reason, if
we raise portions of earth into the region
of air, they tend to make their way back
to earth again, and the larger portion
strives more forcibly so to return than
the smaller. Hence we say that earth is
'heavy' and tends 'downward'; while
fire, because it seeks to fly away from
earth to its own home, we say is 'light
'
and tends
'
upward '. But could we reach
the home of fire and raise portions of it
into the air, we should find this condition
reversed: fire would be 'heavy' and tend
'downwards' to its own home, and earth
would be 'light' and tend 'upwards' to
the home of earth. And so the gravi-
tation of all bodies depends altogether
upon their position in space relatively to
their proper region; and the 'weight' of
any body is simply the attraction which
draws it towards its own home. Such is
the nature of light and heavy :
roughness
is due to hardness and irregularity in the
P. T.
substance, smoothness to regularity and
density.
7. teal TO, (i.iv 8i] crxtjuewri] Having
explained the structure of the various
forms in which the four etdrj appear and
their combinations, our next task is to
set forth the causes of the sensations
they produce in us. For yyiiua.ai the
editors from Stallbaum onwards, with
the exception of Martin, read o-x^ara
sub silentio. This reading is not men-
tioned by Bekker, and no ms. testimony
is by any one cited for it. It is by no
means an improvement ; and since I can
find neither its origin nor its authority I
have suffered it fp-/ifj.t]v 6<f>eiv and revert-
ed to the old reading. Ficinus translates
'
eas species, quae figuris commutationi-
busque invicem variantur.'
8. rd 8i 71-0.07] P.O.TCL ]
The word
TrdOrjua is here used in a rather peculiar
manner. Elsewhere it denotes the im-
pression sustained by the percipient sub-
ject from the external agent see 64 B, c.
But here vddrjfia signifies a quality per-
taining to the object which produces this
impression on the subject. We have a
similar unusual significance in inrapxttv
al<r6t)ffiv below; where afo6-ri<ri,s denotes
the property of exciting sensation.
1 1. |VXTJS TC oo-ov OVTJTOV] See 69 D,
where the term is explained.
15

226 nAATHNOS [6 1 c
Oafiev. Tvy%fivei Be ovre ravra %wpi9 TO/I/
7Tpl ra TraOrj/Aara ocra
alffOrjra OVT e/ceiva avev rovrwv Sward ifcavws e%0T)vai, TO Be D
ap,a o-%eBov ov BvvaToV VTTodeTeov Br) irpoTepov Odrepa, rd 8"
VTCoreBevra errdviêv avOiS. iva ovv e^? rd TraOrjaara eyrjrai
5 rot? yeveo-iv, earw rrporepa rûv rd Trepl a-tapa KOI ^rv^rjv ovra.
irp&rov fjiev ovv f) Trvp Qep/Jiov eyofj,v, tBatêv c58e (TKorrovvre<;t rrjv
Sid/cpiaiv Kal ro/j,r/v avrov Trepl TO crcG/ia rj/jiwv ryiyvofjievrjv evvoij-
Bevres. ori jj,ev yap ov n TO TrdOos, iravres aêSov alo-davofieOa' E
rrjv Be XeTTTor^ra rwv rcevpwv Kal ywvioSv o^vTijTa r&v re fiopiwv
10 (TjAiKporiiTa /cal rrj<s (fropds TO raô9, ot? 7rdo~i atyoSpov ov Kal
oêa>? TO 7rpoo~rv%ov del Tefj,vei, oyio~reov dvafjUfivrjaKO-
rrjv rov cr^/iaTO? avrov yeveaiv, on /jbdXio-ra eKCivrj Kal 62 A
OVK dtj Averts SiaKplvovo~a rj/jitov Kara o-jAiKpd re Ta croo/jiaTa
Keppuariôvaa rovro o vvv Oep/jiov e<yo(J,ev etoTW9 TO rrdO^â Kal
15 Tovvofj,a Trapeo~xe- TO 8' evavriov rovrwv Kard8r)ov fj-ev, o/iw? 8e
fjitjo'ev eTrtSees CCTTOJ 6yov. Ta ydp Brj rwv Trepl TO o~(a/j,a vypwv
ueyao/j,epe<TTpa elcnovra, rd crp,iKp6repa e^wdovvTa, et? Ta? eKei-
vojv ov Bvvdfj,eva eSpa? evSvvai, ^vvcodovvTa yftoSv TO vorepov e^ B
2 al<r0Tf)Td :
alffdrjTtKii. AHSZ. 4 Carepa. ante {nroreOtvTa dat S.
15 TOIJTWV :
TOVTtf SZ.
i. OVT ravra. XwP's] To explain
the action of external objects upon the
human body involves a description of the
structure of the said body. But as two
subjects cannot be expounded at once,
we must assume (uwoOertov) one, and
afterwards examine what we have as-
sumed.
8<ra al<r0T]Ta] I have taken upon me
to make this correction of the ms. euV-
6r)TiK3., which appears to me unmeaning.
The two subjects to be handled are (i)
the structure of flesh &c, how it is capable
of receiving impressions, (2) the proper-
ties of objects, how they are capable of
producing impressions. But this latter
is expressed by alffO-qra, not ahOrfTiKa. :
how can the objects in this relation be
termed sentient? The corruption has
arisen, I doubt not, from failure to ap-
prehend the peculiar significance of xra-
07?/idTa. A similar confusion is found in
58 D, KIVIJTIKOV for Kivrirbv.
5. &TTW irpoTspa ii|uv] That is to
say, let us first assume their nature and
construction; not let us first examine
them. Plato, for the sake of continuity
in his exposition, takes the jra^/xara
first, postponing the account of ffapKos
y&effis.
6. T
irip 6p(J.6v] So then Oep^bv is
the vaOrj/jLa of irup : we have to inquire
how fire acts, so as to possess this jra-
TT^V SiaKpuriv] Aristotle demurs to
this explanation : see de gen. et corr.
II ii
329
b 26 6ep/j.t>v ydp ftm rd ffvynplvov
r& opoyevri (rb yap diaKpiveiv, oirep tftaffl
iroieif TO irvp, ffvyKplvetv Iffrl ra d/td</>ua'
(rvfj-ftaiyei ydp lâipelv TO. d6rpia)t J/v-
Xpov d TO crvvdyov Kal avynplvov o/jioLus Ta
re ffvyyevrj Kal Ta /J.T] 6/M<j>va. Theo-
phrastos also complains that Plato does
not explain heat and cold on the same
principle: de sensu 87 O.TOTTOV 5 Kal
TOVTOV irp&Tov fj.iv TO fj,rj irdvTa 6fJ.oius

62 B] TIMAIOS. 227
Now this cannot be adequately dealt with apart from the
affections of sense, nor yet can the latter without the former ;
yet to treat them both at once is hardly possible. We must
assume one side then, and afterwards we will return to examine
what we assumed. In order then that the properties of the
several elements may be discussed in due order, let us first as-
sume the nature of body and soul. First then let us see what
we mean by calling fire hot ;
which we must consider in the
following way, remembering the power of dividing and cutting
which fire exercises upon our body. That the sensation is a
sharp one we are all well enough aware : and the fineness of
the edges and sharpness of the angles, besides the smallness
of its particles and the swiftness of its motion, all of which
qualities combine to render it so vehement and piercing as
keenly to cut whatever meets it all this we must take into
account, remembering the nature of its figure, that this more
than any other kind penetrates our body and minutely divides
it, whence the sensation that we now call heat justly derives
its quality and its name. The opposite condition, though
obvious enough, still must not lack an explanation. When
the larger particles of moisture which surround the body enter
into it, they displace the smaller, and because they are not
able to pass into their places, they compress the moisture within
awooovvai, fiySt oaa TOV afirov ytvovf the word was originally /cep/uoV, 'cutting'.
6/uVas yap TO Gepfjiw ffxnf-a-Ti TO f/vxpov irdOr]p,a is again used as in 6 1 C.
ov% <i)ffavTus dWowKep. But it seems to 16. TWV irepl TO (r<o|ia vypwv] Water
me that the action of moisture in pro- then is for Plato the preeminently cold
ducing cold does, in Plato's account, de- element : this view was shared by Aris-
pend on the form of the particles. It totle; see meteorologica IV xi 389
b
15.
must at any rate be allowed that Plato's Chrysippos said air: Plutarch in his trea-
explanation has over Aristotle's, as pro- tise de prlmo frigido argues fantastically
pounded in the passage above cited, the in favour of earth. Plato's theory of cold
advantage of clearness and simplicity. is this. The larger particles of moisture
ii. XOYWTT^OV ava(xt(iv^<TKO|x^vois] surrounding the body displace the small-
i.e. if we call to mind the form of its er moist particles in the body, but
constituent particles, we cannot fail to owing to their size cannot occupy the
see that fire must necessarily have a place of the latter. Hence by the xepta-
highly penetrating power. <rts the substance of the body is com-
14. 8 vvv 0pp.6v Xyo|Av] As is clearly pressed to fill
up the vacant spaces. This,
indicated by vvv, an etymology is in- in its extremes! form, is freezing; and
tended ; and the cnly possible reference the mutual repulsion of the corporeal
is to KtpnaTi^ovffa. Plato would say that particles thus forced into unnatural con-
152

228 ITAATHNOS [62 B
dv(afjLaov KeKivrjfjLevov re aKivr]Tov Bt oynaXoTr/ra Kal TTJV %vvwcriv
direpya^ofieva irr^yvvcn. TO Be irapd cpvcriv ^vvayoaevov
Kara <f>vcriv avTo eavTO et9 TovvavTiov dirwOovv. TTJ Brj
Kal ro5 creicrfAU) TQVTW Tp6fj,o<f Kal piyos eredrj, ^v^pov re TO irdOos
5 airav TOVTO Kal TO Bpwv avTo O"X,ev ovofia. arKr/pov Be, oo-oi? av
r/fjbwv rj crdp% vireiKT)' uaaKov Be, ocra av Trj crapKi' irpos dr)d
T ovTft)?. vireiKei Be ocrov eirl crpuKpov ftaivei' TO Be e/c TTpaya>-
vwv ov fidcrewv, are /3e/S?7/co? cr<f)6Bpa, dvTiTvirwTaTOv elBos, o TI Te C
av 4? irvKVOTvjra ^vviov irXeicrTyv CLVTITOVOV y /j,dicrTa. ftapv Be
10 Kal Kovcpov fj,Ta T//9 TOI) KaTw <pv<rea)<;
dvw re eyo/j,evr)s eeTa%6-
fj.evov av Br)(odeirj cracpecrTaTa. cfrvcrei yap Bij Tivas T07TOU9 Bvo
elvat Bieir)<poTa<i Bi^f] TO irdv evavTiovs, TOV ftev KO.TW, irpos ov
irdvO" ocra Tivd oyKov crwuaTos %ei, TOV 8' dvca, irpos ov
v
3^Ta4 irdv, OVK opOov ovBauf) vo/Mi^eiv' TOV yap
J Te: ye A. 10 ToO ante K&TU omittunt SZ.
tiguity is trembling and shivering. Cf.
Philebus 32 A.
2. |*a'xrat Kard <}>v<rtv] Plutarch
gives a somewhat different account of
shivering : de primo frigido vi v<f> wv OVK
ael <pfvyei ical diroXei-jrei TO 6epfMi>, aXXa
Kal fw.-xf.raL, rrj fj-axjl 5' avruir ovo/j.a <f>piKi)
Kal rpo/ios.
4. TO ird0os...Kal TO Spa>v] i.e. we
apply the term cold both to ice and to
the sensation it produces in us.
6. Trpos dT]d re OVTWS] i.e. the
terms hard and soft are applied to them
in relation to each other, as well as in
relation to our flesh : thus lead, which
yields to iron, is soft in relation to iron,
though hard in relation to our flesh.
Theophrastos takes exception to this
definition also: de sensu 87 tirel 8
fjLaaKW TO vireiKov, tpavepov on TO vdup
Kal 6 drip Kal TO trvp /juiXaKa' <f>ri<rl yap
viretKeiv TO ftiKpav %xuv fidffiv, uffre TO
irvp av etr) juaXaKwroTOV. doKft 5^ TOU-
rwv ovOtv ovd' 8us TO fj.->) [itvov aXXa
fj-eOurrd/j-evov tlvai /j.aaKov, dd TO els
TO fidOos virfiKov avcv neTaffTdffeus. Here-
in he follows Aristotle meteorologica IV iv
38 2 a
12 /naXaKW de TO virfiKov Tcp ^177 O.VTI-
irepiiffTacrOat,' TO yap vdup ov /jLa
yap inretKei Trj 6lf/ei TO tiriireSov cis fil6os
aXX' dvTiTrepiiffTaTat. This is of course
merely a question of names.
9. f3apv 8 Kal KOV<{X>V] Here we
have Plato's theory of attraction and
gravitation, which is unquestionably by
far the most lucid and scientific that has
been propounded by any ancient au-
thority. The popular notion was that
the portion of the universe which we
occupy is AcaTw, and that above our heads
dvu :
ftapv is that which has a tendency
to move KO.TU, Kov<f>ov that which has a
tendency to move avu, or at least a
slighter tendency KOLTU. Plato clearly
saw the unscientific nature of this con-
ception. The explanation he offered in
its place was this. We have seen that
the vibration of the viroSoxy tends to sift
the four elements into separate regions in
space; but owing to the TT/XTJO-IJ portions
of them are found scattered all over the
universe. A mass of any element which
finds itself in an alien sphere endeavours
with all its might to escape to its proper
region : and it is just this endeavour which
constitutes its gravity: attraction is the
effort of all matter to obey the sifting

C] TIMAI02. 229
us ;
and whereas it was irregular and mobile, they render it
immovable owing to uniformity and contraction, and so it
becomes rigid. And what is against nature contracted in
obedience to nature struggles and thrusts itself apart ;
and to
this struggling and quaking has been given the name of
trembling and shivering : and both the effect and the cause
of it are in all cases termed '
cold '.
'
Hard '
is the name given to all things to which our flesh
yields ;
and '
soft
'
to those which yield to the flesh ;
and so also
they are termed in their relation to each other. Those which
yield are such as have a small base of support; and the figure
with square surfaces, as it is most firmly based, is the most
stubborn form ;
so too is whatever from the intensity of its com-
pression offers the strongest resistance.
Of 'heavy' and 'light' we shall find the clearest explanation
if we examine them together with the so-called 'below' and
'
above'. That there are naturally two opposite regions, dividing
the universe between them, one the lower, to which sink all
things that have material bulk, the other upper, to which every-
thing rises against its will, is altogether a false opinion. For
force which is in nature. So when we of flame has a stronger upward tendency
raise any substance of an earthy nature, than a smaller as an objection to Plato's
the earthward impulse which we observe theory ; whereas it is precisely what
in it is not due to the fact that the earth Plato affirms must on his principles in-
is the downward region whither all heavy evitably be the case. Aristotle's own
bodies tend to fall, but to this sifting force doctrine differed but little from the vulgar
which causes the mass of earth to strive notion on the subject : see physica IV v
towards its own sphere. 2 1 2 a
24 woV eVel TO p.lv KOV^OV TO ai><a
Aristotle in his criticism of Plato's <f>fp&/j.(i>6i> ean (pi'fffi, TO 5e fiapb TO Kara,
theory (de caelo IV ii
308* 34 foil.) sim- TO i^v irpos TO ptaov irepi^ov irtpas KO.TW
ply ignores the whole point of it from eVri, Kal auro TO fdffov, TO 52 irpos TO
beginning to end. The extent to which ec/xaroc avu, Kal aiVo TO <rxaro''- Theo-
he has done so may be gathered from the phrastos in his statement of the Platonic
following citation: afore ON 6V 6iyt>Tr)Ta theory (tie senstt 88) shows a clearer
Tuf Tptydvwv e' uv ffvveo-Tavai <j>aaiv comprehension of it, though marred by a
tKaffTov avruv, TO vvp 5.vd) <ptpf(F0ai wtyu- hankering after a dirXtDs flapv nal Kov<pov.
Kff TO Tf yap iretoi> ffTTov av t<ptpTo Anaxagoras divided space into &vu and
Kal fiapvTfpov ai> -ffv eV irXeiovwv ot>
Tpiyu- KO.TU : see Diogenes Laertius II 8: but
v(av. vvv bt QalvfTai rovvavrlov' ocrtf yap Aristotle says neither he nor Empedokles
dv rj TrXetoc, KovtpoTepov fffTi Kal avu <ptpt- gave any definition of j3a/n) and K.ovtj>ov.
Tat OO.TTOV. That is to say, Aristotle de caclo IV ii
309" 20.
actually urges the fact that a larger body

230 HAATONOS [62 c
ovpavov o-<f>aipoeiBovs oro9, o<ra uev <j>eo~rra icrov rov fieo~ov D
yeyovev eaâra, o/W9 avrd ^pr] ea-âra rrefyvKevai, TO Be ftecrov
TO, avrd perpa rwv eo-%dra)v dfaa-TrjKos ev ro> KaravriKpv voaiêiv
Bel rrdvrwv elvai. rov Brj KoajAov ravrrj rrefyvKoros rl rwv elprjue-
5 va)v dva) Tt9 17
Karco ndeuevos OVK ev BiKrj Soêi TO fJLrjBev
ovoua eyeiv ;
6 p,ev yap /iecro9 ev avrw TOTTO? ovre Kara)
ovre ava) ejecrOac SiKatos, aXX' avro ev fjiecra)'
6 8e irepi^ ovre
/i<705 ovr exwv ^^dôpov avrov ftepos erepov Oarepov fj,dov
TO fjbeo~ov 77
n TWV KaravriKpv. rov Be oyuo/w? irdvrr) rrefyvKoros rrold
10 Ti9 Tri(f)epa)v cvofjiara avry evavrla KOI rrrj Ka(a<; av 77704x0 eyeiv,
el yap ri Kal arepeov eirj Kara fiecrov rov TTCW/TO? to-OTraXe?, et?
ov8ev av rrore rwv ecrârwi/ eve^deir} Bid rrjv rravrrj ofjLoiorijra G3 A
avr&v aV el Kal irepl avro rropevoirb rt? ev KVKO), TroXXa/ct? av
crra? ai/T/Troi/9 ravrbv avrov Kara) Kal dvw rrpocreirroL.
TO yaev yup
15 oXov, Kaddrcep elprjrai, vvv S>j, a<f)aipoei,Se<; 6v, rorrov nvd Kara),
rbv Be dva) eyeiv eêiv OVK e/j,<f>povo<f odev Be (avoad(70r} ravra
Kal ev ot9 ovra eldicraeOa Bi eKelva Kal rbv ovpavov oov ovra)
Biatporfievot, eyeiv, ravra Btouooyr)reov vrrodep,evoL<; TaSe rîlv. B
t Tt9 ev TW TOV rravrbs TOTTO), Kaff ov r) rov Trvpbs el'Xê udi<rra
10 (f)vcri<>,
ov Kal 7rel<rrov av tf
10 ai> omittit A.
3. v TiS Ka.Tavn.Kpv] The universe
being a sphere, every point on the cir-
cumference (^xara) has precisely the
same relation as every other to the centre,
which is right opposite to each. There
is therefore nothing whereby one portion
of the circumference can be differentiated
from another so as to justify us in term-
ing one avw and the other KO.TU. Nor
yet will Plato allow the correctness of
terming the centre KO.TW, as Aristotle
subsequently did, nor dvw either: it is
just 'the centre' O.VTO ev /jitfftp. How-
ever in Phaedo 1 1 2 E the centre of the
earth is regarded as the lowest point : but
in that passage physics are largely tern-
pered with mythology.
8. (xdXXov irp6s TO plo-ov] That is,
no part of the circumference has any
difference in its relations towards the
centre, as compared with any part on the
etrj irpbs o <j)epeTat, eVe/i/3a9
SZ.
opposite side.
u. cl yap rt Kal (TTpt6v ttr] If
there were a solid body at the centre
of the universe (such as the earth in the
Platonic cosmology actually was), such
is the uniformity of the sphere in which
it is, that it would have no tendency
towards any one point in the circum-
ference rather than any other : therefore
for it there would be no &vu nor KO.TU in
any direction. Compare Phaedo 109 A
Iffbppoirov yap TrpayfJ-a 6/j.oiov nvos ev /jL^ffy
Tt6tv ovx f fj.aov ovd' tyrrov ovSa-
p6<re Ki6ijvai, 6/xoiwj 8' txov &KIV^
ft-evel.
13. cl Kal ircpl avTo iropevoircS TIS]
A second illustration of the want of signi-
ficance in the terms avu and KO.TW is this.
If one were to travel round the circum-
ference, he would be forced, if he used
the words in the popular w.ay, to call

63 B] TIMAIOl 231
since the form of the universe is spherical, all the extreme points,
being equally distant from the centre, are by their very nature
equally extreme ;
and the centre, being equally distant from
all the extremes, ought to be regarded as opposite to all such
points. This being the nature of the universe, how can one
describe any of the said points as upper or lower, without justly
being censured for using irrelevant terms ? For the centre
cannot properly be described as being above or below, but
simply at the centre ;
while the circumference is neither itself
central nor has any difference between the points on its sur-
face, so that one has a different relation to the centre from
an opposite point. Since then it is everywhere uniform, how
and in what sense can we suppose we are speaking correctly
if we use terms which imply opposition ? For suppose in the
midst of the universe there were a solid body in equilibrium,
it would have no tendency towards any point in the circum-
ference, owing to the absolute uniformity of the whole : indeed
if we were to walk round the sphere, frequently, as we stood
at the antipodes of our former position, we should call the
same point on its surface successively 'above' and 'below'. For
this universe being spherical, as we just now said, no rational
man can speak of one region as upper, of another as lower: how-
ever whence these names were derived and under what conditions
we use them to express this division of the entire universe,
we may explain on the following hypothesis. In that region
of the universe which is specially allotted to the element of
fire, where indeed the greatest mass would be collected of that
to which it is attracted, if one should attain to this place, and,
the same point both dvu and /carw: for supply an object with (tnxf>
'
m which
the point that now is KO.TU will be avta fire has its allotted place.' Compare
when he reaches the antipodes thereof. Aeschylus Seven against Thebes 423 Ka-
I think we must conceive the traveller iravtiis 5' ^ir' 'HtKTpa.i<ru> (IXyxtv Ti/Xeuj.
to be moving round the inside of the See too 41 c above.
circumference of the universe; not, as 20. irXeio-rov av rjOpowrjUvov clij] Al-
Stallbaum supposes, round the arrpfov. though detached portions of fire are to
For were he walking round the latter, be found in all parts of the universe, yet,
every point in it would always be KO.TU in since all fire is perpetually struggling to
the vulgar sense. reach its proper home, naturally the great
19. Ka8' ov] Stallbaum would ex- bulk of the element will be accumulated
punge <fa0'. But I think we may readily in that region.

232 TIAATHNOS [63 B
67T* KeivO Kal BvvafJilV 649 TOVTO e%(i)V, fêpr) TOV TTVpb? u<f)aipd}V
io'Taiv), ridels els TrXucrTiyyas, cupwv TOV ^vyw teal TO Trvp eKwv
ei9 drofiotov depa j3ia6fji,vos, Bfjov 009 rovarTov TTOV TOV //,e/bi/o9
paov ftiaTcti' poopr) yap /ua Bvoiv a/xa fieTeojpiôfjievoiv TO p.ev C
5 eXaTTOv fj,dov, TO Be 7reov JJTTOV dvdytcr) TTOV tcaTaTeivojjievov
^vverrecrdai TTJ ftia, KOI TO (tev 7rov ftapv teal KOTTW <f>epo[j,evov
Kt}0rjvai,, TO Be o-piKpov ea(j>pbv teal dvw. TUVTOV ST) TOVTO Bel
i,
SpwvTas r;/ia? Trepl TOvBe TOV TOTTOV. Trl
jap yrjs /9e-
, yeoaBr) jevrj Buo-Tapevoi, teal yfjv eVtore avTrjv eKOfJ.ev et?
10 dvopoiov depa ftlq ical Trapa (frvo-iv, afjiôTepa TOV %vy<yevov<; dvTe-
Xopeva. TO Be crfMicpOTepov paov TOV /ietbi/o<? j3iao/J,evoiov ovv avTO -Trpoaeipijica/jiev teal
TOV TOTTOV et9 ov ftiaôfieO' avw, TO B' evavTiov TOVTOIS 7ra'#o9 fiapv
teal tcaTco. raOr' ovv Brj BiatyopaJS e%eiv avTa 7rpc9 avTa dvdyicr)
15 Bid TO TO, TrXrldv) TU>V yvv TOTTOV evavTiov da dois tcaTeêtv
TO yap ev ere/aw tcov(f)ov ov TOTTW r3 /cara TOV evavTiov TOTTOV
ea(f>pq) teal TW ftapel TO fiapv T3 re KCLTW TO tcaTto Kal r&5 dvo) TO
dvo) TcdvT evavTia teal 7Tdyia Kal Tcavrws Bidtyopa Trpbs dr)a E
dvevpeBrjveTai yiyvopeva teal ovTa- ToBe ye fj,rjv
ev TI BiavorjTeov
20
Trepl 7rdvT(ov dvTwv, &J9 rj p,ev 7rpo9 TO vyyeve$ 6809 e/cdcrrot9 orcra
i. irvpos dâipwv icrTaftj] Our mis- efforts precisely as earth and water do
conception about the nature of light and now: it would have a similar tendency to
heavy is due to this cause. We are con- revert to its proper region, and would
fined to this region of earth and water; be 'heavy'; while earth or water, so far
and when we weigh masses of earth or from resisting the effort to remove it
water, we find that they always have a from the region of fire, would have a
tendency in one direction. This tend- natural impulse to fly off in the direction
ency we call weight, and the direction in of earth, and would be 'light'. Accord-
which they tend we call downward ; and ingly, whereas now we call the region
because earth and water resist our efforts of earth 'down', and things that tend
to remove them from their own region, towards it 'heavy', we should, in the
we conceive of them as absolutely heavy. supposed case, call the region of fire
Fire, on the other hand, so far from '
down '
and things that tend towards fire
resisting any effort to lift it from the 'heavy'. There is therefore no such thing
region which earth and water seek, has a as absolute lightness and heaviness; all
natural impulse to fly from it ; whence we things are light or heavy only relatively
conceive of fire as absolutely light. But to the region in which they are situate.
this opinion is due to the limitation of 4. PWLTCU is middle, as in Aeschylus
our experience to one sphere. Could we Agamemnon 385 /3iarot 5' a rdXaiva
reach the home of fire and endeavour to irtidJ).
raise portions of it into the region of air, 5. I|TTOV is of course to be joined
as we now do with earth and water, we with fiWireotfcu.
should then find that fire resisted our 7. TOVT^V 8rj TOVTO 8ti <j>pao-cu]

E] TIMAIOS. 233
acquiring the needful power, should separate portions of fire
and weigh them in scales, when he raises the balance and
forcibly drags the fire into the alien air, evidently he overpowers
the smaller portion more easily than the larger : for when two
masses are raised at once by the same force, necessarily the
smaller yields more readily to the force, the larger, owing to
its resistance, less readily : hence the larger mass is said to be
heavy and to tend downwards, the smaller to be light and
to tend upwards. This is exactly what we ought to detect
ourselves doing in our own region. Moving as we do on the
earth, we separate portions of earthy substances or sometimes
earth itself, and drag them into the alien air with unnatural
force, for each portion clings to its own kind. Now the smaller
mass yields more readily to our force than the larger and follows
quicker into the alien element ;
therefore we call it
'
light ',
and
the place into which we force it
'
above
'
;
while to the opposite
conditions we apply the terms 'heavy' and 'below'. Now
that these mutual relations should vary is inevitable, because
the bulk of the several elements occupy contrary positions in
space. For as between a body that is light in one region and
a body that is light in the opposite region, or as between two
that are heavy, as well as upper and lower, all the lines of
attraction will be found to become and remain relatively con-
trary and transverse and different in every possible way. But
with all of them this one principle is to be borne in mind, that
in every case it is the tendency towards the kindred element
What escapes our notice is that in lifting a variety of ways.
earth from earth, we are not lifting it 18. tvavrla. Kal irXaYia] Different sub
'up', but simply out of its own region. stances which are imprisoned in an alien
This we should realise if we tried the region will have the lines of their attrac-
experiment on fire in the fire-home, be- tion in some instances opposite, as in the
cause we should find our customary case of masses of fire and of earth in the
notions of up and down inverted. region of air, in others the lines may
10. ap,<j>6Tcpa] i.e. the earth in each be inclined at any angle (irdyia) one
scale. to another, according to the position
14. ravT ovv 81^ Sia<j>6ps ^X lvl occupied by the two bodies in relation
These relations of 'light' and 'heavy' to their proper regions. Plato is insist-
have no absolute fixity, because, as he ing that the lines of gravitation are not
goes on to explain, the same thing which parallel.
is light in one region is heavy in another; 20. r p^v irpos TO Ivyytvis 686s] Here
and consequently the direction of 'up' we have the definite statement in so many
and 'down' is reversed and altered in words that gravity is just the attraction

234 HAATflNOS [6 3 E-
ftapv p,ev TO êpofievov iroiel, rev Be TOTTOV et9 uv TO TOIOVTOV
<f>epTat, Kara), TO. Be TOVTOIS %OVTO, 009 eTepws OaTepa. irepl Br)
TOVTCOV av TWV fraOrj/jidTatv raOra aiTia elpfaffo). etou 8' av KOI
rpaêo9 7ra#/;/zaTO9 aiTiav 7ra9 TTOV tcaTiBoov /rat erepa> BvvaTo? av
5 eirj Xeyeiv crtcXijpoTijs jap aVw/iaXdr^Tt fîÔela-a, TO 8" 0/101X0x779 64 A
TTVKVOTIJTL TTapeêrat.
XXVII. M.eyio~Tov Be /cat OITTOV TWV KOLVWV irepl oov TO
o~<ufj,a Tradrj/jkaTcov TO TWV qBecov ical TWV dyeivv afoiov ev 0*9
Btet]vdafji,ev, /cat oo~a Bia TWV TOV crajyuaro? fAoplwv
10 KeKTr]fj,eva Kai X,i/7ra? ev aurot? T^Soz/a? 8" afia eTrofjievas
ovv Kara iravTOs alo~6r)Tov /cat uvaia-dtjTov 7ra6rj/J.aTO<> ra? atrta?
afjL/3(ivo)/jt,ev, dvafAifjuyo-Ko/Aevot TO r^9 CIKIVIJTOV re /cat Bva/civij- B
TOV <j>vo~e(i)<?
OTI Biei6fieda ev rot9 7rpco~dV TaiTy yap Brj /iera-
BiQJKTeov TrdvTa, oaa eTnvoovêv eXeiv. TO fief <ydp /cara fyvaiv
15 evtclvrjTOV, OTav ical ^pa^v Trddos et? avTO e/ATTiTTTr], BiaBiBa)o~i
KVKW, /jiopia eTepa erepot9 TavTov aTrepjaôfêva, fj-e^pnrep av CTTI
10 avrois : oi)Totx A.
of a body towards its proper sphere ;
and
for every substance the direction of its
proper sphere, wherever that may be, is
KCITW, and the opposite $.v<a.
By Td 5
TOVTOIS K.T.. Plato means that while in
a given region we apply the term papv to
a substance whose 656s irpbs ri> %iryyfvts
is towards that region, we apply the
term KOV<J>OV to a substance whose 65os
irpos TO vyyevts is towards another. To
adopt Martin's example, in the region
of earth stones are heavy and vapour
light; but in the region of air vapour
is heavy and stones light.
5. <TKT]p6TT]s y'ip] With this clause
TO (i.tv has of course to be supplied.
64 A 65 B, c. xxvii. We have now to
explain the nature and cause of pleasure
and pain. Sensation is produced in the
following way. If an impression from
without lights upon a part of the body
of which the particles are readily stirred,
those particles which first received the
impact transmit the motion to their neigh-
bours; and so it is handed on until it
reaches the seat of consciousness; at
which point sensation is effected. If on
the contrary the impression is received by
a part of the body which is hard to stir,
the motion is not transmitted, and no
sensation ensues. This being so, the
explanation of pleasure and pain is as
follows. When any of the particles that
constitute our body are suddenly and in
considerable numbers forced out of their
normal position, the result is pain ;
and
when they in like manner return to their
normal position, the result is pleasure.
If however either process takes place on
a very small scale or very gradually, it is
imperceptible. When the corporeal par-
ticles yield to the external impact with
extreme readiness, the process is accom-
panied by vivid perception, but neither
by pleasure nor by pain. If the distur-
bance has been slow and gradual, and
the restoration rapid and sudden, we
experience pleasure without antecedent
pain : but if these conditions are reversed,
we feel pain in the disturbance, but the
restoration affords no pleasure.
7. TWV KOIVWV irtpl oXov TO <rw(ia]
An explanation of pleasure and pain will
complete our account of the sensations

64 B] TIMAIOS. 235
that makes us call the falling body heavy, and the place to
which it falls, below ;
while to the reverse relations we apply
the opposite names. So much then for the causes of these
conditions. Of the qualities of smooth and rough any one
could perceive the cause and explain it to another: the latter
is produced by a combination of hardness and irregularity, the
former by a combination of uniformity and density.
XXVII. We have yet to consider the most important point
relating to the affections which concern the whole body in com-
mon ;
that is, the cause of pleasure and pain accompanying
the sensations we have discussed : and also the affections which
produce sensation by means of the separate bodily organs and
which involve attendant pains and pleasures. This then is how
we must conceive the causes in the case of every affection,
sensible or insensible, recollecting how we defined above the
source of mobility and immobility : for this is the way we must
seek the explanation we hope to find. When that which is
naturally mobile is impressed by even a slight affection, it spreads
abroad the motion, the particles one upon another producing
the same effect, until coming to the sentient part it announces
vhich are not confined to any special we saw it used in the preceding chapter,
organs, but affect the body as a whole: 13. 4v rois irp<5<r6v] See 55 B.
next we shall proceed to discuss the 16. |i6pia rpa Ire'pois] The word
separate senses. /XO/HCI is usually considered as the ob-
8. V ols 8itXt]X50a|Av] i.e. in the ject of 8iadl8u<ri. But this seems to me
perceptions treated in the preceding strained ; since what the evKivrjrov trans-
chapter, mits is the trdOos, not its own particles.
n. dvaur0TJTOv ira0T]|iaTOs] A tra- I should prefer to regard fwpia as placed
6-rifj.a then, we see, is not always ac- in a kind of apposition, the construction
companied by a.ta6t)<Ti.*. The distinction being somewhat similar to that in So-
is this. Every external influence affect- phokles Antigone 259 6yoi 5' tv dXXi?-
ing the body is a vdOri/j-a, but, unless Xoicnv tppoffovv Kaxol, <u/a $Myx.wv <f>v-
it is transmitted to the seat of conscious- Xcuca: cf. Herodotus 1 1 cxxxiii (quoted by
ness, it does not produce afoO-riais. Thus Prof. Campbell) Iva. ol Svudeica. rea avrl
cutting the hair is a ira6ij/j.a, but not an Ijf iriwv yti>r)rat, al vvKres rj^pai voitv-
atffOrjffts : or, to take another example, fuevcu. Just below the juupta are spoken
a deaf man has the Tradi]fj.a but not the of as transmitting the 7rd#os, 5ia5i5<Ww
afaOrjffis of sound ; the air-vibrations are fiopiuv fj.opiots dXXwc dXXoiy.
conveyed to his ear, but stop short there ravrov airtp'yciijop.tva] i. e.
affecting
without being announced to the brain. them with the same 7r<i0os. The theory
The word irdOrjua, it will be observed, of sensation here enunciated is also set
being now applied to the subject, has forth in Philebtis 33 D : see too Rcpub-
a different significance from that in which lie 584 c at ye Sia rov ffw/taros ^iri TT}*-

236 TIAATHNOS [64 B
TO <j>povtfMov e66vTa eâyyeir) TOV Troiijo-avTos Ttjv Bvva/uv TO
8' evavTiov eBpalov ov icar ovSeva re KVKOV Ibv Trdo-êt p.bvov,
ao Be ov Kivei TOOV 7rrj<riov, axrre ov BiaBiBovTwv fjiopiwv fiopiois C
'da>v dot<{ TO TrpwTov 7rd0o<f ev avTOis dKivrjTOV ei$ TO irav
5 o>oz> jevofjLevov dvaio~dr)Tov Trapeo-ê TO iraObv. TavTa Be trepi TG
ocTTa teal Ta? T/9tâ? ecrTl Kal ocr a'XXa yijiva TO irXelcrTov
ev tffjilv fj,6pia' TO, Be efjiTrpocrdev irepl TO, Trjs oêco? /cat
/xaXi<7Ta, Bid TO Trvpbs depo<; T ev CIVTOIS Buvapiv eveivat,
TO Br) T)79 qBovrjs Kal i>7rr)<> wBe Set Biavoelcrdai. TO /j,ev Trapd
10 <f>vcriv teal ftlaiov yvyvo/juevov ddpoov Trap THMV TcdQos dyeiv6i>, TO D
8' ei9 (f>vcriv aTCibv -rrdXtv dOpoov ySv, TO Be ripefia Kal KaTa o-fj,iicpbv
dvaio-QijTov, TO 8' evavTiov TOVTOIS eVavTtw?. TO Be /ne
yiyvofjievov ajrav alcrOrjTov fj,ev 'o TL /j,d,i<TTa, V7rr)<; Be fcal q
ov fj,T%ov, olov Ta TTepl Tr/v o-^riv avTt}v Tradij/j,aTa, r) Br} o~<ap.a ev
15 Tots Trpoo-Qev epptjdr} tca0' rjpepav gvp^ves r)p,<av jiyveaffat. Tainrj
<ydp TOfial fjiev /cal Kavcreis Kal ocra aXa Trda-êi VTras OVK e/Lt-
Troiovcriv, ovBe qBovas 7rdiv ejrl TavTov aTTLOVcrrj^ elBos, /AeyicrTai E
Be al<T0r)o-ei<; Kal o~a(peo-TaTai KaQoTi T dv TrdOrj Kal 'oawv dv avTij
Try Trpoo~/3aovo~a etyaTTTijTar ftta jdp TO Trd^Trav OVK evt Trj Bia-
6 TO.S ante rp/xas omittunt SZ. 15 i)/juv S. 19 irpoffâXoOcra :
irpo<rft<iovffa S.
^vx^v rflvovffai : and compare Aristotle soul which perceives pleasure. As usual,
tie sensu
436
b 6 >)
5' aftrflTjim 6Vt 5id TOV Aristotle's objections miss the point. He
ffui/jLaros ylverat TTJ ifsvxy 8ijov Kal 5td TOV is treating pleasure subjectively and psy-
5yov Kai TOV 6yov x^pts. chologically ; whereas Plato's theory is
6. 6<rra Kal rds rptxis] So says a purely physical one. There is no con-
Aristotle de anima III xiii 435* 24 /cat 3ia fusion in the hitter's view between the
TOVTO rois 6<TTois xat rats OpL^l Kal TO?J subjective and objective aspects; but here
roioi/rois nopioLs OVK atff6ai>6/JL(6a, STL yrjs he is only concerned with explaining the
tffriv.
physical causes which give rise to pleasure
9. TO jtiv irapd }>v<riv] The first and pain.
indication of this theory of pleasure and 12. TO 8i JMT' tvirT(as] We have
pain is to be found in Republic 583 C seen that sensation is due to the cor-
foll.: it is definitely set forth in Philebus poreal particles being evKlvrfra and trans-
31 D foil. The Platonic theory is assailed mining the jrdflos to the seat of conscious-
by Aristotle, nic.etA.xin 1173*31. He ness. But pleasure and pain require a
objects (i) that a Klvrjffis involves the certain degree of resistance in the par-
notion of speed, which pleasure does tides : for if they offer only the slightest
not; (2) if pleasure is a ytveffi.3, where- possible opposition to the external in-
unto is it a ytvevu, and out of what con- fluence, the perception is indeed acute,
stituents does it arise? (3) it cannot be but is entirely unattended by physical
an diroir^puffis, for that is a purely cor- pain or pleasure. An instance of this
poreal process, and it is not body but is furnished by the phenomena of sight.

E] TIMAIOS. 237
the property of the agent : but a substance that is immobile
is too stable to spread the motion round about, and thus merely
receives the affection but does not stir any neighbouring part;
so that as the particles do not pass on one to another the
original impulse which affected them, they keep it untransmitted
to the entire creature and thus leave the recipient of the af-
fection without sensation. This takes place with our bones and
hair and all the parts we have which are formed mostly of
earth : while the former conditions apply in the highest degree
to sight and hearing, because they contain the greatest pro-
portion of fire and air. The nature of pleasure and pain must
be conceived thus : an affection contrary to nature, when it takes
place forcibly and suddenly within us, is painful ;
a sudden
return to the natural state is pleasant; a gentle and gradual
process is imperceptible; and one of an opposite character is per-
ceptible. Now a process which takes place with perfect facility
is perceptible in a high degree, but is accompanied neither by
pleasure nor by pain. An example will be found in the affec-
tions of the visual current, which we said above was in the day-
time a material body cognate with ourselves. In this cutting and
burning and any other affection cause no,pain; nor does pleasure
ensue when it returns to its normal state : but its perceptions
are most vivid and accurate of whatsoever impresses it or what-
soever itself meets and touches. For its dilation and contraction
The oi/'ews pev/j.a (which we must remem- 14. kv TOIS irpocrfltv] 45 B. By TTJV
ber to be actually part of ourselves) is 6f/iv we are as before to understand the
composed of extremely subtle and mobile 6f/eus f>evfj.a.
particles, which yield without resistance 15. |v|juf>vs i]pu3v] Stallbaum is per-
to any external impulse. This may come haps right in reading TJ/MI>. But as try-
in contact with fire or be divided by a yevrjs is several times followed by the
sharp instrument, and yet, while the KO.V- genitive (see 30 D) it seems possible that
o-tj and the TO^T) are clearly perceived, t-v/jupvrjs might have the same construction,
no pain is felt, notwithstanding that in V/J.<J>VTOS seems to have the same go-
either case the particles are very much vernment in Philebus 51 D xai rovruv
dislocated. Plato is of course speaking v/i0t5roiis riSovas eirontvas.
merely of bodily pain and pleasure, not 18. ical o<rwv dv] A similar fulness
of the mental pleasure awakened by the of detail is in 45 C STOV T' an avr6 irore
sight of a beautiful object or of the dis- itf>dirTrfrai Kal 5 &v ao txtlvov.
gust excited by a spectacle of contrary 19. Siaicptcrei TC avrfjs Kol <rvyKpkri]
nature. The process of seeing, as such, These terms are explained when Plato
is normally unattended by physical pain comes to treat of colours, 670 foil,
or pleasure.

238 HAATflNOS [64 E
re aCrfj<; Kat <rvjKpiaei. rd o" ex fieiôvtov jip<av
eixovra ra> Bpoivri, BiaBiBovra Be ei? oov ra? Kivqaeis, 17801/0?
KOI XuTra?, dorpiovfieva fiev Xinra?, KaOicrrafjieva Be et? 65 A
TO at'To jraXii' ijBovds. o<ra Be Kara ajuxpov ra? drroâipâ'ei^
5 eavroSv xal KevoMreis eirj<j>e, rd<t Se irrjptoa-i<: dGpoas ical Kara
, Kevuxreto^ fiev dvaurffrjra, TrTjp(ocreu>s Be altr0ijri,Ka yiy-
Xi/ira? pev ov Trapeêi TO ffinjrqt rfj<; "^v^fjff, //eyurra? Be
rjBovd<r eari Be evBija irep ra? evaBias. wra Be d7raorpiovTai
ftev dBpoa, Kara <rfiucpa Be fjuryis re et? ravro irdiv eairrot? xaffi-
10 ararai, rovvavrLov TOI? eîrpoffOev irdvra aTroBiBtotri' raura 8' ay B
Trepl ra? xavtret? /cal ro/*a? TOU <r/*aTo? yiyvofievd etrri KardBija.
XXVIII. Kai ra /*v 8^ /cotva TOW o-a>'/iTO9 iravros TraOij-
para, roov T' eTraWfUcov ocrai TOW Bp<S<riv avrd ye'yovac'i,, (TêBov
eiprjrai' TO, S' ev iciois pApeaiv ijfuov yiyvopeva, rd re irdBrj tcai
15 Ta? atrx'a? au T3v Bptovrtov, ireipareov eiirelv, av mg BwfapeBa. C
rrpwrov ovv otrc rwv jfypMV irepi Xeyoirre? ev TO*? irpotrOev drrel-
Tropev, IBia ovra iradrjfiara irepl rr^v ryXwrrav, efjupavurreov y
Bvvarov. <paiverai Be KO ravra, wtrrrep ovv KOI rd TroXXa, Bid
4 ri avnJ : na^rAr S. g rai post M^ytf T addit A. TO&TO : rcu/n&r SZ.
10 raf-ra : rcuVd A. 15 a$ omittit S, qai max post dûrrwr dedit avrd. 1
post rpurof addit S. arcXiroji' :
i. be paort*y |up*v] It will be re- natural nutriment of the nostrils, which
membered that the visual stream consist- suffer waste when those are absent: but
ed of very fine particles of fire ; not the the depletion is so imperceptible that it
very finest, since the rays from some is only by sudden restoration of the na-
objects penetrate and divide the visual rural state that we become conscious
current : see 67 E. that there has been any lack. The state-
7. Xvras pr ov vap^xci] When ment in the Phikbus* 1. /., though briefer,
the dislocation has been very gradual amounts to the same: &ra raj iVMag
and the restoration rapid, we have acute dmtff&irroi-s fxorra KOU aXrroti rds rXif-
pleasure without any antecedent pain. puxrcis aurOifrat fai ij&eias faffapas Xwrdr
Such pleasures are called in the Republic rapaSiittav. Aristotle tells us (<& satsu
and Philtbus nadapai 7?5oroi, as distin- v 445* 16) that certain Pythagoreans be-
gnished from IUTTCU. : see Republic 584 c lieved that some animals were nourished
and Philfbtu 518, where the example of by smell.
sweet smells is given, as well as beautiful 8. d-roXXorpiovrat |Uv dfipoa] On
colours, shapes and sounds. In our pre- the other hand there are cases where the
sent passage Plato adds a little to the disturbance is violent and causes severe
explicitness of his statement: he shows pain, but the restoration is too gradual
that &fffud are just as much jrariurrdffetf to afford any pleasure. This is to be
as the IU.CTCU, only the rfrwo-ts being in- seen in wounds and burns and such like ;
sensible, we felt no preliminary pain. the process of healing causes no pleasure.
He seems to regard sweet odours as the 65 B 66 c, c. xxvtii. So much for the

65 c] TIMAIOS. 239
are entirely free from violence. On the other hand bodies
formed of larger particles, reluctantly yielding to the agent, and
spreading the motions through the whole frame, cause pleasure
and pain ;
when they are disturbed giving pain, and pleasure
in being restored to their proper state. Those things which
suffer a gradual withdrawing and emptying, but have their
replenishment sudden and on a large scale, are insensible to
the emptying but sensible of the replenishment ;
so that while
they cause no pain to the mortal part of the soul, they produce
very intense pleasure. This is to be observed in the case of
sweet smells. But when the parts are disturbed suddenly, but
gradually and laboriously restored to their- former condition,
they afford exactly the opposite result to the former : this may
be seen in the case of burns and cuts on the body.
XXVI II. Now the affections common to the body as a
whole and the names that have been given to the agents which
produce them have been well-nigh expounded : next we must
try to explain, if we can, what takes place in the separate parts
of us, both as to the affections of them and the causes on the
part of the agents. First then we must set forth to the best
of our p3wer all that we left unsaid concerning tastes, which
are affections peculiar to the tongue. It appears that these,
sensations affecting the whole body and 13. TOIS Spwriv avrd] i.e. the agents
their causes; we have now to inquire or forces which produce the iraOrifjMTa.
into the separate sensory faculties. We 16. ^v TOIS irp6o-0v <iirXCiro|Xv] The
will first take taste. This depends upon reference would seem to be to the enume-
the contraction or dilatation of the pores ration of XI>M* in 60 A. Plato's statement
of the tongue by substances that are is quoted by Theophrastos de causis plan-
dissolved in the mouth. Whatever power- tarum VI i: to the list of xvf*l given by
fully contracts the small vessels of the Plato in the present passage he adds Xi-
tongue is harsh and astringent; that which irapos. Farther on he gives the views of
has a detergent effect we call alkaline, Demokritos, who referred differences of
or if its action is milder, saline. A sub- taste to differences in the shape of the
stance which is volatile and inflames atoms : cf. de sensu 65 69. Opinions
the vessels is called pungent; and one not dissimilar to Plato's are ascribed to
that produces a kind of fermentation or Alkmaion and to Diogenes of Apollonia
effervescence is acid. All the foregoing by pseudo-Plutarch de pladtis philoso'
exercise a disturbing influence upon the phorum IV 18.
substance of the tongue: that which 17. irtpl -rqv y^"'1
""'] The under
mollifies it and restores the disturbed surface of the soft palate is said by ana-
particles to their natural state, producing tomists to share this function with the
a pleasurable sensation, is named sweet. tongue.

240 DAATHNOS [65 c
<rvyKpi(r(av re rivwv ital
SiaKpiaewv yiyve&Oai, Trpus 8e avrals
KexprjaOai fj,d6v n rcov aXXwj/ rpa^vrrfcL re KOI iorr)<Tiv.
oVa (jv yap el&iovra irepl ra <Xe/3ta, olovTrep BoKifiela T^<?
ryc0rrr)<; rera/jueva eVi rrjv Kap&iav, et? ra vorepd rrjs crap/cos real D
5 a-TraXa ejATTiTrrovra yrjiva p-epr] Kararrjtcofjieva ^vvdyet ra <Xe/3ia
/cat aTTofypaivei, rpa^yrepa [j,ev ovra <rrpv(f>vd, f)rrov Se rpa^y-
vovra avcrrrjpd (paiverai- ra Be rovrwv re pwrrriica teal irdv ro
7repl rrjv j<ar7av diro'jrvvovra, Trepa p,ev rov fj,erplov rovro
Spdovra xal irpoa'errCkaâvop.eva, axrre dirorr]Keiv avrt}s rf)<; <j*v-
10 <r(i)<t, olov r rwv irpcov BvvafjLis, iriKpd irdvff ovrws oovopacrrai, E
ra 8e inroSeeo-repa rrjs Xirpca&ov? efeeo? eVi TO perpiov re rfj pir
dvfcd avev TriKporijros rpaê/a? /cat <j)ia
rd Se rrj rov crro/iaTO9 0epfj,6rrjrt,
eaivbjieva VTT' avrov, ^vveKTrvpov/Aeva Kal irdi,v avrd avnicdovra
15 TO SiaOepfArjvav, fapcfjievd re VTTO ACOVÔTT^TO? dva> Trpo? Ta9 rfjs
/ce(f)afj<f alaQricreis, repvovrd re trdvG
1
oTroo-ot? av Trpoo-Trlirrr), Sid
ravras rd$ Swdfjueis Spifiea irdvra roiavra eXe^;^. rwv Be avr<av 66 A
7rpo7rrvcrijieva)v pev VTTO o"r}Tre$6vo<>, el<; Se rds crrevdf
3 5oKifj.eia :
SOKI/J.IOL HSZ. 14 eaiv6jj.eva :
iaiv6fj.ei>a ASZ.
i. 8id ervYKpCcrtwv] Nearly all sense- all taste is produced by substances in a
perception is reduced by Plato to con- liquid state, whether liquefied before or
traction and expansion, which however after entering the mouth. In this opinion
in different organs produce different Aristotle coincides ; see for instance tfe
classes of sensation. This is the agency anima II x 422
a
17 ovQlv 8t iroiei vfj.ov
by which taste is brought about, though atffQrjfftv avev vypbrtiros, d' fxei tvtp-
the tongue is in a peculiar degree affected yelq.rj Swap-ei vyp&TrjTa. Aristotle's theory
by the roughness or smoothness of the of taste will be found in that chapter.
entering particles. 6. <rrpv<j)vd...av(rTT)pd] The first of
irpos 8i avrais] sc. Tats crvyxptffeffi these words evidently means 'astringent':
Kal 8iaicplffe<ri. avcrrripa may be translated '
harsh
'
; but
3. otovircp 8oKi(iia] The word SOKL- possibly it answers more to our 'bitter'
Hfiov or doxl/Mov signifies an instrument than iriKpd: at least we should hardly
for testing, and is applied by Plato to call soda bitter. The same word is ap-
the small blood-vessels of the tongue, plied to alkaline flavours by Aristotle
which he holds to be both the cause of de sensu iv 44i
b 6. irixpbv is defined by
taste, through their contraction and ex- Theophrastos /. /. as (p6apriK6>> rrjs iryp<5-
pansion, and also the means of trans- rrfros rj TTTIKTIKOV ^ SIJKTIKOV rj dwXws rpa^vv
milling Ihe irdOrina to the seal of con- 17 /LtoXiora rpaxvv.
sciousness. Of the nerves Plato, like 12. $la. (j.dXov r](i,iv 4>avTaTcu]
Aristolle, underslood nothing at all : their This is mentioned because all the sub-
functions are attribuled by him to the slances hitherto enumerated, including
tf>tpia. salt, have a disturbing action upon the
5. KaTarr|K6|Acva] Plato holds that substance of the tongue, and are there-

66 A] TIMAIOS. 241
like most other things, are brought about by contraction and
dilation, besides which they have more to do than other sen-
sations with roughness and smoothness in the agents. For
whenever earthy particles enter in by the little veins which are
a kind of testing instruments of the tongue, stretched to the
heart, and strike upon the moist and soft parts of the flesh,
these particles as they are being dissolved contract and dry
the small veins ;
and if they are very rough, they are termed
'astringent'; if less so 'harsh'. Such substances again as are
detergent and rinse the whole surface of the tongue, if they
do this to an excessive degree and encroach so as to dissolve
part of the structure of the flesh, as is the property of alka-
lies all such are termed 'bitter': but those which fall short of
the alkaline quality and rinse the tongue only to a moderate
extent are saline without bitterness and seem to us agreeable
rather than the reverse. Those which share the warmth of
the mouth and are softened by it, being simultaneously in-
flamed and themselves in turn scorching that which heated
them, and which owing to their lightness fly upward to the
senses of the head, penetrating all that is in their path owing
to these properties all such substances are called
'
pungent '.
But sometimes these same substances, having been already
refined by decomposition, enter into the narrow veins, being
fore presumably disagreeable. The irri- There seems a lack of finish in his de-
lation produced by salt is however so finition.
mild that it amounts to no more than 17. TWV Si O.VTWV irpoXeXerrruo-iA^vcov]
a pleasant stimulation of the organ. In this portentous sentence it is
quite pro-
13. rd 84 TTJ Toii o-TOjxaros 6eppt6rr|Ti] bable that some corruptions may lurk.
Compare the view assigned to Alkmaion But no emendation suggests itself of
by Theophrastos de sensu 25 :
yXurrri sufficient plausibility to justify its ad-
5 rota x"/*01^ xpiveiv iapav y&p ovffav mission into the text, although I have
Kal fj.aaK-fjv T-f)Ktiv Tiy OepfioTriTi' 5^xe<rOai little doubt that e'xoTw should be read
5 Kal 5ia8i86vat 5iA TTJV pavoTirra rijs for tx VTa - Stallbaum's proposed alte-
awaXoTijTos. rations are the result of his not under-
15. irpos TCIS TTJS Ke4>aXrjs aiaOrjertis] standing the construction : 6<ro d^poj is
A spoonful of strong mustard would pro- parallel to rots yewdeat and equivalent to
bably produce very much the sort of ex- TOIS foa afyos fveffriv. As for the in-
perience which Plato describes. Theo- finitives after a 817, they are incurably
phrastos says 8pi/j.bv
3 TOV VIJK.TIKOV y ungrammatical : we must either suppose
drjKTiKoi* rj txKpiriKov TTJS li> TV ffvfj.<pvT({> that the construction is carried on from
0fp/jMTr,Tos cis Toi> avu) TOTTov T? ^X^7
?
m t ne previous sentence, or that
j x1
'^'' KavrtKw ^ OepfiairriKOv. it never recovers from the effects of wcrre
P. T. 16

242 TIAATflNOS [66 A-
,
Kal rot? evovaiv avr60t fj,epe<ri yewBea-i teal ocra depot
v/jbfjiTpiav eôvra, wcrre Kivr/cravra Trepl av)a Troteiv
KVKaaQai^
KVK(afjLva Be TrepiTTLTrreiv re Kal els erepa evBvopeva erepa Kola
dTrep<yd%(T0at TrepLreivoêva Tot? elaiovaiv, a Brj voriBos Trepl depa B
5 KoiXrjs Trepiradela-rjs, rare JJAV yewBovt, rore Be teal KaOapas, vorepa
la depot vBara KolXa Trepifaprj re yevea0at, Kal rd fj-ev rf)<t
Biacfravels TrepKTrrjvai K.r)0el(ras ovo/jua 7ro/ji(j)ovyat, ra
Be r^9 yetoSovs o/toO Kivovpevr)*; re Kal alpoêvrj^ %eaiv re Kal
typcoaiv eTTiKXrjv e%0f)vai TO Be TOVTWV airtov rwv TraOfjâ'rwv
to ov 7rpoa-pr)0r}vai. ^vîraai Be rot? Trept ravra elprj/Aevois irddo^
evavrlov a/ir evavrias etrrl Trpocpdcrews, OTrorav r)
rtav elaiovrwv C
%varacn<s ev vypols, oliceia rfj rrjs 7fwTT7/9 eêt 7re(f>vKvla, eaivg
pev e7raei<pov<ra rd rpa^vvdevra, TO, Be Trapd <f)V(riv
r) Keyvjieva TO, fiev vvar/r), rd Be %da, Kal Travd o n
15 iSpvrj Kara (pixriv, tfBv Kal 7rpocr<j)ie<; Travrl irdv TO rotovrov tapa
r<av ftiaiwv 7ra0r)/jidr(i)V <yiyvo/Jivov KeKr)rai yVKV.
XXIX. Kat rd /JLCV ravrrj ravra' Trepl Be Brj rrjv rcav D
jjLVKrr/pcov Bvva/j,t,v, e'lBrj p<ev OVK evi' TO yap rcav ocrfidav irav
yfjuyeves, eiBei Be ovBevl ^vê^Ke ^vêrpia Trpo? TO riva eêiv
i fatvri : eialvri ASZ. 17 STJ post T& ptv addit S. ig fêiv: trx^v SZ.
early in the present one. However loose natural position of its constituent par-
the syntax may be, the sense is not on tides, and those which restore it. Of
the whole obscure. Acids are substances the former there are the six varieties
which have been refined by fermentation ;
herein before enumerated ; of the latter
these, when they enter the mouth, form a there is but one, which we term sweet.
combination with the particles of earth This contracts what is unnaturally ex-
and air which are therein, and stir and panded and expands what is unnaturally
mix them up in such a way as to produce contracted, and thus is
'
a remedy of
films of moisture enclosing air, in other forcible affections', since by restoring the
words, bubbles: a kind of effervescence natural condition it produces a pleasant
in fact is produced by the action of the and soothing effect.
acid on the substance of the tongue. The 13. vvjTWTa...KxvF^va"-!w*YD---
words els erepa evSv6/j.eva ?repo KoTa aX<(.] Throughout this dialogue a dis-
aTrepyAfeffdai irfpiTeiv6/j.eva rois elaiovffiv tinct inclination to chiasmus may be ob-
are not clear : it would seem that the served.
earthy particles within, by gathering 66 D 67 C, c. xxix. Odours cannot be
round the entering particles of acid, classified according to kinds. For no
vacate their former positions which are element in its normal state can be per-
filled by air surrounded by the moisture ceived by smell, because the vessels of
attending the dissolution of the acid. the nostrils are too narrow to admit
10. irciOos fravrfov] The X^M * which water or earth and too wide to be ex-
act upon the tongue are thus divided into cited by air or fire. They can thus only
two classes, those which disturb the perceive an element in process of disso-

D] TIMAIOS. 243
duly proportioned to the earthy particles and the particles of
air which are there, so that they set them in motion and mingle
them together, and thereby cause them to jostle against one
another and taking up other positions to form new hollows
extended round the entering particles which hollows consist
of a film of moisture, sometimes earthy, sometimes pure, em-
bracing a volume of air ;
and thus they form moist capsules con-
taining air : in some cases the films are of pure moisture and
transparent and are called bubbles ;
in others they are of earthy
liquid which effervesces and rises all together, when the name
of seething and fermentation is given to it : and the cause
of all these conditions is termed '
acid '. The opposite affection
to all those which have been described is produced by an oppo-
site cause : when the structure of the entering particles amid
the moisture, having a natural affinity to the tongue's normal
condition, smooths it by mollifying the roughened parts, and
relaxes or contracts what is unnaturally contracted or expanded,
and settles everything as much as possible in its natural state.
Every such remedy of violent affections is to all of us pleasant
and agreeable, and has received the name of
'
sweet '.
XXIX. Enough of this subject. As regards the faculty
of the nostrils no classification can be made. For smells are
of a half-formed nature : and no class of figure has the adap-
tation requisite for producing any smell, but our veins in this
lution. The object of smell then is either 19. e'tSei 8^ ovStvC] That is, it does
vapour, which is water changing to air, not possess the structure of any of the
or mist, which is air changing to water. four, fire, air, water, and earth. We were
That the object of smell is denser than able to classify tastes, because we could
air can be proved by placing some ob- point to a definite substance which caused
stacle before the nostrils and then forcibly the sensation in each case. Aristotle
drawing breath : the air will pass in, but agrees with Plato that the sense of smell
without any odour. The only classifica- TITTOV e&di6piffr6v fort, de anima n ix
tion we can make is that scents which 421" 7: this he attributes to the fact that
disturb the substance of the nostrils are mankind possesses this sense in a very
unpleasant, while those which restore the imperfect degree, being in this respect
natural state are pleasant. inferior to many animals. In the same
Sound is a vibration of theair, impinging chapter 42i
b
9 he says air or water is
upon the ear and thence transmitted first the medium of smell : ftm 5 /col ?; 5ff(f)pr)-
to the brain and finally to the liver : the <rts 5td rov /iTai5, olov tUpos ^ vdarof
pitch depends upon the rapidity, the ural y&p TO. tvvSpa. doKov<nv 6<r^ afoffd-
quality upon the regularity, and the veffOai. Elsewhere Aristotle denies that
loudncss upon the extent of the motion. smells cannot be classified : de sensn v
1 6 2

244 TTAATHNOS [66 D
rjv'
XX' rjp&v al Trepl ravra <>Xe/3e<? TT/JO<? fiev TO, 7779 vbaros
re <yevr) (rrevorepai ^vvecrrrjcrav, TT/OO? 8e ra jrvpot depot re evpv-
repai, Bio rovrwv ovoelt ov&evos oafArjs iratTrore ffcrOero rivot, aXX
f) Ppexo/jvcov rj a"rj7rofj,ev(i)V r) rrjtco/jievwv 77 Qvîwîkvwv yiyvovrai
5 Tiv&v. /&Ta/3aXXoz>T09 jap vSarot ei9 depa depot re elt v8a>p ev E
KaTrrot 77
,
TO Se e
T3 /ieTafi) rovratv yeyovaa-iv, elcrl 8e ocr/ial
rovrcov 8e TO /z,ei> e^ depot 619
t? aepa Kairvos' '60ev e7rrorepat,
8e oa-fjial !;v,u,Tracrai <yey6va(Tiv depot. Sr)ovvrai Se, ojrorav
10
avrit^paÔevrot Trepl rrjv dvairvorjv ayrj ri<> ftla TO Trvevfui et?
avrov rare yap GO-//,?) fiev ovSe/iia ^vvSitjOelrat,, TO Se Trvevfjia
rwv cxrfJLoiv eprjfjiwOev avrd /MOVOV eTrerai, Si ovv ravra dvwvvpa
ra rovrwv 7roiK.i/j,ara yeyovev, OVK e/c TTOWV ov& a7rX3i/ elbrnv 67 A
2 ffTfv6repat :
ffTevdrepai AZ. 3 di rj: dXX' deJ S. 6 eial d : elffl re S.
12 di' otv: dtf oZv ASZ.
443
b
17 o^ yap uxnrep nvts <f>a.ffiv, oiiK
Herri? etSrj rov 6ff<j>pai'Tov, dXX' tariv : a
little above he gives a list; /col yap Spi-
/j.flai Kal yVKtai elfflv dfffjtal xal avartipai
Kal ffrpv(f>val Kal iirapal, Kal rois TriKpois
(sc. XUM'J)
Tas <roirpAj av rtj dvaXoyov
etiroi. Galen's opinion concerning this
sense is similar to Plato's: see de plac,
Hipp, et Plat. VII 628 TTÎTTOV yap Si]
TOVTO ZffTiv alaOrjT'/ipiov, OI)K 6vTUv irtvre
, lireidij TO rCiv dff/jLwv ytvos v
aty rty <ptffiv tvrlv atpos Kal vBaros,
ws Kal nXaTwi* elwev iv Ti/j.al(f.
3. dXXci TJ Ppexojit'vwv] The sense
of smell then perceives matter in an in-
termediate condition, as it is passing from
one form to another. Herakleitos seems
to have held some similar view: see
Aristotle de settstt v 443
a
23 Sib Kal
'Hpd/cXeiros OVTUS etpriKfv, wj el irdvra TO.
6vra KO7rv6s ytvoiro, fives av diayvoiev.
Plato's doctrine of smell however, when
considered in connexion with his cor-
puscular theory, has a striking peculiarity.
Only o/tuxXi; and Katrvbs can be smelt,
he says. But what are b/jdxT) and Kairvbs ?
We cannot say simply that o/jix^tj is the
densest form of air and ACOTT^JJ the rarest
form of water, because Plato expressly
tells xis that they are transitional forms
between air and water. Now the densest
form of air is still formed of octahedrons,
and the rarest form of water still formed
of icosahedrons ; so that no condensation
of the one or rarefaction of the other
constitutes any approach to a transition
between the two. Now since OM^X^7
? and
Kairvfa are not composed either of octa-
hedrons or of icosahedrons, of what na-
ture are the material particles which smell
perceives? for no other regular solid
figure beyond the five exists in nature.
We are compelled to suppose that the
agent which excites smell is actually un-
formed matter matter, that is, which is
dissolved out of one form, but not yet
remoulded in another. It is evident that
if the particles of water are dissolved and
remoulded as particles of air, this is a
physical process taking place in time :
there is a time therefore when matter
does exist in an unformed condition ; and
just in this time smell has the power of
perceiving it. Aristotle, whose objec-
tions to the theory are stated in the
chapter of the de sensu above cited, has
nothing to say about this.
4. YfyVOVT<u] SC- a* bffna.1.
7. TO (iiv % cU'pos] Aristotle puts
it rather differently :
meteorologica i ix

67 A] TIMAI02.
part are formed too narrow for earth and water, and too wide
for fire and air: for which cause no one ever perceived any
smell of these bodies ;
but smells arise from substances which
are being either liquefied or decomposed or dissolved or evapo-
rated : for when water is changing into air and air into water,
odours arise in the intermediate condition ;
and all odours are
vapour or mist, mist being the conversion of air into water, and
vapour the conversion of water into air ;
whence all smells are
subtler than water and coarser than air. This is proved when
any obstacle is placed before the passages of respiration, and
then one forcibly inhales the air : for then no smell filters through
with it, but the air bereft of all scent alone follows the inhala-
tion. For this reason the complex varieties of odour are un-
named, and are ranked in classes neither numerous nor simple :
theory of smell which we have been dis-
cussing. Martin curiously misunderstands
this sentence, supposing that two people
are concerned in the experiment: but
Ttcds di>Ti<f>pa.x6vTos is of course neuter
'if an obstacle be placed'. It would
seem then as if Plato conceived matter
in its passage from air to water, or from
water to air, to be made up of irregular
figures intermediate in size between the
particles of air and those of water:
but how this comes about he does not
explain. Theophrastos says curiously
enough) in de sensu 6 Trept 5 6cr0p^<rews
Ko.1 yewrews /cat a<j>TJs 6'Xws ovd^v etpyKtv
[d nxdrwv] : he means probably that
Plato's account treats more of the al<r-
Qffrov than the aiaOijffis :
fiaXXov dxpi-
ftoXoyelTo.1 irepl T<M> aiadyruv : still the
statement cannot be considered accurate.
12. 81* ovv ravra] Although all the
mss. agree in giving Si/' ovv, it is
impossi-
ble to retain it. For the Svo tldi) could
only refer to the two divisions specified
below, which are not dvuvvfjia, but 7781)
and vwi)pbv. It is the endless diversity
of different scents that fall under these
two heads T& TOVTUV Trot/c/X^ara which
are dv&vvfM..
13. OVK ^K iroXXcwv] Tastes were di-
vided into numerous species, which were
2 <m 5' i) /j.ev e vSaros di>a6v/jda<ris
17 8' 0- dtpos els vStap vt<j>os' 6fj,lxf]
Trepirrw/aa TI/S e/j v5up <rvy-
8. vSaros is cUpa] If the matter
which is
perceived by smell has no formed
particles (as it cannot have), it is hard
to see why it should not be so perceived
when on the point of passing from water
or air into fire, or the contrary: and in
fact this seems actually suggested by Ov-
fj.iwfj.tvui' just above. However Plato
presently affirms that the substances which
excite smell, because they are in a tran-
sitional state between octahedrons and
icosahedrons, are subtler than one and
coarser than the other. This consequence
seems equally hard to deduce from any in-
terpretation of Plato's corpuscular theory.
9. 6<r|icU] i.e. the several substances
which excite the olfactory organ.
TIVOS avTi<j>pax0^vTOs] When the air
is filled with any odour, if a handker-
chief, for instance, be pressed to the
nostrils, and then a strong inhalation be
taken, the air will force its way through
the barrier, but the scent will not ac-
company it ;
whence Plato deduces the
inference that the matter which excites the
sensation of smell is less subtle than the par-
ticles of air. This led him to devise the

246 [67 A-
ovra, dd Bi%fi TO 0* rjBv Kal TO vTrrjpbv avTo0i
eyeo-0ov, TO fjbev Tpa%vv6v TC Kal fiiaôfjievov TO KVTOS airav, ocrov
rjfjitoV /JLCTa^V KOpvfyrjS TOV T OpfyaXoV KCtTat, TO B TttVTOV TOVTO
KaTairpavvov Kal Trdiv rj TretyvKev dyaTrr/T(i)<f aTroBiBov.
TpiTov Be ala-QrjTiicov ev rjfitv pepo? eTrio-KOTtovat TO Trepl TTJV
aKorjv, oY a? atTta? Ta Trepl avTo ^vpftaivei Tra9rjp,aTa, KTeov. B
%Pl
"r
rv'Xfl^ TrXrjyrjv BiaBiBofAevTjV, Trjv Be inr avTrjs
>, airo Trjs Ke<j>afjs fj,ev dp%o/jLevr)v, TeXevToScrav Be Trepl Trjv
to ToO 777raT09 eBpav, aKor'jv' oatj 8' avTr/s Taêia, 6elav, oar} Be
(SpaBvTepa, /3apVTepav TT/V Be opoiav op,ar)v Te Kal etav, Trjv
Be evavTiav Tpaêiav p,e<y<'ir)v
Be TTJV Trorjv, oarj Be evavTia, C
TO. Be Trepl vfi<f>a)v[a<> avTwv ev Tot9 vaTepov Xe%^cro-
dvdfyKi} pri0f/vat.
15 XXX. TeTapTov Br) onrbv eTt 76^09 rjfuv alaOrjTiKov, o
6 Si' as : Si' as 5' A. 1 1
fSpadirrtpa :
Ppaxvrtpa- A. 13 ra 5t : ras 5^ A.
an-Xa, because we could name the precise
kind of substance which produced each
and the mode of its action: smells are
not dirXa, because they do not proceed
from any definite single substance, nor
TroXXd, because we can only classify them
as agreeable or the reverse. Although
a stricter classification than this can be
made, Plato rightly regards taste as much
more orXoDr than smell. For the more
complex flavours which we '
taste
'
are
really perceived by smell.
2. TO (xiv Tpa^vvov] Plato's classifi-
cation is based on his broad distinction
between irritant and soothing agents.
3. (WTOÛ KOpV<f>T]S TOV T O|i<f>oXov]
This must apply to extremely pungent
and volatile scents, such as the fumes of
strong ammonia: compare the descrip-
tion of 5pi/j.ta in 65 E.
7. rrv 81' WTWV] Plato's account of
sound is in many respects consonant with
modern acoustic science. He is correct
in attributing it to vibrations which are
propagated through the air until they
strike upon the ear, and in saying that
the loudness of the sound is propor-
tionate to the amplitude of the sound-
wave (/j.eya7it> 8t TTJV TroXXijj'). He is
also right in referring smoothness in the
sound to regularity of the vibrations ;
for
this is what constitutes the difference
between a musical sound and mere noise ;
in the former case the vibrations are
executed in regular periods, in the latter
they are irregular. His explanation of
the pitch is correct if by 'swiftness' he
means the rapidity with which the vi-
brations are performed, but erroneous
if he refers to the celerity of the sound's
transmission through the air: from 80 A,
B it would appear that he included both,
supposing the more rapid vibrations to be
propagated more swiftly through the at-
mosphere.
eyK((>aXov T Kal atpcvros] The con-
struction of all these genitives is a
little puzzling. Stallbaum constructs
eyKe<f>dov re Kal al'/ioTos with did, but
the interposition of UTT' dtpos surely ren-
ders this indefensible. I think we should
join the words with irX-rjyijv: 'a striking
of the brain and blood by the air through
the ears '. Plato conceives the vibrations,
entering through the ears, to reach the
brain and to be from thence transmitted

TIMAIO2. 247
only two conspicuous kinds are in fact here distinguished, plea-
sant and unpleasant. The latter roughens and irritates all the
cavity of the body that is between the head and the navel ;
the
former soothes this same region and restores it with contentment
to its own natural condition.
A third organ of sensation in us which we have to examine
is that of hearing, and we must state the causes whence arise the
affections connected with it. Let us in general terms define
sound as a stroke transmitted through the ears by the air and
passed through the brain and the blood to the soul; while the
motion produced by it, beginning in the head and ending in the
region of the liver, is hearing. A rapid motion produces a shrill
sound, a slower one a deeper sound; regular vibration gives an
even and smooth sound, and the opposite a harsh one; if the
movement is large, the sound is loud; if otherwise, it is slight.
Concerning accords of sound we must speak later on in our
discourse.
XXX. A fourth faculty of sense yet remains, the intricate
through the blood-vessels to the liver.
The liver appears to be selected because
that region is the seat of the nutritive
faculty of the soul, 70 D: and since the
sensation of sound, as such, does not
appeal to the intellectual organ, it is
transmitted to that faculty which is speci-
ally concerned with sensation.
13. TO. 8J ircpl vji<f>covias] The ac-
count of concords is given in 80 A, where
the transmission of sounds is explained.
Aristotle's opinions concerning sound will
be found in de anima II viii 4i9
b
4 foil.,
and scattered through the . treatise de
sensit.
67 c 69 A, c. xxx. The process of
vision has already been explained : it
only remains to give an account of
colours. The particles which stream off
from the objects perceived are some of
them larger than those which compose
the visual current, some smaller, and
some of equal size. In case they are
equal, the object whence they proceed
is colourless and transparent ; if they arc-
smaller, they dilate the visual current ;
if larger, they contract it. White is pro-
duced by dilation, black by contraction.
Brightness and gleaming are the effects
of a very swift motion of the particles,
which divide the visual stream up to the
very eyes themselves and draw forth
tears. Red is the product of another
kind of fire which penetrates the visual
stream and mingles with the moisture of
the eye. The other colours, yellow, violet,
purple, chestnut, grey, buff, dark blue,
pale blue, green, are produced by com-
mixtures of the aforesaid, but in what
proportions mingled God alone knows.
The physical processes we have been de-
scribing belong to the rank of subsidiary
causes. For we must remember that
there are in nature two classes of causes,
the divine and the necessary; whereof
we must search out the divine for the sake
of happiness, and the necessary for the
sake of the divine.
15. alcrOiyriKov] It is again a ques-
tion whether we ought not to read ala-
Brfr6v, since colours are the object of
investigation. Here however I think the

248 HAATftNOS [67 c-
8ieeo-0at, Set <rv*)(yd
ev eavrq> 7roitcifJ,ara
ftev p^pda? Kae<ra/J,ev, (frXoya rwv <r(0fj,dr(0v etcda-rwv aTroppe-
ovo~av, oS/ret y/i/zerpa /-topia eôvaav 7rpo<? aia-Orjcriv. 6Sjre&><?
S' ev
rot? Trpoa-dev av TO 7repl TWV atVtW T?7<? yei><Tea)<; eppr)0rj. ryo D
5 ovv rutv ^pwfidrwv Trept fâkicrra ei/co? TrpeVot r av TOV
6yov i%eQelv, rd <f)p6fjiva oVo rwv do)v /iopta
re et<? rr/v oifriv rd fj,ev edrra), rd 8e fjuel^co, rd 8' t'cra rot? avrfjs
rf)<f o-^rea)? fj,epe<ri,v
elvat' rd [iev ovv to~a dvalo-Orjra, d 8>) /cat
8ia(f>avrj eyofjiev, rd Be /iei^tw Kal eXarrw, ra /Ai^ o-vyxpivovra, rd
10 Se Siaicpivovra avrrjv, rot? Trept TÎ/ o-dpica 0epfJ>ot<{ KOI |ru^pot?
/cat rot? Trept rrjv ywrrav o~rpv(f)voi<; /cat bcra OeppavrtKa E
oi/ra Spt/iea e/taXecra/iey dSe<f>d elvat,, rd re ev/ca /cat r
fj.eava, e/ceivwv rraOâra yeyovora ev d(a yevei rd avrd,
<f>avra6iJ,va 8e da Sid ravra<; rds atrta9. OUTO)? GUI' avra
15 7rpoo-pr)reov,-ro fiev Sta/cptrt/coy T'7? o-^rews evKov, TO 8' evavriov
avrov p,eav, rrjv be 6vrepav (f>opdv /cat yevovs Trupo? erepov Trpoer-
4 aC r6 : ai/ri A. aurwi' HSZ. 6X^70 post yevfoeus e margine codicis A
dedit H. eieci cum SZ. 5 TOV tirieiicrj 6yov scripsi: rbi> tv-ieucr) 6ytf AH. ewitiKe?
SZ. sed forsitan melius legatur irptirov T' dv
ms. reading is defensible : we have, says
Plato, to examine a fourth faculty of
sense, which has various Troi/ciX/wiTa :
the iroiid(Jia.Ta being the sensations we
call colours. But he passes immediately
from the subjective to the objective
aspect of x/>o a'
0X6*ya TUI> ffu/j-druv e/cder-
TUV diropptovffav.
3. oiu ^vp.p.erpa (Jtopia] i. e. par-
ticles of the right size to coalesce with
the oêwj pevfj-a and form with it one
sympathetic body. Stallbaum says Plato
is following Empedokles, but this is in-
correct : see Theophrastos de seitsu 7
'EMTeSotfXijs 5^ irepl airaffuv 6/uoi'ws tyft,
KO.I <f>r)ai T(J) tvapubrTeiv els TOI)S ir6povs
TOI>S eKdffrris aicrffdveffBai : cf. pseudo-
Plutarch de placitis philosophorum I
15.
The views of Aristotle concerning colour
may be gathered from de sensu iii
439* 18
foil, and from the not very luminous
treatise de coloribus. Aristotle considered
the beauty of colours to depend upon
numerical ratios: see de sensu iii
439
b
31
TO. fjitv yap eV dpi0/ji.ois etiXoyiffrois xp^/xara,
KaOdirfp Ki rds ffv/Mpuvtas, TO. -f)5iffTa
TUV xPufJL<
^TUV fât SOKOVVTCI, olov TO
dXovpyov Kal <f>oiviKovv Kal 6ty' drra rot-
aura, 5t' ijvirfp alriav Kal at ffv/jicpiavlai
6iyai, ra 5^ /j.ri
fv apidnois raXXa xpu-
fj.ara, rj Kal irdffas ras xP as *" a'/>i0yao?j
eli'at, ras /J.ei> Tfrayfj^vas raj 5 draxrous,
*cal aurdj rawras, flrai* ny Ka.9a.pal ui<n, 5td
TO fj.ff tv apiOnois elvai rotai^Tay ylveaOai.
This has rather a Pythagorean sound.
6. TO. 4>p6)j.eva diro TUJV dXXcov |i6-
pia] i.e. the particles of fire which stream
off from the object : it must be remem-
bered that Plato's conception differs from
the Demokritean or Empedoklean efflu-
ences, inasmuch as he does not hold that
any image of the object is thrown off.
7-77^ Stf/iv again = TO r-JJs of/ews pevfw..
8. TO, &v ovv lo-a] Colours are
then classified according to the relative
size of the fiery particles from the object.
If they are equal to those of the visual
stream, we perceive no colour, but trans-
parency alone: if smaller, so that they
penetrate and dilate the <tyeus pev/j.a, the

E] TIMAIO2. 249
varieties of which it is our part to classify. To these we have
given the name of colours, which consist of a flame streaming off
from every object, having its particles so adjusted to those of
the visual current as to excite sensation. We have already set
forth the causes which gave origin to vision: thus therefore it
will be most natural and fitting for a rational theory to treat of
the question of colours. The particles which issue from outward
objects and meet the visual stream are some of them smaller,
some larger, and some equal in size to the particles of that
stream. Those of equal size cause no sensation, and these we
call transparent; but the larger and smaller, in the one case by
contracting, in the other by dilating it, produce effects akin to
the action of heat and cold on the flesh, and to the action on
the tongue of astringent tastes and the heating sensations which
we termed pungent. These are white and black, affections
identical with those just mentioned, but occurring in a different
class and seeming to be different for the causes aforesaid. We
must then classify them as follows. What dilates the visual
stream is white, and the opposite thereof is black. A swifter
motion belonging to a different kind of fire, which meets and
colours produced are light and bright; if by sensibles excite sensation. Stallbaum,
they are larger and compress the stream, following Stephanus, understands etceivuv
the colours tend to be dark. to refer to deppa and ^vxpa, ffrpvtpvd and
dva<r0i]Ta] Since the particles are dpi/j.ta, but this does not appear to me
equal to those of the visual current, they to give so good a sense. v aXXy y^vet
do not affect the homogeneous structure in another organ or mode of sensation,
of the latter. It is not generally recognised, Plato means,
10. TOIS irepl T^V crapKa] Plato that the process is the same in the case
merely means that the physical processes of sight as in that of taste, because the
of contraction and dilation are the same sensible effect is so widely dissimilar,
in both instances; for in the other cases 14. 810, Tavras rds curias] i.e. be-
mentioned the sensations are pleasant or cause they are tv aXXy ytva and are not
unpleasant, whereas the phenomena of attended by pleasure or pain,
vision are, physically regarded, unac- 16. Tqv 8* 6vr'pav] 1!
right is dis-
companied either by pleasure or by pain. tinguished from white (i) by dissimilarity
13. KCvo>v iraOiiiAaTa] I take tied- between its fiery particles and those of
vuv to refer to TO. ffvyKplvovra. Kal diaxpi- white, (2) by its more rapid motion. It
vovra.: the iraO-fi/j-ara belonging to the penetrates the o^ews ptv/jia right up to
objects affecting the eye are the same as the eyes, the pores of which it
displaces
the Tradri/jLara belonging to the objects of and dissolves, drawing forth a mixture
taste &c, namely fftiyKpuris and 5io/c/;t<ns. of fire and water which we call tears.
For the use of jra^a compare 6 1 c, And so when the entering and issuing
where ira.0riua.ra. are the properties where- fires mingle and are quenched in the

250 TIAATHNOS [67 E
TriTTTOVcrav teal Biatcplvovcrav rrjv o-^riv fJ>e%pi TU>V
re TWV o<f)6aiJLU>v ra? Bie6Bovs j3ia BicoOovcrav KOI rr/Kovcrav,
r
rrvp
'
ddpoov teal vB(i)p,
o Bdtcpvov /caXoO/Ltev, etceWev eK%eovcrav,
Be ovcrav Trvp e evavTias aTravTwcrav, teal TOV fiev eKTrij-
5 BGOVTOS Trvpbs olov air d&TpaTTrjs, rov S' elcriovros KOI Trepl TO
voTepdv tcaTacr/SevvvfJievov, TravToBaTrwv ev rfj Kv/crjcrei ravrrj <yvyvo-
/j,evcov xpcofjudrtov, p,apâpv^d^ /juev TO Trddos 7r/3ocret7ro/ie^, TO Be
TOVTO d7repya6f4evov a/j,7rpov T Kal o"rLôv eTroivofjidcrafAev. TO
8e TOVTCOV av iiera^v TTU/OO? yevos, TT/OO? jj,ev TO TCOV o/i/zaTWi/ vypbv B
10 dîKVovêvov teal Kepavvvpevov avTw, a-Ti6ov 8e ov, TTJ 8e Sta
civyrj Tov TTf/oo? /Ai<yvvjjuevov ^pcoyLta evaifjiov Trapaaô-
epvOpov Xeyopev. a/j,7rp6v Te epvdpw evtcw T
%av6ov yeyove- TO Be ocrov fierpov ocroif, ovft ei T<?
vovv eêt TO e<yeiv, &v p,r]Te Tivd dvdytcrjv ^T TOV eltcoTa
15 oyov teal fjL6Tpia)<; dv Tt? eiTreiv eirj SvvaTO?. epvOpbv 8e 8r) /j,eavi
evtcw TG tcpaOev dovpyov op<j)vivov Be, oTav TOVTOI? /j,fj,iyfji,evoi<>
C
icavOelcri Te /j,dov crvyKpaQfj /j,eav. jrvppov Be av0ov Te teal
<f>aiov tcpdcrei yiyveTai, <patov Be evtcov Te teal peXavos, TO Be
> Be Xevtcov
Ka et9 peav tcaTatcopes ep,7recrv tcvavovv
3 aOpoov post C5wp ponunt SZ. 10 rrj: avrri A. n (uyvvfttvov dedi cum S e
Stephani correctione. fjLiyvv/jitvri AHZ. irapa.<rxpij.fvov scripsi. irapaffxof^vri
AHSZ. 19 fjuyvv/j.tvov: fj.e/iuy/j.frov S. evnov :
a/j.irpov A.
moisture, an agitation of the eyes is pro- colour. Stallbaum, accepting (j.iyvv/J.ti'ov,
duced which we call 'dazzling'. As re- oddly enough retains irapa.<yxptiAvri.
gards irvp d6p6ov KM. vdwp, we must re- 13. TO Si ocrov (icrpov] To give the
member that, as Martin remarks, Plato exact proportions of the mixture is beyond
considered all liquid water, and especially the power of science and is not requi-
of course warm water, to be a mixture of site Kara TOV eiKbra 6yov: cf. below,
fire and water; cf. 59 D.- 68 n.
8. TO 8i TOVTWV aS |iTavi] i.e. in- 16. op<f>vivov] This is probably a
termediate between the fire producing very deep shade of violet :
compare Aris-
evKov and that producing ar'iKfiov. totle tie coloribus ii
7y2
a
25 evTetvo/j^va
10. TIQ 8i Sid TTJS vorCSos avyji] The ydp TTWS irpbs TO ^>cDs aXovpyts ?%et TO
reading of the ms. cannot be construed. xpu/J-a' AdTToi>oj 5 TOV ^wros irpocr^dX-
I think it is necessary to receive fuyvv- XOJTOS fo(j>ep6v, o KOOV<TIV 6p<f>viov. The
ftfrov and irapacrxonevov, agreeing with word occurs again in the same form in
ytvos. The sense will then be, the rays chapter iv 794
b
5. See too Xenophon
arriving at the eye, as their fire mingles Cyropaedia VI 1 1 iii
3 ouSti* <peid6/jLevos otire
with the gleam pervading the moisture irop<f>vpiduv ore 6p<t>vii>ui> otfre <poiviidowv
which is there (i.e. with the fire residing o^re Kapvicivuv (red -sauce-coloured) t/aa-
in the eye itself), give it a blood-red Tltav. It seems to have been an expensive

68 c] TIMAIO2. 251
penetrates the visual stream quite up to the eyes, and forcibly
displaces and decomposes the pores of the eyes themselves,
draws from thence a combined body of fire and water, which
we call a tear: and whereas this agent is itself fire, meeting
the other from the opposite direction, and one fire leaps forth
as lightning from the eyes, while the other enters in and is
quenched in the moisture, all manner of colours arise in this
commixture; and to the sensation we give the name of dazzling,
and the agent which produces it we call bright and shining. A
kind of fire which is intermediate between the two former, when
it reaches the moisture of the eye and is mingled with it, but
does not flash, produces a blood-like colour by the mixture of
fire with the gleam of the moisture, and the name we give it
is red. Bright combined with red and white makes yellow. In
what proportion they are mingled, it were not reasonable to say,
even if we knew; for there is neither any inevitable law nor any
probable account thereof which we might properly declare. Red
mingled with black and white becomes purple, which turns to
dark violet when these ingredients are more burnt and a greater
quantity of black is added. Chestnut arises from the mixture
of yellow and grey, and grey from white and black :
pale buff is
from white mixed with yellow. When bright meets white and
is steeped in intense black, a deep blue colour is the result; and
tint much in vogue among people who being, as it were, saturated with as much
dressed handsomely: cf. Athenaeus xn black as it can contain. This is a tech-
50, where it
appears to represent the nical term to express vividness of colour :
colour of the midnight star-lit sky. As cf. Aristotle de coloribus v 795" 2
regards aovpy6i>, it may be noted that ^ ofo TOV uypov /j.eaii>o/j,ti>ov TO
this is the same combination which is yiverai /caraxop^s iffxvpus /cat
assigned by Demokritos to iroptpvpovv : KVO.VOVV xP'*H'a] Dark blue. Uemo-
Theophrastos de sensu 77 TO 8t irop<pv- kritos gives a different account: Theo-
povv ^< CVKOV Kal ptXavos Kal tpvffpov, phrastos /. /. TO Si KVO.VOVV <? l<ra.Ti8os
ird<JTT)v (jitv notpav tx VTO* T0" tyvOpov, (the blue colour obtained from woad)
ptKpav 5 TOV /j.4avos, futaTv 5 TOV XtvKov. Kal wpiadovs. By yavKov a.
light blue is
A summary of the opinions of Demokritos evidently meant. The elaborate distiuc-
concerning colour is given in 73 78. lions of colour drawn in the present chap-
17. irvppov St'J This is a bright red- ter certainly do not tend to support the
dish brown, chestnut or auburn. <f>atov theory which has been put forward that the
is a dusky grey: wxpo" an ochrcous yel- Greeks were deficient in the colour-sense:
low or buff. indeed it is somewhat difficult to get a
20. tls (w'Xav KaraKop^s] i.e. an in- sufficient number of English terms to
tense, absolute black; the substance translate the Greek names.

252 IIAATnNO^ [68 C
Kvavov oe evKw Kepavvvpevov <yavKov, jrvppov Be pAavi irpd-
cnov. rd Be da airo rovrwv <T%eB6v Brja, als dv d(f>ofjuoiovfjLeva
D
/juiêcrt, BiaaMôt rov eiKora pvOov. el Be rt? rovriov epyw CTKO-
7rovfj,vos ftacravov ap(3dvoi, ro rfjs dvBpaJTTLVijs Kal Octets <t;crea>9
5 r]<yvorjK(i)s av elr] Bid(j>opov, ori 0eo<> fjt,ev
rd 7rod els ev
vvvai Kal Trdkiv e evos els TroXXa Btavet.v i/cavws e
d/j,a Kal Svvaros, dvBpwTrwv Be ovBels ovSerepa TOVTMV iKavos ovre
ecrrt vvv oi/V elcrauOis TTOT' ecrrat. ravra 8rj irdvra rore ravrrj E
7re(j)VKoTa e dvdjKrjs 6 rov KaXkicrrov re Kal dpLcnov SrifAiovpyos
10 ev rot? yvyvofMevois 7rape,dfj,(3avev, rjviica rov avrdpKr] re Kal rov
reea>rarov deov eyevva, ^pco/iezô? pev rals Trepl ravra airiais
virf)perovcrais, ro Se ev reKraivofAevos ev irafft, rot? 'yiyvofievois
O.UTO9. Bi6 Brj ^pr) &v alrlas e'lBrj BtopiêaBai, ro fiev dvayKatov,
TO Be deiov, Kal ro /j,ev delov ev aTracrt fyretv Krr]crew<$ eveKa evBai-
15/^01/09 /Stou, Ka6' oaov rj/juwv r/ <f>v<ri<> evBeêrai, ro Be dvayKaiov GO A
eiceivwv %aptv, oyi6/j,evov, ee5? dvev rovrwv ov Bvvard avrd eKelva,
efi ot? o-7rovBd%ofj,ev, pova Karavoelv ovB" av a(3elv ovB' a'XX,co9
16 oyi$fj.ei>ov :
oyifridvovs SZ.
development of that form through all the
ramifications of its manifold appearances.
Plato here probably has in view the
problem of ?v Kal TroXXa as presented by
the methodical investigation of physical
phenomena; the tendency of his later
thought was however to the conclusion
that the problem is one which can only
approximately be grasped by finite intelli-
gence. Compare 83 C.
n. alriais virr)perov<rais] cf. supra
48 C, Phaedo 99 A, Politicus 281 D.
'3* T^ H1^ avaYKatov, TO 8J Ociov]
The distinction between the two sorts
of causes is obvious enough. The
dvayKaiov includes all the subsidiary
causes, the physical forces and laws
by means of which Nature carries on
her work : the Belov is the final cause,
the idea of TO {tiXriffTov as existing in
absolute intelligence. The operation of
dvdyKi) is to be studied either, as we were
told at 59 C, for the sake of rational
recreation, or more seriously, as we now
6 t/cavwy: iKavos us SZ.
i. iruppov 8i fxe'Xavi irpdo-iov] This
certainly seems an exceedingly odd com-
bination. wpdinov is bright green, or
leek-colour ; and a mixture of chestnut
and black appears very little likely to
produce it. Aristotle more correctly
classes green, along with red and violet,
as a simple colour : see meteorologica III ii
372
a
5 t<m 8t TCI xpw/iaTa TO.VTO. &irep
/j.6va crxfSov ov fivvavrai Troteic ol ypa<f>fjr
(via. yap avrol Kepavvvovfft, ro 5 0oi-
VIKOVV KM. irpamvov /cat aovpyov ov yty-
verai Kfpavvvfj.evov. rj 5^ Ipu ravr' Zxei T
X/sw/aara
1
TO 5 /xeTa|i> TOU <j>oivi.KoG Kal
n-paaivov <paiverai TroXXaKis av66v. Ac-
cording to Demokritos irpaffivov is K irop-
<f>vpov Kal rrjs Iffdridos, -rj
e'/c
-x(apov Kal
irop<pvpofi5ovs : combinations which seem
hardly better calculated than Plato's for
producing the desired result.
5. 0os ptv] God, says Plato, can
detect in the multifarious diversity of
particulars one single form underlying
them all ; and again he can trace the

69 A] TIMAIDS. 253
deep blue mingled with white produces pale blue; and chestnut
with black makes green. And for the remaining colours, it is
pretty clear from the foregoing to what combinations we ought
to assign them so as to preserve the probability of our account:
but if a man endeavour to make practical trial of these theories
he will prove himself ignorant of the difference between divine
and human intelligence : that God has sufficient understanding
and power to blend the many into one and again to resolve the
one into many; but no man is able to do either of these, now or
henceforth for ever.
All these things being thus constituted by necessity, the
creator of the most fair and perfect in the realm of becoming
took them over, when he was generating the self-sufficing and
most perfect god, using the forces in them as subservient causes,
but himself working out the good in all things that come into
being. Wherefore we must distinguish two kinds of causes, one
of necessity and one of God: and the divine we must seek in all
things for the sake of winning a happy life, so far as our nature
admits of it; and the necessary for the sake of the divine, reflect-
ing that without these we cannot apprehend by themselves the
other truths, which are the object of our serious study, nor grasp
them nor in any other way attain to them.
learn, as a stepping-stone to the know- bring our story to a fitting close by set-
ledge of the MOP. This passage con- ting forth how he thereafter fulfilled his
tains the strongest expression which design. God found all matter without
is to be found in Plato in favour of the form or law, obeying blind chance. He
investigation of phenomena, when he inspired into it form and order and made
says that it is necessary to study sub- it to be a single universe, a living creature
sidiary causes as an aid to the study of containing within it all things else that
the final cause. Particulars are nothing live. Of the divine he was himself the
else but the form in which the ideas are maker ;
but the creation of the mortal
made manifest to our bodily senses ; there- he committed to his children. And they,
fore the study of particulars, in its highest receiving from him the immortal essence,
aspect, is the study of ideas. But the built for it a mortal body, bringing with
sole value of this study lies in its bearing it all the passions that belong to the flesh,
on the knowledge of the ideal world : And reason, which is immortal, they set
the physical inquiry regarded as an end in the head : but they made to dwell
in itself Plato estimates quite as low in with it two mortal forms of soul, which
the Timaeus as in the Republic. they severed from the immortal by put-
69 A 70 D, c. xxxi. Now therefore ting the neck to sunder them. And
that we have completed our account since the mortal form was twofold, they
of the accessory causes which God em- made the midriff for a wall to part the
ployed in carrying out his end, let us two: and they set emotion in the heart,

254 HAATHNOS [69 A
XXXI. "Or' ovv S?) rd vvv ola reKrotriv r)fju,v vr) Trapdicei-
rat TO, rdov airiwv yevrj 8ivacrfj,eva, e (Sv rov e7rionrov 6<yov
Bel %vvv<j)av0T)vai, 7rdiv eV dp^rjv e7rave0a)fji,ev Bid /SpaêcM,
ra^y re elf ravrov tropev6wp,ev, oOev Bevpo dîKOfieOa, Kal reXeu-
5 rrjv rjBtj Ke<f>arjv re ra> p,v6<> Tret,
putteda dp/j,6rrova-av eTTifleivai 15
rot? 7Tp6<r0ev. (txTTrep ovv Kal KMT dp%d<j eXej$/7, ravra drd/crax;
eôvra 6 0eos ev etcdcrru) re avrw TTÔO? avro real rrpos drja
crvftfjierpias eveTroirjo'ev, ocra? re Kal airy Buvarov r^v dvdXoya Kal
(rvfifierpa elvai. rore yap ovre rovrwv c<rov /XT) rv%r) rt /nereiêv,
10 ovre TO irapi'iTrav cvofidcrai rwv vvv 6vofj,a%ofAva>v dj;io<ryov TJV
ov&ev, olov Trvp Kal vBtop Kal ei n rwv aXXtfV* aXa Trdvra ravra
Trpwrov SieKccrfArja-ev, eire^r CK rovrwv irav roSe ^vvecrrr/craro, (pov
ev fcoa e%ov rd Trdvra ev avrm Ovrjrd dddvard re. Kal rwv p>ev
8eia)V avros yiyverai Srjfjiiovpyos, rdSv Se dvrjrwv rrjv yeveaiv rots
15 eavrov jevv^fMacn 8r)fj,tovpyeiv rrpoa-eraêv ol Be fjbifiovfêvoi, irapa-
Xa/Sovre? dpxfiv û%^9 dOdvarov, ro fjierd rovro Ovijrov
avrfj Trepieropvevcrav o^rjfjbd
re rcav ro crwfia eSoaav, aXXo re et
2 SivXafffifra :
divi<rfj.tt>a H et ex correctione, ut videtur, A.
6 ravra: airra rd A. 13 fxov T(* Tavra :
ôvra irdvra A.
and appetite they chained in the belly. 3. eir' dpx^v tiravcXOwp-ev] We
This they did that the nobler part should here resume our account, interrupted at
hear the voice of the reason and pass its 47 E, of the operation of intelligence,
commands through all the swift channels which now acts through the created gods
of the blood, and so might aid it in sub- in the generation of human beings. At
duing the rebellious swarm of lusts and the same time Plato fulfils the promise
passions. And knowing that the heart, made in 61 D of expounding <rap/c6j icai
excited by fear or passion, would leap ru>v irepi a-Apta ytveaw faxy* re o<rov
and throb vehemently, they devised the ffvrfr&v.
cool soft structure of the lungs for a 4. reXeuniv qBrj KC<j>oXi]v TC] Corn-
cushion to soothe and sustain it in the pare Phaedrus 264 c dd r65e ye olp.a.1
time of need. <re ipdvai dv, delv irdvra 6yov uairtp fyov
r. VTJ Trapo,KtTai] We have as- ffvvfffrdvai ffCifja. n exovra avrbv avrov,
sorted our material by distinguishing the wore /j.^re &Kf<f>aov elvai p-fre avow,
Oeia atria from the dva.yKO.la. and by enu- ciXXd peaa re tx tt' Ka^
o.Kpa, irpeirovr
1
merating the manifold forms of the latter. dXXiJXou Kal TQ 5X<p yeypa^neva : also
The use of OX?; is of course purely meta- Politicus 277 B dXX' drex^wy 6 6yos
phorical, without any trace of the Aris- r)/juv wffirtp <pov TJV l-faOfv pev irepi-
totelian sense. ypa<f>r)i> Hoiicev iKav&s l?X-v, rr)v 8^ olov
i. 8ivXa(T|iva] I can find no au- rots (j>ap/j.dKois Kal Ty ffvyKpdffei rCiv XPW-
thority for using 5iviff(j.fi>a, which Her- /tdrwi/ evdpyeiav OVK O7rei.i)<pfrai ITU.
mann keeps, in the sense here required. 6. KO.T' dpxis 'x&n] We have
8ivLetv is a late word signifying
'
to here a brief reference to the statements
filter '. in 30 A. 42 n 43 A.

c] TIMAIO2. 255
XXXI. Now therefore that the different kinds of causes lie
ready sorted to our hand, like wood prepared for a carpenter, of
which we must weave the web of our ensuing discourse, let us in
brief speech return to the beginning and proceed once more to
the spot whence we arrived at our present point; and so let us
endeavour to add an end and a climax to our story conformable
with what has gone before.
As was said then at the beginning, when God found these
things without order either in the relation of each thing to itself
or of one to another, he introduced proportion among them, in
as many kinds and ways as it was possible for them to be pro-
portionate and harmonious. For at that time neither had they
any proportion, except by mere chance, nor did any of the
bodies that now are named by us deserve the name, such as fire
and water and the other elements : but first he ordered all these,
and then out of them wrought this universe, a single living crea-
ture containing within itself all living creatures, mortal and
immortal, that exist. And of the divine he himself was the
creator; but the creation of mortals he delivered over to his own
children to work out. And they, in imitation of him, having
received from him the immortal principle of soul, fashioned
round about her a mortal body and gave her all the body to
?x VTa] See note on 53 A. not have come to pass without the action
As to the construction, the accusative of intelligence. Compare 53 I?
txvrj ptv
may he regarded as governed by the HxoVTa O.VTWV OTTO.
compound phrase ffvfj./j.erptas tveirol-r)- 12. Jwov v] cf. 300.
<rev, as though Plato had written 1/1/77/3- 17. oxTl|Aa] Compare 44 E flx'/Mct
/x6(7aro. We had a somewhat similar avrb TOVTO Kal eviroplav ZSotrav. The
sentence in 37 D, T)^/>OS yap Kal vuKras notion of 6x>jna is not a vessel to contain
Kal fj.T)vas Kal tviavrovs, OVK 6vras irplv the soul, but a means of her physical
otipavbv ytvtcrOai, r6re &/j.a tKeivy 1-vvurra- locomotion.
fj.tv<$ TT}V ytveviv avruiv fj.Tj-xa.va.Tai..
diXXo T cISos . .TO Oviyrov] The nature
9. TOVTWV] sc. TWV ffvp.nerpi.Giv. of this BVIJTOV elSoj has been discussed
10. OVTS r6 irapairav dvo(id<rai] An- in detail in my introduction to the
other shaft aimed at Demokritos : had Phaedo : a brief statement therefore of
fire and water received only just so much what I conceive it to mean may suffice
form as they might owe to rvx^, they here. The division into Odov and Ovrjrov
could not even have been worthy of the is obviously identical with the division
names fire and water. The mere existence into oyiariKov and aoyov in the Re-
of such definite forms as fire air earth public; and the subdivision of Ov^rov cor-
and water, even apart from their harmoni- responds to the subdivision of SXoyov in
sation into a single coherent K6o>tor, could that dialogue into OvpofiSts and

256 riAATHNOS [69 c-
ev avra) ^1^779 TrpocrwteoSoiJiOvv TO Ovrjrov, Seivd teal dvayteala ev
eavrw TraOijfjLara e%ov, jrpwrov fiev ijSovijv, fieyia-rov teateov Seeap, D
ejreira vrras, dyaOdtv (frwyds, en S' av ddppos teal <j)6{3ov, d<jjpove
%Vfj,/3oi>(o, OvfAOV 8e 8v<nrapa/j,vOr)rov, eX-TTi'Sa 8'
evTrapdycayov'
5 alcrOrjcret, Se d6<yw teal
e'rri'êiprjrf) rcavro^ epwn ^vjKepacrdêvoi
ravra dva<yKaio>s TO OVIJTOV yevos %vvedecrav. teal Sid ravra &rj
o-/36fj,evoi /jbiaiveiv TO Oetov, o rt (Mr)
irdaa TJV dvdytcr), ^coplf eiceivov
fcaroiiei%ovo~iv els aXXrjv rov crco/iaTO? oitcrjcriv TO Ovrjrov, Icr6p,ov E
teal opov SioiKoSofjLrjo-avres rfjs re tee<f>afj<>
teal rov emjaws, av-
10
%eva êra^v ridevre^,
f
iva eitj ^(opl^. ev Srj Tot? cmj0e(ri teal rw
tcaovfj,ev<i) Owpatct TO rrjs Îrv^fjf 6vtjrov <yevo<> eveSovv, teal eirei^r)
TO jjiev dfjieivov avrrjs, TO Se jêipov e7T(pvKi, SioiKoSo[AOV(ri TO TOU .
0a>pa/eos av tevros, Siopiôvres olov yvvaite&v, rrjv Se dvSpoov %&)/3t9 70 A
oiterjcriv, rds (frpevas Sid^pay/jia ei9 TO /juecrov avrwv nOevres. TO
4 Ovfibv 84 :
6vpav re et mox eirloa r' S. 5 aiffBr/ffei 84 :
alcrd^fffi re SZ.
vyKtpa<ranevoi ravra :
%vyKepa<ra/j.evol r' avrd, facta post ?/>wrt interpunctione, SZ.
12 {TTf(f>vKei: ire<pijKft. S. TO TOU OwpaKos aC : TO ToO (tupaxos avro A. Toy Oupaxos o5
TO' SZ.
and to the nobler and baser steed
in the Phaedrus. It seems to me certain
that these three etSrj are but names for
one and the same vital force manifesting
itself in different relations. The intellect,
seated in the head, is the soul acting by
herself, performing her own proper func-
tion of thinking. But since she is brought
into connexion with a material body, she
must needs have irdBr) which are con-
cerned with that body. So then, if
the Oelov is her activity by herself, the
Ovrtrov is her activity through the body ;
which activity Plato distributes into two
classes of vaBrj, one of which may
be designated by the general term of
emotions, the other by that of appetites.
It will be noticed that this does not
profess to give an exhaustive catalogue
of the soul's activities through body :
for sensuous perceptions are a mode of
her action through body which does not
fall under either head. For reasons in
support of this view of the relation of
the ftbr) I must refer to the introduction
to the Phaedo aforesaid. The name
Ovyrov is applied by Plato to the lower
s, because, though soul is in herself and
in her own activity eternal, her connexion
with any particular body is temporary,
and so must her action through such a
body be also. Galen comments upon
the term tfj^ToVas follows: de plac. Hipp.
et Plat. IX 794 irbrepov xvpius dvo/j-afw
etprjKev tv Tifj-aty Ovrjrd TO. dtio [atpy rrjs
i/svXW 'n T^TIJV auTO?s tirriveyKf rr)i> Trpoarj-
yopiav dOavarois ovffiv cis "Xfipoffi rov Xo-
yicrriKou xa.1 ws Kara, rd Qvrfro. ruv îfiuv
tvepyovffi /JLOVOV ;
Of this question he offers
no determination, but that he raised the
point is
interesting.
i. Scivd Kal avavKcua] This and
much more of the phraseology in the
present passage is echoed from 42 A.
dvayKdta =necessarily inherent in their
nature.
3. a<J>pov vp|3ovXci>] Compare
Laws 644 c, where pleasure and pain
take the place of confidence and fear :
tvavriu} re KO.I a.<ppove, w irpoffayopei'io/J.ei'
rjSovrjv /cat VTTTJV.
6. T& OVTJTOV Y^VOS] sc. rrjs ifsvxffi-
7. o-tf36|xevoi. p.iaiviv TO Octov] An-

70 A] TIMAIOS. 257
ride in; and beside her they built in another kind of soul, even
that which is mortal, having within itself dread and inevitable
passions first pleasure, the strongest allurement of evil, next
pains, that scare good things away; confidence moreover and
fear, a yoke of thoughtless counsellors ;
wrath hard to assuage
and hope that lightly leads astray; and having mingled all these
perforce with reasonless sensation and love that ventures all
things, so they fashioned the mortal soul. And for this cause,
in awe of defiling the divine, so far as was not altogether neces-
sary, they set the mortal kind to dwell apart from the other in
another chamber of the body, having built an isthmus and
boundary between the head and the breast, setting the neck
between them to keep them apart. So in the breast, or the
thorax as it is called, they confined the mortal kind of soul.
And whereas one part of -it was nobler, the other baser, they
built a party-wall across the hollow of the chest, as if they were
marking off an apartment for women and another for men, and
they put the midriff as a fence between them. That part of the
other reason why the intellect should be
in the head is given in 90 A. Galen de
plac. Hipp, et Plat. VI 505 says that Hip-
pokrates agreed with Plato in making
three x<"' the head heart and liver :
this view Galen himself defends against
that of Aristotle and Theophrastos, who
made the heart the sole dpxn
'
cf. Aris-
totle de iuvenlute iii
4^9* 5. See note on
73 B ol yap rod fiiov 8f<r/j.oi rrjs t/'i'X'?s T<^
TO Qvryrov -y^os.
& TI |MJ irdtra ifv dvaYKi]] A certain
loss of her divine nature is inseparable
from the soul's differentiation and con-
sequent material embodiment : all the
gods could do was to reduce this to a
minimum.
10. TU Kaov[Wvw Oiopaxi] The epi-
thet KaXovju^v is inserted because the
word &6pa in this sense is a technical
term of anatomy, the popular word being
yrtpvov or ffrrjOos. It occurs nowhere else
in Plato, but is common in Aristotle, who
sometimes, as de partibus animalium iv
P. T.
xii 693" 25, uses the same expression, rA
TOV KaXov/jLfvov OupaKOS tirl TU>V Terpawo-
5uv. Euripides has it once, Herculesfurens
1095 veaviav 6u>pa.Ka Kal j3paxiova. Aris-
totle also uses the word in a more com-
prehensive sense than it bears nowadays,
including the entire trunk : historia atii~
malium vii 491* 29.
13. olov ywaiKwv, njv Se avSpcov]
This is no more than a mere simile :
there is nothing in the words to warrant
the titles which Martin bestows upon the
two tttr) 1'ame male and Fame femelle ;
nor is there the slightest appropriateness
in these names. It is not even said which
division corresponds to theyvvaiKuv, which
to the dvSpuv otic-riffis.
14. Sid<f>p<vypa] This word, which
has since become specially appropriated
to the midriff, is used in a general sense
by Plato for a fence or partition : Aris-
totle applies it to the cartilaginous wall
dividing the nostrils, historia animalium
I xi 492
h 16: the midriff he often calls
SiafafJM.
17

258 HAATHNOS [70 A
[ier%ov ovv rfji "fyv^s dvSpeias Kal 6vp,ov, <f>t6veiKov ov, KCLTW-
Ki<rav eyyvrepco T//9 Ke<f>afjs /jLera^v rwv (frpevaiv re Kal av%evo<;,
iva rov 6yov Karr)KOov ov tcouf) per e/ceivov ftiq TO TV emOvfjuwv
Kareôi, 76^09, OTTOT' eV r/?9 a/cp07roXert>9 rc3 erriTdy/jiaTi Kal 6ya>
5 /J.r)Ba/mfj Treideaffat, e/cov 0oi. rr)V 8e Sr; Kap&iav a/jL/j.a rdov <f)e/3wv
Kal Trrjyrjv TOV rrepifapofjievov Kara rrdvra rd fj,e
/
tj o-^>oSpo)9 at- B
/iaro? ei9 TJ)I' Sopv<j>opiKi}v oiKr](Tiv KarecrTfjorav, Yva, ore Accrete TO
TOU dvfjiov /tez/09, TO) 6jov 7rapayyiavTO<t, 009 Tt9 aSi09 Trepl
avra yijverai, Trpafys egwffev rj
ical Tt9 airo rdov evSoOev 7ri0v/j,i(5v,
10 o^6)9 Sta Trdvrojv TWV crrevatTToav irav '6<rov alcrOrjTiKOv ev rut
(rcajjiaTi TWV re TrapaKeKevcrewv Kal d7rei(uv alaOavopevov <yiyvoi-
ro 7Tt]Koov Kal eTrotro Trdvrrj, Kal TO (3e,ri<rrov ovrow ev avrols
yyefjioveiv ec3. rg Be &r) ir^Sr/aec, rrjs Kap&ias ev rfj rwv C
TrpocrBoKLa Kal rf) rod OV/JLOV eyepcrei, Trpoyiyvwa'Kovres ori
15 Bid Trvpos 77 roiavrrj Trdcra e/j,eev oiSrjcris yiyveadai rwv 6v-
fj,ovfJievQ)v, eTrtKOvpiav avrfj firfâvwfjLevoi rrjv rod 7reu/*oyo9 ISeav
evecfrvrevo-av, irpwrov pev fjLoXaKrjV Kal dvaipov, elra (rijpayyas
%ovcrav olov (nroyyov Kararerpij/Jievas, iva TO re irvevp.a
, dvairvorfv Kal pao~ru)vr]v ev rq>
Ka TO TTOfjua
I dvdpetas: avSpias AZ. 5 o/a/ua:
13 t$ :
{(fa S. 15 otdrjffis
3. KaTijKoov] Undoubtedly this
means 'within hearing of: that was the
object they had in view when they placed
the 6vfJi.oti$ts tyyvrtpta T^S Kf<pafjs.
4. K TTJS (XKpoiroXews] Compare
Galen de placitis Hippocratis et Platonis
II 230 Ka.0a.irep Iv a.Kpoir6fi TTJ ice(f>a.rj
dttcr)v fj.eya.Xov /3a(n^ws o ^7/câXoj tdpv-
rat.
5. apfia] This reading has best ms.
authority and gives the best sense : Stall-
baum's a.px'n" ^Ma is comparatively feeble.
It is true that Aristotle de iitventute iii
468
b
31 has 17 6^ Kapdia on early apM r^v
tpefiu>v : but that is no evidence that
Plato wrote opx1?" here. Galen quotes
this passage, de plac, II 292, and charges
Chrysippos with plagiarising the Platonic
doctrine.
6. <r|>o8p<<5s] From this word Galen
de plac. VI 573 infers that Plato makes
the heart the apxn of the arterial circula-
10 TUV ante ffrevuiruv omittunt AS.
19 ir6fj.a :
irwp.a A pr. m. SZ.
S.
A.
tion only, not of the venous, the
of which is the liver; rk p.h yap <?
^Varos 6pfj.w/j.evov ov vepi^perai ff<f>o8pus.
This seems however a slight basis on
which to found the inference that Plato
knew the difference between veins and
arteries, which he nowhere else gives any
sign of distinguishing. Compare pseudo-
Hippokrates de alimentis vol. II p. 22
Kiihn pifacns 0e/3<2j/ ffirap, p/fwais aprr]-
piCiv KapSir), tic rovrtuv aTroirXavSLrai
Kal irvevfji.a, Kal 6epna<rii>) dta
<pcnT$ : the passage however has in it
unmistakable marks of a date long sub-
sequent to Plato's time or Aristotle's
either. The distinction between veins
and arteries seems also to have been un-
known to Aristotle ;
and unquestionably
he makes the heart the only apxtf-
g. TWV ?v8o0v !m6v|AwI>v] Compare
the functions of the <f>vaKe$ in protecting
the city efre rts t%u6ev rj Kal rQiv evooOev

c] TIMAIO2. 259
soul which shares courage and anger, seeing that it is warlike,
they planted nearer the head, between the midriff and the neck,
that it might be within hearing of the reason and might join it
in forcibly keeping down the tribe of lusts, when they would in
no wise consent to obey the order and word of command from
the citadel. And the heart, which is the knot of the veins and
the fount of the blood which rushes vehemently through all the
limbs, they made into the guardhouse, that whensoever the fury
of anger boiled up at the message from the reason, that some
unrighteous dealing is being wrought around them, either with-
out, or, it may be, by the lusts within, swiftly through all the
narrow channels all the sensitive power in the body might be
aware of the admonitions and threats and be obedient to them
and follow them altogether, and so permit the noblest part to be
leader among them all.
For the throbbing of the heart in the anticipation of danger
or the excitement of wrath, since they foreknew that all such
swelling of passion should come to pass by means of fire, they
devised a plan of relief, and framed within us the structure of
the lungs, which in the first place is soft and void of blood, and
next is perforated within with cavities like those of a sponge, in
order that receiving the breath and the drink it might cause
coolness and give rest and relief in the burning. Wherefore
tot KaKovpyriffuv 170. of the paramount importance of the lungs
10. 8id irdvTwv TWV orcvttirwv] i.e. in the process of breathing and the purifi-
through all the narrow blood-vessels ; to cation of the blood : he is also of course
which, as we have seen, Plato attributed quite wrong in calling them avaifiov. His
the functions which are really discharged view is impugned by Aristotle on grounds
by the nerves. of comparative anatomy, de partibus ani-
1 1. TWV T irapoKcXcwrccov Kal dim- malium III vi 669* 18 rb dt jrpAj TTJP S.crii>
Xwv] Cf. 718 xa^e7r') TrpofffvtxOficra. flvai rbv irXevnova rrjs KapSias OVK ttpr)Tai
diretfj. TO ptXriffrov of course = TO oyiff- /caXuij : further on, 66g
b
8, he says 5wj
TIKOV. fj.ti> oiv 6 ir(i/fjui>v tariv dvairvorjs x^P1 "
'
13. TTJ 8i 81] -inj8Tj<ri] The violent but he does not seem to have had a very
beating of the heart under the influence clear idea of the functions performed by
of strong emotion is due to its hot and the lungs.
fiery composition. So the lungs, a soft 18. TO TC irvtvp.a Kal T ir6|ia] In
and bloodless structure, were placed be- this curious error Plato is at one with all,
side it, partly to cool it, partly to provide or nearly all, the best medical science of
a soft cushion to receive its bounding. the day. Plutarch de Stoicorum repitg-
Plato, as we shall see when we come to nantiis xxix says Hdruv yv ?x T^"
his account of respiration, was unaware iarpuv robs tv8oordTovs (t.a.pTvpovi>Tas,
172

260 HAATONOS [70 D
v KCU r&v iroiijruv 'EvpiirLSrji',
i' Bio Brj r/7<? dpTrjpias dêroi)? eVt TOV -rrXevfiovd 1>
Tefj,ov, KOI Trepl TTjv KdpBidv duTov Trepieo'Trjfrav olov afj.d p.aa-
KOV, 'iv o Ovfjios rjvitfd ev avTy d/cftdôt, 7rr)B(5cra els VTreiKov KOI
dvatyvyo/jievr), irovoixrd IJTTOV, fj,dov TO> 6yy /Ltera 0vfiov Bv-
5 VdiTO VTrrjpeTeiv.
XXXII. To Be Br} aiTW T real TTOTWV eTriOvf^rjTiKov Trjs
tywyfjs Kdl ccrwv evBeiav Bid Tt)v TOV trw/zaro? i^x i <
f
)VO
~
t>v, TOVTO
6i9 T fATav TWV T <f>peVU>V Kttl TOV 7T/3O9 TOV OfJ,(f)d.OV OpOV KdTO)- E
Kio~av, olov (baTvriv ev arravTi TOVTW TU> TOTTW Tfj TOV cra)/j.aTo<i
10 Tpo(pf) Te/cTijvdfjievoi' Kdl KdTeBrjcrav Brj TO TOIOVTOV evravOa eJ?
dypioi', Tpe<j)eiv Be ^vvrjfiêvov avay/faiov, elirep TI /LteXXot
LO. II. 7 OCTWC '. 030V Jl.
piXwpias TOV dpydvov (pepo/jLtvov, dXXd wtpl
TOI> x'Twâ avTov Spoffotidws xaTapptov.
1. Tijs aprt]p(os] i.e. the windpipe:
later it was designated 17 Tpaxeia dpnjpla,
'
whence trachea. This is the only usage
of the word aprr/pla in Plato and Aristotle;
it never means 'artery' in the modern
sense. 6x TOVS is plural like dpTtjpias in
78 c, probably because of the bifurcation
of the trachea into the bronchia before
entering the lungs.
2. oXpa jtaXaKov] There is certainly
no reason for altering the text : Plato
might very well say 'a soft leap' for 'a
soft place to leap upon '. Martin's dy/j.a
is a very unhappy suggestion, and Her-
mann's fj.dayfj.a is as inappropriate as
arbitrary. fj.dayfj.a means a poultice or
fomentation ; but the function of the lungs
is distinctly stated just below, irr)duffa
et $ vireiKov : this is perfectly well expressed
by the received reading. I believe that
Aristotle had this word fiX^ta in his mind,
when he wrote fiX<rt$ in the passage from
de partibus aninialium quoted above.
The object of the lungs then, according
to Plato, is to quiet down the agitation
of the heart and thereby render the emo-
tional faculty capable of taking sides with
the reason against the eiriOvuriTiKov.
4. jtcrd Ovjioii] i.e. that the heart,
along with the emotional faculty seated
therein, may be enabled to obey the
(J.CLTI
STI TO WOTOV 5t& TOV Tri>fv(j,ovos ddeiai.
It is remarkable that Galen also held
this view: cf. de plac. Hipp, ct Plat. Vlll
719 aXXa el Kal <fov, o TI &v eêX^crr;?,
Sif/r
t
ffai Tronjo'ets, wy Kfxpvff/J-&oi> vSup
jrtetV, et doirjs eifre Kvavip xpw-
as efre /i/Xry, elro euê'ws <r0d|as
dvartfjiois, fvpriffeis Kf^puff^vov TJV irvtv-
fiova. dfjov oZv tffTiv STI <p{peTal TI TOV
5r6yLtaros e/s O.VTOV. Galen's observation
is, I believe, correct, though his inference
is not so. Aristotle, on the contrary, was
aware that no fluid passes down the wind-
pipe to the lungs : see historia aninialium
I xvi 495
b 16 TI JJLV otv dpTijpia TOVTOV
#X TOV Tpbirov, Kcd 5^xera'
fôvov TO irvev-
(jia. /cat aîrjcriv, aAXo 5' ovOtv ovTe t-rfpov
oCO' vypbv, rj irovov irap^xfl >
^ws *" fKî)^
TO Ka.Tf06v. See too de partibits aninia-
lium ill iii 664
b
9, where he gives divers
demonstrations that the hypothesis is
untenable. It is also denied by the
writer of book IV of the Hippokratean
treatise de morbis, vol. II
pp. 373, 374
Kiihn : but affirmed by the author of dt
ossium nafura, a work of uncertain date,
vol. I
p. 515 Kiihn. Galen de plac. Vlll
715 points out that Plato conceives only
a part of the fluid to pass down the
trachea : OVK dOpoov ovSt Sid /u&r^j rijs ev-

TIMAIO2. 261
they made the windpipe for a channel to the lungs, which they
set around the heart, as it were a soft cushion to spring upon ;
so that when wrath was at its height therein, the heart might
leap upon a yielding substance and become cooled, and thus
being less distressed it might together with the emotions be
better enabled to obey the reason.
XXXII. But that part of the soul which lusts after meat
and drink and all things whereof it has need owing to the
body's nature, this they set between the midriff and the navel
as its boundary, constructing in all this region as it were a
manger for the sustenance of the body : and here they chained
it like a wild beast, which must yet be reared in conjunction
with the rest, if a mortal race were to be at all. To the end
reason : that is to say, that the emotional
faculty may not be hampered m its
action by the physical agitation of the
organ which it employs. From first to
last, in this dialogue as in the Republic,
Plato regards the emotions, if they are
given fair play, as sure allies of the
reason.
70 D 72 D, c. xxxii. But that part of
the soul whereunto belongs the craving
for meat and drink the gods placed in
the belly, where they made, as it were,
its stall: and so they kept it far away
from the habitation of the intellect, that
it might cause the least disquietude. And
since they knew that it could not appre-
hend reason, but would be led by dreams
and visions of the night, they devised for
it the liver, which should copy off for it
all the messages from the brain ; either
terrifying it by threats and pains and
sickness, or soothing it by visions of
peace. Here then they set up the ora-
cular shrine in the body of man: and
since the appetitive soul could not di-
rectly comprehend the precepts of rea-
son, they thought to guide it
by signs and
tokens and dreams which might be com-
prehended of it. A proof that divination
is a boon for human folly is this. No sane
man in his waking senses is a true seer:
only one that is
asleep or delirious or in
some way beside himself has this gift.
The part of the sane man is to interpret
the prophetic utterances of the distraught
seer, for that the prophet cannot do.
Whence the seer always has an inter-
preter to expound his sayings ;
who often,
but wrongly, is himself termed a seer.
So then the liver is the seat of prophecy :
but it has this virtue only during life :
after death it is blind.
Next to the liver is
placed the spleen,
which is as a sponge to purify it and
carry off noxious humours.
7. 8i& TTJV TOV o-wjxaros fo"X l
4>v-
<rtv] This clearly teaches that it is for
the sake of the body alone that the ap-
petitive soul desires meat and drink ; for
itself it needs no such thing. The in-
ference thence is that the iri0vfjii)TiKl>i>
detached from the body is just pure soul,
the one and only soul ; but i/na tin6v-
uriTtKbv it is considered as working through
and for the body, the nourishment of
which it has to superintend.
9. olov 4>d.TVT)v] This suggests a horse
as the similitude, rather than a wild beast :
compare Phaedrus 247 E.
10. <is 6pfy.[i dfypiov] Compare Re-
public 588 C foil.
1 1. tirtp TI jjAXoi] If a mortal crea-
ture is to be, it must have a body; the
body must be animated and sustained by

262 nAATHNOS [70 E-
TO 0vr)Tov (reo~0ai yevos. iV ovv del vefiofievov Trpo? (frdTvy Kal
O Tl TTOppWTaTO) TOV j3oVVOfJ,VOV KaTOlKOVV, ObpvftoV Kal fiorjV
to? eXaxiGTijv 7rape%ov, TO KpaTurTov KaO' ^crvîav Trepl TOU Trdai 71 A
Koivy u/i<epoi>TO? ec3 ôuevecrdai, Sid TavTa evTav6 e8o<rav
5 avTfp Trjv Ta^tv. elBoTe's Be avro, to? XOYOU fiev otrre %vvr/a-eiv
/j,eev, et TG. Try Kal fjLTaa/ji^dvoi Ttvo? avTwv al&Orjcrea)*;, OVK
e/A^VTov avTw TO fjt,eetv TLVWV eaoiTo 6ya)V, VTTO Be elBwXwv Kal
i/f/cTO? T6 Kal fjieO* r/fjêpav f^dXia'Ta ylrvâywyij-
>/} êo? 7n,f3ovevo~a<; avTw TTJV r/TraTo? IBeav %vve-
10 cTTirja-e Kal eOrjKev ei? TTJV CKCLVOV KaToiKrjaiv, TTVKVOV Kal elov B
Kal a/j.7rpov Kal >yVKV Kal TTiKpOTrjTa e%ov fjLr]âvrio'dfjLi>o<;,
"va
ev avTO) TWV Biavorjfidrwv rj
eK TOV vov ^tepopevrj Bvva{j,is, olov ev
I TO Ovrjrov '. iroTe 6vi)Tov S. 6 avTaiv alcrOriffeus : aC TUI> alffdriaewv SZ.
soul; hence there must be an tin
K&V, or, as Aristotle would say, a
Kbv elSos of soul. For, as has been said,
the differentiation of souls into individuals
involves materialisation and hence imper-
fection.
5. OVT ^wâ-tiv 2|iXtv] The lowest
elSos would not have any comprehension
of rational principles, or if haply it had
some inkling of them, it would not care
to pay any heed to them. Therefore they
are expressed to this faculty in simili-
tudes by means of the liver. It will be
noticed that this symbolical representa-
tion of the dictates of the individual
reason is exactly analogous to the sym-
bolical manifestation of the ideas of uni-
versal reason by means of the sensible
perception of particular objects.
6. avrwv] This is doubtless right,
referring to the TIVWV 6ywv which fol-
lows. Stallbaurn's reading is, as I think,
weak in sense.
8. teal |M0' Tê'pav] The phantasms
of the daytime are the perceptions of the
senses.
IO. TI^V tKlivOV KaToClCTJ<riv] SC. T1)V
TOV twtffvfafnxev. In his account of the
relations of the liver with the eiridv/j.r)Tt-
KOV Plato has by anticipation refined be-
yond the point made by Aristotle in nic.
et/i. I xiii iiO2b
23 foil, faus 5' otiev
ffTTov Kal ev TTJ ifsvxrj VO/JLKTTÔV eival TI
irapa TOV 6yov, eva.vrioiJtJi.evov roi/ry Kal
avTifialvov. TTUJS 5' erepov, ovSev Siafapei.
oyov 8 Kal TOVTO <j>alvf.rai êr^xe "' &ff-
vep eiTro/aev' ireiOapxet yap r<j) oyif rb
TOU eyKparovs. ?Tt S' ferws e{ir)Kotbrep6v
iffTi TO TOW ffJxppovo? Kal dvSpelov' irdvra
yap bfJ.o<f)<j)vei T 6y(f. (fiatverai ST) /cat
TO aXoyov OLTTW. TO fJ.ev yap tpiTtKov ov-
5a/j.ws Koivwvel 6yov, TO
Kal 5Xws 6peKTiKov JHCT^X"
KOOV e<TTiv avTov Kal ireiffapxi-Kov. oOrw
dr) TOV iraTpos Kal TUV <pluv <f>auev ?xet|/
XOYOJ', Kal oi>x uffwep TUV /jLadrjfiaTtKtcv.
Sri d irelOeTai TTWJ inro TOV Xo-you TO dXo-
yov, (Ji.r)vvet Kal ij vovde"Ti)o~is Kal iraffa eiri-
Ti/J.r)ffis Kal Trapd.Krio'a. el de XP*I Ka^
TOVTO <f>dvai 6yov %xeiv, SITTOV fo~Ti Kal
TO 6yov fx"> T0 P^v Kvplws Kal ev avrtp,
TO 8 uffirep TOV iraTpos d/cowTt/cbV TI. In
Aristotle's analysis then the rational part
is twofold, the one kind possessing reason
absolutely, the other listening to its be-
hests. The aXoyov also is twofold, one
kind being absolutely irrational, while
the other /*eT^xet irrj 6yov. It thus ap-
pears that the lower kind of X670P txp
is identical with the higher kind of aXo-
yov: that in fact they are the same thing
viewed in different aspects. Comparing
this with Plato's statement, we shall find
that Aristotle's aXo-yo^ nerexov T"Q 6yov

71 B] TIMAIOS. 263
then that always feeding at its stall and dwelling as far as
possible from the seat of counsel, it might produce the least
possible tumult and uproar and allow the noblest part to con-
sult in peace for the common weal, here they assigned it its
place. And knowing that it would have no comprehension of
reason, and that even if it did in some way gain any perception
of rational thoughts, it was not in its nature to take heed to
any such things, but that it would be entirely led away by
images and shadows both by night and by day, God devised as
a remedy for this the nature of the liver, which he constructed
and set in its dwelling place : and he made it a body dense and
smooth and bright and sweet with a share of bitterness. This
he did to the end that the influence of thoughts proceeding
occupies the same position as Plato's Ov-
/j,ofi8s KarriKoov rov 6yov. This directly
hears and obeys the dictates of reason.
If a man is
betrayed by his friend, the
declaration by the reason that such con-
duct is immoral is at once responded to
by the Ovpofiits with a surge of indig-
nation against the friend's baseness. But
no such response would come from the
firi6u/j.ijTiK6i', which is incapable of under-
standing the situation. The judgments
of the reason must therefore be conveyed
to it in the symbolic form which alone
appeals to it, by signs and visions, by
portents and presages and terrors. This
indirect communication has no place in
the statement of Aristotle, who would no
doubt denounce it as TrXaer/uoTwSe s. It must
of course not be forgotten that Aristotle's
iri6u/j.i)TiK6v is not the same as Plato's.
A point worth noticing is a certain ad-
vance in the psychology of the Timaeus
as compared with that of the Phaedrus.
In the latter the lowest elSos is simply
appetitive ; but in the Timaeus it in-
cludes the functions of nutrition and
growth. This is plain from 70 E olov
<f>a.Tvr)i> K.T.X. ; and also from the fact
that the rplrov el<5os is assigned to plants.
Aristotle then is in reality indebted to
Plato for his OpeirriKbv /cal QVTIKOV: though
it must be confessed that the debt is by
no means acknowledged.
n. iva (v a.vr*p] As this long sen-
tence is very involved, a few words about
the construction may not be amiss. The
optatives belonging to iva are <t>oj3oi (the
temporal clause after oirore extending as
far as irapexoi) and the second TTOIOC :
while to oirore belong tftfabvt, the first
Troto?, and irap^xoi ;
and to ore belongs
diro<j}ypa.<fjol only. The fi.fr after <f>o/3oi
ought to have been answered by a 3^,
when the soothing influence was first
mentioned, but the length and intricacy
of the sentence has interrupted the exact
correspondence, so that the second mem-
ber is introduced by na.1 instead of 5^.
Again, it is not at first sight obvious,
especially as the sentence is sometimes
punctuated, to see where the apodosis to
ST' o5 begins. I should without hesi-
tation, putting a comma after djreu0<5-
vovaa, make the beginning of the apodo-
sis at tXediv re :
though, if we took the
participles vap^xovffa- ar>d the rest in
agreement with SiVajiuj instead of eir/-
TTVOICL, it would be possible to begin the
apodosis at TTJS it.fr jri/rporrjros. But the
former view seems to me in every way
preferable, ev avrf is
anticipative of the
clause beginning olov tv Karovrptf, from
which we must supply the notion 'pro-
ducing reflections in it'.

264 IIAATflNOS B-
TVTTOVS teal KariBelv eiBo)a Trapeôi'Ti, </>o/3ot
yu.ei> avro, O7TOT6 fAepei T/y9 TTtKpOTrjTOS ^pojfjLevr) %vyyevei, âXeTr/}
cnreiXf), Kara irdv VTrofjLtjvvcra oea>? TO rjirap,
epfyaivoi, ^vvdyovad re TTCLV pvaov teal rpa^v
5 TTOtol, XoySoy e /cat 0^09 7rua9 re, ra /iJ> e'
opdov Karatd/jur- C
rovaa Kal ^vcnruxja, rd Be efi^paTTOvaa <7vyKeioL>crd re, Xi/7ra9
/cat ao~a9 7rape%ot' fcal or' ay rdvavria ^tavrdafjiara diro^wypafyol
7T/9aOT?7TO<? Tt? 6/C BldVOiaS eTTLTTVOia, T/79 /i6V TTLKpOTtJTOS r]<JVlaV
7rap%ova'a ru> fjbrjre Kiveiv fjujre irpoardTTTecrdai, rrjf eVai/ria? eavrt)
Be r/J ;ar' eKelvo ^vp-fyv-rw Trpos avro
6p0d real eia avrov /cat eev6epa d-rrevOv- D
vova~a, tXeaiv re Kal evr/pepov iroiol rr)i> Trepl TO rfTrap ^fX'}?
polpav KaTWKLcrpêvriv, ev re rfj vvKrl Biayaiyrjv eôvcrav /jLerpiav,
IMavreia %pa)fAevr)v icad' VTTVOV, eVetS/} 6yov Kal <^poi///'o-eo)9
ov
15 yiteTetê. /j.e/jLVT}/j,evoi yap rfj^ TOV Trarpo? eVto-ToX^? ol ^vffrr^ffavre^
,
oT6 TO 6i>r)Tov eVecrTeXXe 76^09 069 apia-rov et9 tvvajMiv Trotelv,
5 re: ro A. 10 O.VTO : eavro A.
t
T7]S 1Tt-KpTT)TOS
Stallbaum understands ry
TJTTO.TL after tri/yyeê?, saying
'
ridicule
enim quidam sic interpretantur, ac si
rationis naturae cognatum intelligatur'.
It appears to me that the 'ridiculous'
interpretation is the only correct one:
vyyevet signifies, akin to the dark and
gloomy nature of the thoughts which are
conveyed by i) etc rov vov <pfpofj^vrj 5v-
va.fj.LS : see below /ttijre Trpoffdirreffffai rrjs
tvavria.? favrr) Qvveus eOettv. If the
bitterness belonging to the liver is of a
contrary nature to cheerful thoughts, it
can hardly be very ridiculous to conceive
that it is of kindred nature to thoughts
that are gloomy. So Wagner,
'
was seiner
Natur (d. i. des Nachdenkens) entgegen-
gesetzt ist '.
3. dirtiXrj] Hermann punctuates so
as to join this word with KO.TO. irav viro-
piyvuffa K.T.A., which surely gives it an
intolerable situation. Cf. 70 B.
5. XofJov 8i Kal Sods irvXas ft] The
Xo/36s here meant is the lobe /car' tôx'nv,
the large right lobe of the liver, in which
the gall-bladder is situated; to which
15 i-vffTf]<rcn>Tes: ZwHTTavTes HS.
effect Stallbaum cites Rufus Ephesius : the
5oxu seem to be the small vessels in the
liver: the wuai are the two entrances of
the portal vein, which conveys blood to
the liver; the plural is used because the
vein divides into two branches immedi-
ately before entering the liver. That all
these were of high importance in sacri-
ficial divination is clear from Euripides
Electro. 827829:
cai o^36j pv ov irpoffrfv
ffirXdyxvois, irva.i $t Ka
fcafca? <-<j>a.ivov ry ffKOirovvri irpcffôax.
Compare Aristotle historia animaliiini
I xvii 496
b
29 irpoffirtyvKe 5^ r-g /j.fydri
<pf{3i rb riirap, TTJ 8' dopry ov noivuvei'
did yap TOU TJiraros 5i^xfl ^ e* 7r'1
'"'7* fJ-fyd-
i]S <pf[3bs <)>{l/, 3 5J; al KaXovnevat irvai
flffl TOV ijiraros. The fj.cydr] <(tt(/ is
evidently the vena cava; see de partibtis
animalium III iv 666b
24 on 5t wp&rov
tv ry Kapdiq. ylreTai TO alpa iroaKis tipj)-
Ka/j,ev, did Tb TCLS dpxrjyous 0^/3as vo
f'vat, TTV re fj.eydt)v Kaovfj.tvt)i> Kal TTJV
dopTriv while -q diro Trft /teyd7jj is as
clearly the portal vein.

D] TJMA1O2.
from the brain, when the liver received outlines of them, as if in
a mirror, and exhibited reflections to view, might strike terror
into the appetitive part, whenever making use of the bitter
element akin to its own dark nature and threatening with stern
approach, diffusing the bitterness swiftly throughout the whole
liver it displayed a bilious colour, and contracting it made it
all rough and wrinkled, and reaching the lobe and the vessels
and the inlet, twisted the first from its right position and con-
torted it, while at the same time it obstructed and closed up the
two latter, thereby producing pain and nausea : and on the
other hand in order that, whenever a breath of mildness from
the reason copied off on the liver visions of an opposite kind,
giving relief from the bitterness, because it will not excite a
nature opposite to its own nor have dealing with it, but using
upon the liver the sweetness that exists therein and soothing
everything till all is straight and smooth and free, it might
render gentle and calm that part of the soul which is settled
about the liver, and might enable it to secure a sober amuse-
ment at night, enjoying divination during sleep, in recompense
for its deprivation of intelligence and wisdom. For our creators,
because they remembered the behest of their father, when he
commanded them to make the mortal race as perfect as they
TO. jxiv] I suspect rbv /J.EV to be the CU'TO to refer to the tiri6vfi.-riTiKt>v : but this
right reading. will not do. For avrb must surely have
6. Xviras teal aaas] The effect is partly the same reference as avrov, which neces-
phyaical, partly moral: the pains and sarily means rov ijiraros.
nausea would cause evil dreams, which 12. twv rt Kal cvrjpcpov iroiot] Aris-
served as portents and deterrents. Her- totle (who must have been rather mysti-
mann, presumably by a typographical fied by this passage) has a direct reference
error, puts no stop at all after iraptyoi. to these words in de partibus animalinm
8. irpaoTT)T<5s Tis...tirirvoia] With IV ii
6j6
b 22 didirep ol 4yovres r^v Qfoiv
this very striking expression compare the T^S ^ojjs alff6-/i<rfws TIVOS that xapt.v ov
beautiful phrase in Aeschylus Agamemnon KaXws 4yovaiv. <pa<rl yap thai Sta TOVTO,
740 (ppovrjiLa. vyvt/jLov yaXavas. 4iriiri>ota SJTWS rijs if'vxw T& irepl rb rjirap fj.6piov
is the regulaV word for divine inspiration : SdKvoucra nlv ffwiffry, v6fj.fvov 5' ttui>
cf. Phaedrus 265 B, Laws 811 c. TOIT). Aristotle is himself decidedly
10. y^VK "TTl
TI'
"Hi tar' ^KCIVO] sc. rb sceptical concerning the prophetic charac-
Jj-n-ap: the tiriwoia. uses upon the liver ter of dreams: see his exceedingly in-
(Trpds avrb) the sweetness which per- teresting treatise de divinatione.
meates it. ZVH^VTV, i.e. akin to the 13. Iv rt rfj wic-rC] The re merely
(iritrvoia. Stallbaum understands irpbt couples <
r
xow'' a*' with tXeaurt KO einjufpov.

266 EAATHNOS [71 D
Brj Karopdovvres ical TO <f>avov r)fj,(av, 'iva dXrjffeias Try E
KaTo~Tr)crav ev TOVTW TO pavTeiov. IKCLVOV Be 0-77-
, et$9 (JiavTiKTJv d^poavvrj 6eo<> dvOpwTrivrj BeBajKev' ovSels yap
eWoi/9 e<f>d7TTTai /AavTiKrjs evdeov KOI drj0ovs, aXX' 17 icaO' VTCVOV
5 Trjv r^9 (frpovrjcrews 7reBr)0el$ Bvva/J,iv rj
Bid voo~ov rj
Bid Ttva ei 6ov-
(riao~fj,ov 7rapadâ<j. aXXa uvvorjo~ai fj,ev eu<ppovo<; r re prjOevTa
dvauvr)o~6evTa ovap rj virap VTTO rr;9 i-tavTiicrjs re KOI evBovcriaa'-
Tiicfj<> 0i/<retw9, Kal ocra av (fravTdcrjjLaTa o<f>df),
TTCLVTCI Xoyicrftq) 72 A
Biee<r0ai, OTTTJ TI arnnaivzi Kal OTW /ieXXoi/ro? */ 7rape66vTo<; rj
10
TrapovTOS Katcov rj dyaBov' TOV Be pavevTOS eri re eV TOUTS) pevov-
T09 OVK epyov TO, (fravevTa Kal fywvrjOevTa v(f>
eavTov Kpivetv, aXX' ev
Kal TrdXat, eyTat TO TrpaTTeiv Kal yvuivai TCL re avTov Kal eavTov
o-(a<f>povi fjicvw trpoo-rjKeiv. '66ev Brj Kal TO TWV TrpotfrrjTwv yevos eVt
ra.i9 evQtois jjiavTelais Kpnus i-niKaQLOTaval vop.o<>' 01)9 /iayret9 B
15 avTOVS ovofJbdôvcyL Tires, TO Tfdv r}yvor)KOT<>, OTI Trjs Bt au'iyfj,a)i>
OVTOL <f)ijfjir)<$
Kal ^>ai'Tacr&)9 vTTOKpiTai, Kal oi> TI pdvTeis, 7rpo(f)fJTai Be
/j,avTevo/j,eva)v BiKaioraTa ovof^dôivT dv. rj /jiev ovv <f>vo-is rj
Bid TavTa ToiavTij re Kal ev TOTTW u> eyo/j,ev 7re<f)VK, "fc
'
Kal ert ftv Bij ^WVTOS e/catrrou TO TOIOVTOV arêla evap-
8 <j>avTa<rfj.a.Ta: <paff/j.a.Ta SZ. 17 T^Traros : TOV ijtraros S.
ig tvapytffTepa. :
tvfpyôTepa A.
3. cl.4>poo-{ivT) 66s av0pTr{v[] SeSwKtv] /Spaxâ ^ ovdtv. Presently follows the
The keen irony pervading the whole of well-known derivation of fj.aviicrj from
this very curious and interesting passage fjunvrtKy. The most remarkable passage
is too evident to escape notice. Plato is at 244 D: dXXd ^v v6<rwv ye Kal irovuv
had no high opinion of /xavrixr; and fjuiv- TV /jieyiffTtav, <
5^ TraXattDv IK fjL7jvifj.a.Tuv
reis: the (JLO.VTIK&S ^3ios comes low in order irodtv ?v run. TUV yevuv, rj fiavia tyyevo-
of merit in Phacdnis 248 E. See too the )j.ivr KOI irpo<f>TjTevffa.<ra olsZSti, d.iraayT)i>
contemptuous reference to dytiprai Kal evpero, KaraQvyovaa. irpbs Oeuf evx&s TC
yua^retj in Republic 364 B, and Symposium KO.I Xarpe/as, &0tv dy Ka.Oa.pn.Civ re KO.I ree-
203 A xal TTJP fj.avreiav irdffav Kal 7017- TO>V Tvxovva ti;dvTi) firoiriffe TOV eavrTJs
reiav. In Politicus 290 D he says with ?x"Ta i"/>o's re TOV irapovTO, Kal TOV jmra
similar irony rb yap Srj TWV ieptuv <rx^M* XP^VOV>
^vffiv T opdCis fiavlvTi Kal /cara-
Kal r6 TUV /j.avT^wv e3 fj.da (ppovrjuaTos ffx.ofj.tvtf TUV vapovTUV KUKWV tvpofJilvri :
TrTr)povTai Kal d6av ffe/j.vi]v a/j.[3dvei Sia where see Thompson's note.
TO ptytOos T&V ^YxeipTjyuaTWP : but for all 6. irapaXXaJjas] For this sense of
their assumption, they practise but a the word see above, 27 c el /XT; iravrdirafft
'servile art', ejrwn}/*i;j diaKovov fiopiov. Tra/DaXXdYro/xei', and Euripides Hippolytus
oiiSds yap ?vvovs] Compare Phacdrus 935 oyoi irapaXXdffffovTfs lêSpoi tfrpevCiv.
244 A 17 Te yap d-f) tv AeX<#>o?j vpo<pij- 7. dvajivô-O^vra] sc. viro TOV fytppo-
rtj al r' ev AwSwv?? lepeiai p.aveiaai (lev vos : .the order of words is somewhat
TroXXd 5i) Kal Kaa Idla re Kal dtjuoffia peculiar.
rrpt 'EXXdSa elpydffavro, ff<ii<ppo,vovoai. be 13. ri TWV irpo^tirwy Y^vos] The

72 B] TIMAIO2. 267
were able, in this wise redeeming even the baser part of us,
that it might have in some way a hold on the truth, placed in
this region the seat of divination.
Now that divination is the gift of God to human folly, this is
a sufficient proof. No man in his sound senses deals in true
and inspired divination, but when the power of his under-
standing is fettered in sleep or by sickness, or if he has become
distraught by some divine possession. The part of the sane
man is to remember and interpret all things that are declared,
dreaming or waking, by the prophetic and inspired nature ;
and
whatsoever visions are beheld by the seer, to determine by
reason in what way and to whom they betoken good or ill in
the future or the present or the past : but it is not for him who
has become mad and still is in that state to judge his own
visions and utterances ;
the old saying remains true, that only
for the sane man is it meet to act and to be the judge of his
own actions and of himself. Whence has arisen the custom .of
setting up interpreters as judges of inspired prophecy : these are
themselves called prophets by some who are altogether un-
aware that they are but the expounders of mystic speech and
visions, and ought not in strict accuracy to be called prophets,
but interpreters of the prophecies.
Such is the nature of the liver and its situation that we
have described, for the purpose of prophecy as aforesaid. And
while each body has life, this organ displays the signs clearly
function of the vpcxfirjTai is well illustrated 16. 08 TI pavrcis irpo^TJTCu 8f] It
by Euripides Ion 413 416: must be confessed that Plato is himself
SOT. &TTaiToS'- dXXd ris Tr/xx^retfet 0eoO; guilty of a converse error, when in
ION. Ve <* rd y' w, TWI> iffu 5
?
dtXXois Phaedrus 244 B he applies the term irpo-
jtAet 0?;Tts to the Pythian priestess. This how-
ol irr)<rloi> 6aff<Tov<Ti rpliroSos, <L ever is venial ; for the Pythia may be re-
6/e, garded as the wpo<pTjris of Apollo, whereas
AeXi^uJj' et/)iOT?;s ouj ^/cX^pwcrev her irpo<j>jJTa.i are in no sense navreis.
iniXos. 18. x&Ptv H-O.VTIKTJS] Plato does not
This points to the existence at Delphi of altogether ignore the physiological func-
two classes of irpo^rai : one class, to tions of the liver, as may be seen from the
which only high-born Delphians were important part played by xo^> when this
admitted, heard the inspired utterances secretion is in a morbid condition, in his
of the Pythia herself; the other and pathology. But he characteristically
less exclusive class having to declare what- gives chief prominence to the final cause,
ever was to be made known to the public which is to redeem the tiriOvfi.rjTiKoi' from
without. complete irrationality.

268 [72 B-
%(, arepyOtv Be rov %rjv yeyove ru<f)ov Kal rd pavreta
dfj,vBporepa eo"%e rov rt craves crr)/j,aiveiv. rj
6 av rov yeirovos c
avrq> jfvcrracris Kal eSpa cr7Tdy^vov yeyovev el; dpicrrepds
etcelvov, rov rrapeêtv avro afj,rrpov del Kal Kadapov, olov
5 rp(f) irapev/cevao-fAevov Kal eroipov del irapaKtip,evov
Bio Brj Kal orav rives aKadap&iai yiyvwvrat, Bid vocrovs
rrepl TO rJTrap, rrdvra r) arrr}vo^ Kadaipovcra avrd Beêrat,
are KOIOV Kal dvaipov ixfravdevros' Wev 7rr)pov/j,evos
KaOaipofievwv fieyas Kal VTTOVO<; av^dverai, Kal rrdiv, orav D
10 Kadap0fj TO crtw/za, rarreivov/jievos et? ravrov uvtei.
XXXIII. T fiev ovv rrepl ^^79, ocrov Qvr]rov eêi Kal '6crov
Oelov, Kal O7TT), Kal /u.e#' w/', Kal Bt a %&>/H9 WKicrOrj, TO êv ar)0e<;
w? eiprjrat, Oeov ^vfifyrjcravTos, TOT' av ovrw //.o/'W9 8ncr^vptôi/ji.0a'
TO 7e fjirjv etVo9 ri[MV elprjcrOai, Kal vvv Kal en ^dov dvaaKOTrovcri
15 BtaKivBvvevreov TO <j>dvai, Kal rrefydcrdw. TO 8' e^fjs B>} rovroiai E
arro-
i. (TTpr]9iv 8^ TOV STJV] The function
of the liver in divination is twofold, one
mode being proper to man, the other to
beasts. In the living man it is the means
of warning him by dreams and visions ;
while the liver of the slaughtered beast
gives omens of the future by its ap-
pearance when inspected. The efficacy
in the first case Plato satirically allows,
as a sop to human folly; to the second
he will not allow even this.
5. eK(JLa-yiov] Here we have a totally
different use of the word from that in 50 c :
it now means a sponge or napkin for
wiping clean. The spleen then, accord-
ing to Plato, exists solely for the sake of
the liver, to purge it of superfluous and
noxious humours, which it receives into
itself and disposes of.
72 D 76 E, c. xxxiii. Now to assert
that all we have said in the foregoing is
certainly true were folly, wanting the
assurance of some god, yet the account
that seemed to us most likely, this we
have given. On the same plan we have
next to describe the remaining parts of
the human body. First the intestines
were devised as a precaution against
gluttony and excess, in order that the
food might not by passing through too
rapidly leave a void that needed per-
petual replenishment. Of bones and
flesh the foundation is the marrow. This
is made of the very finest and most per-
fect elements of fire air water and earth
commingled. Part of this was moulded
into a globe-like form and placed in the
head ; the rest, drawn out into a cylindri-
cal shape, in the spinal column. And
the marrow of the head, which we call
the brain, is the habitation of the reason ;
while the lower forms of soul were at-
tached to the spinal marrow. Bone is
formed of fine earth kneaded with marrow
and then tempered by being plunged
alternately into fire and water ; and of
this was made a hard envelope to pro-
tect the vital marrow : and joints were in-
serted in the limbs for the sake of flexi-
bility. And to prevent the structure of
the bone decaying, the gods constructed
flesh, and to impart the power of moving
the limbs at will they made tendons.
Flesh is a kind of ferment made with fire
and water and earth, containing an acid
and saline admixture ; tendons, which
are of a tougher and finer consistency, are
made of unfermcnted flesh mingled with

E] TIMAIO2. 269
enough ; but when deprived of life, it is become blind and gives
the token too dimly to afford any plain meaning. And the
structure of the neighbouring organ and its position on the left
has been planned for the sake of the liver, in order to keep it
always bright and clean, as a napkin is prepared and laid ready
for the cleansing of a mirror. Wherefore whenever any im-
purities arise in the region of the liver owing to sickness of the
body, all is received and purified by the fine substance of the
spleen, which is woven hollow and void of blood. This, when it
is filled with the impurities from the liver, waxes swollen and
festered ;
and again, when the body is purged, it is reduced and
sinks again to its natural state.
XXXIII. Now as concerning soul, how far she has a mortal,
how far a divine nature, and in what wise and with what con-
junctions and for what causes she has her separate habitations,
only when God has confirmed our statement can we confidently
aver that it is true : nevertheless that we have given the probable
account we may venture to say even now and still more on
further meditation, and so let it be said. But what follows
hone. And such of the bones as con-
tained the greatest amount of vital marrow
the gods covered with the thinnest en-
velope of flesh ; such as contained less,
with a thicker envelope ; to the end that
the marrow in the former might not have
its sensitiveness blunted by a thick cover-
ing. For this cause the head has but a
slight covering, though a thicker one
would have better protected it ;
since the
gods deemed that a shorter and more in-
telligent life was preferable to a longer
and less rational. In the construction of
the mouth and neighbouring parts both
the necessary cause and the divine cause
were consulted : the necessary in view of
the nutriment that must enter in, the
divine in view of the speech that should
issue forth. For the further protection
of the head they devised the following.
The surface of the flesh in drying formed
a tough rind, which we call the skin:
this is pierced by the internal fire of the
head, and the moisture issuing through
the punctures forms what we call hair.
And the nails are formed by the skin at
the end of the fingers, mixed with tendon
and bone, being suddenly dried : for the
gods knew that other creatures would arise
out of mankind in future ages, which
would need these defences.
14. r6 -y* FL1
1
V l*os] It may be ob-
jected that soul is immaterial and eternal,
and therefore we must not be satisfied
with rt> etVAs concerning her. But here
we are treating not of the nature of soul
as she is in herself, but of her connexion
with body : this belongs to the region of
physics and consequently to that of the
'probable account'. Therefore Plato
begins the chapter with a reiterated warn-
ing that we are dealing with matters where
absolute certainty is impossible. But this
does not apply to the exposition con-
cerning the soul's own nature which we
had in 34 R 37 r.

2;o ITAATHNOS [72 E
Kara ravrd fieraSitoKreov -rjv Se TO rov crwaaros errioircov y ye-
yovev. K Si) oyicrfiov roiovSe ^vvicrracrPai /iaXtcrr' (iv avro rrdv-
rwv rrpirroi. rrjv eo-ouevriv ev -rjfuv rrorwv /cat eoearwv dfcoXaaiav
ySeaav ol vvri0evre<> rj^wv TO 761/09, ical ori rov /j,erpiov /cal dvay-
5 Kaiov Sid [J,apy6rr)ra 7roXX&3 %pr](roiae6a rreovi' 'iv ovv /IT) fyOopd
Sid vocrovs 6eia yiyvoiro Kal aTeXe? TO 761/09 evdvs TO Bvtjrov re-
evrq), ravra 7rpooptt>fivoi rr) rov Trepiyevrja-o/êvov Tro/iaTO? eSe- 73 A
re eêi rrjv ovoâôîv^v /cdrw Koiiav vrroô'^rjv edecrav,
re rrept,% rrjv rwv evrepwv yeve<riv, OTTOJ? firj ra%i> BieKTre-
10 pwcra TI rpo<j)t] ra^v rrdt,v rpocf)^ erepas Selo'Qai, TO <rt/ia dvay-
Kaôt, ical rrapeôvcra artT]crrl.av Std yacrrpijiapyiav dfyiXoaofyov
Kal dfiovo-ov rrdv drroreol TO 761/09, dvvrrrjKoov rov 0eiordrov rwv
Trap" 'fjfiiv.
TO Se oartav Kal <rapK(v Kal rfj<; roiavrrjs (frvo-eax;
rcepi rcacrris a>8e e<r%e. TouTot9 f;vfj,rracriv dp^rj fj,ev t] rov fj,veov B
15 yeveo-i*}' ol yap rov ftiov 8eo~//,oi Tr;9 ^wî/9 ra> cra>fiari ^vvSovfjLewr)
1
?
ev rovrw Siaoovjjievoi, Kareppiôvv TO dvyrov 761/09. ai;T09 8e o
//,ueXo9 yeyovev e^ aXXtui/. rwv yap rpiywvwv oaa rrpwra d&rpafir}
Kal XeZa o^Ta rrvp re Kal vSwp Kal depa Kal yfjv oY a/cpt/3eta9
/AaXtcrTa ?)V rrapacr'xelv Sward, ravra 6 deos drro rwv eavrwv
10 eKaara yevwv %&>/H9 drroKpivwv, ^471/1)9 Be dijoi<; ^vfifjuerpa, C
6 reevT(f :
TfevT<fi) S. 7 Tro/Jiaros: Trw/xaroi ASZ.
i. rfv 8^] Referring back to 61 c gluttony. Aristotle has a preciser con-
<rap/cos S *col TUV vepl capua ytveviv, ception : see de partibus animalium III
Î/XTJJ re oaov Ovifrbv, oviru di(T)t0a/j.ev. xiv 674* 12 foil.
8. rqv 6vo|iao|j^vTiv] 'So-called', g. rav SicKircputra] We should thus
because 17 K&TW icoiia was a medical relapse into the life symbolised by the
term : see Hippokrates passim : it de- dyyeta rerprj^va Kal <ra0pk in Gorgias
noted all the region of the body below 493 E : cf. 494 B apaSptou TU>' av <ri>
the 0c6pa| strictly so called : cf. Aristotle fttov Xye.
problemata xxxill ix 962' 35 rpiwv rbiruv 15. ol -yip TOV PIOV Sco-pof] That is
6i>Tui>, KfâX^s Kcd BupaKos Kal rr/s /cdrw to say, it is through the marrow that the
KoiXiaj, 77 Ke<t>ari Oei^rarov. The BJopa^, soul is linked to the body. Plato, though
though sometimes applied to the entire unacquainted with the nervous system,
cavity of the body, was properly identical saw clearly that the spinal marrow and
with i] &i>u Koiia, which included the ultimately the brain was the centre of
stomach: cf. de partibus animalium in consciousness: a point wherein he is
xiv 675
b
29. much ahead of Aristotle, who declared
viro8oxi]v] Plato does not seem to (i) that the brain and spinal marrow are
have understood very clearly the func- essentially different substances, (2) that
tions of this part of the human anatomy, the function of the brain is merely to cool
merely regard ing it as a safeguard against the region of the heart : see de partibus

73 c] TIMAIO2. 271
upon the foregoing is the next object of our research : this
was the manner wherein the rest of the body has come into
being.
The following is the design on which it were most fitting
to conceive that it is constructed. They who framed our race
knew the intemperance in meat and drink that would prevail
in us, and that for greed we should use far more than was
moderate or necessary. In order then that swift destruction
through sickness might not fall upon us, and that the mortal
race might not perish out of hand before coming to com-
pletion, foreseeing the danger they made the abdomen, as it is
called, a receptacle to contain the superfluity of food and drink,
and coiled the bowels round about therein, lest the food passing
speedily through should compel the body quickly to stand in
need of a fresh supply, and thus producing an insatiable craving
should render the whole race through gluttony devoid of phi-
losophy and letters and disobedient to the highest part of our
nature.
Concerning the bones and flesh and all such substances the
case stands thus. The foundation of all these is the marrow :
for the bonds of life whereby the soul is bound to the body
were fastened in it throughout and planted therein the roots
of human nature. But the marrow itself comes from other
sources. Such of the primal triangles as were unwarped and
smooth and thus able to produce fire and water and air and
earth of the purest quality, these God selected and set apart,
each from its own class, and mingling them in proportion one
animalium II vii 652* 24 TroXXots yap i)5aros nal 7^5. Plato had considerably
Kal o tyKt<paos doKel /uveXdj elvat Kal less knowledge of anatomy than Ari-
&PXV rov /j.veov dia rd ffvvfx^i T&V paxiTt)i> stotle ; but this is one of several cases
aury bpoiv (j.ve6v. tan dt vav rovvav- where his superior scientific insight keeps
rlov avr$ T7]i> (pvffiv, us direiv o ptv yap him nearer to the truth.
dyKt(f>aos if/vxp^Tarov TWV tv T<$ ffufj-aTi 1 6. Iv TOVTCO] i.e. in the spinal mar-
fj.opi(j)v,
6 8 /tueXos Otp/jas rrjv <j>tiai.v. row; for the brain was the seat of the
652
b 16 tird 5' airavra Setrai r^y tvavrias Oeiov ytvos.
poTTT?*, IVa Tvyx^vV T0" P-fTplov Kal roO 17. i dXXwv] sc. 77 oarGiv Kal aapKuv
fj.tffov,...8t.a raijTTjv TTJV alriav irpos rbv Kal TWV TOLOVTWV.
rrjs KapSlas T&ITOV Kal rrjf Iv avry Oep- raiv ydp rpiyiavuv] The triangles being
/j.6rr)Ta fj.efj.r)x<ivriTai r6v tyKt<f>aov ?} the elements of the corpuscules of which
<t>v<ns, Kal TOVTOV "X.o.piv virapxfi TOVTO TO matter is composed, Plato speaks of them
fj.&piov TOIJ fvois, T-TIV <t>ti<riv (xov Koivr/v as the elements

272 ITAATHNOS [73 c-
Travcnrepfjiiav rcavrl 6vr]rw yevei fjurjâvoo/jievof, rov fj.veov e avrdov
aTreipydaaro, teal perd ravra Brj <f)VTva>v ev avru> KareBei rd rv
fyvxwv yevrj, o"^r)/j,dra)v
re ocra efjueev av o-^creiv old re KaP
Kao~ra e'iBr}, rov /jiveov avrov rocravra Kal roiavra Bippelro <ryn~
5 fiara evOus ev ry Siavopf) T/} K.ar (ip%d$. KOI rrjv pev ro delov
airepp,a olov apovpav p,eôvcrav egeiv ev avry Trepifapr) rrav-
ra%fj TrXacra? errwvofiacre rov /iueXoO ravrrjv rrjv fioipav e<yKe(f)aov,
D
eo? aTToreXea-Qevros eicdcrrov %q>ov ro rrepl rovro dyyelov Ke(f)arjv
yevrjcrofjievov o 8' av ro XoiTroz/ K.CLI Ovrjrov T^9 "^rv^rjf e/ieXXe
10 Ka6e%ew, aâ crrpoyyva Kal 7rpofj,r)(cr) Bir/peiro o-^^/aara, /ji,veov
Se Trdvra eVeq^/ztcre, ical KaOdrrep e dytcvpwv /3aXXo//.ei>oc? f/c rov-
ra>v 7rdcrr}<f "^v^fjf Sea-fj-ovs rrepl rovro ^V/JLTTUV rjSrj ro awâ r][jL<av
aTreipydêTo, crreyaafjia fiev avrw rrpwrov ^vfjimfj^vv^ 7repiffoov
6<rreivov. ro 8e oarovv vvio~rijcriv tSe' <yr)v Siarrijo-as KaOapdv E
15 Kal eiav efyvpacre Kal e8evo~e fivea>, KOI perd rovro et<? rcvp avro
evri6r)o-i, yu,er'
eicelvo 8e elf v&wp ftdrrrei, rraXiv Be et9 rrvp av6ls re
elf vStap' /j,Ta<f)epa)v S' ovrw 7roXX<:</ct? elf eicdrepov vir dfifyolv
drrjKrov aTreipydcraro. Kara^pwêvof STJ rovry Trepl fiev rov
eyKe<f>aov avrov o-âlpav Trepteropvevaev ocrreivijv, ravry Be crre-
iovr}v BiegoBov /careXeiTrero Kal rrepl rov Biav%eviov ap.a Kal vw- 74 A
rialov /j,vov e avrov cr(f)ovBvov<? -rrdcraf vTrereivev olov crrpo-
<pi,yya<;, dpdfjLvo<; drro rrjf K(j>afj$, Bid Travros rov Kvrovf Kal
TO rcav Br) a-rrepâ Biao~q>a>v ovrw i6oeiBel rrepi^6w %vve<frpa%ev,
13 veplfioov : sic H e Valckenari coniectura. irepl 6ov ASZ et codices omnes.
20 Kareelw(TO : KaTeXiirero SZ. 23 oC/rw : oi'rws A.
i. iravorirepiACav] The marrow, being however no special divisions of (iveos for
formed from all the four elements, was the OvfMOfidts and the tiriOv/j.i)Ti.Koi> sepa-
capable of supplying material for all parts rately ; the spinal cord serving for the
of the human frame. &vi)ri>v as a whole.
3. Sera gpeXXev] It is remarkable 5. TJJ Kar' apxas] i. e. without wait-
that, although Plato only mentions two ing for the differentiation to be made in
ffX^na-Ta explicitly, his phraseology is so the course of evolution.
studiously vague concerning their number 6. irspwj^pTj] The brain is made ap-
as to lead one to imagine that he may proximately spherical, because, as we
have suspected the existence of further have seen, the action of reason is sym-
ramifications of /ii>e6s, such as in fact bolised by the rotation of a sphere on its
are the nerves. axis : cf. 44 D rt> rov Travros
Kaff CKOcrra rfStj] sc. rijs î>X7
?s :
the shape of the different portions of
marrow in the body was made to suit 8. cos...'yVT)<r6(Mvov] The construc-
the nature of that particular function of tion is that which is known as the accu-
soul which acted through it. There are sative absolute :
compare Protagoras 342

74 A] TIMAIO2. 273
with another, to make a common seed for all the race of mortals,
he formed of them the marrow ;
and thereafter he implanted
and fastened in it the several kinds of soul ;
and according to
the number and fashion of the shapes that the soul should have
corresponding to her kinds, into so many similar forms did he
divide the marrow at the very outset of his distribution. And
that which should be as it were a field to contain in it the divine
seed he moulded in a spherical form all round ;
and this part of
the marrow he called the brain, with the view that, when each
animal was completed, the vessel containing it should be the
head. But that which was to have the mortal part of soul
which remained he distributed into moulds that were at once
round and elongated : but he called all these forms marrow ;
and from these, as though from anchors, he put forth bonds to
fasten all the soul, and then he wrought the entire body round
about it, first building to fence it a covering of bone. And
bone he formed in this way :
having sifted out earth that was
pure and smooth he kneaded and soaked it with marrow, and
after that he placed it in fire ;
and next he set it in water, and
again in fire, and once more in water : and thus having shifted
it many times from one to another he made it indissoluble by
either. Making use of this, he carved a bony sphere thereof to
surround the brain, but on one side he left a narrow outlet ;
and
around the marrow of the neck and back he made vertebrae of
bone and set them to serve as pivots, beginning at the head and
carrying them through the whole length of the body. Thus to
preserve all the seed he enclosed it in a strong envelope, and he
c KO.I ol fiitv WT& re KardyvvvTan /j.ifi.oi'>fj.(voi
her action to the rest of the body. The
curort, Kal 1/j.dvTas irepi(iiTTovTj does not refer to any liga-
<J>ioyvfj.vaffTouffi Kal fipaxeias di/a/SoXas ment or the like, nor has it any physical
<popovfftv, ws drj TOVTOIS Kparovvras rCiv significance : it is purely metaphorical.
'E-/ivui> TOI/S AaKf5ai/j.oviovs. For the phrase Ka.6a.irep t Aynvpuv com-
10. o-rpoyyvXa KalirpofJ.T]KT]] 'Round pare 85 E (vffe ret rfp ifsvxfy avruOev clov
and elongated' is the same thing as j/ews a-dcr/taro.
'cylindrical' : this of course refers to the 13. ip|JoXov] The ms. reading rtpl
vertebral column. 8ov will no doubt yield a reasonable
1 2. irdurqs 4)(TJs 8e<rjxous] The brain sense. But Valckenaer's correction is so
and spinal marrow serve as conductors of much more apt that I have not hesitated
vital force; it is on them that the soul to follow Hermann in accepting it. Be-
immediately acts the XoyiffTiK&v work- low in 74 A we have t6otidfi Te/x/JoXy
ing through the brain, the &oyoi> through ^iW^paSex.
the spinal marrow and they transmit 15. jitrd TOVTO tU irvp] The process
P. T. 18

274 [74 A
dpdpa, TT) OaTepov Trpoa^pcofievo^ ev avTois w
evia-Tapevr) Bvvdpet, Kivr)o~e(t)<s Kal /ca/i>/re&>9 eveKa. TTJV B av Trjs
oo-TivT]<; (puo-ews egiv 777*7 crduevos TOV BeovTO? KpavpoTepav elvat B
Kal aKafjiTTTOTepav, BiaTrvpov T' av iyiyvofjLevr]v Kal iraiv -^rvÔfjievrjv
5 o-<f>aKeio-aa-av raî) Bia(f>0epelv TO o-7repfjui eVro9 avTrjs, Bid raura
oyrtw TO TCOI/ vevpwv Kal TO T^9 crap*o9 <yevo<; e^âvd-ro, "va TU> fjtev
cnravTa Ta /ie77 %vvBij<ra<; eTriTeivofAevy Kal at/ie/zei/w Trept roi;9
crTpoduyyas KafiTTTOfjievov TO trw/ia /cat eKTetvofievov 7rape%oi, TTJV
vfjLaTGJv ?rp 0/3X17/u,a 8e êiputvdtv, ert oe
ecreffOai KTrnâra, awp,aai u.aatcw<^ /cat C
VTreiKOVcrav, Oepfj-r/v Be voTiBa ei/TC9 eayr^9 e%ov<Tav Oepovs
fj,ev dviBlovo~av Kal voTôêvqv e^wOev 1^1)^09 /cara ?ray TO crayta
oiKeiov, Bid êtyti<wi/o9
8e irdiv av TOVTW TU> irvpl TOV
eâ)0ev Kal Trepiio-Tdfjievov Trdyov d/j,vvei<T0ai pe-
15 Tp/(U9. Ta/Ta r/fjiwv BiavorjOel? 6 Kr)pOTTdaTr)<;, vBaTt jjuev Kal irvpl
Kal jf] iy/./4ta9 Kal %vvapiioo-a<s, eg 0^609 Kal aX/ivpoO
10 TTT(i)fJ,T(t)V TO.
is obviously suggested by the tempering
of metal.
i. TT] BdTe'pov irpo(rxp(d|J-evos] This
expression is very obscure; and no
two interpreters agree as to its meaning.
Stallbaum is entirely at sea :
Lindau, at
whom he scoffs, throws out a suggestion
which is much more reasonable than any-
thing in Stallbaum's note :
'
eadem philo-
sophum corpori et animo tribuere prin-
cipia gravitatemque eum et expansionem
comparare cum ratione sensibusque'.
Martin's idea that ^ ffartpov dvvafj.it
means the synovial fluid is extremely far-
fetched : could Plato possibly expect any
one to understand him if he made such
use of language ? Dr Jackson has sug-
gested to me an interpretation which is
certainly much more natural and, I think,
right. We know that Oartpov expresses
plurality. Plato then, when he says that
the gods used ^ Oartpov Sfoa/jus in the
construction of the bones, simply signifies
that by means of joints they divided the
bones into a number of parts, Kdjuêwj
Kal Kitr/ofus HveKa. Iv nfoy I take to
mean between the bones the joints
represent the principle of Bdrepov, as
being the cause of division and plurality.
4. Sidirwpov T' av y'YvoF^vrl
v] That
is to say, subjected to vicissitudes of tem-
perature.
5. o-4>aKeX(o-ao-a.v] This is a medical
term, signifying caries of the bones or
gangrene of the flesh : it is also used of
the blighting of plants; Aristotle de in-
ventnte vi 470* 31 X^-yereu <r<j>aKflfav
Kal affTp6(3Tfra yivecrOai, TO. dtvdpa irtpl
TOI>S Katpofc TOWTOI/S.
ri <nrcp|ia] i.e. TOV jj.ve6v : cf. 73 C.
6. ri TWV vevpwv] By vevpa Plato
always means tendons or ligaments, not
nerves, which were entirely unknown to
him. Aristotle always uses the word in
the same sense : see de partibns ant-
maliitm II ii
6tf
b i6ra Si frpa. KCU o-reped
T&V onoiofjLfpwv iariv, olov (XTTOVV axavffa
vfvpov <ptf/. The nature, almost the ex-
istence, of the nerves was not discovered
till considerably after Plato's time:
Erasistratos, who flourished in the next
century, is said to have been the first who
ascertained their functions. Aristotle
seems to have had some sort of vague

TIMAI02. 275
made joints in it, using the power of the Other as an inter-
mediary between the parts, for the sake of moving and bending
them. But deeming that the structure of bone was too rigid
and inflexible, and that should it be inflamed and cooled again,
it would rot away and quickly destroy the seed within it, for this
cause God devised the sinews and the flesh, that binding all the
limbs together with the former he might by their tension and
relaxation round their pivots enable the body to bend and ex-
tend itself; while the flesh he designed as a defence against
heat and a shelter from cold ;
and moreover that it might be,
like coverings of felt, a protection against falls, gently and easily
yielding to external bodies; and containing a warm moisture
within itself, in summer it might exude this, and spreading
dampness on the surface might diffuse a natural coolness over
all the body; but in winter on the other hand it might by its
own fire afford a fair protection against the frost that assailed
and surrounded it from without Considering this, he that
moulded us like wax made a mixture and blending of water
and fire and earth ;
and compounding a ferment of acid and salt
knowledge of the optic and olfactory
nerves, which he calls iropci: cf. de parti-
bus animalium it xii 656
b 16 IK nev ovv
TUV 6<pdafj.uv ol tropoi <j>tpov<riv els TO.S
iffpi TOV fyKe<paov <pâs' iraXiv d' K
TOW UTUV uffaiTus irupos elf Tovtna6ev
avvaarTft : also historia animalium I xvi
495
a 1 1 (f>tpov<n 5' tic TOV 6(p6afj.ov Tpels
jropoi els TOV fyKâXov, 6 fiev fj.eyi<rTos Kal
6 peaos els T-qv Tra.peyKe<t>al8a 6 5' eXdx'tf-
TOS (Is avrov TOV eyK^tpaov
'
Âdxwros 5'
effTlv 6 irpbs T$ /j.vnTrjpi /jiiXiffra. About
the auditory nerve he gives a very con-
fused statement, apparently, as Martin
observes, mistaking for it the Eusta-
chian tube: ibid. 492* 19 TOVTO 5' els nev
TOV eyK.e<pa.ov OVK ?xel iropov, els 5t TOV
TOV OTo/uaros oupavov. Aristotle's notions
concerning the brain are sufficient evi-
dence that he did not really understand
anything about the nature of the nerves.
That Alkmaion was acquainted with the
optic nerves, notwithstanding the state-
ment of Kallisthenes adduced by Chalci-
dius, seems highly improbable: indeed
the words of Kallisthenes, as there re-
ported, hardly amount to this.
9. irpoffoXtiv ...
irp6pi]|xa] There
seems to be absolutely no difference in
meaning between these two words, and
the juxtaposition of two closely cognate
forms without any distinction of sense is
strange. Is it possible that we ought to
read TrpojSoXV in both cases? Plato, like
Sophokles, is given to repeating the same
word with per and 6^; as in Phaedrus
247 D Ka8op$ fj.ev avTijV diKaioo~vvir)v,
Ka.0op<j. oe <ru<f>poffviri)i', Ka0op$ de e-ri-
aTri/j.r]v : see too below 87 A irotuciXXet (itv
.. .TrotK/XXei 5^. And there is quite suffi-
cient ornateness in the present passage to
justify this rhetorical device. As to the
construction, the future infinitives are sub-
stituted for the final clause: something
like d.evo^07) must be mentally supplied.
13. oiKtiov] contrasted with TOV irepi-
<pepo/j.evov ti-wOev.
16. Kal YTJ] I s66 no sufficient reason
IS 2

276 ITAATHNOS [74 c
KOI UTTO/uâ? aurot?, crdpKa ey^y'fiov KOI /jt,aa,Krjv %vve- D
crrrjcre' rfjv Be rwv vevpcov cpvcriv e ocrrov Kal crapKos dfypov tepd-
oOev crvvrovwrepav f^-ev KOI <yKT~^porepav crapK&v,
5 /j.aaKO)repav Be ocrrwv vyporepav re eKrijcraro Bvvaaiv vevpa. 0*9
%vfjL7repia/3(tiv 6 #ec<? oard /cat fj,ve6v, Brjaas irpo? a'XX^Xa vev-
pot9, fiera ravra aap^l Trdvra avra KareaKiacrev avwOev. ocra fjiev
E
ouv e/i^yôTara rdov oaruiv rfv, oXfyiVrat? avvefyparre crapîv, a 8
a^rvôrara evros, 7rXet(7Tat9 Kal TrvKVoraTcus. Kal &r/ KOI Kara
10 ra? ^f/Lty8oX,? TWV ocrrw/', OTtrj ^ riva dvdjKTjv 6 6yos aTreâive
aura? elvai, /3pa%elav crdpfca ecfrvcrev, iva //,7/re e/iTroSeoi' rat?
ovcrai Svcrtfropa rd crwâra aTrepydôivro. are SvcrKivijra
/A^T' av TroXXat real Trv/cval a~(f)68pa re ev a
fA7r7rir)[ji6vai, Bid o-repeorrjTa dvai(rdrjcriav efiTrotovcrai,
15 fjLOvevTorepa Kal Kaxôrepa rd Trepl rrjv Sidvoiav iroiolev. Bio Brj TO
T ru>v firiputv Kal Kvr)/j,di)v Kal TO Trepl rrjv rwv la"%iu>v (fiixriv
rd re 75 A
rrepl ra] rwv /3pa%i6va)v ocrrd Kal rd rwv rrriêwv, Kal o<ra aXXa
T^/ieov dvapOoa, 'ocra re eVro? oard Be
1
oij6rr)ra ^rv)(rj<f
ev //.ueX&i
Kevd ecrn (f>povrj crews, ravra Trdvra crv^rrerrXrjpwrai, crapîv 'ocra 8'
20 ejji<j>pova, rjrrov, el JAIJ rcov riva avrrjv K.aff avrrjv alcrBrjcretov evexa
i Kal ante viro/j.las omittunt AHZ. 3 a.n<j>oiv. awapfolv supra scripto i A.
17 irepl TO. inclusi, quae retinet H. omittunt SZ.
for abandoning the reading of all the <5(rr^> irf<f>vKaffi, Kal rpôvrai 8 rb
mss., since cra/3/io is
readily supplied as the jrer<rro' K TOV 6ffr4ov, rp^<povrat 5^ Kal
object of v/j.ntas : and if 7771' be read, dirb T^S <ra/>*c6j, Kal TTJV XPV *a^ T '?"
*ai is positively bad. The insertion of laxbv //eroî) TTJS yapicds Kal TOV iffrtov
Kal before virofj.ii;as seems to me, in this ire(iMa<rt. Kal vyporepa. /j.(v d<ri TOV
accumulation of participles, almost neces- do-rtov Kal ffapKociSfffrtpa, Zripbrepa 5^ rj
sary, although it is lacking in A. ai ffdpKes Kal <5<rroei5<:<rre/m. This extract
1. tvfj.(o|xa] This means a fermented will explain the meaning of iiAai)v Svvd-
mixture : it would seem to be intended pei.
thereby to explain the combined softness 5. ots 5vf
l
'
TT
'
PlâP<l
''] The reference
and elasticity of flesh. Flesh could also of ots is to vevpa.
be made of unfermented materials, as we 7. 8<ra iv o5v lfi|ruoTOTa] This
presently see: t6ffTov Kal aapKcs a^vfiov: rather curious expression denotes the
but the difference in the composition is bones which contain the greatest amount
not stated. of marrow marrow being the seat of
2. TijV TWV vtupwv <j>vo-iv] The de- life. By these are meant the bones of
scription of vevpa tallies closely with the skull and the vertebral process only ;
that given by Hippokrates de locis in since it is clear from what Plato says
homittfo. II. p. 107 KUhn ra 8t vedpa. a little below (Sib dy rl> re rCiv nypCiv
ton Kal d/ro/Aia Kal irp&s r<j3 K.T..) that he entirely distinguished be-

75 A] TIMAIOS. 277
he mingled it with them and produced soft flesh full of sap : the
sinews he composed of bone and unfermented flesh, a separate
substance having an intermediate function; and to this he added
a yellow colour. Accordingly the sinews received a power more
firm and tenacious than the flesh, but more soft and flexible
than the bones.
With these God covered the bones and marrow; and after he
had bound one part to another with sinews, he enveloped them
over all with flesh. Those bones which were chiefly inhabited
by soul, he enclosed with the smallest amount of flesh ;
but
those wherein was least soul he covered most abundantly and
densely with it : moreover at the joints of the bones, save where
reason showed that it ought to be there, he put but little flesh,
that neither it might render the body unwieldy by hindering its
flexions and impeding its .motions, nor again that a dense mass
of flesh piled together, producing by its hardness a dulness of
sensation, might render the faculties of the mind too slow of
memory and hard of apprehension. Wherefore the thighs and
the shins and the parts about the hips and the bones in the
upper arms and the fore-arms and all parts of our limbs which
are without joints, and all bones which are devoid of intelligence
owing to the small amount of soul inhering in marrow within
them, all these are abundantly furnished with flesh; but those
which are the seat of intelligence have less: except in cases
tween the substance contained in the of its particles would be impeded, and
spinal column and what we call 'marrow' consequently sensations would with diffi-
in other bones, which he does not ac- culty make their way to the conscious-
count as jtueXos at all. Aristotle, owing ness : cf. 64 B. This rather seems to
to his complete misconception of the apply to the density of the flesh than
functions belonging to the brain and to its quantity; but doubtless the same
spinal marrow, is much less clear on effect might be produced by both,
this point : see de partibus animalium 20. A pj irov] The only instance in
II v 65 i
b
32. It is true that Plato which an acutely sensitive part is of a
assigns as the reason for the fleshiness fleshy nature is when the flesh itself is
of the arms, thighs, &c, that these bones the instrument of perception ; as in the
are (LvapOpa: still, had they contained case of the tongue, and that only. Of
/xveXos, that would have been a reason course in all cases the external irafl^a
for giving them a thin covering of flesh. is conveyed through the flesh to the con-
n. avTcis] sc. riis <rap/ca?. scions centre; but in general the flesh
14. 4(iTriri,XT](Uvai] If from too much is only the medium of transmission, and
crowding the substance of the flesh be- the less flesh there is to traverse, the
came very stiff and solid, the free mol ions more speedily and clearly ill the sen-

2 7 8 ITAATHNOS [75 A
crdptea ovrw ^vvecrrrjcrev, olov TO rfjs y(arri)<; eiSo?. rd Be TrXetcrra
eteelvw rj yap e dvdy/erjs yiyvo/jbevrj KOI ^vvrpeô/JLevrj (fiixris
ovBajjifj TrpocrBeêrai TTVKVOV oarovv teal trdptca 7rorjv dfj.a re B
avrois ogvijfcoov aiadrjaiv. fjL'i.i(rra yap av avrd irdvrwv e<rêv r)
5 Trepi rrjv K<f>ar)v ^va-raais, eiTrep a/j,a ^VfjurtTrreiv rj0er)<Tdrr)t', teal
TO rv dvQptoirwv yevos a-aptcwBrj e%ov e'<' eaurco teal vevpwBrj
Kparepiiv re K(f>arjv /3/oy av Snrovv ical 7roa7rovv teal vyiei-
vorepov teal nXvTrorepov rod vvv KareKrrjcraTO' vvv Be rot? irepl rrjv
jfjierepav yeve<riv Brj/jiiovpyois avaoyio(j,evoi<;, irorepov irov-
10
xpoviwrepov X ^P OV 7
/ ^pa^v^poviwrcpov fteknov aTrepyaa-aivro C
yevos, (rvveBoê rov irXeiovo^ /3/oi/, <f)avorepov Be, rov e('nrova
afieivova ovra Travrl Travra)^ aipereov o6ev Br) /iai>a> ftev oVrcS,
crap^l Be teal vevpois K6<f>a.r]v, are ovBe KafATras eôucrav, ov vve-
Giiyacrav. Kara iravra ovv ravra evaicrOrjTorepa fiev teal
15 Tepo, TroXi) Be da-devearepa Travros dvBpds Trpoaeredrj
ra Be vevpa Bid ravra /cat OUT&J? 6 Oeos eV ecr^drrjv rrjv
repl rev rpd^r)ov tc6r]crv OJJLOIO- D
S. 12 Tif ante /tavf habet A. 13 06 delet A.
sation be registered in the consciousness.
But in the case of the tongue, on the
contrary, the fleshy structure is speci-
fically adapted for the reception and dis-
crimination of a particular class of sen-
sations, and is no longer a mere passive
medium. Hence Plato's distinction is
sound.
2. T] -yelp i
dva-yKTjs] That is to say,
the conditions of the material nature to
which our soul is linked will not admit
of the combination of a dense covering
of flesh with acute sensitiveness. This
would have seemed too obvious to need
pointing out, but for Stallbaum's perverse
comment 'intelligit animum'. Of course
Plato does not mean anything so absurd
as to deny that the flesh of the thigh,
for instance, is acutely sensitive : he only
means that the thigh is Ktvov ^-pojîrews :
it has no power of perceiving anything
apart from the mere sense of touch re-
siding in its nerves ; whereas the parts
containing /-tueXos are centres of conscious-
ness, and the fleshy structure of the
tongue is the organ of a special mode
of sensation.
4. paiora ôp] Had such a com-
bination been practicable, the gods
would certainly have given the brain
a more powerful protection than it now
has: as it is, they sacrificed length of
days and immunity from sickness to
vividness of perception and power of
reasoning. Aristotle attacks this doctrine
because it does not fall in with his fan-
tastic theory of the brain's functions: see
de partibus atiiwaliutn II xii 656* 15 ov
yap ucrirtp TU>S 4yovfftv, 6Vt el <rapKu.5ris
r/v, /za/c/JO/SiaTepcv dv ffV TO yivos' dXX'
tvaifffftiffias e'vtKev affapxcv total <f>affiv
aicrBaffffdai fj.tt> yap T<j> fyKf>dtf), TTV
5' atffdriffiv ov irpoffifffffai ra fjiopia TO.
ffapK<t)dr) X'ac. TOI'TWH 5' ovSfrepAv larw
di)6&, dd iroXvcrapKOS fj^v 6 roVos uv o
irepi TOV yKf<j>aoi> rovvavriov SLV direipyd-
fero <lv eVfAca nrdpxti TOIS &ots 6 eyKe-
0aXos" 01) yap dv tovvaro KaTaf/vxfii>
aKeaivuv ai/Vdj Xiap' TUV 5' alffOr/ffewv
OVK atrtoi ov5ffj.ids, 6j ye dfat(r6rjTos /cat

D] TIMAIOS. 279
where God has formed the flesh to be in itself an organ of
sensation, as for instance the tongue: in most however it is as
aforesaid; for this material nature which comes into being by
the law of necessity and is reared with us does not allow dense
bone and much flesh to be accompanied by ready and keen per-
ception. For had these two conditions consented to combine,
the structure of the head would have displayed them in the
highest degree ;
and the human being, bearing upon it a fleshy
head, sinewy and strong, would have enjoyed a life twice, nay
many times as long as now, besides being much more healthy
and free from pain. But as it is, the creators who brought us to
being considered whether they should make a long-lived race
that was inferior, or one more short-lived which was nobler, and
they agreed that every one must by all means choose a shorter
and nobler life in preference to a longer but baser. Therefore
they covered the head with thin bone, but not with flesh
nor sinews, since it has no flexions. On all these grounds the
head that is set upon the body of every man is much quicker of
apprehension and understanding, but much weaker. For these
reasons and in this manner God placed the sinews all round the
base of the head about the neck and cemented them with
ai)To'j tvriv uffirep OTLOVV TWV irepiTTw- 16. eir* co-xdTTjv T^V KajmXijv] Plato
fjidruv. Aristotle is, I believe, to a cer- supposes the vevpa to pass up the neck
tain extent right in his assertion respect- and terminate at the base of the head,
ing the avaiad^ala. of the brain ; so that made fast to the jawbone,
we have here again an instance of his 17. JKoXXrjo-cv OIXOIOTTJTI] It is im-
drawing a false conclusion from correct possible that O/IOIO'TI/TI can simply stand
data. One might have supposed that he for oyuoiws, as Stallbaum asserts ; nor is
who affirmed an anlvriTos &pxn Kivricreus he justified by the passage he cites, f!e-
need not have felt much difficulty about public 555 A, frt ovv, rjv d' tyta, dirto-'
an dvaioOrjTos dpxrj aiffOrjffeus. ToufJ-ev pr] /card rrjv 6tyapxov/j.i>i)v troXiv
avra] i.e. a strong protective cover- oyaotorijrt rov tj>fidw6v r( Kal x/nj/wmoTrfy
ing along with keenness of sensation. r-a.x0at ; there obviously the meaning
13. <rapl 8i Kal vcvpois] Hippo- is that the <pei5uos and x/wj/iOTtoTj;? are
krates also denies that the head has vevpa : ranked as corresponding to the oligarchi-
de locis in homine vol. II.
p. 108 Ktihn cal state because of their resemblance to
Kal TO /J.ev ffufjta irdv fynrXeoi' vetpuv, trepl it ; and similarly in 576 C, & ye rvpav-
8t TO wpoffunrov Kal TT]V Kt<par]i' OVK (ffTi viKos KOTO. Tr)v Tvpavvoi'nt'vqv iroii> av fttj
vtvpa. ofj.oioTrjTi. In like manner I think we
14. cvaio-OijTortpo] i.e. more sen- must take it here as an instrumental
sitive than it would have been had the dative.
gods taken a different view.

280 ITAATHNOS [75 D
TIJTI, KOI TO? criayovas aicpas avrols %vveBr)(rev VTTO rrjv <f>vcriv
rov
Trpocranrov rd 8' aXa e/9. airavra TO. fier) Biecnreipe, ^vvdirrwv
dpOpov dpQpy. rr}v Be Brj rov trrouaros r]^&v Bvvapiv oBovtri Kal
ya>rrr) Kal %eifo-iv eveKa TOJV dvajKaiwv Kal roav dpiarwv Bie-
5 KCffuvjaav ol BiaKocraovvres, y vvv BiareraKrai, rr)v aev eicroBov
ruiv dvayKaicav f^rjâvw/jievoi %dpiv, rrjv 8' eo&ov rwv dpi<rrwv E
dvayicalov fiev yap irav ocrov elaepêrai rpofyrjv StBov ry awjân,
TO B 6ywv vdfjba e&> peov Kal vir^perovv (^povrjcrei Kni<nov Kal
dpicrrov Trdvrwv va/jidrcov. rrjv S' av K<f>arjv ovre ftovov ocrrei'vriv
SvvaTov edv rjv Bid rrjv ev. raZ? a>pai<? e0' e/care/JOf vjrep-
ijv, ovr av gv<TKiaa-0cicrav Kw^r/v Kal dvaiadr]Tov Bid rov roov
irepiiBeiv yi'yvoaevrjv. T^? Br) crapKoetBovs <f>vcra)<s
[ov] Karaf;i)paivo[AevT)<; Xeâ fielôv Trepiyiyvopevov e^wp/êro, 7G A
Beppa TO vvv eyo/j.evov. rovro Be Bid TTJV Trepl rov ejK(paov
15 voriBa ^vvtov avru TT/JO? avro Kal /3acrrdvov KVKU) irepirj/jKJjtevvve
rrjv Ke<paijv r)
Be vorls VTTO TO? patfrds dviovcra rjpBe Kal crvvi-
Keicrev avro eVi rr/v Kopvfyrjv, olov d/j,/j,a ^vvajayovcra' TO Be r<*>v
pa(f)wv TravroBaTTov elBos yeyove Bid rrjv r&v TrepioBwv Bvvaftiv Kal
13 ov inclusi a tribus codicibus omissum. ser-ant AHSZ.
A. 14 tepfi*. post ro vuv Xf-yoptvov ponit S.
4. TWV dva^Ka^wv Kal TWV dpicrrwv] fordert', and renders if 'welche nicht aus-
This distinction differs from that of dvay- getrocknet war': but obviously this would
KO.IO. and Oeia in 68 E; for here both require Kara^rjpavfffiff^t I suspect we
dvayxata and apicrra are an end, not ought to read aC.
a means. Xt^xjia (iti'ôv] V/iijita is a peel or rind:
8. Xo^wv voina] Compare the meta- the skin, according to Plato's concep-
phor in Euripides Hippolyttis 653 dya> tion, is analogous to the membranous
puTois vaaôiaiv t%ofwpofMi
e/s WTO. KV- film which forms on the surface of
fa>. Somewhat similar is the metaphor boiled milk, for instance, when exposed
in Phaedrus 243 D, iroTifjuf 6y<p olov a- to the air: cf. Aristotle de generations
(ivpav a.Kor]v d-!roKvffaff6ai. animalium II vi 743
b
5 TO 5^ 5tp/J.a ij-
10. ty' Ko.Tpov] sc. ^Trt trviyos Kal paivo/j.^vt}^ TTJS (rap/coy ylverai, Ka.0a.irfp
f/vxos.
iirl- Tols if/Tfi/j.affu> i] eyofj.tm] ypavs.
n. TOV TWV o-afKMV dov] cf. 42 c Aristotle's language, it may be observed
TOV TTOVV 6xôv KCU SffTfpov irpoff<J>vvTa by the way, supports the omission of ou
IK irvpos Kal CSaros Kal atpot Kal yrjs. before rara^KMUMpfaft. As to fJ-ftfrv,
!
3- t "] KaTa|T|paivofUvT]s] Notwith- I see nothing for it but to acquiesce in
standing the approximate unanimity of Lindau's 'dixit vero fitifrv, quod cetera
the mss., I do not see how it is possible amplectitur
'
: but I cannot believe that
to reconcile ou with the sense. Surely the the word is genuine. That Plato should
t/j.fia is formed by the drying of the sur- think it necessary to point out that the
face of the flesh. The Engelmann trans- envelope is greater than that which it
later indeed says it is
'
durch den Sinn er- envelopes is altogether incredible : but

76 A] TIMAIO2. 281
uniformity; and he fastened the extremities of the jaw:bones to
them just under the face; and the rest he distributed over all
the limbs, uniting joint to joint. And our framers ordained the
functions of the mouth, furnishing it with teeth and tongue and
lips, in the way it is now arranged, combining in their purpose
the necessary and the best; for they devised the incoming with
the necessary in view, but the outgoing with the most excellent.
For all that enters in to give sustenance to the body is of neces-
sity; but the stream of speech which flows out and ministers to
understanding is of all streams the most noble and excellent.
But as to the head, it was neither possible to leave it of bare
bone, owing to the extremes of heat and cold in the seasons;
nor yet by covering it over to allow it to become dull and sense-
less through the burden of flesh. Of the fleshy material as it was
drying a larger film formed on the surface and separated itself;
this is what is now called skin. This by the influence of the
moisture of the brain combined and grew up and clothed the
head all round: and the moisture rising up under the sutures
saturated and closed it in on the crown, fastening it together
like a knot. Now the form of the sutures is manifold, owing to
the power of the soul's revolutions and of the aliment; if these
I cannot see my way to any satisfactory 1 7. TO 8i TWV pcujxuv] The number
emendation. and diversity of the sutures depends upon
14. 8e'p(xa] Is this meant to be de- the violence of the struggle described in
rived from X^t/xa? The PVV looks like 436 foil, between the influx of aliment
it ; and Plato's etymological audacity has and the revolutions of the soul acting
adventured things /ciVrepa'than this. through the brain. There is a passage
8td ri}v irpl riv eyKâXov voriSa] of Hippokrates which curiously falls in
Plato is explaining how it comes to with Plato's connexion of the sutures
pass that the skull is covered with with the soul's irepioSoi: de capitis vul-
skin, although, according to his account, neribus vol. Ill p. 347 Ktihn 6Vrw /XTJ-
there is no flesh upon it. He regards it dertpudi juijSe/otfoj' vpoôK^v ?x> OVTOS
as an extension of the skin on the face xei T^s ââs TTJS Kf<paTJs ws ypdfj./j.a rit
and neck, which grows up over the head X' ypduprrai : that is to say, the rounder
from all sides, being nourished by the the head the more nearly docs the form
moisture belonging to the brain, and of the sutures approximate to that of the
meets on the summit (
vvibv ai)r6 irpbs letter X, which is the form of the inter-
aurfy. Thereupon the moisture, issuing section of the two circles. When the
through the sutures, penetrates the skin head is prominent in front, says Hippo-
and causes it to take root on the head krates, the sutures resemble T; when
and to grow firmly together where it protuberent behind, the figure is reversed,
meets in the middle, as it were fastened JL5 if
protuberent both before and behind,
in a knot (olov d'/ûa wayayotVa). the sutures form the figure H. Thus in

282 HAATHNOS [76 A
//9, naov (lev drjoi<; fj,a%ofiev(av rovrwv TrXei'ou?, rjrrov 1*
Be eXaTTOf?. roCro Brj irav TO Beppa KVKW tcare/cevTei irvpi TO
ffeior, TpwOevTOS Be real Trjs iV/xaSo<? e%u> Bt avTov <f>epo[j,evr)<;
TO fifv
vypov Kal Bepfiov 'oaov eiiKpive<> aTrr/eiv, TO Be /J.IKTOV el; ojv Kal TO
5 BepfjM ijv, alpofievov fjuev VTTO Trj<j <popd<f e<w fiatpov eYetVero, e7r-
TOTrjTa i(7ijv eôv Tf3 K.aTaicevTijfJ,aTi, Sia Be ftpaBvTrJTa aTriadovpe-
vov VTTO TOV TrepieaTWTO? e^wOev Trz/eu/iaTo? iraXiv eVTO? tVo TO
i6/j.vov KaTeppiôvTO, Kal Kara TaiTa Bfj TO, Trddrj TO C
yevos ev TO) Bep/j.aTi 7re<f>vK, %vyyeve<; pev r/MPtwta ov
10 atTov, (T/cXypoTepov Be Kal irvKVOTepov Ty TrCh.rjcrei Trjs ^rt'êtu?,
rjv dTroxwpiôpevr) Bep/j.aTO<f eKao-Trj 6p% -fyvxOelaa av
TOVTM Br) aaiav r)p,wv direipydcraTO Trjv Ke(f>arjv 6 TTOIGOV,
fievos ftev atT/oi? Tot9 elpr)ne.vois, Biavoovfievos Be dvT
aiTo Beiv elvai aTeyao-fj.a T^9 Trepl TOV eyxe(f)aov eve.ua do~(â-
*5 Xeia? Kov<f)ov Kal Bepovs êi/jbcovo^ TC ixavov aKiav Kal crKeTrrjv
Trapeêiv, evato-Qrjcria
1
; Be ovBev BiaKa>v/j,a e/i7rooVy yevrja-6/J.evov.
TO Be ev TTJ Trepl TOVS BaKTiiXovs KaTaTrOKrj TOV vevpov Kal TOV
5ep/ia,T09 oVrof) Te, ^v^fju^jdev CK Tpuwv, d7ro^r)pav0ev ev KOIVOV
gu/j,7rdvT(0v o-Krjpov yeyove BepjjLa, Tot9 f*ev ^vvaniois TOITOIS BTJ-
10 /J,iovpyr)0ev, T^ Be alTicoTaTp Biavola TWV 7reiTa ecropevoiv eveKa
3 rpuOtvTos :
TprjOfrros SZ. 7 VTTO TOV : airb TOV A.
8 TO T(>l(i3V: TO TWV TplXW S. IO TTVKVOTtpOV '.
TTVKVlaTtpOV S.
so far as the shape of the head departs is pure evaporates and disappears ; but
from the spherical or normal shape, in that which contains an admixture of the
the same degree the sutures depart from substances composing the skin is forced
the figure X; and in the same degree we outward in a cylindrical form fitting the
may suppose the struggle between the size of the punctures. But owing to the
irepioSot and the KU/J.O. TT?J T/>o0/7J to have slowness of its growth and the resistance
been long and severe. The treatise con- of the surrounding atmosphere, the hair
cerning wounds on the head is one of is pushed backwards, so that the end
those considered to be the genuine work becomes rooted under the skin. Thus
of Hippokrates. In 92 A we find that the hair is composed of the same sub-
in the lower animals the dpyia TUIV Trept- stance as the skin, but by refrigeration
<j>opZv causes the head to assume an elon- and compression has become more hard
gated shape. and dense. As to its identity with the
i. rd 0iov] i.e. the brain, which is skin Aristotle agrees: cf. de gen. anitn.
the seat of TO 6eiov. Plato now passes II vi 745* 20 6vvxct 5 KOI T/3/xes KC^ K^~
to the growth of the hair, which he paTa. KCU. TO. Toiasra tic TOV btpnaros, 810
thus explains. The skin of the head Ka.lffv/j.n(Tapj.ov<nT(i>otpfj.aTiTas-xp6as.
is punctured all over by the fire issuing 3. rpw&vros] The suggestion Tpy-
from the brain: through the punctures Otvros is certainly tempting: but the mss.
moisture escapes, of which so much as are unanimous, and I retain their read ing,

D] TIMAIO2. 283
contend more vehemently one with another, the sutures are more
in number; but if less so, they are fewer. Now the whole of
this skin was pricked all about with fire by the divine part: and
when it v/as pierced and the moisture issued forth through it, all
the moisture and heat which was pure vanished away; but that
which was mingled with the substances whereof the skin was
formed, being lifted up by the impulse, stretched far outwards,
in fineness equalling the size of the puncture; but owing to the
slowness of its motion it was thrust back by the surrounding air,
and being forced in and rolled up under the skin it took root
there. Under these conditions hair grows up in the skin, being
of similar nature but of threadlike appearance, and made harder
and denser by the contraction of cooling: for every hair in being
separated from the skin was cooled and contracted. Hereby
has our creator made our.head hairy, using the means aforesaid,
and conceiving that this instead of flesh should be a covering for
the protection of the brain, being light and capable of affording
shade from heat and shelter from cold, while it would be no
hindrance in the way of ready apprehension. The threefold
combination of sinew skin and bone in the fabric of the fingers,
when dried, forms out of all a single hard skin, for the construc-
tion of which these substances served as means, but the true
cause and purpose of its formation was the welfare of races not
though with considerable hesitation. are formed the nails. Plato's statement
4. dirfl'eiv] They at once departed in here differs somewhat from Aristotle's as
the course of nature to their own habita- cited above.
lion : but the earthier substance, having 20. TWV 2imTa <rofxvuv c'vcica] This
no such impulse, was forced back by the is a very singular declaration. The nails,
pressure of the atmosphere. by this account, are formed solely for the
8. clXX6jxvov] 'rolled up': see note development they will afterwards attain
on 40 B. in the inferior animals, as though they
13. CUTLCHS rots lpT||A^vois] i.e. the were of no use whatsoever to mankind.
subsidiary physical causes aforesaid : the The importance of them is no doubt more
final cause is given next. conspicuous in beasts and birds ; but
16. Y VTl
<r
l
JlVOV] Note the change Plato's theory certainly appears rather
of construction : the future participle paradoxically to ignore their value to
stands in the place of 5eli> elvai in the the human race. There is however a
prior cause. curious approximation to Darwinism in
1
7. KaraTrXoKifjl That is to say, the his statement : the nails appeared first
three substances of tendon skin and bone in a rudimentary form in the human race ;
are interwoven into one homogeneous and afterwards in course of evolution the
body and completely dried; out of this claws of the lion and the talons of the

284 nAATHNOS [76 D-.
eipyaa-fievov. ey? yap TTOTG e'
dv&pwv yvvaiK$ /cat raXXa Orjpia
, tjTriaravTO ol ^vvicrTavre*; â?, KOI STJ KOI rfj^ rwv E
ort TroXXa rwv 0pe/jL/j,dra)v Kal eVt TroXXa Se^crotro
y&ecrav, o0ev ev dv0pa>7roi o*>uâ9 re eV a/cpot? rot9 /c<wXot?
XXXIV. 'ETretS?) Se iravr
1
rjv rd rov Ovrjrov &>ou v[i.7re<pv-
Kora pepi) Kal fieXi), Trjv Se farjv ev Trvpl Kal irvevpaTL gvveftaivev 77 A
10 e dvdyKrjs eêiv avra), Kal Sid ravra VTTO rovrcav rr)KOfjivov KG-
dv0p(i)7rii>r]$ ^vyyevrj fyvcrews (pva-iv XXU9 ISeais Kal alvOycreari,
Kepavvvvres, wa#' erepov %wov eivai, ffrvrevovcriv d Srj vvv tff.
3 drqeoiTo :
dtycroivTo A. 6 r' inserui.
eagle were developed from them. The
notable point is that Plato evidently does
not conceive that in the transmigrations
any arbitrary change of form takes place,
but that each successive organism is regu-
larly developed out of its predecessors.
Plato's notion rests on no zoological evi-
dence, so far as we know ; it is but a
brilliant guess : none the less, perhaps
all the more, seeing that such evidence
was not at his command, it is a mark
of his keen scientific insight.
6. Tpx.as<T'>6'vvxas T] I have
taken upon me to insert re, since I do
not believe Stpfta. Tp/xas fovxA* T can be
Greek. It may be noticed that this cor-
rection almost restores a hexameter verse :
oiffiv tywav.
Is Plato quoting from some old physical.
poet? Empedokles might have written
such a line.
76 E 77 c, c. xxxiv. So when all the
parts of the human frame had been com-
bined in a body for ever suffering waste
by fire and by air, the gods devised a
means of its replenishment. They took
wild plants and trained them by culti-
vation, so that they were fit for human
sustenance. Plants are living and con-
scious beings ; but they have the appe-
titive soul alone ; they grow of their
inborn vital force, without impulsion
from without ; they are stationary in one
place, and cannot reflect upon their own
nature.
g. ji^pt] Kal ji^Xi]] For this combi-
nation compare Laws 795 E T&V rov <rw-
/xaros aurou jj.(wi> re Kal fj-epuv : and Phi-
lebus 14 E &rav ns txaffTou ra p.^ri re Kal
a/j,a (J.tpr) 5t.eui> r<f Xoyy. The distinc-
tion between the terms is thus defined by
Aristotle historia aninialium I i
486* 8
TOW 5 TOLOVTUIV tvia. ov /JLOVOV fitpr) dX4
KOL fdr) KaXtirai' roiavra 5' effrlv Sea
rwv fjiepav oa ovra 'drepa. fJ.^prj xft ^"
avrois, olov Kf<J>ar) Kal ffK^Xos Kal xf
i-P
Kal SXoj o j3/)a^t'wj'
Kal 6 6u>pa^' ravra
yap avra T{ fffri n^py SXa, Kal tvriv avTwr
Zrepa nopia. A /iAos then is that which
is part of a whole, but is yet in itself
a definite whole.
TT]V 8i coi]v Iv irvpl Kal irvetffiaTi]
Man's life is said to depend on fire
and air because these are the agents of
digestion and respiration, as we shall
see in the next two chapters: cf. 780.
These two elements in fact keep up the
vital movement of the human body.
IO. TTJK^JWVOV KV<n3(lv6v T] Sc.

77 A] TIMAIO^. 285
yet existing. For our creators were aware that men should pass
into women, and afterwards into beasts; and they knew that
many creatures would need the aid of nails for many purposes :
wherefore at the very birth of the human race they fashioned
the rudiments of nails. On such reasoning and with such
purposes did they form skin and hair, and on the extremities of
the limbs nails.
XXXIV. Now when all the parts and members of the
mortal being were created in union, and since his life was made
perforce dependent upon fire and air, and therefore his body
suffered waste through being dissolved and left void by these,
the gods devised succour for him. They engendered another
nature akin to the nature of man, blending it with other forms
and sensations, so as to be another kind of animal. These are
rriKOfj.evov virb irvpos, Kevovfievov UTT' d^poj.
Plato enters more fully into this in 88 c
foil.
12. aX.Xo.ts ISe'cus xal al<r(H]cr<ri]
Plants are akin to the nature of man-
kind, inasmuch as they are animated by
the same vital principle and are formed
out of similar physical materials, so that
they are able to repair the waste of the
human structure. But the form of these
organisms is diverse from man's, and
their mode of sensation is peculiar to
themselves. Whether Plato was a vege-
tarian or not, it is clear that he regards
vegetables as the natural and primaeval
food of man: see below 80 E, and Epi-
nomis 975 A &rrw STJ irpurov ph j} rrfi
d.tio<f>a.ylas rwv fyuv rjfii.a.s
TWC /JL^V, wj
6 fjivOfo fffn, rt> ira.p<iira.v -d.iroffTriffa.iTa,
rCiv d fk TTJV vofj.ij.iov iSudriv /toTacm}-
ffaya. We must of course allow for the
possibility that the author of the Epi-
nomis has overstated Plato's disappro-
bation of animal diet.
13. a 8t) viv rf|ipa S^vSpa] So then
the device of the gods for the preserva-
tion of human life was not the invention
of plants, but their cultivation: plants
themselves existed as part of the general
order of nature. It thus appears that
in Plato's scheme plants do not, like the
inferior animals, arise by degeneration
from the human form. For as soon as
man was first created, he would have
need of plants to provide him with sus-
tenance. It would appear then that in
the Platonic mythology the erring soul
in the course of her transmigrations does
not enter any of the forms of plant-life ;
though the contrary was the belief of
Empedokles ijdij ydp iror' ey& yevbuyv
Kovpos re Kop-rj re
OdfJivos T' otuvos re
Kal elv al IXXoTros i()vs. Martin how-
ever is mistaken in inferring this con-
clusion from the fact that plants possess
only the third etSos of soul : this third
elS^s is simply the one vital force acting
exclusively through matter a degree of
degeneracy to which any human soul,
according to the theory of metempsy-
chosis, might sink : indeed there are
forms of what we call animal life, which
are clearly within the limits of transmi-
gration, but which possess little, if any,
more independent activity of ^I'XTJ than
do plants. The simultaneous appearance
of mankind and of plants in the world,
while all intermediate forms of animal
life are absent, is curious, and could
hardly, I think, be defended upon onto-
logical grounds.

286 [77 A-
SevSpa /cal <f>vra teal a-Treppara jraiSevdevra VTTO yewpyias rt-
Oacroos Trpos 7/irt<? f^X >
7r/Î/ ^ *l
v lôva ra rwv aypiwv yevrj,
Trpeo-ftvrepa rwv r)pepwv cvra. TTO.V jap ovi>, o ri irep av p.erda")(ri
B
TOV f)v, &5oi> [lev av ev Bitcy eyoiro opdorara' yu.ereêt ye fj,rjv
5 TOVTO, o vvv eyofiev, TOV rpirov ^1/^779 etSovs, o fAeragv (f)pevv
6fi(f)aov T IBpva'dai Aoyo?, w 86^rj<f jj,ev oyio~/j.ov re Kal vov
/ie'recrrt TO prjoev, aiV#r/o-e&K Se ^Seta? Kal aXyeivfjs yuera eiriOv-
fjiiwv. ira<J")(ov yap Siarei Travra, a-Tpafyevrt, S' avry ev eavrw
Trepl eavro, rrjv pev egwOev a-rrvxra^kvw icivrjo-iv, rfj S' oliceia
10
xprjaa/jLevw, ru>v avrov rt oyia-acr6ai, KariSovri, <pv<riv ov irapa- C
BeBco/cev r yevecris. Sto BTJ %fj pev eari re ov% erepov twov, /j,6vi/j,ov
10 avrov : O.VTOV A. tpfoiv :
<f>tiffti.
A.
i. &TXC] i.e. attained the condition
in which now they are.
3. irdv yap oiv] This passage is of
the highest importance, as proving be-
yond controversy that Plato in the fullest
degree maintained the unity of all life.
He drew no arbitrary line between '
ani-
mal' and 'vegetable' life: all things that
live are manifestations of the same eter-
nal essence: only as this evolved itself
through countless gradations of existence,
the lower ranks of organisms possess less
and less of the pure activity of soul ope-
rating by herself, until in plants and the
lowest forms of animal life the vital force
only manifests itself in the power of sen-
sation and growth.
Aristotle agrees with Plato in ascribing
to plants fwi) and ^vxn, but he does not
allow them afaêrts : see ak anima I v
4iO
b
23 <f>atvtTai -yap Tvra ^TJV oti
fj.tr^xot>ra <f>op<i* xal cuV0i7<rewj : cf. II ii
4i3
a
25, and tie partibus animalinm I i
64 1
b 6. They had according to him the
Î'X1
) alone: de anima II ii
7 ffpeirriKov tyopev rb TOIOVTOV
TTJS yvxrjs ov Kal ra <f>vrd /j.erxel'
This coincides with Plato's statement.
Aristotle however draws the distinc-
tion between &Ja and <f>vra that the
former possess afff6r)<ris, the latter pos-
sess it not : de inventute i
467
b
24 ra nlv
fitv, OVK ?x 5' a'ffO-ijW T$ $'
a.loOavtffda.1. TO ffov irpbs TO /XT) fyov 5to-
plfo/jLev. See however hist. anim. vm i.
In the pseudo-Aristotelian treatise de
flands i 8is
b 16 it is affirmed that
Anaxagoras Empedokles and Demokri-
tos attributed thought and knowledge to
plants : 6 5^ 'Avo^cryopaj Kal 6 Aij/xo/cptros
*cai 6 'E/itTreSoKX^s KOI vovv Kal yvuviv tl-
irov ^xet>r Ta <
t>w'&
'
they of course as-
signed them ^Tri0vfj.ia and atff&rjffis also :
ibid. 8i5
a
15 'Avaâyopas pv o$v Kal
ri6v/j:ia TO.VTO. KivtlffBai. t-
alffOdveadaL Tf Kal vTreiff6ai Kal
diafiefiaiovvTai. uv 6 fj.lv 'Aj/a|-
ayopas Kal fipa elvai Kal rfitvOai Kal v-
TretffOai elirt, Trj re airoppori TUV <pvwv
Kal Trj ai)7<rei TOVTO tKa.p.fiavuv 6 3^
'E/x.?re5<Mi7S yvos tv TOUTOIS KeKpantvov
tlvai edoS-affev. Sextus Empiricus adv.
math. VIII 286 confirms the statement
that Empedokles allowed reason to plants:
TrdvTa yap laQi (ppivtjffiv txeiv Ka*
'w/iaros
alffav. Diogenes of Apollonia was of a
contrary opinion :
Theophrastos de sensu
44 TO. d (pvTa 5ta TO /XT; elvai Koia
(jLr)dc dcaSêirât TOV dtpa Tro^reXuSj d<f>rj-
prj<r6ai TO <ppovelv. In our estimate of
such statements however we must allow
for the fact that these early philosophers
only very imperfectly distinguished be-
tween aiffddvfffffat and <f>povfiv : Theo-
phrastos says of Parmenides TO ydp
Kal TO (ppovfiv us Tavro ty(t :

c] TIMA1O2. 287
the cultivated trees and plants and seeds, which are now trained
by culture and domesticated with us ;
but formerly there existed
only the wild kinds, which are older than the cultivated. For
indeed everything which partakes of life may with perfect
justice and fitness be termed an animal; but the kind of which
we are now speaking shares only the third form of soul, which
our theory says is seated between the midriff and the navel, and
which has nothing to do with opinion and reasoning and
thought, but only with sensation, pleasant or painful, with
appetites accompanying. For it ever continues passively re-
ceptive of all sensations, and having its circulation in itself
about its own centre, it rejects all motion from without and uses
only its own ;
but its nature has not bestowed upon it any power
of observing its own being and reflecting thereon. Wherefore
it is indeed alive and in no wise differs from an animal, but it is
and this is no doubt still more true of
others.
7. alcr0T]crtos 8f| The OpeirriKiq 5(5-
ra/uts, though not explicitly mentioned
here, is of course included, as we see
from the account of the rpirov etSos in
70 D foil.
8. ira<rxov -yap SiarcXci iravra] i.e.
it passively submits to the influences
which work upon it : since it does not
possess the two more active forms of
soul, the passive conditions of nutrition
growth and decay, together with sensa-
tion, are all that belong to it.
<rrpa<|>^VTi 8* avrw tv avr<3] That is
to say, its motions, e.g. the circulation
of the sap, take place within it : its
movement is not Kara T^TTOV, but iv
9. Tqv jxiv ?0ev airera.(x^vw] It
rejects motion from without and avails
itself of its own innate force: that is, its
growth is not due to any external com-
pulsion, but the development of its own
impulse. As Aristotle would put it, a
plant has its proper motion Kara <f>v<nv,
the motion IfaOtv only Kara ffv^e^rjK^.
Plato means that it avro avrl> KIVCI and
therefore must possess if'vxy, which alone
is self-moved.
10. TCOV avroC TI Xoyi<ra<r0ai Kan-
SdvTi <j>v(Tiv] i.e. it is conscious, but not
self-conscious. Man can look into his
own consciousness and realise his own
identity and personality : he can speculate
upon his relation to other personalities
and to the sensible objects around him.
The plant can do none of this : it can
but take its sensations as they come,
without inquiring what they are, what
it is that feels them, what is the line of
continuity that binds them together. The
meaning of this phrase is plain enough ;
but the expression of it is a little strange.
There is an overwhelming preponderance
of ms. evidence in favour of <f>v<Tfi, and I
am not sure that it ought not to be re-
stored : Schneider however is alone, I
believe, in adopting it.
1 1. Ifori T ov 'trtpov UK>V] It would
seem a necessary consequence that a thing
which fjj
is ffiov : and Aristotle is
per-
haps somewhat inconsistent in allowing
plants fSJi>, while refusing them the title
of f<jJa. Also Plato seems more scientific
than Aristotle in attributing atffUr)<ns to
plants. What manner of a.toOi)ais be-
longs to plants may or may not be dis-

288 HAATflNOS [77 c
Be Kal KaTeppia)fj,vov TreTrrjye Bid TO rijs v<^ eavTOv
XXXV. Tavra 8/7 TO, yevrj Travra (frvreixravTes ol
rot? ijTToaiv rjpJiv Tpo<piji>, TO croo/za avTO r/pdav Stwêreva-av rep-
Si VOVTe<S olov V KrjTTOlS O^TOV<f, iVO, UHTTTfp 6K I/Of/iaTO? TTl6vTO$
apBoiTO. Kal irpwTov p,ev oêroi)? Kpv<f)aiov<} VTTO Tr}v %vp.$>vcrtv D
TOV BepfJiaTos Kal TTJS aapKos Bvo <^Xe/3a? ere/noi/ vatTialas BiBv-
/Ltoy?, <w 9 TO crwfj-a eTvyâve Beiol$ re Kal dpicrTepois ov ravTa<f
Be KaBtjKav irapa TTJV pdxiv /fa* r v joviôv fiera^v Xa/Sovre?
10 fAve6v, I'va OVTGS re o rt /iaXitrra 0doi, Kal 7rl raXXa evpovs
evTevdev are eirl /caravre? 1} eVt'^fO't? <yi<yvofj.evr) Trapeôt rrjv
vBpeiav o/j.aiji'. peTa Be Tavra aîaavTes "Trepl Tr)v Ke<f)ar)v
ra? ^>Xe'/3a9 Kal Bi dTJa)v eVavrta? TrXeâ^re? Bieto-av, ra? pev E
ex TOUV BeîdSv e7rl TapicrTepd TOV (Ttw/Aaro?, ra? 8' e/c roof a/
6 Kpv(f>aiovs :
Kpv<f>a.iw$ A. 7 Si :
SlSv/tovSZ. 14 rapurrfpa.: ra apurrepd S.
covered or discoverable by science ; but
it seems at least improbable that any-
where a hard and fast line can be drawn
between the afoOrjins of animals, from
man down to the zoophyte, and the cor-
responding 7rci0os in plants. Plato here
as everywhere in his system preserves the
principle of continuity, the germ of which
he inherited from Herakleitos, and which
attained so astonishing a development
in his hands. Brief as is Plato's treat-
ment of the subject, the union of poetical
imagination and scientific grasp which it
displays renders this short chapter on
plants singularly interesting. And but
for it, we should have been forced in-
ferentially to fill
up a space in his theory,
for which we now have the authority of
his explicit statement.
I. TTJS v<|>'
tavTOU Kivqo-ccos lartpTJ-
<rOai] This is not inconsistent, though at
first sight it may appear so, with TJJ oiKcig.
Xp^ffafj^vif above. For there the question
was of motion tv rep a6r$, now it is of
motion from place to place. The plant is
free to carry on all its natural movements
within its own structure, but it is incap-
able of transferring itself from place to
place. Yet this stationary condition is
no reason for refusing it the name of
ftfov : for indeed the /co<r/uoj itself has its
motion only tv T$ curry. Galen evidently
had r^s e tavrov, for he proposes to read
w :
ivevo-rjffa. eiireiv rb u crToiXfiov, ypa-
âiros TOV nXarwfos Sid TO TT?J tu iav-
TOV. The emendation does him credit:
but there is no reason for interfering with
our present text.
77 c 79 A, c. xxxv. Then the gods
made two channels down the body, em-
bedded in the flesh, one on either side of
the spine, to irrigate it with blood :
and at the head they cleft the veins and
caused them to cross each other trans-
versely, that the head might be firmly
fixed on the neck, and that communica-
tion might be preserved between both
sides of the body. This scheme for the
irrigation of the body we shall best un-
derstand, if we reflect that all substances
composed of finer particles exclude those
of coarser, while the coarser are easily
penetrated by the finer. So then when
food and drink enter the belly, they
'
are retained ;
but fire and air are too
subtle to be confined therein. Therefore
the gods wove a web of fire and of air
spread over the cavity of the body and

TIMAIOS. 289
stationary and rooted fast, because it has been denied the power
of self-motion.
XXXV. Thus did the higher powers create all these kinds
as sustenance for us who were feebler; and next they made
canals in the substance of our body, as though they were
cutting runnels in a garden, that it might be irrigated as by an
inflowing stream. And first they carried like hidden rills, under
the place where the skin and the flesh are joined, two veins
down the back, following the twofold division of the body into
right and left. These they brought down on either side of the
spine and the seminal marrow, first in order that this might be
most vigorous, next that the current might have an easy flow
downwards and render the irrigation regular. After that, they
cleft the veins around the head, and interweaving them crossed
them in opposite directions, carrying these from the right side of
the body to the left and those from the left to the right. This
placed therein two lesser webs opening
into the mouth and nostrils. And they
made alternately the great web to flow
towards the lesser webs, and again the
lesser towards the greater. In the former
case the airy envelope of the greater
web penetrated through the porous sub-
stance of the body to the cavity within,
in the latter the lesser webs passed
through the body outwards; and in
either case the fire followed with the
air. This alternation is kept up per-
petually so long as a man lives, and we
give it the name of respiration. And so
when the fire, passing to and fro, en-
counters food and drink in the stomach, it
dissolves them and driving them onwards
forces them to flow through the veins, like
water drawn into pipes from a fountain.
3. ol KptCrrovs] Plato several times
applies this phrase to supernal powers :
cf. Sophist 216 B rdx' &" &" Ka^ ff l TIS
oCros rwf KpeiTrtivdw aiWirorro, (f>a6ovs
ij/uas 6vTas iv rots 6yots
Ka.1
last passage being ironical.
4. T^|l.VOVTS...OXtTOVS] Cf. 7 D T'? s
dprrjplas 6xerovs Ivl rov irev/jLova. trefiov.
7. 8wo 4>Xpas] The two '
veins
'
are,
according to Martin, the aorta and the
vena cava.
8. Seiois T KO.I dpicrrfpois ov] i.e.
with right and left sides : I doubt whe-
ther pepefftv is to be supplied, any more
than fdpy with the phrases tirl 5ei<, ^TT'
Symposium 188 D TOJS Kpflrroffiv
Oeois: Euthydimiis 291 A /ti} TIS TUV
v Trapwv avrd. t<f>6tyl;a.TO : the
P. T.
9. riv yovi|xov...|xvX.6v] cf. 73 C.
ii. trl Koiravres] As Galen objects,
this seems to leave out of sight the circu-
lation of the blood in the head and neck,
which would be Hvavres.
14. K TUJV Sc^iuv TTL
Tapiorcpd]
Plato makes the blood-vessels belonging
to the right side of the head pass to the
left side of the body and vice versa for
two reasons : first that the consequent
interlacing of the veins might fasten the
head (which we have seen to be destitute
of vtvpa) firmly on the trunk ; secondly
that the sensations might be conveyed
from either side of the brain to the oppo-
site side of the body, and so all parts of
the body might be kept in communica-
19

290 riAATHNOS [77 E
7T4 TO. Oe^lO, KlVaVTS, 07T&><? SetT/iO"? a/itt T?7 K(j>af] 7T/30?
TO o-wfia eir) perd TOV oepfiaTos, eVeiS?) vevpois OVK rjv KVKW
Kara Kopvfyrjv Trepieir]fjifjLvrj, KOI $1} Kal TO rwv alcrdrjcrewv irdOos
tV a<' eKarepwv TWV fjieputv et? inrav TO crdSfj.a e"r) StaSiSo/jievov.
5 TO 6" evTfvdev ijSr) TTjv vSpaywyiav Trapeatcevaaav rpo-rrw Tivl
Toupoe, 6V Karo-^r6fJ,0a paov 7rpo$io/jLOoyr)crd/j,voi TO TOiovSe, OTI 73 A
TraWa, 'ocra e eKaTTovwv %vvicrTaTai, (TTeyei Ta fiei^a), TO, 8' etc
fj,eiov(i)V Ta o-/JLiKpoTpa ov BvvaTaL' jrvp Be irdvTwv yevoov <rp,iKpo-
/j-epecTTaTOv, Wev oY uSaTo? KOI yrjs depos TG KOL ocra eic TOVTCOV
10 %vvi<TTaTai Sta^wpet /cat crTeyeiv ovoev UVTO SvvaTat. TOUTOV S>)
Kal Trepl T^<? Trap' T^/^ti/ /coA,i'a<? BiavorjTeov, on criTia pev Kal
TroTa oTav et? avTrjv epTrear) crTeyei, rrvev/j-a Be Kal irvp o-fiiKpo-
B
ftepecrTepa ovTa T^<? avTrjs ^va-Tacrecos ov BvvaTai. TOVTOIS oiv
KaTexpr)a~aTO o 6eos efc TT)V CK T^? KoiXias eVt
15 vSpeiav, 7reyfj,a e^ depos Kal TTU/JO? Glov ot KvpToi ^v
n
4 diaSiS5fj.evoi> : Siadidov A.
tion. The notion that the blood-vessels
are wanted to fasten the head is of course
erroneous ; the latter part of his theory,
had nerves but been substituted for veins,
is a nearer guess at the truth.
5. TO 8' IvrtvOcv T|8rj] cf. Galen de
plac. Hipp, et Plat, vm 706 TO t^v ofo
d^pi Kal irvpl x/>f)<r0at T^J> <f>6crn> irpos
irftf/tv TpO(f>7Js alfjidruffiv re Kal dvdSoaiv
6p6<3s etp-rjTai, TO 8 1- avrwv irtyfj.a ye-
yovtvai Kal (JLTJ dia Swv Kpaffiv OVK^TI
evaivu, KaOdirep ovdt TO irvp dvofudfeiv
avTbv [? ai)r6], fvov, wj'IwTro/fpaT?;?, ?jj.<j>v-
TOV Oeptibv. The principle that smaller
particles can pass through the interstices
of larger ones, while the larger cannot
penetrate the smaller, is thus applied by
Plato to explain the process of digestion :
the nutriment swallowed must on the one
hand have a receptacle provided which is
able to contain it, while on the other
hand it must be subjected to the action
of fire. The walls of the receptacle are
therefore constructed of material suffi-
ciently fine to retain the food, but not
fine enough to arrest the passage of fire
and air : the two latter therefore are
enabled to circulate freely through the
substance and lining of the body and to
act upon the food contained within it.
It will thus be seen that Plato conceives
respiration solely as subsidiary to diges-
tion : an opinion which is perhaps pe-
culiar to him alone among ancient
thinkers : the ordinary view being that
its function was to regulate the tempera-
ture of the body, as thought Aristotle :
cf. de respiratione xvi 4j8
a 28
i.lv 17
Tavnjv 5 Troiflrai 5ia TT;J dj'aTrj'o^y. De-
mokritos thought it served to keep up the
supply of k'xr? in the body : ibid, iv
47 i
b
30 foil. :
not, Aristotle observes,
that Demokritos conceived that Nature
designed it for that end ; 6'ws 70/5, uxnrep
Kai ol aXXot <f>v<riKol, Kal OVTOS ovOlv airre-
rai T-?;S Totairrr/s alrias.
8. irvp 8^ iravTwv yevwv] Air seems
more concerned with the process of respi-
ration ; but we must remember that in
Plato's view fire was the actual instru-
ment of assimilating the food, and also
that it was the agent which started the

78 B] TIMAIO2. 291
they did, partly in order that together with the skin they might
form a bond to fasten the head to the body, seeing that it was
not set round with sinews on the crown ;
and also that this
might be a means of distributing from each side throughout
the whole body the sensation due to the perceptions. And
next to this they designed the irrigation on a kind of plan
which we shall better discern by assuming the following premises.
All bodies which are composed of smaller particles exclude the
larger, but the larger cannot exclude the smaller. Fire is com-
posed of finer particles than any other element, whence it
penetrates through water and earth and air and whatever is
composed of them, and nothing can keep it out. This rule
must also be applied to the human belly ;
when food and
drink enter into it, it keeps them in ;
but air and fire, being
finer than its own structure, it cannot keep in. Accordingly
God used these two elements for the conveyance of liquid
from the belly to the veins, weaving of air and fire a network
air in its oscillations, cf. 79 D. Air then
plays a part only subsidiary to fire.
13. TOIJTOIS ovv KdTx.p'rl <raTo] He
used fire and air (i) for the conversion of
the food into blood, (2) for its convey-
ance into the blood-vessels.
15. irXey|ia < de'pos Kal irupos] This
theory of respiration is by far the most
obscure and perplexing of Plato's physio-
logical lucubrations, partly owing to the
enigmatical form in which it is expressed,
partly to actual gaps in the exposition.
An important light however is thrown
upon it by a fragment of Galen's treatise
on the Tiinaeus, which deals with this
passage. This fragment, which was pre-
viously known only in an imperfect Latin
translation, was found by M. Daremberg
in the Paris library and published by him
in 1848. On Galen's commentary the
ensuing explanation is based : I cannot
however persuade myself that it fully
clears up statements which Galen himself
declares to be 8v<ri>(>r)Td re Kal dvaf^ra.
First we must determine the meaning
of KI//JTOS and t-yKtipriov. The first was a
fishing-trap, or weel, woven of reeds ;
it
seems to have had a narrow funnel-shaped
neck, through which the fish entered, but
was unable to return, owing to the points
of the reeds being set against it. (Martin
conceives it to consist of two baskets, one
fitting into the other ;
but Galen says it is
airovv.) The tyKvpnov a word which
is only found in the present passage is
explained by Stallbaum (whom Liddell
and Scott follow) to mean the entrance or
neck of the ncvpros. But on this point
Galen is explicit : he says it is 6/j.otov ntv
T<$ /jLeyd.({), fj.iKpbi> St. We must therefore
conceive the tyidprui to be two smaller
Ki'/orot similar to the larger, contained
within it and opening into its neck.
Applying these premises, we shall find
that the xupros or large irXtypa consists
of two layers, one of fire, one of air. The
outer layer (rt> KVTOS) is the stratum of air
in contact with all the outer surface of
the body ;
the inner layer (TO h5ov rou
iroKdvov) is the vital heat contained in
the blood and pervading all the substance
of the body between the skin and the
cavity within. The two tyKvprta, which
are formed entirely of air, represent re-
192

ITAATflNOS [ 7 8 B-
Bt,7rd Kara rrjv euroSoi/ eyKvprta e%ov, wv Odrepov av irdiv
MKpow Kal drro rwv ejKvprlwv Brj Biereivaro olov
KVKW Bid Travrb? 777)09 rd ea-âra rov TrX-ejâro^. rd
ev ovv evBov eK Trvpos avvearâaro TOV irXoicdvov djravra, ra B* C
5 ey/cvpria Kal ro /euro? aepoeiBr}, Kal afBwv avro Trepiecrnjcre ra>
&>a> rpoTrov rotovBe. ro fiev rwv e^Kvpriwv et? TO
fi,e0fJK' Snrov Se oWo? avrov Kara /lev ra? dprypias els
rov TrXevfiova KaOrjKe Odrepov, ro 8' el? rrjv KoiXlav trapd ra?
dprrjpias. ro 8' erepov a^t'cra? TO /iepo? e/cdrepov Kara rovs
10
oêrovt TT/? pivot dffrrJKe KOIVOV, axrO' ore fir) Kara a-rofj-a tot
Bdrepov, e rovrov irdvra Kal rd Keivov pi>fj,ara dvan^X^poixrOai. D
TO 8' aXXo Kvros rov Kvprov irepl TO crw/jia ocrov Kolov rjfjiuiv
Treptifyvae, Kal irdv 8rj rovro rare (lev et> Ta eyKvpna j*vppelv
fjt,aaK<jus, are depa ovra, eTroiijcre, rore Se avappelv fj.ev rd ey-
15 Kvpria, ro Be TrXeyfjia, co? 6Wo? TOU o^cw/iaTO? fj,avov, SveaOai etcra)
Bi avrov Kal 7rdtv e&>, Ta? Be evros rov jrvpos aKrlvas BtaBe-
spectively the thoracic and abdominal
cavities of the body : the first having a
double outlet, one by the larynx, the
other by the orifices of the nostrils : the
second has one outlet only, through the
oesophagus into the mouth. These preli-
minaries laid down, we shall be able to
understand more or less precisely the
remaining statements in the chapter. Mar-
a. upper eyKvpnov, opening into the mouth and
bifurcating in the passages of the nostrils.
3. lower iyKvpnov, opening into the mouth only.
c. KVTO? rov iroicdvov, or stratum of air sur-
rounding the body.
d, TO. evSov TOV jrAoxai'ov, or the heat residing in
the solid part of the body.
tin's interpretation, which is most lucidly
stated, would probably have been modi-
fied had the commentary of Galen in the
original been before him.
I give a diagram, which, without aim-
ing at anatomical accuracy, may perhaps
help to elucidate Plato's meaning.
i. SiirXd Kara TT}V frro8ov] i.e.
having two separate entrances, the wind-
pipe and the oesophagus, one to each
eytcvpnov.
2. 8iV| Sfcpovv] The tyKvprtov
occupying the cavity of the thorax he
constructed with a double outlet, one by
the larynx through the mouth, the other
through the nostrils.
SiereCvaro olov o*xovovs] Here Plato
has departed somewhat from his analogy
of the fishing-trap. The ff-xoivu of course
represent the arteries and veins which
permeate the structure of the body.
3. TO, [Jiiv
ovv ?v8ov IK irvpos] This
is the inner layer of the Kvpros, which, as
we have seen, consisted of the vital heat
contained in the solid part of the body
lying between the surrounding air and
the tyKvpna, or cavities within.
6. TO p.iv TO>V evKvprfov] Galen warns
us against taking this
'
one of the eyKvp-
ria ',
in which case, as he justly remarks,

D] T1MAIO2. 293
like a fish-trap or'weel, having two lesser weels within with a
double inlet ;
one of which inlets he again wove with two pas-
sages ;
and from the lesser weels he stretched as it were cords
on all sides to the extremities of the network. All the inner
part of the net he constructed of fire, but the lesser weels and
the envelope he made of airy substance ;
and he took the net
and wrapped it in manner following about the animal he had
moulded. The structure of the lesser weels he carried into the
mouth :
and, these being twofold, he let down one of them by
the windpipe into the lungs, the other past the windpipe into
the belly. The one weel he split in two, and let both inlets
meet by the passages of the nostrils, so that when the first
inlet was not in action by way of the mouth, all its currents also
might be replenished from the second. But with the general
surface of the network he enveloped all the hollow part of our
body; and all this, seeing it was air, he now caused to flow
gently into the lesser weels, now made them flow back upon it ;
and since the body is of porous texture, the network passes
through it inward and again outward, and the beams of fire
Plato would have gone on '
rd 5 ds rode turn of air in contact with the body.
TI TOV ffuiyuaros '. He understands ir&- This first, penetrating through the porous
KCLVOV, in which he is probably right. The substance of the flesh, flows through it
subdivision of the ?rX6Kai'o' into the two into the cavity of the tyKvpria, the airy
1-yKvpTia. begins at SnrXov 82 (>VTOS avrov. contents of which have passed up through
7. TO.S <xpTT]pas]' See the note on the passages of respiration :
presently the
70 c. tyKvpria flow down again into the body,
8. TO 8i els TTjv KoiX&xv] The other and the air that had come in through the
tyKvpriov, occupying the abdominal cavity, flesh passes forth again by the way that
had its outlet past the windpipe by way it came. The inner layer of the /cupros,
of the oesophagus: this had only one which was formed of fire, also oscillates to
opening. and fro, accompanying the motions of
9. ri 8* eVcpov] The tjKvpriov which the airy envelope. And this oscillation
occupied the chest had a twofold outlet, must ceaselessly continue so long as we
one through the mouth, the other through live. There are then two modes by
the nose ;
and this latter was again di- which the air effects an entrance into the
vided into the two channels of the nos- interior of the body : one by way of the
trils. The object of this double outlet tubes and orifices constructed for that
was to allow respiration to be carried on purpose ; the other through the substance
through the nostrils when the passage by of the body, which is too porous to bar its
way of the mouth was not working, that ingress, seeing that the flesh is partly
we might not always have to open our constructed out of the coarser elements of
mouths in order to breathe. water and earth.
12. TO 8' dXXo KVTOS] i.e. the stra- 16. TeLs 81 CVTOS TOV irvpos dtcTivas]

294 HAATHNOS [ 7 8 D-
aKoov0iv e<f> eKarepa Ibvros rov depos, Kal rovro,
eaxnrep av ro 0vrjrov gvveo-rij KIJ %u>ov, firj Bia7raveo-0ai ryiyv6/J.e-
E
vov rovrp Be Bij TO> yevei rov rd<; eVwi/u/u'a? 0efjivov dvarrvorjv
Kal eKTTVorjv eyo/j,ev 0ecr0ai rovvo/j,a. rrdv Be Brj ro T'
epyov
5 Kal TO 7ra$o? rovO* rjpuiv rut <rca/j,ari yeyovev apBofievfo Kal
0ai Kal %f)v orrorav jap e7&> Kal e'fw TT;?
TO 7rvp ei/To? %vvr}fj,fjLevov eTrrjrai, BtaiwpovfAevov
Be del Bid T^? AcotXta? elaeôv rd airia Kal irord d/3y, riJKei 79 A
BTJ, KOI Kara crîKpa Biaipovv, Bid rwv eôBcov f/Trep Tropeverai
10
Bidyov, olov eK Kprjvrfs CTT'
oêToi)? eVt Ta? <^>Xe/3a9 dvrovv avrd,
peiv axnrep ava>vo<> Bid rov <r<y/iaTO<? rd rmv <f)ej3(av rroiel pevfj,ara.
XXXVI. Tldiv Be ro T^? dvarcvo^ iBajftev rrdOos, at9
7 lov<rr)s :
oCffi)t A.
This is the same as ra ZvSov TOV irXoxdvov
above : i.e. the ffn<f>vrov 0fp/j.6v, or vital
heat residing in the substance of the
body.
3. dvairvoi^v Kal SKITVOTJV] Plato uses
the word avairvori for what was later
termed elffirvoiq, avawvor) being reserved
for the whole process of ftinrvor) + tKirvoij.
Aristotle uses dvairvo-rj similarly: de re-
spiratione xxi 48o
b
9 Kae?rat S' 17 fj.lv
ftaodos TOV d^pos dvairvorj, ri 5' ô5os
tKirvoj). The dynamical cause of inspi-
ration and expiration is explained in the
next chapter.
5. apSoplvu) Kal avai{ruxo}ilva>] It
would appear from this that Plato did
regard respiration as serving the purpose
of tempering the vital heat of the body :
but this is a merely secondary object ; its
chief end being to effect the digestion of
the food.
6. TTJS avairvoTJs] Here avairvori is
simply equivalent to the breath.
8. 8ui TTJS KoiXCas turcXOov] The air
and the fire which accompanies it, in
the course of its oscillation to and fro,
encounter the food which has been re-
ceived into the body; and since it is
composed of much finer particles than
the latter, they penetrate and divide the
food, converting it into blood (the red
colour is due to the tinge imparted by
1 ayXwTOj did : SC avXwvos S.
fire as we find at 80 E) ; and then they
drive the now fluid substance through
the small vessels which they themselves
permeate, and so pump it into the veins.
ii. w<nrp avXwvos] The body is
compared to an aqueduct through which
the veins pass as pipes or conduits irri-
gating all parts of it. The metaphor
has become a little mixed here ;
above
the body was likened to the icrjiroi which
had to be watered.
79 A E, c. xxxvi. Let us more closely
examine the conditions of the process
described in the foregoing chapter. The
cause of it is that there is no void space
in the nature of things. Therefore when
the breath issues forth of the mouth it
thrusts against the neighbouring air,
which transmits the impulse till it is
received by the air in immediate contact
with the body : this then forces its way
in through the pores and replenishes the
space within which the departing air
leaves. Again this newly entered air,
passing out once more through the pores
of the body, in its turn thrusts the outside
air and forces it to pass inward again
through the passages of respiration to
replenish the deserted space : and this
process goes on continually, like a wheel
turning to and fro. The cause of this
oscillation is the vital heat which re-

79 A] TIMAI02. 295
which are confined within follow the air as it moves in either
direction : and this never ceases to go on so long as the mortal
creature holds together. To this process he who appointed
names gave, we say, the titles of inspiration and expiration :
and from this condition, both active and passive, it has come
about that our body, deriving moisture and coolness, has its
sustenance and life. For when, as the respiration passes in and
out, the interwoven fire within follows it and entering the belly
swings up and down and meets the food and drink, it dis-
solves them, and reducing them to small particles, drives them
along the channels through which it flows, pumping them into
the veins like spring-water into conduits, and so it makes the
current of the veins flow through the body as through an
aqueduct.
XXXVI. Let us once more examine the process of respira-
sides in the body. For the air within
the body, being warmed thereby, rushes
upward through the mouth and nose, and
the cool air surrounding the body rushes
in through the pores. Then this in its
turn, becoming heated, rushes out through
the pores, and the cool external air
comes in through the passages of the
breath. And thus a perpetual alternation
of inspiration and expiration is kept up
for the preservation of life.
Plato's theory then depends (i) upon
his principle of vepiuffa, by which he
has explained the melting of metals &c,
and by which in the next chapter he
explains a variety of natural phenomena ;
(2) upon the vibration of the vwodoxv,
which causes every element to strive
towards its proper situation in space.
1 2. irdXtv 8^] Plato's account of respi-
ration falls into two parts ;
in the first
he simply describes the process, in the
second he points out the physical causes
of it. His theory bears a certain resem-
blance to that of Empedokles, which
will be found in a passage quoted by
Aristotle tie respiratione vi 473
b
9,
275 299 Karsten. According to his
statement, which is not very clear, the
blood-vessels are only partially filled with
blood ;
and when the blood rushes one
way, the air follows through the pores
into the body; when the blood moves in
the other direction, the air is again ex-
pelled through the pores : this he illus-
trates by the analogy of a girl playing
with a clepsydra; she covers the mouth
with her hand and then plunges the
instrument in water : the air, detained in
the vessel by her hand, will not suffer
the water to enter through the perfo-
rations; when she removes her hand
the water enters at the bottom and expels
the air through the mouth :
similarly if
the vessel is full of water, the air is
unable to find entrance, but passes in
as the water flows out.
Aristotle criticises Plato's theory in tie
respiratione v 472
b 6 foil. : it does not
explain, he says, why only land animals
breathe, or if fishes &c do so also,
how they do it; again it assumes that
^Kirvorj is prior to elffirvoy, the contrary
being the case; ylvtrai fj.tv yap TO.VTO.
Trap' aXXTjXa, reXeirraWes 5 tKWvtovGiv,
WOT' avayKalov tlvai Tyv apx^v elffirvor/v.
Aristotle's own mechanical explanation
is given in de rcsp. xxi 480* 16. More

296 HAATHNOS [79 A-
fievov atTtais TOIOVTOV lyeyovev, olovTrep ra vvv ecrriv. coo" ovv.
eireiBr) Kevov ovBev e&Tiv, et? o TWV fapofjievwv BvvaiT* av el<re6elv B
TI, TO Be TTvevfjia <f>epeTai Trap
1
rjfjiwv ea>, TO fiSTa TOVTO rjBrj iravTl
Bf}ov, a><> OVK et? Kevov, dd TO 7rr)(riov etc Trjs eSpas a>0el' TO
5 8' coOovaevov eêavvei TO 7rrjcriov dei, Kal Kara TavTqv TTJV
dvdyKrjv irdv irepiekavvoêvov et? TTJV eopav, offev ef)9e TO
Trvev/Jia, eio-tov e/ceio-e Kal dvcnrripovv avTrjv j-vvifreTat TW irvev-
fjidTi, Kal TOVTO /ia irav olov Tpoôv irepia'ôêvov ryijverai Bid
TO Kevov firjSev elvat,. Bio Brj TO TWV o-TTjOoov Kal TOV TrXei'fjiovos
C
10 e&> jjieOiev TO irvevpa 7rdii> VTTO TOV irepl TO crcoyua ae/jo?, etao)
Bid fj,ava)v TV crapKutv Bvopevov Kal 7repie.avvofji,evov, yiyveTat,
TrXijpes" aiOis Be diroTpeTro/Aevos 6 drjp Kal Bid TOV crcw/iaro? e^co
lutv etcrft) TTJV draTTvorjv Trepiwdei KaTa TTJV TOV (rrd/Aaro? KOI Trjv
TWV fivKTr]pwv BloBov. Ttjv Be aiTiav Trjs 0/3%']? avTaJv 6eTeov
15 Tr/vBe' irdv %wov eavTov rai/ro? Tiepl TO alp.a Kal ra? 0Xe/3a9 D
OepfjioTaTa e%et, olov ev eavTat 7rr)yr)v Tiva evovaav TTU/JO?' o Bi]
Kal 7rpoo~iKao/jiev T&> TOV KVpTov TTe^fji,aTi, KaTa fjie<rov BiaTe-
Tajj,evov CK TTfpo? 7re/TX.e^ât irdv, TO, Be da, 'QUO, ej;a)0v, aepo?.
TO OepfAov Br) KaTa <f)vo~iv elf TTJV avTov ^wpav ea) ?rpo9 TO
20
gwyyeves 6fJ.ooyrjTeov levai' Bvoiv Be Tatv BieôBoiv ovcraiv, r^9
pev KaTa TO awâ ego), T^? Be av KaTa TO aTOpa Kal ra<? pivas, E
oTav fiev eVt daTepa op/Aijo-rj, 6aTpa Trepiwdel' TO Be
9 rb ante TOV ire6/j.ovos dant SZ. 15 lavrov: avroj SZ.
Tiros : ITWTWJ A. 16 6epfj.6ra.Ta: Sep/toryTa A. 20 8vow : Svew S.
cogent arguments against the Platonic cavity which it
quits.
account are adduced by Galen de plac. 8. Tpooi5 ircpia^yo^vov] The 'wheel'
Hipp, et Plat, vni 708 foil. ; his chief does not move in continuous revolution,
objection being that Plato ignores respi- but alternately describes first a semicircle
ration as a voluntary action ; also Galen forward then a semicircle backward usque
prefers O(CTJ to irepluffis as its cause. a:i infinitiim: cf. Galen de plac. VIII
6. irpiavv6(Xvov] The outside air 711.
receives as a whole an impulse from the 14. TTJV Si airwxv TTJS apx^s] Hither-
breath essaying to issue forth. Now the to the irepiu<ns has been the physical law
only region in which it is possible for alleged ;
now comes in the other prin-
it to yield to this impulse is that which ciple, the vibration of the viroSox'ri, which
is being vacated by the issuing air. It is the primary motive power producing
matters not therefore in what direction respiration. The original motion is due
the originating impulse is given : if room to the fire within the body which con-
is to be found outside the body for the stitutes its vital heat. The air within
breath as it comes forth, it must be by the eyKvpria, coming in contact with this
an equal quantity of air entering the fire, becomes heated ;
that is, is mingled

E] TIMAIO2. 297
tion and the causes which have led to its present conditions.
These are as follows. Since there is no void into which any
moving body could enter, and since the breath issues forth
from us, the consequence is clear to every one : instead of
entering into a void space it thrusts the neighbouring matter out
of its place. And this, yielding to the thrust, drives before it
that which is immediately nearest ;
and all being driven round
by this compulsion enters into the place whence the breath
came forth, and replenishing the same follows after the breath ;
and this whole process goes on like the rotation of a wheel,
because there is no void. Therefore when the cavity of the
chest and the lungs send forth the breath, they are again re-
plenished by the air surrounding the body, which penetrates
inwards through the flesh, seeing it is porous, and is forced
round in a circuit. And again when the air returns and passes
forth through the body, it thrusts the breath back again in-
wards through the passages of the mouth and nostrils. The
cause which sets this principle in action we may describe thus.
In every animal the inner parts about the blood and veins are
the hottest, as if there were a fount of fire contained in it. This
is what we compare to the network of the weel, supposing
that all the part extending from the middle to the sides
is woven of fire, but the outer part of air. Now we must
admit that the heat naturally tends outwards to its own region
and its own kin. And whereas there are two means of egress,
one out through the body, the other by way of the mouth and
nostrils, when it makes for one exit, it impels the air round
towards the other. And the air so impelled falling into the fire
with fire. Now fire, as we know, ever body is forced into the body by the other
seeks to escape upwards to its own region ;
entrance. The original impulse then is
therefore the mixture of air and fire is given by the fire in the body seeking
impelled to quit the body in search of to escape to its own kindred element,
its own kind. This it may do by either 17. Trpo<rei.Kdo(iv TU> TOV Kvprou
of two outlets by penetrating through iry|um.] This seems sufficiently to con-
the porous substance of the body, or by firm the explanation of the Ki'proj given-
passing upward through the respiratory above, and the identification of the inner
passages. Whichever of these passages layer thereof with the vital heat which
it selects, it thrusts against the air by means of the blood-vessels pervades
outside, and each particle of air pressing all the substance of the body,
upon its neighbour, the air nearest the

298 ITAATHNOS [79 E-
64? TO TTVp JJ,7TlirTOV 6pfJMlVTai, TO S' J;IOV ^V^Tai.
j3aovo~r)<s Se T^<> deppoTriTos Kal TWV Kara Ttjv CTepav eôSov
0p/j,oTpa)v yiyvofjievcov
f
jrdiv exeivr) peTrov av TO
/j,dov, 7T/J09 Tr)v avTov <f)vo~iv <J)p6fJ,evov, TrepiwOel TO
5 6aTepa' TO Be ra aura iraayov Kal ra aura dvTaTroBioov dft,
KVKOV OVTCO o~aev6/Jivov cvOa Kal evOa djreipyacrfjiei'ov I;TT'
d/JL(f>oTepcov Trjv dvaTrvor/v Kal eKTrvofjv yiyveadat Trapeêrai.
XXXVII. Kal Brj Kal TO. TWV Trepl Ta? laTpiKas a//a'a<?
TraOijfAaTcav aiTia Kal TO. Trjs KaTaTroaecas TO, re TU>V piTnovp.vu>v, 80 A
10 ocra d(pe0i>Ta fJ.TQ)pa Kal oa~a 7rl yfjs (frepeTai, TavTrj BiwKreov,
Kal OOOL (pdoyyot raêt? re Kal yS/jaSet? ofet? re Kal /3apet?
6 KJKOV I
KlJK(p S.
whereupon the irep/awis sends a current of
air down the respiratoiy passages. Then
precisely the same process takes place at
the other entrance : the air that entered
through the trachea is warmed, and like-
wise seeks to escape by the nearest out-
let, viz. the trachea. Thus the air that
passes into the body by either entrance is
always impelled to return by that same
entrance and not by the other. But this
part of the theory is both obscure and un-
satisfactory, unless some better interpre-
tation of it can be found. Plato's hypo-
thesis, it will be observed, renders the
process entirely independent of any mus-
cular action of the body; and Galen's
criticism is
pertinent: iv ovSertpq. 5 av-
rG)v o llXdruv irpojxprfrai riy irpocupfofi,
KO.ITOI <pavep<3s tv Tip.lv 6vros nai TO OO.TTOV
Kal f3pa.8vT(pov HXaTrbv TS Kal irXtov Kal
irvKvoTtpov eiairvtvffai re /cot (KirvfVffai.
79 A 80 C, c. xxxvii. The same prin-
ciple of circular impulsion will account
for the action of cupping-glasses, for the
process of swallowing, for the motion of
projected bodies, whether through the air
or along the ground, and for the conso-
nance of high and deep notes, which is
produced by the gradual retardation of
the swifter sound until it coincides with
the motion of the slower. To the same
cause is due the flowing of water, the
falling of the thunderbolt, and the force
I .
|iTapaXXov<n]S Si TT^S 6p|xoT]Tos]
So far as the theory has yet been set
forth, no reason has been assigned why
the heated air escapes alternately through
the respiratory passages and through the
pores of the body; the wheel might
always turn in the same direction. Plato
now endeavours to supply a cause for this :
but it must be confessed that, if I rightly
apprehend his meaning, it is a very in-
adequate one : however it seems to be as
follows. Let us suppose the process to
be at this point, that the heated air in
the eyKvpria has just passed up through
the trachea into the outer atmosphere;
accordingly the cool stratum of air sur-
rounding the body has passed in through
the pores to supply its place. Now why
should this newly entered air, when it in
its turn is heated and endeavours to es-
cape, return through the body instead of
following its predecessor up the trachea?
The reason assigned is this: the warm
air on passing forth out of the mouth or
nostrils finds itself plunged in the cool
atmosphere without; at the same time
the air newly arrived in the body is
heated. The preponderance of warmth
is now in the neighbourhood of the outlet
through the flesh: the heated air there-
fore seeks the nearest and easiest way of
escape by passing outward through the
pores of the body, as it had entered;

8o A] TIMAIO2. 299
is heated, but that which passes out is cooled. So the heat
changes its position and the parts about the other outlet be-
come warmer ;
therefore the heat now has a stronger tendency in
the new direction, seeking its own affinity, and impels the air by
the other passage : and this, undergoing the same change and
reproducing the same process, is thus by these two impulses
converted into a wheel swaying backwards and forwards, and so
it gives rise to respiration.
XXXVII. In the same direction are we to look for the
explanation of the phenomena of medical cupping-glasses and
of swallowing and of projected bodies, whether cast through the
air or moving along the ground ;
and of sounds too, which
from their swiftness and slowness seem to us shrill or deep,
of attraction exercised by amber and the
loadstone. All these diverse phenomena
are due to the manifold interaction of
these two principles the absence of void,
which is the cause of the circular impul-
sion, and the vibratory motion which
causes every substance to strive towards
its own peculiar region in space.
8. irtpl TOS larpiKas criKvas] Plato
now applies his two great dynamical
principles to the explanation of various
natural phenomena. He does not work
out the mode of their operation in detail,
but leaves that to be done by the reader.
A full commentary on the present chapter
will be found in Plutarch quaestiones
platonicae vii. The explanation of the
cupping instruments is this. When the
cup is applied to the flesh, the air within
it becomes warmed and consequently di-
lated ;
and escaping through the pores of
the metal, it thrusts the surrounding air,
which in its turn, pressing on the surface
of the body, forces the humours to exude
into the cup : cf. Timacits Locnis 102 A.
9. TO. TTJS Ka,Tair6<rws] The food,
propelled downwards by the muscles of
the throat, thrusts the air in front of it :
this, escaping through the pores, thrusts
the air outside, which by the nepiu<ris
presses upon the food from behind and
pushes it downward: and since at every
moment of its progress more air is dis-
placed to set the ireplkxris in motion, the
downward impulse is continually main-
tained.
TO, T TWV pnrTOV|A^Vv] TllC prO-
cess is the same here as in the preceding
instance : if a stone is hurled through the
air, the air displaced in front of the stone
sets up a Treplwffis which impels it behind
and keeps it going. The problem which
seemed to the ancient thinkers to demand
solution was, when the stone has left the
hand of the thrower and consequently is
no longer directly receiving any propul-
sion from it, what is it that keeps the
stone moving? what enables it to with-
stand the force of gravitation which
would otherwise cause it to fall perpen-
dicularly earthward ? A clear understand-
ing of the point of view from which this
question was regarded will be gained
from Aristotle physica vin x 266b
27 foil.
Aristotle, who seems to adopt Plato's ex-
planation, remarks that the propelling
hand communicates to the stone not only
passive motion, but an active power of
moving the air before it: it ceases to be
Kivovft.fvov at the moment it leaves the
hand (relatively to the hand, Aristotle
should have added), but remains mvovv
so long as it is in motion.
n. Kal 80-01 4>0oyyoi] It is not at

300 IIAATHNOS [80 A
<f)aivovrat, rore ptv dvappocrroi, fapo/Jievoi Si dvofioiorrjra T<?
fv rjiuv UTT' avrwv Kiv)')o~e(i)s, Tore Se ^v^wvoi &t 6/j,otorrjra. ra<>
jap ru>v TTporepwv Kal darrovwv ol ftpabvrepoi, Kivrfcreis dirorravo-
'
fj,evas rjSr) re et? o/j,oiov eijv0via<t, al? tcrrepov avrol Trpocrfapo- B
5 pevoi Kivovcriv e'/cetW?, Karaa/j,/3dvovcri, KaraXanftdvovres 8e OIK
aXXrjv 7Tfj,/3dovre<; dverdpaâv Kivr)<nv, aXX,' dpxf)v fipa&vrepas
(f)opd$ /card rr)V rf}<f Qdrrovos d7roT)yovo~r)s 8e ofjioiorrjra 7rpo<r-
dtyavres lilav ef oêta? teal /3a/?ef'a<? %vveKepdaavro TrdOijv odev
rjSovrjv jj,ev rot? a(j)pocriv, ev^pocrvvrji' 8e rot? e/j.^poo'i Sid -rrjv
10 T^9 Oeias dp/jiovias ^l^friv ev dvrjTals <yevop,evriv <f>opai<; 7rapecr%ov.
Kal 8rj Kal ra TWV iBdrwv Trdvra pevâra, ert, 8e rd TV Kepavvwv G
irro)fiara KOI rd 6avfj,a6fj,eva r}Xe/tTpa>i/ Trepl r//? eXêw? Kal
first obvious how the principle of irept-
axm applies here. But I think it is clear
that Plato does not mean the irepiwcris
to account for the consonance of different
sounds, but only for their propagation
from the sounding body to the ear. This
is effected in exactly the same way as the
projection of a stone through the air.
Sound is produced by the vibration of a
certain body of air, or of some other con-
ducting medium : it is propagated by the
transmission of this vibration, or rather,
on Plato's theory, of this viorating body
of air through the atmosphere; for it,
like the stone, displaces the air in front,
which keeps perpetually rushing in and
propelling it behind. This interpreta-
tion differs from that given by Plutarch
quaestiones platonicae vii 9, which is, I
think, unquestionably erroneous. He
supposes the Treplucris to account for the
consonance of high and deep notes, and
explains it thus: the acuter sound, travel-
ling faster than the deeper, strikes first
upon the ear ; then passing round by the
n-epiuffis, but with gradually diminishing
speed, it overtakes the slower, and as-
similating its motion to that of the latter
reaches the ear again along with it : 6 drj
<T(f>6Spa Kal avvTbvtas trXyyfis irpofffj.lyvv<ri
TTJ d/coj 7iy>a5ros, elra vepttuv irdXiv Kal
KaTaa/j.@dt>v rbv fipaSvrepov ffwiirtTai.
Kal avfiTrapaTT^/jLTTfi. TTJP ai<T0T]ffu>. But
there are grave objections to be brought
against this: (i) it is a totally illegitimate
use of the ir(plw<ru: it is as if a stone
hurled in the air should describe a circular
orbit; (2) Plutarch makes the swifter
sound overtake the slower; but Plato dis-
tinctly speaks of the slower overtaking
the swifter, when the latter is
relaxing its
speed. If however we suppose the irtpi-
uffis to be accountable merely for the
transmission of the sounds, the explana-
tion as above is quite plain and simple ;
and for the consonance it is not wanted.
Compare Aristotle de audibilibus 8o4
a
4
foil.
2. rels Y^P T v irpor^pwv] The cause
of consonance, according to Plato, is this.
If a high and a low note be sounded to-
gether, the high note, which travels more
swiftly through the air, will reach the
ear first and communicate its vibrations
to it.
Presently the deeper note arrives.
But by that time the vibrations of the
higher note, which have been gradually
becoming slower, are synchronous with
the vibrations added by the deeper note,
and a consonance ensues. If the vibra-
tions of the higher note have not slacken-
ed down to the speed of the lower, dis-
cord is the result instead of concord :
thus if we strike simultaneously two notes
at the interval of a semitone, a sharp dis-
cord is produced, because the two sounds

c] TIMAIO2. 301
sometimes having no harmony in their movements owing to the
irregularity of the vibrations they produce in us, sometimes
being harmonious through regularity. For the slower sounds
overtake the motions of the first and swifter sounds, when
these are already beginning to die away and have become
assimilated to the motions which the slower on their arrival
impart to them : and on overtaking them they do not produce
discord by the intrusion of an alien movement, but adding the
commencement of a slower motion, which corresponds to that
of the swifter now that the latter is beginning to cease, they
form one harmonious sensation by the blending of shrill and
deep. Thereby they afford pleasure to the foolish, but to the
wise joy, through the imitation of the divine harmony which is
given by mortal motions. And the flowing of all waters, the
fall of thunderbolts, and the wonderful attracting power of
are so nearly of the same pitch that the
lower reaches the ear before the higher
has had time to slacken at all. It is evi-
dent from Plato's language that he con-
ceived the acuter sound both to travel
more swiftly through the air and to have
more rapid vibrations: he thus comes
very near the correct explanation of pitch,
but falls into the not unnatural error of
supposing that the more rapid vibration
causes a swifter progress through the air.
His theory of consonance is entirely un-
satisfactory: apart from any other objec-
tion, the process he describes could only
produce unison, not concord. For he
cannot mean merely that the swifter vi-
brations slackened clown so as to produce
a due numerical ratio to the slower, since
such a numerical ratio might have as well
existed at first. It is strange that Plato,
with his fondness for dt>aoyia, should not
have based harmony of accords upon this.
It will be observed that the principle of
irfpiwffis is in no way concerned with the
present hypothesis.
9. i]8ovi]v (i^v rots a<J>po<riv] See note
on 47 D. The l^povts enjoy music
because they recognise that it is based
on the same harmonic ratios as are found
in the soul : in plainer language, because
it expresses to the ear truths of the un-
seen world. For ev<ppo<rvi>r)v compare
Cratylus 419 D iravrl yap 5rjov ws airb
TOV ev 6V rots TTpayna<riv TTJV ^vx^v vfj.-
(f>tpf06at rovro Act/Se TO 6vofj.a, fvipfpo-
ativrjv. The word expresses a calm en-
joyment, different from the undisciplined
pleasure of the multitude, the aireipos
ijdovr) beloved of Philebus.
n. rd TWV v>8aTwv ircivTa pcvfiara]
The cause of the flowing of water is
pretty much the same as that alleged in
58 E for the flowing of molten metal,
except that here we have to assume the
original impulse, which there is explained.
It seems strange that Plato makes no
use here of the force of gravitation :
per-
haps that is assumed as obviously aux-
iliary; and this chapter is but an exceed-
ingly brief summary.
TWV Kcpavvwv irTtofiaTa] The action
in this instance is precisely identical
with that in the case of the projection of
a stone through the air.
12. rot 9av|Aaon.tva ijX^KTpwv] The
explanation given by Plutarch is as fol-
lows. Amber contains within it some-
thing <j>oyoti5ts TI wv{v/J.a.TtK&r, a rare and

302 HAATHNOS [80 c
'HpaKid)v i0o)V, irdvTwv TOVTWV 6icr) jj,ev ov/c e<rriv ovBevi
7TOT, TO Be K.GVOV elvai fjirjBev ireptwOelv re avrd ravra 619 ar)a,
TO Te Biatcpivo/jieva Kal o-vjKpiv6/j,eva irpof TTJV avTwv Bia/jLei/36/jieva
eBpav tcao~T* Ikvai Travra, TOVTOIS rot? Tradtjfjiaai Tryjo? drja
5 o-v/jL7r%0icri Tedavfj>aTovpyr}fj,i'a TO! /card Tpowov
XXXVIII. Kat Br/ Kal TO r??9 dvaTrvorjs, odev o Xo7o? wpfirjcre, D
Kara, raOra /cat Bid TOVTWV yeyovev, wo'Trep ev rot9
eiprjTat, TfjivovTO<; fjiev ra <riTia TOV Trvpos, alwpov/Jieva) Be C
10 TO) TTvev/jLaTi ^vveTTOêvov, ra? ^)X,e/Sa? re e/c T^? Koiias
vvai()prj(ri 7rr)povvTO<? Ty ra TeTfjbrjfj,eva avroOe
ical Bid TavTa Br; ica& oov TO awâ irucri rot? ^wot9 TO.
4 ?Kaor': ?â<rTO S. 8 raOra: TaflrA AH.
9 alupovfj^v(f> coniecit H. dlupov^tvov ASZ. 10 rîreA.
subtle substance, which is released by
friction, the pores of the amber being
expanded. This substance on escaping
and coming into collision with the ad-
jacent air sets up a irepiuxris : and the air
impinging from behind drives before it
any light object in the vicinity, until it
reaches the electrified piece of amber.
Theophrastos seems to confound amber
with the loadstone : de lapidibtts 29 tirel
5t Kal r6 rjeKTpov Ldos... yuaXtcrra 5' tirl-
877X0$ Kal tpavepuTaTT) rj TOV aiSrjpov a-
yovffa.
i. TV 'HpaKtCwv 6wv] This
name is said to have been given to the
loadstone from the town of Herakleia
in Lydia. Plato's theory of the magnet
is very much the same as in the case of
the amber. There stream off from the
magnet large and heavy particles of air,
which, in the irepiuwtj that they occa-
sion, themselves strike upon the iron and
drive it towards the magnet. The rea-
son why iron alone is so influenced is,
according to Plutarch, that iron, being
more dense than wood but less so than
gold and other metals, has its pores of
exactly the right size to retain the parti-
cles of air, which thus, instead of slip-
ping off as they do in the case of other
substances, propel the iron before them.
A peculiarity in this theory is that the
air which escapes from the magnet itself
is returned to it by the ireptwcrw : this is
necessitated by the fact that iron and
nothing else is attracted, iron being ame-
nable to that particular kind of air alone.
It is possible however that Plutarch may
not have exactly represented Plato's
meaning. On the subject of the load-
stone compare Ion 533 D u<rirep tv rrj
i6tf), fjv TZtipiirlSrjs fj.lv Meryî/rii' tavofjuxrev,
ol S TToXXol 'Hpa.Kftav. Kal yap etyYjj 77
Xi#os oil nbvov avTovs TOI)J daicrvXiovs ayet
TOI/S ffiSypovs, dXXA Kal 5vvafj.ii> tvrlf)-tai
ToZs 6aKTVlois, war' aC dvvacrdat ravrbv
TOVTO Troitlv oirep 17 i6os, dXXoys dyeiv
SaKTvXlovs, W<TT' tvlore 6pfj.a6os paKpos TTOVV
fftBijpuv 5aKTVluv 1; aXX^Xwi* TJprrjTai.'
iraffi 5^ Toirrots 4 ^Keivrjs rfjs i6ov 17 Sv-
va/j.is avJiprijTai. Compare also Lucretius
vi 998 1064.
6Kr (tiv OVIK ?<TTIV] It is this denial
of 6KT) which Galen chiefly complains
of in Plato's physics : de plac. vin
708 dvaipft yap OKTJV, y vpbs iroa TUJV
<pv<TiK&v fpyuv b'l.inroKpa.T'ris XP'T7
"
"- ^w*
TOVTO yvayKaffOrj TU/V evepyfiuv tvia.s OVK
dvev TTJS OKTJS yivofj^vas els irepiuaiv ava-
3. TO T 8iaKpiv6(iva] i.e. under the
pressure of the irii]<ns the various bodies

TIMAI02. 303
amber and of the loadstone all these are due to no drawing
power, but to two causes: first there is no void, and the
atoms jostle one upon another ; secondly when they are divided
or contracted they change places and move severally towards
their own region ;
and by the complication of such conditions
all these wonders arise, as will be plain to him who examines
them by the proper method.
XXXVIII. The process of respiration then, whence this
discussion arose, rests on the principles and causes which have
been set forth : fire divides the food, following the air as it
sways up and down within ;
and through this oscillation it re-
plenishes the veins from the belly by pumping into them from
thence the comminuted food. In this way throughout the whole
body of all animals the streams of nourishment are kept con-
are constantly changing their form and
their appropriate region in space. The
text can hardly be sound here.
5. TtOavnaTovpyrin^va] Owing to
the endless complexity and intricacy of
the interaction which these two forces
exert upon one another, many of their
effects appear to us marvellous, because
we have not the means of tracing the
conditions which gave rise to them.
Compare Laws 893 D dio Srj TUIV 0av-
fMcurruv a.wa.vT<iiv TT-qyT) ytyovev, d'/ua fj.f-
yaXots Kal fffuicpois KVKOIS j3padvTTJTas re
Kal rdx?! 6fj.ooyov(j.eva iropevovcra, d5t5-
VO.TOV uis &v Tts tXirifffie yiyveffdai ir6.6os.
80 D 8 1 E, c. xxxviii. Respiration
then is subsidiary to digestion : the fire
which accompanies the oscillation of the
air comminutes the food, which is then
pumped into the blood-vessels and dis-
tributed throughout the body. The nu-
triment, consisting as it does of different
kinds of vegetables, has naturally a va-
riety of hues ; but the action of the fire
reduces it all to a predominant red colour.
Now the microcosm of the human body
has its motions conformable to those of
the great universe : the law that like seeks
to like holds good of it also. So as the
substance of our bodies is continually
being dissolved and evaporated by the
action of the external elements, the food
that is assimilated by virtue of this natural
law proceeds to replenish the void left
by that which is lost : and the body in-
creases or diminishes according as the re-
plenishment exceeds or falls short of the
waste. In a young child the substance
of the body, though soft, has its triangles
true and sharp : therefore they readi-
ly overpower and assimilate the blunter
triangles of the nutriment ; but as time
goes on, the triangles are blunted and
cannot so well subdue the others ; whence
is old age and decay. Finally when the
triangles of the vital marrow can no more
hold out, the bonds of the soul are loosed,
and she flies away rejoicing: for though
death which comes by wounds or sickness
is painful, when it is the result of natural
decay it is painless and brings pleasure
rather than distress.
7. '69tv & Xoyos wp|it]<re] i. e. the
exposition of the law of vepluais. Plato
now passes from respiration to the pro-
cesses of nutrition, growth, decay and
death. It seems to me that /caret raCra
is clearly to be preferred over /card rat/rd
for the sake of symmetry.
ii. frravrXtiv] See above, 79 A.

304 EAATHNOS [80 E
rpo(pfj<; vauara ovrtos eTrippvra yeyove. veor^ra Be /cal diro
^vyyevMV ovra, rd (j,ev Kapirwv, rd Be ^Xoi??, a #eo? eir avro E
rovd* rjpJtv e(pvrevcrev elvai rpo<prjv, iravroBaTrd fiev ^pw/j-ara io"%ei,
Sid rrjv ^vfA/Jiiîv, r)
8'
epvOpd jrelo~rr) Trepl avro XPoa Btadel,
5 TTJ<{ rov 7TU/305 TOfj,f)<; re Kal eô/id/3^6)9 ev v<ypw
<f>v(Ti<;' '69ev rov Kara rd atopa peovros rd xpwpa <T%V o'tav
Siei
r)vOafj,ei>. o /caXovftev al/j-a, vo^riv trapKcav teal
rov <T60fj,aros, Wev vSpevopeva exacrra TrXrjpoi rr)V rov Kevovpevov 81 A
ftdaiv, o Be rpoTro? r^5 TrX^peotrea)? aTro^cop^creftj? re yiyverat,
10 KaBdirep ev rr/3 Travrl Travrbs rj <j)opd ryeyovev, f)v ro
rruv (peperat, TT/OO? eavro. rd pev yap Srj TrepLecrrwra e'/cro? ^/
rrjicei re del Kal Biavefiei Trpos etcaa-rov elBos rd 6fji.6<f>vov drco-
,
rd Be evaipa av, fcepfiano-Oevra eVro? Trap' rjp.lv Kal
uxnrep vrc ovpavov ^vvecrrwros eKaarov rov %yov,
15 TTJV TOV TravTo? dvajKaêrai p.ifjielcr6ai, (popdv TTpds ro j;vyyeve<; B
ovv (pepouevov eKao~rov rwv evro<s ftepiadevrfov rd KevwOev rare
7T(iiv dveirr)pwaev. orav fiev By 7reov rov emppeovro? drcirj,
<p0ivet Trdv, orav Be eXarrov, av^dverai,. vea p,ev ovv %vvracn<s
I ytyove :
yeyovfrai ASZ. 12 airoirt/jLirovTa.: aTroir^/JLirov ASZ.
15 TOV ante iravrbs delet A.
I. Mppvra -yfyovc] cf. 43 A tirlp- tion of the elements which surround us
pvrov ffw/jia Kal airbppvTov. the substance of the body is perpetually
ciiri Ivyyevwv] i.e. composed of the undergoing transmutation and depletion,
same elements. On the subject of vege- This body is to the blood within it as it
table diet see note on 77 A. were an enclosing ovpav6s; and as changes
5. T!}S TOV irvpos T0(xfjs re KO - take place in its substance, the blood is
O|i6pg<<>s] See the account of the ytvfats drawn to and fro according to the affinities
of red in 68 B. The colour of the blood of its particles. Each change that takes
is due to the commingling of fire and place in any part of the body affects the
moisture: the fire, as it were, prints off affinity of the blood towards that part,
(ô/j-opyvvrai) its own colour on the blood, and consequently its tendency to flow in
effacing the other hues. that direction. Accordingly, as changes
8. TT]V TOV KVOV|J.'VOV |3<uriv] i.e. are continually going on in all parts of
the place left vacant by the particles the body, the blood is constantly being
flying off in the natural process of waste. hurried to and fro throughout its whole
ftdffiv
= TO i<p V /3îjKe, the spot in which extent. This action is further supple-
it rests. mented by the principle of irepluxris. For
g. 6 8i Tpoiros TT}S iri]pwo-os] Plato as fast as any vacancy is created by the
conceives the human microcosm to work waste of the particles which are absorbed
on just the same principles as the ofyavfa by the surrounding elements, the blood
in which it has its being. The vibration must rush in to take its place : whence
of the uirodoxy is the force which governs arises the necessity for a continual supply
the circulation of the blood. By the ac- of aliment. Such seems to be Plato's

8 1
B] TIMA1OS. 305
stantly supplied. And the particles of food, being freshly severed
and from kindred substances some from fruits and some from
herbs, which God planted just to be our sustenance, have all
manner of colours owing to their intermixture; but a red hue per-
vades them most of all, through the natural contrivance whereby
the fire divides the food and imprints its own hue upon it :
whence the colour of the fluid that circulates through the body
has the appearance we have described. This we call blood,
which is the sustenance of the flesh and of all the body, and
from which all parts draw moisture to fill
up the places that are
left void. And the mode of replenishment and evacuation is
like the motion of all things in the universe, whereby all kindred
substances seek each other. The elements that surround us
without are constantly dissolving our substance and distributing
it to its several kinds, returning each to its own kindred : and
again the particles of blood, being minutely divided within us
and enveloped in every creature by the body, as though by a
heaven surrounding them, are forced to copy the universal
motion. Therefore each of the divided particles within us is
carried to its own kind and thus replenishes again what was left
void. Now when the loss is greater than the replenishment,
everything diminishes, but when less, it increases. The young
general meaning: but the exact part lows the account of afljj<ns and ipOiais.
played respectively by the two principles When the human frame is still young,
of 'like seeks to like' and the Trepiuxm the particles of which it is composed,
is not very clearly indicated. and especially those of the vital fire, have
n. TCI (xfcv Yap 8rj irtpitorwra] The all their angles true and keen. The par-
surrounding elements are conceived to tides whereof the nutriment is formed
have a solvent effect upon the body: they are, on the contrary, comparatively blunt
convert icosahedrons into octahedrons, through age ; hence the fiery particles
and so forth. Consequently these par- have no difficulty in dividing them and
tides, on changing their forms, change performing the work described at 79 A.
their natural homes, and flying off JT^OJ Consequently the food is very thoroughly
TO 6fj.6<pvoi>, leave a deficiency in the assimilated and dispersed throughout the
substance of the body. body, and the child grows apace. Not-
15. irpos TO gvyycvls] i.e. the particles withstanding the minute elaboration of
of the blood which are akin to those of this and several previous chapters, we
any special portion of the body flow read in Aristotle de gen, et corr. I ii
31 5"
thither so soon as room is made for them 29 IlXdrwi/ fjv oZv id>vov repl yertffews
by the efflux of any particles from that ((TK^CLTO (cat <p0opa.s, STTWJ virapxti rois
spot. irpdy/j.y.<n, Kal irepi ytvfafw ov wd<n;s,
1 8. via v oiiv v<rTa<ris] Now fol- dXXd TT)S TWV vroixduv iru> ol aapKts
P. T. 20

306 TIAATHNOS [81 B
rov rravros %a>ov, tcaivd TO. rpiywva olov CK B^vo^wv en eôvâ
rwv yevtav, la")(vpdv fj,ev rrjv îyKei<riv avroSv Trpo? XX?;Xa
KeKrrjrai, ^vfjLTreTrijye Be 6 Tra? oyKos avr"><> aTraXo?, fir" etc îvekov c
fiev veaxrrl yeyovvias, reOpaêvri^ Be ev ydXaKrt. rd Brj TrepcXa/t-
5 j3av6fJLva ev avrfj rpiycova e^wBev eTreio-ekdovra, e <av av 77 ra re
<riria ical TTord, rwv eavrfjs rpiywvav iraai6repa ovra KOI dade-
vearepa icaivols tTTttcparei refivova-a, /cal fj.eja aTrepytiêrat TO
rpe<f)ov(ra ex TroXXcDi/ opoiwv. orav 8' r/ piâ roov rpvyatvcov
a Bid TO TroXXoi)? dyoovas ev TroXXcS ^poz/w TT/OO? TroXXa
10
^wvicrdat,, TO /juev rfjs Tpcxfrfjs ela-iovra ov/cert Bvvarai repveiv D
et? 6/jLoioTrjTa eauTot?, avrd Be VTTO TWV ô)0v eireia-iovrwv evTreTW
Biaipelrai- (frOivei Brj irav fraov ev TOVTW tcparovaevov, yrjpds re
ovo/jidêTai TO irddos. TeXo? Be, eireiBdv rwv irepl rbv five^-ov
rpiywvwv 01 %vvap[Ji,o(T0evr<? fjurjiceri dfr^cocri Becrfj.oi TOJ irovat
15 BiMrrdfjLevoi, fiedida-t TOI)<? rfjv(riv yu.e#' rjBovr)*; eêTrraro. irdv yap TO êv irapd $vaiv i-;
d<yivov, TO B* r) tre^VKe yiyvofjievov rj&v' Kal Odvaros By Kara
ravrd 6 /j,ev
Kara voVoL"? ical VTTO rpav^drwv yiyi>6fj,evo$ dyeivb<;
Kal /3/ato?, o Be fj,erd yr)po)S loov erri TeXo? Kara (frvcriv dirovwraros
-20 rwv Oavdrwv Kal /j.(iov peff* r)8ovrj<$ yiyvo/jievos r)
5 fr avr% :
eaiir^s A. 8t post fireiffeXOovTa inserit A.
I
15 SuffTO.fj.evoi :
difffrafjitvo'. A. difffraîoi HSZ. 19 yfipus :
yfyas SZ.
^ offra T T&V &wv TI TU>V TotovTuv, ouStv. I conceive pifa to mean the fundamental
tn otire irepl dXXoiwcrewj otire wepl av^rj- structure of the triangles : the outlines
ffews, riva rpbirov vira.px<>v<n rots irpayfia- composing it, its sides and angles, from
ffi.v. long wear and tear, are no longer so true
i. olov fcc
8pv6xv] i.e. new-made, in form as once they were.
like a ship from the stocks, and tightly 10. rdl jxiv rrjs Tpo<J>TJs] Compare
fitting. TWI yevuv is construed with rpl- Hippokrates tie prisca medicina vol. I
yuva. p- 27 Kiihn ocra fjitv Iff-xypbrfpa rj 01) Sv-
3. 6 iras S-yKOs] As a whole the vrifferai Kparteiv T 0wrts, f/v fff^dTirai,
infantine body is soft, but this of course OTTO rourtwv 5' avruv irovovs re Kal vo<rovs
does not mean that the particles whereof Kal 6a.va.rovs foeffdac offw 5' &v dvvrjrai
it is composed, taken individually, are îriKparêiv, awo rovrtuv rpo<f>riv re KOU
soft. aO^rjffiv Kal vyidrjv.
8. t] piâ. TWV Tpi-ywvwv] This phrase n. avrd. 8i iiri TWV ?|<o0v] Instead
is somewhat obscure. Stallbaum supposes of dividing and assimilating the particles
it to mean simply the radical triangles. of the food, the particles of the body are
But as no other triangles can possibly themselves divided ; and the constitution
be in question, this is utterly pointless. being thus generally enfeebled, the con-
Martin renders it 'la pointe'; but this dition ensues which we call old age.
seems to restrict the meaning too much. Plato has not expressly distinguished be-

K] TIMAIO2. 307
frame then of the entire creature, having the triangles of its ele-
ments still as if fresh from the workshop, has them firmly linked
one to another ;
but the whole mass is soft in substance, seeing
that it has been newly formed out of marrow and nurtured upon
milk. Now forasmuch as the triangles of the substances com-
posing the food and drink, which enter from without and are
received within the young creature, are older and feebler than
those of the latter, it divides and subdues them with its new
triangles, and by the assimilation of a large number nourishes
and increases the animal : but when the exact outline of the
triangles is blunted, because they have been for a long time
struggling with many others, they are not able as of old to
comminute and assimilate the entering aliment, but are them-
selves easily divided by the incoming particles. At such a time
every living thing is enfeebled and wastes away; and this con-
dition is termed old age. Finally when the bonds of the tri-
angles belonging to the ma/row no longer hold to their fasten-
ings but snap asunder with the stress, they loose in their turn
the bonds of the soul ;
and she, being in the course of nature
released, flies away with gladness. For all that is contrary to
nature is painful ;
but whatsoever takes place in the natural way
is pleasant. On the same principle death which ensues upon
sickness or wounds is painful and violent ;
but that which draws
to the natural end in the course of old age is of all deaths the
least distressing and is
accompanied rather by pleasure than by
pain.
tween the fiery particles, which do the 15. 8iwrT(iji,voi] The form Sieva-
work of digestion, and those which enter M^ot, adopted by the more recent editors
into the composition of the body at large. from A, seems to me very suspicious.
We must suppose that when the pyramids The only parallel quoted, so far as I can
of the vital fire become too much blunted find, is /careoreareu in Herodotus I
196,
to perform their duty properly, the incom- where there is a variant KaTtaraffi, which
ing aliment makes war upon and weakens Abicht reads. Altogether the word ap-
the general structure of the body. pears to need more support than it has
14. |it]K^Ti dvT^w<ri Sco-pot] Finally, yet received.
when the triangles of the marrow itself 16. Kara <j>i<riv] The doctrine that
become blunted, the bonds of the soul death in the course of nature is pain-
are loosed, and she flies forth with joy : less, if not pleasurable, is conformable
or translating into plain prose, the brain to Plato's general theory of pleasure and
and spinal marrow become no longer a pain. Pain is the result of a condition
fit medium for the soul to act upon. For which is irapa. <t>u<riv: therefore death,
see 73 D. which is (card (friffiv, cannot be painful.
2O 2

308 ITAATHNOS [8 1 E
XXXIX. To Be rtav vocrav Wev ^vvicrrarai, Bij6v irov Kal
TravrL rerrdpwv yap ovrwv yeva>v, e &v crv/j,7re7rrjye
TO crwua. 82 A
yfj<? 7rupo<? {/Sard? re KOI depos, rovra)v 77 Trapd <f>vcnv ireoveîa
Kal evBeia Kal TV? ^&>'pa? nerdcrracns e' oiWa<? eV oorpiav
5 yiyvo/Aevr), Trvpos re av Kal ru>v erepcav etreiBrj yevrj 7reiova eves
ovra rvy%dvi, TO fir) Trpocrijicov exao-rov eavrw 7rpocrafji(3aveiv
ical irdvO
1
ocra roiavra crrdcreis Kal vocrovs Trapeêi' irapa (frvcriv
yap eKacrrov yiyvofjievov Kal /jLeOiGTa/j-evov Oepfiaiverai fiev ocra
av Trporepov ^v^Tai, f-ypd Be ovra et? i<rrepov yiyverai vorepa, B
10 Kal Kov<f>a Br) Kal fiapea, Kal Trdcras trdvrrj /u,eTa/3oXa<? Several.
ftoi/ax? yap Bt'j, <f>afj,ev,
rairov ravra, Kara ravro Kal wcravrcos
Kal dvd 6yov irpocryiyvofjLevov Kal aTroyiyvo/jievov e/icrei ravrov
ov avry aatv Kal vyies fêveLV o 8' dv 7ri]iLp,er)crr) n rovrwv
eT09 dirtov 77 Trpocribv, dXoi6rr)ra$ Tra/nTrot/ciXa? Kal vocrovs
15 <f>0opds re aTretpou? Trapeêrai. Bevreptov By ^vcrrdaewv av Kara
8 Sffa oc :
Sâirep &i> S. U fiovbrs :
/JLOVOV S. ravrov : ravro S.
5rj :
devrtpuv d S.
8 1 E 84 c, f. xxxix. A classification
of diseases now follows. These arise (i)
from excess or deficiency of any of the
primary substances of which the body is
formed, viz. fire air water and earth; this
causes disturbance of the natural condi-
tions and consequently pain and sickness :
(2) from disorder in the secondary struc-
tures of the body and reversal of their
natural relations. For naturally the
blood feeds the flesh, and the flesh se-
cretes a fluid which nourishes the bones
and marrow: but in disease the flesh
degenerates and dissolves into the blood,
forming bUe of divers kinds and phlegm.
But if the evil affects the flesh alone, the
danger is not so great ; more serious is it
when the cement which unites the flesh
to the bones is attacked ;
for then the
very roots of the flesh are severed, and
it is loosed from the bones and tendons.
Yet graver is the case when the mischief
seizes upon the bones themselves; but
most deadly of all, if the malady is in the
marrow; for then the whole course of the
body's nature is reversed from the very
beginning.
2. TTT(ipv] Plato distinguishes be-
tween the primary and the secondary
structures of the body. The first are
simply the fire air earth and water where-
of it is composed : the second are struc-
tures formed out of these; blood, flesh,
tendons, bone, and marrow. The mala-
dies arising from disorders of the first
class are not here specified ;
but in 86 A
we have continued and intermittent fevers
referred hereto ;
and probably most minor
ailments would be assigned to this cause.
These Trpdrai ^vcrrafffis are termed in the
Timaeits Locrns 102 C ral dTrXat Suvd/uies.
flep/uiras 77 f/vxporas rj vyporas rj typdras.
5. irwpos T au Kal TWV tr^ptov] Stall -
baum, joining these words with the
preceding, gives a very unsatisfactory
account of this passage. There is no
difficulty in it, if we expunge the comma
which he places after ertpwv and take the
genitives after ytvr). Plato is
giving two
causes of sickness ; the first is the excess
or defect or unnatural situation of some
element ;
the second (introduced by aC)
is that, whereas diverse kinds exist of
each element (cf. 57 c), the wrong sort is

82 B] TIMAIOS. 309
XXXIX. Now the cause whence sicknesses arise is doubt-
less evident to all. For seeing there are four elements of which
the body is composed, earth fire water and air, any unnatural
excess or defect of these or change of position from their own
to an alien region, and also since there are more than one
kind of fire and the other elements the reception by each of
an unfitting kind, and other such causes, all combine to pro-
duce discord and disease. For when any of them changes
its nature and position, the parts that formerly were cool are
heated, and those that were dry become afterwards moist, and
the light become heavy, and all undergo every kind of change.
The only way we allow in which one and the same substance
can remain whole and unchanged and sound is that the same
element should be added to it or taken away from it on the
same principle and in the same manner and proportion; and
whatsoever errs in any of these points in its outgoings or in-
comings causes a vast diversity of vicissitudes and diseases and
destructions. Next in the secondary structures which are in a
present. The subject of raptxet. is the
sentence rb fj.^ irpooT)Koi>...ToiauTa.
7. ortums Kai v<5orovs] Compare
Sophist 228 A vbaov t<rus Kal GT&(H.V ov
TO.VTOV vevb/juKas.
8. 0ep[iaivTcu, i*v] Compare Hip-
pokrates de natura honiinis vol. I
p. 350
Kuhn jroXXci yap elffiv tv T$ ffw/jLari e6vra,
a OKt>Tai> vir' dXXijXwj' irapa (ftiiffiv 6ep/j,ai-
vyTai re Kal ij/i/XTjTat., Kal ^paLvijTai re Kal
vypaivrjTai, vovffovs riKrei, This refers,
as appears a little further on, to the four
vital fluids enumerated by Hippokrates
p. 352 rb dt ffw/j.a TOV
avT$ al/j.a Kal 0X^y/ua Kal
fryovv ^avOrjv re Kai /j.taii>a.v ,
Kal ravr'
tffriv atirtif) T] (fttiais TOV ffw/iaroj, Kal dia
ravra aytfi Kal vyialvti. vyialvet ptv
o$v fidXiffra, oK6rav /uerpfws fxv TaDra
T^J irpis aXXT/Xa (tp^crioj Kal SwdjAios Kal
TOV 7rXr?0eos, Kal /xaXt^ra rjv fj.(/ju.y/j.tva $
'
dy{ti 8^, oK^Tav TI Tovrttav l-affffov -fj
wtov 17, 17 xwPt<r ^5 & Tip ffw/tan Kal /ai)
KfKpijfJiivov jj
Totcri u/j.ira<ri. This state-
ment of Hippokrates is approved by Ga-
len as more correct than Plato's, de plac.
Hipp, et Plat, viu 677, 678. Compare
a statement attributed to Alkmaion by
Stobaeus florilegium 100 tyei 8 TCLS
vbcrovs ffVfj.irlTrTii>, ws [t-tv vip
1
oC, 5t' inrep-
fioTr)v Oep(j.6Tr)Tos rj ^TIP&TTJTOS, us 81 41; oC,
dia wTJdos Tpcxprjs !) tvSeias, ws 8t tv ols,
al/j.a 77 fiveXov ij tyKt<j>aot>: and again 101
'
AKfjt,alwv ftf>T] TTJS fj.it> vyifias ilvai crvveK-
TiKi]f Tyv laovofjdav TWV Svydfiediv vypov
l-ypov fsvxpov Oepfiov iriKpov yvntos Kal TU>V
our(ai>
'
T^V d' v avToly novaplav vboois
vapaffKfvaffTiKriv ilvai.
ii. P.OVWS v^P Sij] i-e. each several
part must have a continuous and un-
changing supply in due proportion of the
elements which contribute to its sub-
stance.
15. Sturepcov Si] u<rTa<j-wv] The
8t>srepa.i l-vffTdofis are the various 6fwio-
fiepri, in Aristotelian terminology, of
which the body is constructed; blood,
flesh, bones &c. Galen de plac. vm 680
is wrong in blaming Plato for making
blood a Sevrtpa v<rTa7i$, since

3io HAATHNOS [82 B
i~vi>e<rrr)Kvi(i)v Beurepa Karavorjtris vocrrifjudraiv r<x>
ylyverai ^vvvorja-ai. /iueXoz) yap e!~ eKeivcov ccrrov re KOI <rapKo<;
xal vevpov v/j,7rayevro<;, eri re ai/zaro? dov fjt,ev rpoirov, eic Be
rcov avrwv <yejovoro<f, roov fj,ev aA,Xa>i> TO. TrXetcrra f/7rep rd Trpocrdev,
5 ra Be fjLeyio-ra rwv voarj^nrcov rfjBe %d7ra ^vfnreTrra)Kev, 'orav
dvdiraiv 77 yeve(ri<; rovrtov Tropevtjrat, rore ravra Bia(f)6elperai.
Kara (frvcriv jap (rdpKes fiev KOL vevpa e a'tparos ryiyveTctt, vevpov
fiev e Ivwv Bta rr/v ^vyyereiav, crap/ce^ Se dwo rov
o TrrpyvvTcu %(i)pi6fj,evov Iv&v TO Se CLTTO raiv vevpcov KCLI
10 cnriov av <yicrxpov /cal nrapov afj,a ftev rrjv crdpica K0a
rrjv rcuv OCTTGOV <f>vcriv avro re TO Trepl rov pveXov ocrrovv rpe<f>ov
av^ei, TO 8' av Bid rrjv 7rvicvbrr}ra rwv o(rr<av oiijBov/jievov KaOapoo-
rarov <yevos rdov rpiywvwv eiorarov re teal Xnrapoararor.
ei/36fjievov a7ro ru>v ocrrdav Kal crrd^ov, dpSei rov fiv6v Kai
'5 /card ravra fiev yiyvofjievcov eicd&rwv vjieia jfvfjiftaivei rd TroXXa-
vocroi Be, 'orav evavrlws. orav <ydp rrjKOfjievr) o~dp% dvaTraXiv et?
T? 0XeySa? rr)v rrjKeBova eif), rore perd Trvevparos al/j,a TTOV
I>
T Kal TravroBaTTov ev rait <j>e^
3 t-n
i;voTaffeis differed from those of Hip-
pokrates and Galen. His distinction is
that each of the irpwrai fwreureis consists
of one element only, a single geometrical
form ; whereas a Sevrtpa i5<rraerts is com-
posite, being formed of two or more TT/JW-
TCti W77"GUTfty.
2. 8- CKcCvwv] sc. fK TV Terrdpuv.
3. aXXov jxiv rpoirov] That is to say,
the blood is prepared by a process
peculiar to itself, being formed directly
from the aliment by the action of the in-
ternal fire, as described at 79 A: cf. 73 B
74 D.
4. rot irXtiora fiircp TO, irpo<r6cv] i.e.
the majority of ailments are due to defects
of the irpuTat |i<rrtureis, but the most
serious to those of the Bevrepai.
6. dvairaXiv tj y^v<ris] In disease
the order of nature's process is reversed :
the natural ytveais is from blood, which
is the. sustenance of the whole body, suc-
cessively to flesh, tendons, and the oily
fluid which nourishes the bcnes and
marrow. But sickness causes flesh to
Kai iTiKporrjo'i
i*i A.
degenerate and liquefy and pass into the
blood, contrary to the order of nature;
and in severe cases this degeneration
begins higher up, with the bones or even
the vital marrow itself.
8. ft, Ivwv] That is, from the fibrine
of the blood, which both Plato and
Aristotle distinguished from the serum,
l_u>p, though the globules were unknown
to them. In 84 A Iv&v appears to mean
the fibrine of the flesh, not of the blood.
Compare Aristotle historia animalium III
vi 5i5
b
27 al Si Ivts eiffi /XTO|I) vetipov
Kal (e,36s. eviai 5' avruv J-xovfflv vypb-
TIJTO. rrjv rov ix&pos, Kal 5i^xovffiv <*'r^ Te
TUV vfvpuv irpbs TO.* <p4fias Kal air' (Kel-
vuv irpbs ra. vevpa. HO~TI 8i Kal oo ytvos
Ivuiv, o yiveTai ntv iv ai/j-ari, OVK iv airaf-
01)
irriyvvrai. r6 at/ua, iav di /J,r)
riyvvrai: cf. Ill xvi 5iy
b
32,
de partibtts animalium n ix 654
b
28, and
II iv 651* I ai 5' Ivfs ffTeptov Kal yewdts,
uiffre ylvovTai olov irvpiai iv r< a'ijj.aTi Kal
ffffiv iroiovaiv iv rots 6v/j.ols : he compares

E] TIMAI02. 311
natural state of union a second class of diseases may be dis-
cerned by one who would scrutinise them. For whereas marrow
and bone and flesh and sinew are composed of the four elements,
and blood is formed of the same though in a different way, most
of the diseases arise in the manner before explained, but the
gravest afflict them with especial severity in the following way :
that is to say, when the order of their generation is reversed,
these structures are then destroyed. For in the course of nature
flesh and sinews arise from blood, the sinews from the fibrine,
owing to their affinity; the flesh from the clots which are formed
when the fibrine is separated. From the sinews and flesh again
proceeds a glutinous and oily fluid, which not only cements the
flesh to the structure of the bones and itself gives nourishment
and growth to the bone which encloses the marrow, but also so
much of it as filters through the dense substance of the bones,
being formed of the purest and smoothest and most slippery
kind of the triangles, as it distils and oozes from the bones,
irrigates the marrow. When these structures are produced in
this order, health is the result as a rule ;
but when this is re-
versed, sickness ensues. For when the flesh decomposes and
returns the deliquescent matter to the veins, then is mingled
with air in the veins much blood of manifold kinds, with
diverse hues and bitter qualities, as well as acid and saline
them to the earthy element in mud. another part, the finest and smoothest,
9.
o irrj-yvvTai XWP1
5I1^VWV Ivwv] filters through to the marrow.
This is a curious statement: he con- 17. |ird irvcvjxaTos ai|xa] This indi-
ceives the flesh to be formed by the con- cates that Plato regarded the veins as ducts
cretion of what is left of this blood after for air as well as blood. Aristotle also held
the Ives have gone to form vevpa. that air passed through the blood-vessels :
10. yX<rxpov ical Xiirapov] This glu- see historia animalittm I xvii 496" 30
tinous and oily secretion of the flesh and t'n-d^w 5' elalv ol diro TT;S xapdias vfyoi
tendons is perhaps identical with the of/dels 8' tcrrl KOIVOS TTO'/JOS, aX& Stct ryv
synovial fluid, which lubricates the joints. fftiva^iv dxovTai T^ Tvev/jia *al rrj Kap5ia
Plato supposes it to form by coagulation 8iairt/j,irovffu>. The word irbpos is else-
the periosteum, or membrane enclosing where applied by Aristotle to a nerve ;
the bones, and therefore to cement to- but here he is clearly speaking of a blood-
gether flesh and bones : it also penetrates vessel. It was supposed by some autho-
the bony envelope of the spinal column rities after his time that the arteries, as
and nourishes the vital marrow, as well distinguished from the veins, were filled
as the bones which protect it. with air alone: see Cicero de natnra
12. TO 8' a3 answers a/*a fdi> : while deorum 138 eoque modo ex his par-
part of the oily fluid is employed as above, tibus et sanguis per venas in omne cor-

3 i2 DAATHNOS [82 E
6fierov, en Be 6f;iai<t KOI navpai<f
real <j>eyfjLara Travroia t'o-êt. TrdXivaipera yap rrdvra yeyovora
Kal Bie<p6ap/JLeva TO re alaa avro irputrov 8/oXXucn, Kal aura
ovBeaiav rpo<j)r)V en T&5 (rwp,ari Trapeôvra <f>eperai rrdvrrj Bid 83 A
5 TO>I>
(frXeftcav,
rdiv rwv Kara <f>i'<riv ov/cer' tcrôvra irepioBwv,
e"x@pd fjiev avrd avrols Bin ro fûjBe/Miav dTroXav&iv eavrwv eêtz>,
ru> ^vvearfart. Se roO crw/iaro? Kal ftevovri Kara %a>pav 7rop,ta,
8iovvra Kal rrjKOvra. 'ouov uev ovv av 7raaiorarov ov T^?
<rapKo<s raKr), BiHnreTrrov yt,yv6p.evov /AeXalvei JJLCV viro TraXatc"?
10 ûyau<7ea)9, Bid 8e ro Trdvry Sta/Be/Spato-Oat rriKpov ov iravrl
%aTrov TrpocnriTrrei rov (rwyLtaro?, ocrov av /J,rj7ra) 8ie<j)dapfJ,evov ff B
Kal rare /J,ev dvrl rfc TriKporrjros o^vrrjra ecrê TO peav %pwp.a,
dTroTrrvvQevTO6i<ra atyaart ^p&5//,a (r%v epvBpcorepov, rov Be /ieXaz/o? rovra)
15 vyKepavvvfj,i>ov ^XoeoSe?' eri Be ^vuuiyvvrat %av6ov ^/ow/Lta
fjuera r^9 rriKporrfro^, orav vea %vvraKrj crdpj; viro rov irepl rrjv
<f>6ya Trvpos. Kal ro fjt,ev
KOLVOV ovofia Tracri rovrois r} rives
larpouv TTOV %orjv en~wv6p.a<rav rj Kai rt? a>v Bvvaros els TroXXa C
fjbkv
Kal dvouoia /3e7reiv, opdv Be ev avrols ev yevO'i evov dEiov
20 hnnrvfjUay rracri' rd 8' a'XXa ocra %oX^9 eiBt) eyerai, Kara rrjv
crê 6yov avrdjv eKaarov
Trpdos, 6 Be aealvr)<; %oX^? oêt'a? re 07/3409, orav
/Aiyvvrjrai Bid depôrtjra dXavpa Bwdfiei' Kaeirai Be o^v <f)ey/J,a
5 oiiKfr' Iffxovra. ; ouWri ffxovra A. OUK^T' ?xovTa S. 14 tpvOp&repov :
tpv6po-
repov S. 15 xôwSes dedi ex Cornari correctione et nonnullis codicibus. xoKtaSes
AHSZ.
pus diffunditur et spiritus per arterias. ytveffiv %xo>' ra -
Cicero uses the word 'arteria' in the 5. Taiv TWV Kard <j>xiriv] Although
modern sense. Plato was of course ignorant concerning
1. ods Kal lx"Jpas Kal <|>XcYI^(i>Ta] the circulation of the blood, he conceived
The decomposition of the flesh produces it to have regular periodic motions.
bile and serum and phlegm. By x^&s 6. |.r]8p,av tavrwv airoXatxrivl i.e.
we must understand morbid conditions or they do not contribute to each other's
excessive abundance of that fluid : since nourishment
in 71 B, C Plato expressly recognises that g. 8vnreirTOv] Being old firm flesh,
XoXrj is a normal and necessary con- it yields reluctantly to the decomposing
stituent of the body ; which is more than agent.
Aristotle did : cf. de partibtts animaliitm pcXaCvci |Uv] i e. it is blackened
IV ii
676
b
31, 677* ii 22. The same by long-standing inflammation and cor-
applies to Ixupa.*, viz. that an abnormal rosion. The degeneration of flesh pro-
condition is to be understood. duces a morbid kind of x ^1
? 5 of which
2. iroivapTa] i.e. avdiraXiv TTV are enumerated four classes, (i) black,

83 c] TIMAIO2. 313
properties ;
and this contains all kinds of bile and serum and
phlegm. For as all these are going the wrong way and have
become corrupt, first they ruin the blood itself, and furnishing
no nutriment to the body rush in all directions through the
veins, paying no heed to the periods appointed by nature, but
at war one with another, because they have no gcod of each
other ;
at war also with all that is established and fixed in the
body, which they corrupt and dissolve. Now when the oldest
part of the flesh is
decomposed, being hard to soften, it turns
black through long-continued burning, and through being every-
where corroded it is bitter and dangerous to whatever part of
the body it attacks which is not yet corrupted. Sometimes this
black sort is acid instead of bitter, when the bitterness is more
refined away ;
and again the bitter sort being steeped in blood
gains a redder hue; and when black is mingled with this, it is
greenish : sometimes too a yellow colour is added to the bitter-
ness, when new flesh is decomposed by the fire of the inflam-
mation. To all these symptoms the general name of bile has
been given, either by physicians, or by some one who in looking
at many dissimilar appearances was able to see one universal
quality pervading them all which deserved a name. All other
kinds of bile which are reckoned have their several descriptions
according to their colour. Of lymph, one kind is the mild
serum of blood, the other is an acrid secretion of black and
acid bile, when that is blended through inflammation with a
saline property : this kind is called acid phlegm. But that
either bitter or acid, produced by the 16. TOV irtpl rqv <J>OYI irvpos] If
degeneration of old flesh, (2) reddish, <f>bya is right it must signify 'the in-
where there is an admixture of blood, (3) flammation'; but it is curiously abrupt,
green, apparently a combination of the and I am disposed to agree with Lindau
two former, (4) yellow, from the corro- in suspecting it to be corrupt, though I
sion of newly-formed flesh. cannot approve of his suggested altera-
15. xXowSes] This reading is clearly tion.
right: when Plato is classifying xo^c* 1 7- Ka^ r& H^" *oiv6v ovopx] All
according to colour, it were absurd to these different forms have received the
call one class xo^Ses. It wiH be re- general name of xM. bestowed either
membered too that at 68 C green is de- by medical men (and presumably some-
rived from a mixture of red and black. what at hap hazard), or more scienti-
xXowSey is found in one ms. and the margin fically by a philosopher skilled in dis-
of another, and is also confirmed by cerning t M XXots. Compare 68 D.
Galen. 23. KoXirai 8i <Sv <$>iyi.a.' Of

314 nAATONOS [83 c
TO TOIOVTOV. TO av //,fr ae/3o? TrjKOftevov CK vea<? Ka
TOU'TOU 8e dvepwOevTos Kal gvjj,7repi7)<f)devTos inrb vypo- D
Kal TroôXv^wv ûa-racrcav K TOV Trddovs TOVTOV KaO'
eKacrrrjv uev aoparwv Bid cr/jLiKpoTrjra, ^vvcnracroSv Be TOV oyKov
5 Trapeôaevatv oparov, ^pcw/ua eôvaaJv Bid TTJV TOV d<j>pov yeveaiv
iBelv VKOV, TavTtjv Tracrav Tijice&ova a?ra^9 crapKO? yîera Trvev-
/j,aTos v/ji7r,aKei(Tav Xevtcbv elvai, <f)eyfji,a <f>a[j,ev. (f)ey/JiaTO<f
8e
av veov ^vviaTafievov opo? t'Sptw? /cal Sdicpvov, c<ra re aXXa rotaura E
crc3y[/,a
TO icaO* qfj,pav %tTai, tcadaipofjêvov Kal TavTa p,ev By
10 travTa vocrwv opyava yeyovev, OTav al/J-a /i; K TWV (TITLWV Kal
TTOTWV 7rr)0v<Tr) Kara <J>v<riv,
d' e evavrlwv TOV oyKov trapa
TOI)? T^? <f>vaea><> a^dvr) vopovs. oiatcpivo/jbevr)? fjiev ovv inrb
v6<ra>v Trjs crapKos Kaa-Trj<f, pevovTwv 8e TWV Trvdfjie
tffjilcreia Ttjs v/jL<f)Opa<i rj SuvajAis' dvdrj-lnv yap CTI
15 t'o"êt*
TO 8e Sr) crdpKas ocrroi? %vv$ovv OTTOT' av vocnjcrr), Kal fjUjKert, 84 A
Ivwv apa Kal vevpwv dTro^wpiôêuov OCTTO) [Lev Tpofyrj,
L Se Trpo? o<7ToOf ylyvyTai Bea/jio^, aXX' CK nrapov Kal eiov
Kal yia"xpov Tpa%v Kal dp,vpbv av^fj,rjaav IITTO
yevrjTai, TOTS TavTa Tracrôy irdv TO TOIOVTOV
auTO 7rdiv inrb T? trdpKas Kal ra vevpa, d(j>i<TTd/j,evov d-rrb
CKTTWV, at 8' eK TWV pL^wv gvveKTriTTTova-ai T<Z re vevpa yvfivd u
7 v/j.ira.Kei<rav :
%vfj.irei<e'iffai> A. 16 ai/ro scripsi: aCroAHSZ.
a^.a, quod suadente Lindavio recepi, probavit nee tamen admisit S. af/ia AHSZ.
<f>ty/j.a two sorts are distinguished, <5u ya.ff6flffrjs a.TroreXovfjL^vr].
and Xeu/co^. The first is the serum of 2. uf
x''r P l^-r
l
<
}
>0*'VTOS viro
/u^Xati/a xoXi^, and a morbid humour: the This seems to be a loose way of ex-
second, formed by the dissolution of new- pressing that the air-bubbles are enclosed
formed flesh and highly aerated, is in its in the moisture of the <j>ty/j,a.
normal state a natural and healthy se- g. TO Ko.0' ^plpav] i.e. in the normal
cretion, viz. perspiration or tears ; but if healthy course of life.
produced to excess, it is a source of dis- u. aXX' g vavrwv] i.e. when it
ease. feeds upon the flesh or other structures of
i . ^K Was Kal diraXTJs <rapKos] Ga- the body, instead of the food : see above,
len, while approving Plato's description 82 E.
of -0X^7/ua, dissents from his account of 13. (uvovrwv 8^ T<OV iruOjx^vwv] That
its origin : see ofe plac. vm 699 rb 5^ IK is, if the mischief is comparatively super-
s avaX-fjs (TO/DKOS yevtffOai work ficial, and the fundamental structure of
TWV aroTrwrdrwv iffrl : his own the flesh is unhurt, recovery is still easy.
statement is StdeiKrai yap ij ye TOV <f>ey- 15. TO 8i 8ij tropicas OO-TOIS |v8ovv]
yoiaros ytvcffis tic Tpcxpys tfivfffi f/vxpOT^pas sc. the yl<rxpov Kal nrapoi>, which by
ivScus inrb rrjs tfj.<pvrov GepfMffias /corep- coagulation forms the periosteum, as ex-

84 B] TIMAIO2. 315
which is formed in conjunction with air by the liquefaction
of new and tender flesh, when it is inflated with air en-
veloped by moisture, and through this condition bubbles are
formed, invisible separately because of their smallness, but all
together becoming visible in the mass and presenting a white
colour to view by the formation of froth this liquefaction of
tender flesh in combination with air we term white phlegm.
And the serum of freshly formed phlegm is sweat and tears,
and whatever other secretions purify the body from day to day.
All these become a means of disease, when the blood is not
replenished from the food and drink in the natural way, but
receives its volume in the contrary manner in despite of nature's
laws. Now when the flesh is anywhere pierced by disease, but
the foundations of it remain intact, the malady has only half its
power; for there is still the prospect of ready recovery. But
when that which unites the flesh to the bones is diseased, and
in turn no longer by distilling both from the fibres and sinews
nourishes the bones and cements the flesh to them, but
instead of being oily and smooth and glutinous becomes harsh
and saline and shrivelled through an unhealthy habit of life,
under these conditions all that substance crumbles away under
the flesh and the sinews and separates from the bones; while
the flesh, falling away from its foundations, leaves the sinews
plained in 82 D. ing of the cement of flesh and bones. I
1 6. avr6 &; Ivwv eijia] The reading have therefore made the slight altera-
of the mss. seems here unquestionably tion to O.VT&, which may, I think, be
corrupt. The passage obviously refers justified as setting off the fluid against
to the substance mentioned immediately the bones which it nourishes and the flesh
above, the cement which joins flesh and which it fastens to them : it is itself no
bones together. But this substance is not longer secreted and it therefore fails to
blood, nor is the blood t% lvui> icai vetipuv nourish the bones and cement the flesh :
airox^pt^/J-fov ;
which the cement how- cf. 82 E r6 re atfj.0. avrb vpZrov di6v(ri,
ever is, provided we understand Ivuv here Kul avrb otiSffj.iav TptHpqv eYi T<# <ru/j.a.Ti
as signifying the fibrine of the flesh, not irap^xct>Ta <
t>^P rai -
of the blood : see note on 82 D. It is
19. KaTa^^erai jiiv avro] The pe-
plain then that aZ]ua is wrong ; and Lin- riosteum dries up and crumbles, and the
dau's suggestion a/j.a seems to me a good flesh, no longer cemented to the bones,
one. But furthermore av r6 surely can- falls away from them: cf. Aristotle hisloria
not be right ;
for av introduces an anti- an'imalium in xiii
5i9
b
5 ^iXoiVtewi re ra
thesis where none exists, and the article ocrra ruv vptvuv <r<f>a,Ktlfei.
seems to mark the mention of some new 21. K TWV pio>v] The pifat are the
substance, whereas Plato is still speak- irvQutves mentioned above in 83 E.

316 riAATHNOS [84 B
ical fieo-rd aXfir)*;, avral Be -rrdiv els rrjv at/
<f>opdv e/JLTTca-oveai rd irpoa'Oev prjOevra voo~r)iiara TrXeuo rroiovcri.
Xa7r(av Be rovrwv Trepl ra a-ooaara TraOijfidrwv yiyvopevtov fui&l
en, yiyverai rd jrpo rovrwv, 'orav ocrrovv Bid TruKvorrjra o~apKos
5 dvarcvorjv pr) apf3dvov iKavrjv, vir evpwros Qeppaivoaevov, <T<f>atce-
lffav fjiijre rrfv rpo<prjv KaraBexyrai irdiv re avro els eKeivrfv C
evavricos ly ^Tjôp-evov, rj
8' et9 <rdpKas, <rdp% Be els alpa ep/m-
TTTovcra rpa^vrepa Trdvra rv irpocrdev rd vocnjfâra aTrepydîjTai'
TO 8' eayarov rcdvrwv, orav r) rov fiveov (ptvis air evBet'a? rj nvos
10
u7T6p/SoXr/9 voa-r/crr), rd p-eyicrra teal Kvpiwrara irpos Odvarov roHv
ro<Tr)p,dra)v aTrortXet, Tracr^? dvcnvdKiv T^? rov aa>fiaro<;
e'^ dvdyKys pveicrrjs.
XL. Tpirov B' av voa-rmdrwv e!So? TpiXP ^
yiyvofAevov, ro p.ev vrro TrvevfAaros, TO Be (fikey/jLaros, TO Be ^0X^9.
D
15 orav pev yap 6 rwv rrvevpdrtov To3 trtaân rafiias 7rXey/z<uy /i^
KaOapds Trape^y T9 Bie%6Bov<> VTTO pevadrcav <ppa^0ei<;, evda p,ev
OIK lov, evda Be TTIOV rj
ro irpocrrJKOv irvevpâ eicnov rd aev ov
rv<y%dvovra dvatyv%T}<i crrjTret, rd Be rwv <pe/3a}V Biaftiaôaevov
Kal %vve7ri(rrpe<pov avrd rrjtcov re ro (rwua e/9 TO aecrov avrov
20 Bidcppayfid T' io-%ov eya?roa/i/3 fiver at, Kal pvpia Brj vocrr/uara E
1 8 Siafiiaftfj.ei'oi'
:
^Laîaô^vuv A. 20 T' uiyov : rl aov A.
i. ra, irpdo-Otv prjO^vra voo-qnaTa] health are sapped : the course of nature
EC. the xâl and <(>tyiJ.a.Ta. flows backward from its utmost fount.
4. ra. irpo TOVTWV] i.e. when the de- 84 C 86 A, c. xl. A third class of
generation begins further back ; the bones maladies remains for consideration : those
being regarded as posterior in the order engendered by air, by phlegm, and by
of ytveffts to the flesh. bile. When an excessive amount of air
Bid irvKvoTtiTa <rapic6s] Perhaps then, passes into the veins and penetrating
after all, if the gods had given our their sides finds its way into the flesh
heads a thick covering of flesh, we might and is there imprisoned, various evil re-
not have lived any the longer for it. suits follow ; in some cases convulsions
5. dvairvoi]v] cf. 85 A, c : 'ventila- and tetanus, which will hardly yield to
tion
'
seems to be the meaning here. treatment, and diseases of the lungs. By
6. TIJV Tpo<j>ijv] i.e. the oily fluid phlegm are produced leprosies and all
which nourishes them. The bones de- manner of skin-diseases ; and when in
compose and mingle with this fluid, the conjunction with bile it attacks the head,
fluid with the flesh, and the flesh with the epilepsy ensues, which is called the 'sacred
blood. disease', because it affects the divinest
ii. ireio-ris dvdiraXiv] The juve6s is
part. All kinds of inflammatory dis-
the very citadel of life ;
so that when the orders, accompanied by pustules and
disease assails that, the foundations of eruptions, arise from bile ; which also

E] TIMAIOS. 317
bare and full of brine, and itself falling back into the current of
the blood aggravates the diseases that have been described.
But distressing as are these symptoms which affect the body,
yet more serious are those which are prior in order ;
when the
bones, owing to denseness of the flesh, cannot get sufficient air
and becoming mouldy and heated decay away, and while they
will not receive their nourishment, crumble down and return by
a reversed process into their nourishing fluid, and that in its turn
passing into flesh, and the flesh into blood, they render all the
diseases more virulent than those already mentioned. The most
desperate case of all is when the substance of the marrow be-
comes diseased by any defect or excess : this produces the most
serious and fatal disorders, seeing that the whole nature of the
body is forced to proceed in a backward course.
XL. A third class of diseases we must conceive as occurring
in three ways : one by the agency of air, the second of phlegm,
the third of bile. For when the lungs, which are the dispensers
of air to the body, do not keep their passages clear, because
they are impeded by catarrhs, the air, failing to pass through
some, and in others entering with a volume unduly great, causes
the decomposition of the parts which lack their supply of air,
and forces its way through the channels of the veins and dis-
locates them, and dissolving the body it is confined amid its
substance, occupying the midriff; and so countless painful
diseases are produced from these causes, accompanied by
seizes upon the fibrine of the blood, and arising from the confinement of large
preventing its due circulation causes chills quantities of air in places where it has no
and shuddering ; and sometimes penetra- right to be.
ting to the vital marrow sets free the 18. rd 8i TWV <j>Xpwv] Here again the
soul : but if its fury be less violent, veins are considered as passages for air :
it gives rise to diarrhoea and dysen- the ingress of air is normal ; it is the ex-
tery. Continuous, quotidian, tertian, and cessive amount which gives rise to dis-
quartan fevers are caused by a super- ease : see note on 82 E.
abundance of fire, air, water, and earth 19. els TO (A&rov avrov] These words
respectively predominating in the com- are best taken with tt>a.iroa./j.pdi>erai.
position of the body. But the sentence does not run smoothly,
14. TO jiiv viro 7rvV|iTOs] This class and 1 suspect that something has gone
of diseases is distinct from those caused amiss with it. Sia.<f>pay/j.a tffxovi if the
by a mere superfluity of air entering into words are sound, means taking possession
the composition of the body. We are at of the midriff, pressing against it.
present concerned with the maladies

riAATHNOS [84 E-
K rovrwv dyetvd fjierd 7rri6ov<> iBpuros aTreipyacrrat. 7rodKt<;
8' ev TO) (TWfjLart 8iaKpi@eia'r)<; crapKos rrvevpâ eyyevoftevov Kal
dBvi'arovv eo> TropevBrjvai T<z9 avrds Tot9 eTretcrr}v06(Tiv wBlvas
Trape<T)ê, neyiaras Be, orav irepl rd vevpa Kal rd ravri) <pe(3ta
5 Trepta-rdv Kal dvot8f)<rav rovs re ejrtrovovs teal rd ^vve^n vevpa
ovrcos 649 TO eÔTTtcrOev Karareivrj rovrow a Brj Kal CLTT avrov T//?
crvvrovias rov Tradr/paras rd voarîara reravot re Kal orciaQorovot,
Trpoa-epprjOijcrav. &v Kal TO (f>dpfj,aKov âe7r6v Trvperol yap ovv
8r) rd rotavra eyyiyvo/jtevoi ^dt(rra vova~t. TO Be VKOV <$>eyp.a 85 A
10 Btd TO rwv 7roiJ,<f)ovy(i)v Trvevfia
r
%ae
r
jrov a7ro7)(f>0ev, eo) Be rov
dvairvods io~yov, rjiriwrepov }iev, Kara7rotKiei Be TO
VKa<? d<f>ovs re Kal rd rovrcov ^vyyevrj vocrr/fjiara diro-
ev rr) Ke<j>af) Oeiordras ovcras eTricrKeBavvv/Aevov Kal ^vvrapdrrov
15 auT9, Ka& VTTVOV pev lov Trpaorepov, eyprjyopoyi Be e7riri0efievov B
Bv(ra7raaKr6repov' vo&ijfj.a Be iepd<; ov <f)vo~e(t)<>
evBtKOjrara lepov
eyerat. <j)eyfâ &' 6v Kal d/j,vpov Trrjyr) iravrwv voa^pârwv,
o<ra ytyverat KarappotKa' Bid Be TO 1)9 roirovs, ei9 01)9 pel, Travro-
BaTrovs ovras Travrota ovbp,ara eT,r]<f)ev.
oo~a Be (frXey/jiaiveiv
I TroXXdfcis post ISpwTOS inserunt AS. g tyyiyvonevoi :
iinyiyvo^voi. S.
i. nTa Tr7]0ovs iSpwros] Plato evi-
dently has in view consumption and kin-
dred maladies.
i. 5iaKpi9tioT]s arapKos] In the for-
mer case the air entered from without :
an equally bad, though different, result
is produced when the imprisoned air has
been produced within the body by disso-
lution of the flesh.
5. TOVS T CITITOVOVS] The tirtToiHi
are the great tendons of the shoulders
and arms.
j. T*Tavo T Kal oirwrOoTOvoi] The
first is the generic term for diseases the
symptoms of which are spasmodic con-
traction of the muscles : 6iri<rd^Tovos was
a special form in which the muscles are
drawn violently backwards : see Hippo-
krates de morbis vol. II p. 303 Kiihn: the
opposite form was tuirpoffOorovos. Aris-
totle also attributes these disorders to the
action of air: mcteorologica II viii $66
b
25
oi re yap T^ravot Kal ol wafffJ-ol 7rvei'/iTos
piv eiffi Kivr/fffts.
8. iruptrol yap oSv Si]] Compare
Hippokrates aphorisms vol. Ill p. 735
Kiihn U7r6 <nraff/j.ov rj
rtravov tvoxôvfj-tvy
irvperbs tiriyfvbfjLevos vei r& v6<rt]fj.a. Plato
means that in cases which do not end
fatally it is this natural relief, rather
than medical treatment, which saves the
patient's life.
10. 8ui TO TCOV TroficjjoXv-yujv irvcifxa]
The diseases produced by .the XCVK&V
(f>tyfj.a are ultimately to be traced to
jrvev/j.a, since they are due to the air
which is enclosed in the former .
they are
less dangerous however, because they are
thrown off at the surface.
12. XCVKO.S d<f>ovs TC] These are
diseases of the skin described by Celsus
V xxviii 19.
15. KO.&' iJirvov |iiv tov irpaorepov]
'
In
many epileptics the fits occur during the

85 H] TIMAI02. 319
excessive sweat. Often too when the flesh is broken up, air
is formed in the body, and being unable to find an exit it pro-
duces the same torments as are caused by the air which enters
in ;
the most severe of all, when gathering and swelling up
around the sinews and the blood-vessels in these parts it strains
the tendons of the shoulders and the muscles attached to them
in a backward direction : and owing to the intense strain pro-
duced in this condition these affections are called tetanus and
opisthotonus. For these the remedy is severe : for in fact fevers
supervening chiefly give relief in such cases. The white phlegm
when intercepted is dangerous owing to the air in the bubbles :
but when it finds an escape to the surface of the body it is more
mild ; yet it disfigures the person by engendering scabs and
leprosies and kindred maladies. Sometimes it is mingled with
black bile and is shed upon the revolutions in the head, which
are the most divine, and confounds them ;
and if this occurs
during sleep, the effects are milder, but if in the waking hours, it
is harder to relieve. This, as affecting the sacred part, is justly
called the sacred disease. Acid and saline phlegm is the source
of all diseases that take the form of catarrh : and these have
received manifold names according to the diverse places in
which the discharge takes place. Inflammations in various parts
night as well as during the day, but in oOev yiverai. <j>tio~iv 5 avry Kal irp6<t>aou>-
some instances they are entirely nocturnal, ol avdpuirot tv6fju<rav 6elov elvai virb aireiplrjs I
and it is well known that in such cases Kal Oavfj.a<ri6Tr)Tos, OTI ovotv ote er^p^o-i !
the disease may long exist and yet re- vofoouri. Kal Kara ntv TTJV dtropi^v av-
main unrecognised either by the patient rot<n TOV ^ yivuo-Ktiv rb 6eiov aurrf Siaaq-
or the physician.' Dr Affleck in the ferot, Kara 51 T>;J> evwopii)v TOU Tpjirov
Encyclopaedia Britannica, article Epi- TTJS lijcrios IWVTO.I' diroXtiovTcu yap $ Ka.0j.p-
Ifpsy. fj.oi<n fj eiraoiS-rjai. Plato, as his manner
1 6. IvSiKwrara Upov Xfytrai] The is, adopts the popular appellation, but
name ipd vtxros was given to epilepsy gives it a new and higher significance of
because, owing to the suddenness of the his own : it is the sacred disease because
attack and its appalling symptoms, it peculiarly affecting the divinest part of
seemed like the direct visitation of some us.
divine power, which without warning 18. Karappoucd] i. e. catarrhs, in what-
struck down its victim. Hippokrates in ever part of the body they may occur,
the true scientific spirit protests against 19. <f>Xryp.a.veiv Xlycrai] Notwith-
this superstition: see de inorbo sacro vol. I
standing the name <j>fyfj.aii>fii>, Plato
p. 587 Kiihn ovdh rl pot doictfi rCiv &uv would say, inflammations are not owing
6ftorpr) elvai votiawv oudt iepbrrtpri, dXd to <f>4yfj.a at all, but to

320 TTAATHNOS [85 B
eyerai rov a-wfiaro^, OTTO rov tcdeo~0ai re teal (f>eyo~0ai Bid
%oX7/j> 76701/6 rcdvra. afiâvov<Ta uev oiv draTrvorjv ef&> rcavrola C
dva7re/j,irei fyvpara fceowra, KaOeipyvvfievT) 6 eWo9 Trvpitcavra
voo~r)p,ara rrod ep,rroiel, ueyicrrov Be, 'Lrav a'lfiari icadapw ^vytce-
5 paadelo~a TO rcav Ivcov yevos etc rrjs eavroav Bia<f>opf) Taea>9, at
Biea-Trdpijaav fiev ei<t al/j,a, iva o-u//,/ier/9tw9 XeTrror^TO? icrôi KOI
Trdôvf KOI fjUjre Bed 6ep^6rr}ra a><; vypov etc pavov rov o-co/iaro?
etcpeoi, /ATJT* av Trvtcvorepov SVJKLVTJTOV ov /iot9 dvacrrpetyoiTO ev
rat9 ^>Xei/rt. tcaipov &rj TOVTOOV Ives rfj r^9 fyva-ews yeveo-ei <f>vdr-
D
10 TOVCTIV 09 orav rt9 teal redvewro^ afyuiTO? eV iûêt re 0^x09 7rpo9
crvvaydyy, Btaêlrai irav TO XotTroy alp,a, eaOeicrat Be
u fierd TOV Trepiea-Twros avro >Jri;ôi;9 ^vfJLfnjyvvaa-i. Tavrrjv
Brj rrjv 8vva/j,iv eôvcrwv Ivwv ev atfJMTt %oX?) (fiixrei
TrdXaibv alp,a
yeyovvla teal iraXiv etc TWV aapKwv et9 rovro rerrjicvla, deppr) KOI
15 vypd Kar oiyov TO Trp&Tov efnriTrrova-a irrjyvvTat, Bed TT/V TUIV E
Ivwv Bvvapiv, vtpywp&mi Be KOI ftia KaTaaêvvvfieit}
Kal rpofiov eVT09 Trap%ev TrXeiwv B* eTTippeovaa, rfj Trap
1
0fp/j.6rijn icparrjcracra, Ta9 lva<? els draîav êaaaa Biecreicre' teal
edv fJLev itcavrj Bid reov olov
&)9 Trelcrfiara fjuedr/tce re eXevOepav orav B' eXdrrcov y TO TC
dvricr-^r) rrjKOfêvov, avrrj Kparrjdela'a rj Kara TTCLV TO o-a5/ii
, rj
Bid rwv <j>eftwv 6/9 rrjv tcdro) gvvojaOeio-a 17 rr)v uvo)
tcoikiav, olov <f>vyd<;
etc ?roXe&)9 aracnaadcnf]^ etc rov cro'/xaTO9
eKTTiTTrovo-a, Btappoias teal Bv<revrepia<; teal rd roiavra voa-r)p,ara 8G A
rrdvra Trapeo-êro. TO yttev ovv etc
irvpoî V7repj3orjs fj,diara
8 //6ts: noyis SZ. 9 rot/raw : TOUTOV A. 17 airrijs: avrrp AHS-
22 au'rij :
aCri; A.
j. Sid xoXi^v y*YOV TttVTa] This mation is much more dangerous.
was, according to Aristotle, the opinion 7. IK jiavov TOV <T<O|MITOS CKpôiJ i e.
of Anaxagoras and his school : cf. de percolate through the substance of the
partibus animalinm IV ii
67 7
a
5 otfic 6p0ws body.
8^ MKaffiv ol irepl
'
A raâ-y 6pat> viroa.(jL- 11. 8iax*tTau irdv TO Xowrov al(ia]
fidvtiv ws aMav ovaav [sc. Trfv "xo-f)v] rv Hence we see that although Plato con-
b&uv voatinaTuv vTTfppdovffav ydpdirop- ceived that flesh was foimed by conden-
pali'ftv wpos re T&V wXetinova Kal rdj 0X^- sation of the l_u>p (82 D), he did not
/3as Kal rd irXevpd. suppose that blood deprived of the ivtt
2. Xap.pdvovcra jj.ii/ oiv avairvo^v] would coagiilate on exposure to the air.
i.e. when it is thrown off in an eruption: 13. iraXaiov aljia yfyovvia] The flesh
Plato is aware that the suppressed inflam- is formed of the Mood, and xM (that is,

86 A] TIMAIDS. 321
of the body, so called from the heat and burning that occurs,
are all due to bile. When they have egress, they seethe up and
send forth all kinds of pustules ;
but if they are suppressed
within, they cause many inflammatory diseases ;
of which the
worst is when the inflammation entering into pure blood carries
away from its proper place the fibrine which was distributed
through the blood in order that it might preserve a due measure
of thinness and thickness and neither be so much liquefied by
heat as to flow out through the porous texture of the body, nor
become sluggish from excessive density and circulate with
difficulty in the veins. Now the fibrine by the nature of its
composition preserves the due mean in these respects. For if
from blood that is dead and beginning to cool the fibrine be
gathered apart, the rest of the blood is dissipated ;
but if the
fibrine be allowed to remain, by the help of the cold air sur-
rounding, it quickly congeals it. The fibrine then in the blood
having this property, bile which is naturally formed of old blood
and is dissolved again into blood out of the flesh, enters warm
and liquid into the blood, at first gradually, and is condensed by
the power of the fibrine ;
and as it is condensed and forced to
cool, it produces internal chill and shivering. But when a
greater quantity flows in, it subdues the fibrine with its heat,
and boiling up scatters it abroad ;
and if it is able to obtain the
mastery to the end, it
penetrates to the substance of the marrow,
and consuming it looses from thence the bonds of the soul, as it
were the moorings of a ship, and sets her free. But when the
bile is too feeble for this, and the body holds out against the
dissolution, itself is vanquished, and either is expelled by an
eruption over the whole body, or is driven through the veins
into the lower or upper belly, like an exile banished from a city
that has been at civil war ;
and as it issues forth from the body,
it causes diarrhoea and dysentery and all diseases of that kind.
When a body has been stricken with sickness chiefly through
i)
of a morbid nature) is formed by 62 A, B : rd irapa <pvcriv j-wayAufvov /u.a'xe-
degeneration of the flesh, and hence is rcu Kara <j>vai.v atfrd tavrb efc rovvavriov
Traaibi> al/M. awuOovv.
16. x*1
!
1 1"1 Ka^ Tpojiov] The solidifi- 20. olov veos ircCc-fiaTa] Compare
cation of the X ^7? causes tremor and 73 t> KaOairep ^ dyKVpuv fta6fievos K
shivering on the principle enunciated in rovrwv TTO.OW i/a/x^s df<r/j.ov*.
P. T. 21

322 ITAATnNOS [86 A-
voar]crav <rwpa ^vve^fj Kavfiara teal irvperovs aTrepydêTai, TO
8' eg aepo9 d/j,<j>7)fj,epi,vov<;, TpiTaiov? 8' v8aro<; Bid TO vwdea-repov
depos KOI Trvpos avro elvai' TO 8' ex yfjs, rrdprci)<; bv vcodecrrarov
TOVTWV, ev TTpairacriai<$ TrepioSois %povov KaOaipofievov, rerap-
5 raiof9 Trvperovs Troirjaav aVaXXarTeTat fioyis.
XLI. Kat Ta fj,ev Trepl TO o~w/ia vocrrjuara ravrrj u/>i/3euVei B
yiyvopeva, rd Se Trepl ^v^rjv 8td <ra)//-aT09 eiv rfjSe. vbaov fiev
o~rj "fywxf)<$
avoiav gvy^wprjreov, &vo S' dvoi'a? yevrj, TO pev fiavtav,
TO Se dfiaOiav. trdv ovv o TI Trdcr^cov Tt9 Trd6o<$ biroTepov CLVTWV
10
to"êt, voffov TrpoffpijTeov, ySovds Se /cat Xu7ra9 V7rpj3aov<ra<; TWV
VQcrcov fteyio-Tas BeTeov TT) "^v^fj- Trepiâprj
1
} yap avOpwrros wv
ff
Kal rdvavTia inro Xu7r79 trda-^cov, crTrevSwv TO (j,ev eeiv aKaipox;, c
TO 8e (frvyelv, ovff* opdv OVTG dicoveiv opdov ovSev SvvaTcu, VTTO,
8e teal oyianov fj,Taaêiv ^KICTTO TOTC Brj SvvaTos ecrTt. TO 8e
3 ri> 5' tic : TO 5^ SZ. 5 /J.oyis, ut videtur, A. H.
2. d(i(}>rip.pivovs] i.e. cases in which
there is a period of fever and a period of
relaxation in every twenty-four hours.
As Martin observes, the names given to
these recurrent fevers denote, not their
period, but the number of days necessary
for determining the period : thus in a
Tpiraios there is a day of fever and a day
of relief; the fever returning on the third
day marks the period as comprising two
days: similarly in a TeTapraTos there is a
day of fever and two days of relief, the
fever returning on the fourth day. Galen
de plac. Hipp, d Plat, nil 697 disputes
Plato's account of fever, which he ascribes
not to the four elements, but to the four
primary fluids of the body. The ancient
medical writers also mention a species of
tertian fever called rj/AirpiTatos, the period
of which was thirty-six hours of fever
(more or less) and twelve hours of com-
parative relaxation ; see Celsus in 3, in 8.
86 B 87 B, c. xli. Maladies of the
soul arise from morbid conditions of
the body. Now the sickness of the soul
is foolishness ;
and of this there are two
kinds, madness and ignorance. Plea-
sure and pain in excess are the most
calamitous of mental disorders, for they
lead a man vehemently to seek one thing
and eschew another without reflection or
understanding. Whenever the seminal
marrow is abundant and vigorous, it
prompts to indulgence in bodily pleasures
which enfeeble the soul. But the profli-
gate are unjustly reproached as criminals:
in truth they are sick in soul. For no
one is willingly evil ; this comes to a man
against his will through derangement.
For when the vicious humours of the
body are pent up therein and find no
vent, the vapours of them rise up and
choke the movements of the soul at all
her seats, causing moroseness and melan-
choly, rashness and cowardice, forgetful-
ness and dulness. And these evils are
further aggravated by bad institutions
and teaching and lack of wholesome
training. Wherefore the teachers are
more to blame than the sinners themselves,
whom we ought to strive to bring into a
healthier habit of mind.
7. 810 crco(JLa.Tos Q-iv] The corporeal
eis which cause sickness to the soul
may be classified in two divisions, (i) sus-
ceptibility to pleasures and pains (these
arise from <rw/ttaros ?y, because, al-
though it is the soul, not the body that

c] TIMAIOS. 323
excess of fire, it exhibits continued inflammations and fevers ;
excess of air causes quotidian fevers ;
excess of water tertian,
because it is more sluggish than air or fire ;
excess of earth,
which is by four measures most sluggish of all, being purged
in a fourfold period of time, gives rise to quartan fevers, and is
with difficulty banished.
XLI. Such are the conditions connected with diseases of the
body; those of the soul depend upon bodily habit in the following
way. We must allow that disease of the soul is senselessness; and
of this there are two forms, madness and stupidity. Every con-
dition then in which a man suffers from either of these must be
termed a disease. We must also affirm that the gravest maladies
of the soul are excessive pleasures or pains. For if a man is
under the influence of excessive joy, o,r, on the other hand, of
extreme pain, and is eager unduly to grasp the one or shun the
other, he is able neither to see nor to hear anything aright ;
he is
delirious, and at that moment entirely unable to obey reason.
perceives them, yet they affect the soul
through the body), which blind a man to
his real interest and highest happiness :
(2) physical ill health, which, by enfee-
bling the parts through which the soul
acts upon the body, impedes her actions
and stifles her intelligence. Compare
Phaedo 66 B (jivpias ^v yap -qfjuv d<rxoX'as
irap^xd T& v&V-a- Si&rty avayKaiai>rpo<f>r]t>'
in 5' av rtces i>6croi irpoffir^ffuffiv,
8. TO (J.iv jiavtav, TO 5e d(ia6Cav]
This classification, though not discordant,
is not identical with that given in Sophist
228 A foil. In that passage we have two
etdri of Ka.Kia in the soul, one being a
vbffos or (rrdffis, the other alexw or d/ae-
rp'ia. The voeros is Troifr>pia, the al(rxos
is dyvoia. Further dyvoia is subdivided
into a/Jiadia, defined as rb ^ Karfidbra n
SoKflv fititvcu, and ra aa fJ-tprj dyvolas,
which are left unnamed. In the Timaeus
the distinction between vo<ros and oltrxos
is sunk : for all that belongs to wovnpla. in
the Sophist here falls under dvoia, whereof
La also is a form. This does not
mean any ethical discrepancy between
the two dialogues ; rather the minuter
Siaipeffis of the Sophist is made in further-
ance of the dialectical ends of that dia-
logue, but is needless for the ethical
object of the present passage. &p.a.6ia can
hardly be translated by any English
word : it signifies ignorance combined
with dulness which hinders the diiadris
from perceiving his ignorance. It must
also be observed that /j,ai>ia is not simply
'
madness '
in the ordinary sense of the
word: as &p.a.Bla. is a defect of the Belov tldos
TTJS ^vxfc, a failure of reason, so is p.a.vLa.
a defect of the Ovrjrbv etSos, a want of due
subordination to the Oriov, leading to in-
continence and the supremacy of the
passions.
ii. irtpuxo-piis -yap <uv] i.e. excessive
sensitiveness either to bodily pleasure or
pain is a species of madness which dis-
tracts the soul and prevents her from
exercising the reason, impelling a man
blindly to seek the pleasant and shun
the painful without consideration of rb
P^XTHTTOV.
21 2

324 ITAATflNOS [86 c
cr7rep/j,a
oro) 7roX'
v
'
teal pvwoes Trepl rov pveov ytyvyrat KOI
Kadajrepel BevBpov 7rovKap7r6repov rov ^v/jifierpov -jrefyvKos 77,
TroXXa? }j,ev Kaff etcacrTOV ooSlvas, TroXXa? 8' r/oovds KT(t>fj,evos ev
rat? eTTiOvfjiiais Kal rot? Treôt
ra roiavra TOKOIS, e^âvrjt TO
5 TTel<Trov yiyvopevos rov ftiov Sid ra? /j,eyicrras tfoovds Kal Xu7ra<?, D
vocrovcrav Kal d<ppova i<T%(0v VTTO TOV <rw//.aTO9 rrjv tyi%iiv, ov% &)?
voffwv aXX' a5? K(av KaKos Bo^dêrat' TO oe dr)0es rj Trepl rd
d(f)po8i(Tia aKOa<Tia Kara TO TroXi) /iepo? 8ta T^V evo? yevovs e^tv
VTTO /j,avoTV)TO<; offT&v ev aoa/j,aTi pvwBr) Kal vypaivov&av voao<t
10 tyvxfjs yeyove. Kal <r%eBov Brj Trdvra, oiroa'a tfoovwv aKpdreia
Kal oyeiSos tw? CKOVTMV eyerat TWV KO,KU>V, OVK opdws oveiSiêrai'
ev yap eKwv ov&i<;, Btd Be iroviypdv eîv TLVCL rov o~cofiaro<f K
i ylyvt)Tai scripsi :
^êrot AHSZ codicesque omnes. *ral inclusit H. 7 ca-
KWJ post Ka*coj cum A omisi. servant HSZ. in nonnullis codicibus, qui AcaictDs
tuentur, abest Ka/c6j. 10 dif/xireia :
aKparla, S.
i. ircpl TOV jiveXov] Compare 73 C,
91 c.
Y^'yvTjTai] I believe this slight alter-
ation restores Plato's sentence. The
vulgate yiyverai. Kal cannot possibly
stand ;
and Hermann's excision of Kal
leaves a construction sorely needing de-
fence. Of the omission of av with the
relative instances are to be found in Attic
prose : see Thucydides IV xvii i tvix&-
piov ov rifuv, oS fj.^v /SpaxeZs dpKUffi, fj/ff
TroXXcMs x.PÔa.1. And above in 57 B we
have the very similar construction irplv...
txtpvyy: and so Laws 873 A irplv... tcoi/j.iffri.
4. TOis irepl Td TotavTa TOKOis] i.e.
pleasure exists (i) in desire, (i) in the
gratification of desire. Note that Plato
says, not that pleasure is twiBvuia, which
would be contrary to his principles, but
that it is iv rats tTrtOvfj.ia.is : it is pleasure
of anticipation. See Phihbus 35 E foil.
Totoij of course signifies the realising of
the anticipation.
8. T^V Ivos -y^vovs ?iv] sc. TOV fj.ve-
XoO.
10. dxpareia Kal oVeiSos] The text
seems hitherto to have escaped suspicion ;
but certainly the phraseology is very ex-
traordinary: I see however no plausible
correction.
12. KO.KOS ftiv -yap 6Kv ovScfe] This
passage is one of the most important
ethical statements in Plato's writings.
Plato's position, which he maintains con-
sistently from first to last, that all vice
and error are involuntary, is clearly to be
distinguished from the Sokratic identifica-
tion of dperrj with tinffT-fjfjL-ij, xaKia with
dfj,aOta. In the Platonic doctrine îri-
oTTj/m? is the indispensable condition to
true dptr-fi (not to Sr)/j.oTuc?j Kal ITOITIK})
dper-fi), and his teaching on this point is
part of a comprehensive theory of deter-
minism. No man, he says, wilfully and
wittingly prefers bad to good. In making
choice between two courses of action
the determining motive is the real or
apparent preponderance of good in one :
if a man chooses the worse course, it is
because either from physical incapacity
or faulty training, or both combined, his
discernment of good has been dimmed or
distorted. We ought not then to rail
upon him as a villain, but to pity him
as one grievously afflicted and needing
succour: compare Laws 731 C, D iras 5'
^x KU>V a5Koj...aXa Aeeu/os fitv
rws 3 -ye oEStKos Kal 6 TO, fca^d ?xw>'i
etV S rbv ntv ldffifj.a Hx VTa ^7XWP '
dvelpyovra rbv 6vn6v irpavvfiv KO! fj.i)

TIMAIOS. 325
In whomsoever the seed in the region of the marrow is abundant
and fluid and like a tree that is fruitful beyond due measure, he
feels from time to time many a sore pang and many a delight
amid his passions and their fruits ;
and he becomes mad for the
greater part of his life owing to the intensity of pleasures and
pains, keeping his soul in a state of disease and derangement
through the power of the body ;
he is not however regarded as
sick, but as willingly vicious. But the truth is that incontinence
in sensual pleasures is a disease of the soul for the most part
arising from the fluid and moist condition of one element in
the body owing to porousness of the bones. So it is too with
nearly all intemperance in pleasure ;
and the reproach attaching
thereto, as if men were willingly vicious, is incorrectly brought
against them. For no one is willingly wicked ;
but it is owing
d.KpaxoovpTa. He admits however that
ffvfjLbs is a useful ally in desperate cases :
rip 5' OKpaTws Kal a.irapanvO-f)Tus TrXrjfj.-
fifei Kal KaK$ {<pUvai del rrjv dpyjjv 5i6
Srj dvfaofidTJ irpiireiv Kal irpq.ov (pa.fj.ev CKCL-
ffrore flvai Seiv T&V ayadov. Hence it
necessarily follows that all punishment is
either curative or deterrent, never vindic-
tive or retributive ; of this there are
many explicit statements ;
see Laws 854 D,
862 D, E, and especially 934 A ;
Phaedo
113 D, E, Gorgias 477 A, 505 c, 525 B.
The greatest benefit we can confer upon
the wicked is to punish them and so
deliver them from their wickedness. Even
the punishment of death inflicted upon
incurable criminals is regarded not only
as a protection to society and as a warn-
ing to the evil-disposed, but also as a
deliverance to the offender himself from
a life of guilt and misery : cf. Laws 958 A
olfft dt 6irws ^Tri/ce/cXwo-^iw, OOVO.TOV
rats OVTU StaTcOflffais ^/x
also 854 C.
Now this view of vice, that it is an
involuntary affection of the soul, will be
seen to be an inevitable inference from
Plato's ontology ; and it well illustrates
how admirably the various parts of his
system fit
together. Soul, as such, is
good entirely. Absolute being, absolute
thought, and absolute goodness are one
and the same. Therefore from the abso-
lute or universal soul can come no evil.
The particular soul is derived from the
universal soul, whence she has her es-
sence : therefore her nature, qua soul,
is entirely good. No evil therefore
can arise from the voluntary choice of
the soul. Evil then must of necessity
arise from the conditions of her limita-
tion, which takes the form of bodily en-
vironment. And it is clear that all
defects in this respect are due either to
physical aberrations or faulty treatment.
Therefore Plato's ethical is necessitated
by his ontological theory. And the In-
terpreter's declaration in the Republic
atria onfrov, Ofbs oW/Ttos not only is
not inconsistent with the maxim KCU-OJ
^KOW o66els, but is inevitably implied in
it : each statement in fact involves the
other and could not be true without it.
In the region of sensibles ugliness and
deformity are due to the imperfect
manner in which the senses convey to
us representations of the ideas : a perfect
symbol of an idea would be perfectly
beautiful ;
all imperfection being due to
divergence from the type. So also moral
deformity is due to divergence from the
type ;
and the choice of evil arises from

326 IIAATHNOS [86 E-
Kal diraiBevrov rpo^rjv 6 tcatcos yiyverat tea/cos, Travrl Be ravra
e%0pd teal ctKOvri Trpoo-yiyverai. teal rrdiv Brj TO Trepl rds X^7ra9
r) ^rv^} Kara ravrd Bid au>p.a 7roXr)i/ icrêi KaKiav. OTTOV yap
uv 01 rwv 6e(i>v Kal roov dvKwv <f)yfJ,dra)V Kal oo~oi rciKpol Kal
voXft>oet9 vfitot Kara TO trcoiia. 7ravi)0ei>re
<
f e^(o iiev LLTJ apco(riv
dvaTTVor/v, evro? Be etXXo/z.et'ot rrjv a<^>'
avrdtv dr/j,iBa rfj T^9 û^9 87 A
fj,dov Kal rjrrov Kal eXaTTO) Kal TrXettw, 7T/J09 re rovs
TO7TOU9 eve%0evra rfjs "^v^rjf, vrpO9 ov dv eicaar avrwv
7roiKiei fifv eiBfj BvcrKOia<? Kal tiuotivfUOG Travro-
8a7rd, 7roiKiei Be OpacrvrijTos re Kal Beiia<f, en Be rjdr)s ctfj,a
Kal Bv<r/j.a6ias. 7rpo9 Be rovrois, orav ovra) /ca(9 irayevrwv
7Toirelai Kaxal Kal 6yoi Kara 7roXet9 iBia re Kal Brfpocriq B
Xe^^wo-tj/, en Be /j,adij(jiara fnyBa/jif) rovrwv lariKa eK v(ov futv-
5 ddvrjrai, ravrrj KtiKol Trdvres ol KaKol Bid Bvo aKovcri(arara
yiyvo/jL0a' a>v alriareov /j,ev roiis <j)vrevovra<; del r<av
fj,dov Kal Toi)9 Tpe<f)ovra<> roSv rpe^toêvwv, irp(
OTT-TJ Tt9 Bvvarai, Kal Bid rpoffrfjs Kal Bi eTnrrj&evpdr&v
re <f)vyelv êv KaKiav, rovvavriov Be eelv. ravra fiev ovv Brj
i O.KOVTI : Kaic6v TI ASZ. 4 ol :
17 A. 12 5y<r/tioWas :
5i>0yta0efaj H.
imperfect apprehension of the type. All nation of (JMOV Kal tirl TTÔV with
men necessarily desire what is good: but ccai tir' (arrov in Phaedo 93 B.
many causes combine to distort their ap- irp<5s T TOVS rpis TO'TTOWS] i. e. the
prehension of the good : whence arises seats of the three etSt) of the soul, the
vice. liver, heart, and head: attacking the first,
2. ^xfy*^ Ka^ &KOVTI] Cornarius' cor- the vapours produce dvffxoia and 8v<r6v-
rection of KO.KOV n into &KOVTI seems (da, attacking the heart, 6pa<rvTt)^ and
nearly as certain as an emendation can SeiXia, attacking the brain, they cause
be ; and I can only wonder at Stall- -f)6i) and 5uff/j.a0ia. The view that mental
baum's defence of the old reading. Per- deficiencies are frequently due to bodily
haps Plato wrote the words as a crasis, infirmity can be traced back to Sokrates :
icdKovri : this would readily become KH- cf. Xenophon memorabilia in xii 6 Iv
KOV Tt, after which the insertion of Kal irdffais 5 rats rov (rw/uaros xPâts iroi>
before it would follow as a matter of 8ia<jipei ws /SArttrra r6 aCop.a txeiv
'
Ka^
course. yap v $ Soêis 6axiffTr)v <rw/itaTos xptlav
TO irpl rds Xviras] Here then we eât, tv r<$ diavofiffOai, rij oi)/c oldev STI
see what Plato means by calling pains Kal tv rotrry woXXoi fj.eyda ff<pdovrai dta
dyaffwv <f>vyal in 69 D. TO /J.TJ vyiaivew TO <rufj.a ;
Kai X^^T; 5^ Kal
8. [tciAXov Kal ^TTOV] I apprehend dOvnia Kal 8v<TKOia Kal /j.ai>ia wodKis
that these words apply to the intensity of iroXXotj 5td rijv rod (n6ôTos Kaxt^tav 'j
the attack, Aarrw /cat irXet'w to the gravity rrfv Stavoiav tfj.irlirTovffu> ovrus, uffre KOI
of the disorder. There is a similar combi- rdj tiriffrrnj.as ^/c/3aXXetJ/.

8; B] TIMAIOS. 327
to some bad habit of body and unenlightened training that the
wicked man becomes wicked ;
and these are always unwelcome
and imposed against his will. And where pains are concerned,
the soul likewise derives much evil from the body. For where
the humours of acid and salt phlegms and those that are bitter
and bilious roam about the body and find no outlet to the sur-
face, but being pent up within and blending their own exhala-
tions with the movement of the soul are mingled therewith, they
induce all kinds of mental diseases, more or less violent and
serious : and rushing to the three regions of the soul, in the part
which each attacks they multiply manifold forms of moroseness
and melancholy, of rashness and timidity, of forgetfulness and
dulness. And when, besides these vicious conditions, there are
added bad governments and bad principles maintained in public
and private speech ;
when moreover no studies to be an antidote
are pursued from youth up, then it is that all of us who are
wicked become so, owing to two causes entirely beyond our own
control. The blame must lie rather with those who train than
with those who are trained, with the educators than the educa-
ted : however we must use our utmost zeal by education, pur-
suits, and studies to shun vice and embrace virtue. This subject
however belongs to a different branch of inquiry.
10. iroiKtXXei jiiv tl'Srj]
This comes 19. ravra. &v o3v 81^] i.e. the evil
to the same thing as yevvq. iroiKiXa d5rj. results of physical imperfection and bad
14. Xex8w<riv] There is an obvious training. The discussion of this subject,
zeugma here : with TroXire'iai we must Plato says, is Tp6iros aXXos 6yuv, that is
mentally supply something like v0rw<ru'. to say, it belongs to an ethical treatise.
ISlq. KOI Sr)/j.offlq. is used as in 88 A. 870 89 D, c. xlii. But it is a pleasanter
1 6. c5v airiar^ov] Compare the fa- task to describe the means whereby the
mous passage in Republic 492 A y Kal crv body is preserved and strengthened. All
riyei wtrirep ol wool, 5ia<j>6eipofjiti>ovi that is good is fair, all that is fair is sym-
rwAs that i5n-6 ffo<f)iffTwi> vtovs, Sia- metrical. Now we take great heed to
<f>ffelpovTas St nvas tro^ior&s 3iwri/cot/s, lesser symmetries, but the most important
6 TI Kal atoi> 6yov, <xXX' OI)K airroi>i of all, the symmetry of soul and body,
rods TO.VTO. X^yovras fj.eylffrovs fj.tv elvai we utterly neglect. Neither should the
ffo<f>iffT<is,
iraiSeveiv 82 TeXeurrara Kal awtp- body be too weak for the soul, nor the
ydfcffOai. oi'ous fiovovrai dvai Kal vtovs soul too weak for the body. Just as
Kal irpeo-pvTtpovs Kal dvSpas Kal yvvaiKas ;
some bodily disproportion is the cause of
Of course, on the other hand, the same pain and fatigue to the sufferer, so it is
allowance must be made to the teachers here : either the soul wears out the body
also, that they do not educate badly from in her pursuit of knowledge, or the body
preference of the bad, but because they hampers and stifles the soul. The only
know no better. safeguard is to give due exercise both to

328 DAATflNOS [87 c
XLII. To B rovrcov avricrrpofyov av, TO Trepi ras TGOV C
aco/Adrwv teal Biavorj<r(t)v OepaTreias al? aiT/at9 fftaêrai, iraKw
el/cos KOI Trpe-rrov avrairobovvai,' SiKaiorepov yap TU>V dyadwv
Trepi fMa,ov fj TWV tcaicdov ia-êiv oyov. irdv Br) TO dyaOov Ka6v,
5 TO Be KaXov ovtc afierpov' Kal ^yov ovv TO TOIOVTOV ecroftevov
v/j,/j,Tpov Oereov. ^vft/Aerpidov Be Ta fiev crfiiKpd
voyi6/jLeOa, TCL Be Kvpiwrara Kal fieyicrra a
7T/509 yap vyteia? Kal i/ocrot"? apera? re /cal ica/clas ovBe/j,ia ^Vftfie-
D
rpia Kal dfierpia pei^wv rj û%^9 avrf/s 777)09 crwpa avro' u>v
o ovBev (TKOTrovfjiev oi)S' evvoov/jiv, ori i/rin^y ia"xypav Kal Trdvrrj
fAeyd
/
r)v daOeviarepov Kal arrov 64809 OTai; o^rj, Kal orav av
rovvavTiov ^vfjiTrayrjTov TOVTCO, ov /ca6v oov TO %q>ov' d^vêrpov
ydp Tai9 fieylcTTaif ff/i/ieTptat9' TO B evavriws e%ov irdvrwv
Oeandrcvv ra> ^vvaîixd KaOopdv KaXXicrrov Kal epaauKararov.
15 olov ovv V7repo-Kes rj
/cat riva erepav inrepeîv afterpov eavra) E
TI awfj.a ov ajj,a fj,ev alcr^pov, a/za S' ev rf) Koivwvla rwv TTOVOJV
?roXXoi)9 f*>ev /C07TOU9, TToXXa Be criracrâTa Kal Bid rr^v Trapafyo-
porrjra Trrwâra Trape-ôv avpioov KaKwv atnov eavrw' ravrov By
BiavorjTeov Kal Trepi rov j;vvafJ,(f)OTepov, (aov o Kaov/j,ev, W9 '6rav
10 re ev avru> ^v^r) Kpeirrwv oicra o-&)/iaTO9 TreptOv/AWS iO")(rj,
Bia-
(relovGa Trdv avro evBoOev vocrtov e/iTTtTrXô't, Kal orav et9 riva? 8S
/j,a6ij(Tts Kal tyjTijcreis crvvrovcos ITJ, KararijKei, BiBa-^df T' av Kal
ev 6yoi<; TTOIOV^VTJ Bijôaia Kal IBia Bi epiBwv Kal
10 ffKoiroufjLfv :
toKoirovnev A. II oxi? :
&XV A. 15 inrtpe&v: birtp ?a> A.
22 trvvrbviiK : evrbvut A.
body and to soul : the student must larly of purifications the best is wrought
practise gymnastic, the athlete must cul- by gymnastic, the next best by conveyance
tivate his mind. We must in this matter in vehicles ; while that by drugs should
follow the law of the universe. For the only be employed in case of positive
human body is subject to external in- necessity. For every malady has its own
fluences, which, if left to themselves, natural period, which it is best not to
quickly destroy it: but if it be exercised disturb with medicine; and so has every
on the plan of the universal movement, individual and every species. Nature
it will be enabled to resist them ; for by then should be suffered to take her own
exercise the cognate and congenial par- course and not be vexed by leechcraft.
tides are brought together, and the un- 3. SiKcuorepov] We are endeavour-
like and discordant are prevented from ing to trace how vous ordered all things
preying on each other. The best kind tirl rb fttXriffrov : therefore it is more
of exercise is when the body is moved appropriate to set forth d-yaâ than KO.KO..
by its own agency ;
it is less good if the 5. ri Si xoXov OVK d'nerpov] So the
agent is some external force, especially good is resolved into the beautiful, and
if only part of the body is moved: simi- beauty into proportion and symmetry, in

88 A] TIMAIO2. 329
XLII. The counterpart to what has been said, the treatment
of body and mind and the principles by which they are pre-
served, were the proper and fitting complement of our dis-
course : for it is more just to dwell upon good than upon evil.
All that is good is fair, and what is fair is not disproportionate.
Accordingly an animal that is to be fair must, we affirm, be
well-proportioned. Now the smaller proportions we discern and
reason upon them ;
but of the greatest and most momentous we
take no account. For in view of health and sickness and virtue
and vice no proportion or disproportion is more important than
that existing between body and soul themselves :
yet we pay no
heed to these, nor do we reflect that if a feebler and smaller
frame be the vehicle of a soul that is strong and mighty in all
respects; or if the relation between the two be reversed, then
the entire creature is not fair ;
for it is defective in the most
essential proportions. But the opposite condition is to him who
can discern it of all sights the fairest and loveliest. For ex-
ample, a body which possesses legs of excessive length or which
is
unsymmetrical owing to any other disproportion, is not only
ugly, but in taking its share of labour brings infinite distress
on itself, suffering frequent fatigue and spasms, and often falling
in consequence of inability to control its motions: the same
then we must suppose to hold good of the combination of soul
and body which we call an animal ;
when the soul in it is more
powerful than the body and of ardent temperament, she agitates it
and fills it from within with sickness; and when she impetuously
pursues some study or research, she wastes the body away :
and in giving instruction and conducting discussions private or
Philebus 64 E vvv 8y Karairêvyev ri/juv Republic 535 D (pikoirovlq. ov Set
ft
TOV ayaOov 5iW/*tJ tls Trp> TOV /caXov elvat TOV a^/jLevov, T& /j.tv rifj.lffta
(pvffiV /j,eTpi6Trjs yap KO.I v/A/j.(Tpla /cdXXos irovov, TO. 5' ^/xtcrea S.TTOVOV, &rrt 5k TOVTO,
STJTTOU Kal apfT-f) Travraxov ^v/j.âLvei yly- STO.V rts (f>ioyvfj.va<TT^s (jv Kcd <f>i60r]pos
vcffOai. fj
K(tl irdvra T& 5iiovovy,
TO TOIOVTOV] sc. KOOV. ^tXojtictflijs 5 /7, /j,t]8t <pirjKOOS
11. orav ox'fl] Cf. 690 5xw^ Te """'' TT/TIK^J, a'XX' tv iravi TOI/TOIJ
rb ffu>fj.a Zdoffai>. Xw^x ^ *<** To.vavTia. TO&TOV nera.pt-
12. dî)jj.[i,Tpov Y<*P Ta^S (xeyio-rais f3r)K<iis T-qv <f>ioirovlav.
^D|i(j.eTpLai.s| The expression is remark- 20. irtpiOvjxws K<r^j] This simply
able. I cannot cite an instance which means impetuous or masterful, without
seems to me exactly parallel. any special reference to the Ov/jLoeidtt.
18. TCXVTOV 8t) 8iavoT]T&>v] Compare 23. 8r](xr((j Kol IS^t] Plato evi-

330 [88 A
veucias yiyvoftevwv BiaTrvpov avro Troiovaa vei, teal pevp-ara eVa-
yovcra, TWV yofj,eva>v larpwv airaroo era rovs 7rio-rovs, rdvavrla
i rroiel' trto/ta re orav av peya /ecu
vTreptyvvov oyu/epa
6<; do-devel re 8iavot,a yevrjrai, Birrwv eiri0vfjt.i6ov ov<rcov (frvarei B
5 /car' dv0pa)7rovs, Bid awpa fj,ev rpo<f>r)$, Bid Be TO Oetorarov rwv ev
rjiJilv <J>povr)a-ea)S, at rov Kpelrrovo<; Kivijcreis xparovaat, KOI TO fj,ev
o-<f)erepov avôvcrat, TO Be TTJS û^? /caxfrdv teal 8vo-fAa0e<> dfAvr/fiov
re Troiovaai, rrjv /êyLa-Ttjv voaov dfjiaOiav evcnrepydôvTai. /j,ia 8rj
<rct)Tr}pia 7T/3O9 afji(f)a), firjre rrjv ^v^rjv avev crco/taTo? Kivelv /JLIJTC
10
crw/Jia avev ^v^^?, 'iva d^vvoêvw ylyvrjaBov laoppoTro) teal vyirj.
TOV Brj /jbaO'rjfjiaTiKOV tf nva dXXrjv <r<f)6Spa neKeryv Siavoia icarep- c
ya6/jivov KOI rr)v rov cra>fj,aro<f aTroSoreov Kivr)<riv, ^v^vaa-ritef)
7rpoa-ofjuiovvra, rov re av <reS/ia eVêXcS? rrdrrovra rds rrj<f
~fyw)(fis
avrajroBoreov Kivrjcreis, fj,ov<riKfj /cal Trdcry (f>iocro<f)la jrpoa-
15 xpwpevov, el yiteXXet Sucaim? rt? a/ia fjuev /caXo?, apa Be dyadof
op0a)s KKijare(rdat. Kara Be ravrd ravra fcal rd pepr) Oepajrevreov,
TO ToO iravrbs aTro/Jii/jiovfjievov elBos. rov yap crtyyaaTO? VTTO rwv
dently means forensic oratory on the
one hand and eristic discussions on the
other, cf. Sophist 2258, 2686: dialectic
seems to be excluded by Si' tptdwv, per-
haps because the calm and dispassionate
temper in which the true philosopher
conducts his arguments is less likely to
lead to injury of his health.
2. Ta.va.vria. alrido-Oai] The phy-
sicians set down to purely physical causes
what is really due to the action of a
vigorous mind upon a body which is too
feeble for it. Martin falls into a strange
error in imagining that Plato would ac-
tually sacrifice the vigour and excellence
of the soul in order to preserve due pro-
portion with the body 'les qualites de
I'ame ne sauraient jamais etre ni devenir
trop belles'. What Plato says is that
the model ffiov is the union of a fair and
vigorous soul with a fair and vigorous
body ; and if the body is too weak for
the soul, unfortunate results are likely
to happen. For this reason the body
ought to receive du attention and train-
ing that it may be preserved in such
health and vigour as to render it a fitting
vehicle for the soul. But nothing can
be more alien to the whole spirit of Plato's
thought than the notion that the soul
is not to be cultivated to the highest
degree, even though she have the mis-
fortune to be united to an inferior body.
We can never make the soul 'trop belle';
but we must not neglect to keep her
corporeal habitation fit for her resi-
dence.
3. iirtptyvov] i.e. too great for the
soul. This reading is indubitably right,
although according to the general analogy
the word would mean '
having an excess
of soul', like v-irtp6v/j.os, and birepo-KeXts
above. The old reading was virtp[/vxpov,
which is found in some mss.
7. ri & rrjs |")xtisl Compare the
passage of the Phaedo 66 B quoted above.
The teaching of the present passage is
not in any way at variance with the
doctrine of the Phaedo that the soul
should withdraw herself so far as she
can from the company of the body. How-
ever completely the body may be in

c] TIMAI02. 331
public in a spirit of contention and rivalry, she inflames and
weakens its fabric and brings on chills ;
and thus deceiving most
of the so-called physicians induces them to assign causes for the
malady which are really in no way concerned with it. When on
the other hand a large body, too great for the soul, is joined
with a small and feeble mind, two kinds of appetites being
natural to mankind, on account of the body a craving for nourish-
ment and on account of the divinest part of us for knowledge
the motions of the stronger prevail and strengthen their faculty,
but that of the soul they render dull and slow of learning and of
recollection, and so produce stupidity, the most grievous of
maladies. There is but one safeguard against both these mis-
fortunes : neither should the soul be exercised without the body
nor the body without the soul, in order that they may be a
match for each other and attain balance and health. So the
mathematician, or whosoever is intensely absorbed in any intel-
lectual study, must allow corresponding exercise to his body,
submitting to athletic training ;
while he who is careful in forming
his body must in turn give due exercise to his soul, calling in
the aid of art and of all philosophy, if he is justly to be called
at once fair and in the true sense good. The same treatment
too should be applied to the separate parts, in imitation of the
fashion of the All. For as the body is inflamed and cooled
subjection to the soul, it must be kept public 3770 roi)s d' fyKpid^vr
as healthy as possible, else it impedes TCIS rpo<povs re /cat /tt^râs lyew rots
the activity of the intellect :
neglect of iraicrl, Kcd TrXdrreiv ras ûx<is O.VTWV rots
the body actually hinders the withdrawal (J.V&OLS iroi> /j.aov rj
TO, <rw/tara rats
of the soul, since her companion is per- -xtpaiv.
petually forcing itself upon her notice 17. TO TOV iravros airoju|Aov|Xvov
with its maladies. At the same time tISos] i. e. imitating the vibration of the
when Plato is, as here, treating physically viroSoxn, which sifts the elements into
of the perfection of the ôv, he naturally their appropriate regions.
lays more stress than in the Phaedo upon viro TWV e'uriovrwv] This seems to
the attention due to the body. For the refer to the action of fire and air upon
Phaedo gives us a 'study of death', the the nutriment received into the body:
Timaeus a theory of life. see 79 A. It is notable that Plato makes
13. TOV T o/B <ru>|xa tmjwXios irXdr- the temperature dependent upon internal
Tovra] This sentence is, I think, suf- agencies, assigning to the external merely
ficient to show the superfluity of the di- variation of dryness and moisture: did
verse emendations that have been pro- he know, for instance, that the tempera-
posed in Phaedo 82 D <iXA /j.rj <ru/j.<i TI ture of the blood is normally almost un-
(or aw/iora) irXdrrovTes. Compare A'e- affected by the temperature of the air?

332 TIAATHNOS [88 D
eiaiovrwv Kaopevov re eVro9 KOI -^rvô/jievov, teal 7rdiv VTTO rwv D
e^wOev r)paivo/j,evov /cat vypaivofievov KCU rd rovrois aKoov6a
jrda")(pvTO<s VTT' d/jL<f>orepo)v rwv Kivrjcrewv, orav pev Tt<? rjo-vîav
dyov TO (Tafia irapaBiBq) Tat? Kivjjarecri, Kparrjdev Bia>ero, edv Be
5 V)v re rpo<j)bv fcal ridrjvyv rov Travrbs irpoaeL'jrop.ev /jLifjLTJrai rt?, KOI
TO craJ/iO. /taXtaTa fiev firjBeTrore r)o~v%iav dyeiv ed, Kivfj Be /cat
cretcr/Lioi)9 dei rivas e^nroiwv avrq> Sid iravrbs ra? evro<$ Kai e'/cro? E
djj,vvr}rai Kara <j>va-iv Kivrfa-eis, icai iierpiws aeiwv rd re irepl TO
7ravcafj,va Tradr/para /cat pep?) Kara ûyyereta? et? rdîv
TT/JO? dr)a, Kara TOV Trpbo-Qev 6yov, ov Trepl TOV
eXeyofiev, OVK e^jdpbv Trap %8pov ridefêvov edaei 7roXe/AOt9
eVrt/eretz/ rc5 crco/iart /cat voaovs, dd <j>iov irapd (f)iov redev
vyleiav dTrep<ya%6fj,evov nrapeêi. r<nv 8' av Kivrjaewv r) ev eavry 89 A
ixfi avrov dpio~rr) Kiwrjaw /j,dto~ra yap rfj BiavorjriKrj at rf) rov
15 Tra^To? Ktvijo'ei jfvyyevrj'}' tj
Be vir dov êipfav' êipicrrr} Be ij
Ki/j,evov rov o-coyLtaro? /cat dyovro? rj^vîav 81 erepcov avro Kara
fieprj Kivovcra. Bib Sr) rwv KaOdpcrewv /cat ^vardcrewv rov aco/iaro?
r) fj,ev Bid r&v yvfivaaiwv dpia-rr), Bevrepa Be 77
Bid rwv alcopijo-eoov
Kara re TOI)<? TrXoy? /cat OTTTJ irep dv o^7;cret? aôTrot yiyvatvrai'
20 rpirov Be elSos /ctyjycrety? a(f)6Spa Trore dvayKaofj,ev(t) %pijcrifj.ov,
aXXw? Be ou'Sa/icG? rw z/oO^ e%ovn Trpoo-BeKreov, TO T/;?
KevriKfjs KaOdpo-ea)<j yiyvofjievov larpiKov. rd yap
'baa fjirj fj,eydovs eêt KivSvvovs, OVK epeOiareov ^>ap/ua/cetat?.
5 re post ^v delet S. n Ayo/ucp :
{yo/j.ev A.
i . viro TWV 2w0v] i. e. by the cir- This is counteracted by the natural move-
cumfluent elements: see 81 A. ment of the body, which restores the due
6. noXiora H-M These words sug- relative position of the particles : thus if
gest a Seurepoj irXous, implied but not virb ruv l-t-uOfv a particle of water is
expressed 'if possible keep the body changed into one of air, and so we have
in constant activity, or at least as nearly air where water ought to be, the motion
so as may be'. of the body sends the air where it
ought
7. <rwr(Jioi)s at rivas] Plato's mean- to be and supplies its former place with
ing is that the natural and voluntary water. In such manner equilibrium and
motions of the body will do for it health are preserved.
what the vibration of the viroSoxr) does 9. iraO^paTa ical pipi]] A some-
for the universe ;
that is to say, it will what curious collocation. The Trafliâra
sift things into their right places. The are roaming about the body seeking ia>a-
various forces which act upon the body irvori, which the 0-ew/uol enable them to
tend to dissolve its substance and confuse find: the /^/"7 are the elemental particles,
it at random, and thus produce sickness which are thus shifted each into its proper
and discomfort by the juxtaposition of place.
uncongenial and incongruous particles. 13. TWV 8* afl Kt,vrjo-wv] The modes

89 B] TIMAIOS. 333
within by the particles that enter, and again is dried and
moistened by those that are outside, and by the agency of these
two forces suffers all that ensues upon these conditions, if we
submit the body passively to the forces aforesaid, it is overcome
and destroyed : but if we imitate what we have called the fostress
and nurse of the All, and allow the body, if possible, never to be
inactive, but keep it astir and, exciting continual vibrations in it,
furnish it with the natural defence against the motions from
without and within ;
and by moderately exercising it bring into
orderly relation with each other according to their affinities
the affections and particles that are going astray in the body ;
then, as we have already described in speaking of the universe,
we shall not suffer mutually hostile particles to be side by side
and to engender discord and disease in the body, but we shall
set friend beside friend so as to bring about a healthy state.
Of all motions that which arises in any body by its own action
is the best (for it is most nearly allied to the motion of thought
and of the All), but that which is brought about by other
agency is inferior ;
and the worst of all is that which, while the
body is lying still, is produced by other agents which move
it piecemeal. Accordingly of all modes of purifying and
restoring the body gymnastic is the best ;
the next best is
any swinging motion such as of sailing or any other con-
veyance of the body which does not tire it: a third kind is
useful sometimes under absolute necessity, but in no other cir-
cumstances should be employed by a judicious person, I mean
medical purgation effected by drugs. No disease, not in-
volving imminent danger, should be irritated by drugs. For
in which the body may be exercised are irdvruv, 8<ra re virb eavruv rj Kai ev aiupats
threefold: (i) when it moves itself as a rj xa.1 Kara OdXarrav nal t<j> lirirdiv 6xoti-
whole ; (2) when it is moved as a whole neva teal vir' duv oirwffovv Si) <j>eponti>uv
by some external agency ; (3) when parts ri> trw/jLaruv tcivelrai.
are moved by external agency, the rest 18. alwpT]<r<ov] This refers probably
remaining stationary. The first and best to a gymnastic machine called eu'wpa, a
is gymnastic ;
the second travelling in a kind of swing.
boat or any other means of conveyance ; 23. OV'K IpeOior^ov <f>ap|xaKc(ais] Com-
the third includes the action of medical pare Hippokrates aphorisms, vol. HI p.
cathartics, which are to be avoided, un- 7 1 1 KUhn TO. Kpivopeva. iced rd KtKpifjjtva
less absolutely necessary. Compare Laws dprlws /UTJ Kiveeiv nrjdt veurep >woieeiv n^re
789 C T& ffufJLa.ro. TTCLVTO. virb ruv yeiff/jLuv <papfj.aKioiffi nyre doiffi tptOianoiat, o'
re KO.I Kivrjffeuv Kivovfjieva &KOTTO. ovlvarai ta.v.

-X.
334 ITAATHNOS [89 B-
irdo-a yap ^vo-raa'is vbcrwv rpoirov Tivd rrj rwv %wa>v <f>i'O~ei Trpo&eoiKe.
real yap r
TOVTWV %vvoBo<; %ovcra reray/êvov^ TOV yStou yiyveTai
%povov<> TOV T 761/01/9 gv/jiTravTos KOI Kar avro TO c3oz/
eifjiap/juevov
CKOO-TOV e%oi>
TOV /3iov (frveTat, -^mpls TWV e% dvdyKrjf iraOr^âTWV C
5 ra yap Tpiycava evdvs /car'
apâ? e/merrou Bvva/jLiv e%ovTa gvvi-
a-TdTai pexpi TWOS xpbvov BvvaTa egaptcelv, ov /3/ov ovtc dv TTOTC
Tt9 649 TO rcepav ert ftupr). TpoTros ovv 6 avTos KOI T//9 irepi TO.
vo<rr//jLaTa j~vcrTdcreW rjv OTCLV rt9 Trapd TTJV eifjiap/jLevrjv TOV
(frdeipr) (fjapfiaKeiais, dfia e'/c
a/j,t.fcp<v fj,eyda xal 7rod eg oXi
10 voaijfjiaTa (f>iel yiyve<r0ai. Bio TraiSaywyeiv Bet 8tat'rat9 irdv-ra rd
ToiavTa, rca6' oaov dv y TO) a-)(or],
a'XX' ov <f>apfj.aKvovTa KCIKOV D
$icricoov epe6i<rTov.
XLIII. Kat Trepl /j,ev TOV KOIVOV oj>ov
teal TOV tccnd TO awâ
avTov fjbepovs, ff rt9 dv /cal BiaTraiSaycoywv KOI BtaTraiSaywyovfAevos
15 v^> avTov /LtaXtcrr' dv /cara 6yoi> oj>i), TavTy XeXe^^W TO Be Brj
TraiBaywyrjaov avTO fid6v TTOV KOL TrpoTepov Trapao-fcevacrTeov et9
Bvvafjiiv o Tt, K(iX,io~TOV Kal dpio~rov et9 Trjv iraiBaywytav elvai.
Bi aKpifteias fj,ev ovv irepl TOVTWV Bie0etv iicavov dv yevoiTo avTO
Ka& at/To fjiovov epyov' TO &' ev Trapepyo) Kara TO, vrpocrOev eTro/jievos E
3 KO.T O.VT& : KaO' avrb SZ.
i. irura yd.p |u<rroo-is] Every form
of disease has a certain correspondence
with the constitution of animals. For as
there are fixed periods for which both the
individual and the species will endure, but
no longer, seeing that the elementary
triangles are calculated to hold out a
certain definite time against the forces of
dissolution, even so every disease has its
fixed period to run ; and if this be rashly
interfered with by medicine, a slight ail-
ment may easily be converted into a
dangerous sickness. Compare the dis-
cussion on medical treatment in Republic
405 D foil.
i. f
TOVTWV |vvo8os] Their con-
junction, i. e. their composition or consti-
tution.
3. TOV T y&'ous |v(iiravTos] Plato's
statement that the species wears out as
well as the individual is very notable.
Although he does not explain the cause
why a species becomes extinct, we may
19 TO. irpbffOfv : rb irptoOev A.
well suppose him to conceive that in
course of generations the triangles trans-
mitted by the parent to the offspring are
no longer fresh and accurate ; so that
every succeeding generation becomes
more feeble, and finally the race dis-
appears.
4. xwP^5 TWV e
dvd-yKTjs ira0ti(idTwv]
i.e. apart from accidents or illness. This
use of the word avayK-q falls in with the
explanation of it offered above on p. 166.
10. 816 iraiSa/YWYtiv] That is, we
should guide the disease, not drive it ;
and
by suitable diet and mode of life suffer it
to run its course in the easiest and safest
way.
n. K0.6' 6'crov av ijj
TW 0^(0X1]] i.e.
he must not pay exclusive attention to it
so as to leave no time for mental culture.
89 D 90 D, c. xliii. Man then being
formed of body and soul united, his guide
is the soul: therefore must he diligently
take heed to her well-being. And where-

E] TIMAIO2. 335
every form of sickness has a certain correspondence to the
nature of living creatures. Their constitution is so ordered as
to have definite periods of life both for the kind and for the
individual, which has its own fixed span of existence, always
excepting inevitable accidents. For the triangles of each
creature are composed at the very outset with the capacity of
holding out for a certain definite time ; beyond which its life
cannot be prolonged. The same applies also to the constitution
of diseases ;
if these are interfered with by medicine to the dis-
regard of their appointed period, it often happens that a few
slight maladies are rendered numerous and grave. Wherefore
we should guide all such sicknesses by careful living, so far as
we have time to attend to it, and not provoke a troublesome
mischief by medical treatment.
XLIII. Now so far as concerns the animate creature and
the bodily part of it, how a man, guiding the latter and by him-
self being guided, should live a most rational life, let this dis-
cussion suffice. But the part which is to guide the body must
beforehand be trained with still greater care to be most perfect
and efficient for education. To deal with this subject minutely
would in itself be a sufficient task : but if we may merely touch
upon it in conformity with our previous discourse, we should
as there are three forms of soul existing 14. SiaTraiScrywyttV Kal SiairaiSa-yw-
in man, that form will be the most power- Y^(J- V S I
Stallbaum gives a strange per-
ful which is most fully exercised. Where- version of this passage. He desires to
fore he must be careful to give freest ac- read VTT' auVoO for u0' avrov, giving the
tivity to that divinest part, which is his truly remarkable result that man must
guiding genius, and which lifts him up he guided by his body ! 'Cette mon-
towards his birthplace in the heavens. strueuse alteration du texte', as Martin
For he whose care is for earthly lusts not too forcibly terms it, is unworthy of
and ambitions will become, so far as that discussion. The vulgate is obviously
may be, mortal altogether, he and all his right ; the sense being that a man must
thoughts ; but whoso sets his heart upon train his bodily part and be trained by
knowledge and truth, he, so far as man himself, that is, by his true self, the soul,
may attain to immortality, will be im- is- rd 8i &rj irai8a-ywytj<rov] This
mortal and supremely blessed. And this is of course fi'X7?-
he must ensue by dwelling in thought up- 18. 81 aKpi^as] Such an exposition
on the eternal truth ; and making his soul does in fact occupy nearly a whole book,
like to that she contemplates, so he will the seventh, of the Republic ; where we
fulfil the perfect life. have the following programme laid down :
13. TOU KOIVOV ?o>ov] i.e. the living (i) arithmetic, (i) plane geometry, (3)
creature consisting of soul and body solid geometry, (4) astronomy, (5) har-
united, the ^vva/j.<porfpov. mony, (6) dialectic.

336 HAATHNOS [89 K
av T9 OVK aTro rpoTrov rfjSe CTKOTCWV wBe r&J 6yu) BiaTrepdvatT* av.
KaOdtrep etiroêv 7rodtci<;, ort rpia Tpi%f} tyv^s ev rj^lv e^Bi)
KaTtoKiaTai, Tvy%dvei Be e/cacrrov Kivrjcreis eôz>, OVTW Kara ravrd
teal vvv 0*9 Sid (Spa-xyTarwv prjTeov, OTI TO fj,ev avTwv ev dpyia
5 Bidyov Kal TUIV eavTOV tcivijcrefov r)(TW%iav dyov dadevecrrarov dvdyxij
yiyvecrdai, TO 8' ev yv/Jbvao-lois eppwfJbevecfrarov' Bio <f)vaKTeov,
O7r&><? av e-xtovi* Ttt? Kivrfa-i<; TT/JO? drjKa (Ti;/A/zeT/3oi9. TO Be 7repi 90 A
roO Kvpiwrdrov Trap' rjpJiv ^v^r)<} et'Soy? Biavoel&dai Bel ryBe, a><j
dpa avro Baipova Oeos e/cdaTa) BeScaKe, TOVTO o 877 <f>ap,ev olxeiv /j.ev
10 rffiwv eTT dicpw rw cra>p,aTi, Trpo? Be rr)v ev ovpavai ^vyyevetav diro
7^5 ?7/ia? aipeiv co? ovTas fyvrov OVK ejyeiov dd ovpdviov, opdo-
rara. eyovre? etceldev yap, oOev -q Trpcarr) T% ^/ru^? yeveo-is efyv,
TO 6elov Tr)V Ke<j>ar)v Kal piâv q/J,<av dvaKpepavvvv op6ol irdv TO B
crwfjia. ToS /j,ev ovv Trepl rd<f eTriOvfjiias rj irepi (f)ioveiKia<; rereyra-
15 ôTt Kal ravra Biairovovvri, cr<J>6Bpa irdvra rd Boypara dvdyKij
Ovqrd eyyeyovevai, Kal Travrajracn KaG" ocrov fjbdiara Bvvarov
Qvr}Tu> yiyveadai, TOVTOV firjBe (TfAiKpbv eei7reiv, are TO TOI.OVTOV
ijv^rjKOTt,' TW Be Trepl <j)t,ofj,a0[av Kal Trepl TO? dr)6ei$ (frpovrfa-ets
ecnrovBaKOTi Kal Tavra pdXia-Ta TWV avTov yeyvfj,va<r/j,ev<t) (fjpovelv C
20 [lev dddvaTa Kal Beta, dvTrep dr)6eia<; etydTTTrjTai, Trdcra
1 Sr) post rb 5^ addit S. 14 lirtOvulas :
TrpoOvfj-las A. irepi ante <f>ioveiKia.$
omittunt SZ. 18 <t>ion,a6iav :
<t>io/j.ddeiav SZ. TCIS d7)6eis : ras rrjs di)6fia.s S.
2. rpCa rpixj]] This seems a fa- the intellect Sat/tup, does not of course
vourite phrase with Plato; see above,
'
mean that it is &CTO'J. Also Plutarch,
52 D, ov re Kal x^Pat> *a'
y^vecnv elvat, like many of the later, especially neopla-
rpla rpixv- Compare too Sophist 266 D tonist, writers, draws an unplatonic dis-
rldtiiu Svo dixy TonjTiicrjs etdrj. tinction between vouj and î/x1
?. although
7. irpis oXXrjXa orvji-n^Tpovs] Not a little above he has used correcter lan-
in equal measure, but properly propor- guage. In Plato vovs is simply jsvxi)
tioned to their relative merits, so that the exercising her own unimpeded functions.
highest eI5os may be supreme, and the Plato gives us to understand that the
two lower in due subordination. true dalfj-uv ov ^/caaros ettjxev
'
ls our wn
8. ws apa, avro SaCfxova] Compare mind : we are to look for guidance not
Plutarch de genio Socratis 22 rb ptv ovv to any external source, but to ourselves,
vTrojBpvxiov tv rip ffufj.ct.Ti. ifsuxn 4yTac to the divinest part of our nature.
rb 5i <f>0opas ei<f>di> oi TroXXol vow KO.OVV- 10. irpos 8i TIV tv ovpavw ^vYY^v lav]
TCJ fvrbs elvat vopifrvaiv avrwv, uvirep tv See 41 D, E. The affinity of the highest
TOW iffoirrpois TO. <pa.iv6fj.fi> a. /car' &VTO.V- part of the soul to the skies is poetically
"yetav ol 5' <5p0uis virovoouvres wj ticris assigned as the cause why man alone of
6vra oa.lfj.ova. irpoffayopevovffi. Plutarch all animals walks upright :
compare 9 1 E
here deviates in more than one point foil. It is amusing to compare the prosaic
from Plato's doctrine. Plato, in calling and matter-of-fact treatment of the same

90 c] TIMAIO2. 337
find a consistent answer to the question from the following
reflections. As we have often said, three forms .of soul with
threefold functions are implanted in us, and each of these has its
proper motions. Accordingly we may say as briefly as possible
that whichever of these continues in idleness and keeps its own
motions inactive, this must needs become the weakest ;
but that
which is in constant exercise waxes strongest : wherefore we
must see that they exercise their motions in due proportion.
As to the supreme form of soul that is within us, we must
believe that God has given it to each of us as a guiding genius
even that which we say, and say truly, dwells in the summit of
our body and raises us from earth towards our celestial affinity,
seeing we are of no earthly, but of heavenly growth : since to
heaven, whence in the beginning was the birth of our soul, the
diviner part attaches the head or root of us and makes our whole
body upright. Now whoso is busied with appetites or ambitions
and labours hard after these, all the thoughts of his heart must
be altogether mortal ;
and so far as it is possible for him to be-
come utterly mortal, he falls no whit short of this ;
for this is
what he has been fostering. But he whose heart has been set
on the love of learning and on true wisdom, and has chiefly
exercised this part of himself, this man must without fail have
thoughts that are immortal and divine, if he lay hold upon
subject by Sokrates :
Xenophon memora- Danrrtat K TTJS yijs Tpotpriv irjrb r??s (ftvcre&s
bilia I iv u. SeSr}fjuovpyi]/j.^vriv.
13. n]V K(j>a.X-r]v Kal piav i]|xwv] 16. Ka9" <{<rov (tdXwrra Svvarov] Do
The significance of this bold and beau- what he will, he cannot become altogether
tiful metaphor is that, as a plant draws OVTITOS, because, to whatever degraded
its sustenance through its roots from its form of organic life he may descend, he
native earth, so does the soul draw her always has the dOdvaTos dpxii which the
spiritual sustenance through the head Sytuovpybs delivered to the gods. TO rot-
from her native heavens. Very different OVTOV = TO BVTJTOV.
is the spirit of Aristotle's comparison, de 19- 4>
POV"V P^v afldvara] Compare
anima n iv 4i6
a
4 w$ TJ Kf<j>a}) TU>V fyuv Symposiiim 212 A $ owe tv6vjji.fi, (<t>yj,
on
OVTWS al ptfai rCiv <f>vrG>v : the analogy ivTavOa avrf fj.ova.xov yevr)<rfTai, opwvn
only refers to physical nutriment, cf. II i V bparbv TO Ka6v, rixrfiv OVK efSwXa
4i2
b
3 al 5e pifat rip ffTofJ.a.Ti foAXoyov aper^j, are OVK tiduov <f>airTO/j.tv<fi, a'
afJKJtu yap Kei TIJV Tpo<frf)v : and similarly aXriOij, are TOV aXyOovs tyairTOfitvy re-
Galen de plac. Hipp, et Plat. V 524 KQVTI. 5e dperriv di)0rj Kal 0pef/a(Uviti yevfoffai, Kal etirep ry
oOrov ro7s QvTol* TO irtpas TTJS ptfai(rews dtf> dvdpwiruv, adavaTy Kal tKelvy, see
drx"ws <t>dvai doKti ffTOfj.ariuv irowv too Aristotle nicomachean ethics X vii
P. T. 22

338 HAATfiNOS [90 c
TTOV, KaO' oaov 6 av (JLeraarêlv dvOpwiriwr) fyvcris ddavacrias ev-
'
Several, rovrov /u/;8ei> uepos aTroXeiTreiv, are 8e del Oepairevovra TO
Oeiov e%ovrd re avrov ev KeKocrfitjaevov rov Baiaova VVOIKOV ev
avroJ:) 8ia(pep6vra) Kal Kivrjcreis aTroSibovai' ru> 8' eV
ijfilv 6eiu> jfvyyevels elcrl Kivr/creis at rov Travros Staôi/cret? Kal D
7rept,(f>opai' ravraw Brf ^vveiroêvov eicaarov Set r9 Trept rijv jevetrtv
ev rfj tce<pafj Sietfrdap/jievas r)p,wv TrepioSovs e%op6ovvra Sid TO
KarauavOdveiv TO? TOW 7rai/TO? dpuovta? re teal irepKfropds T&)
10 Karavoovueva) TO tcaravoovv eôfjuoioacrai Kara rrjv dp%atav <f)i>(Tiv,
6/j,oia)cravra Se Teo<? eêti/ TOU irporeOevros dv0pa>7rois VTTO 6ea>v
dpivrov (3lov irpos re rov rrapovra Kal rov eireira %povov.
XLIV. Kat 8rj Kal rd vvv rjp,lv e
dp%fj<? TrapayeXOevra E
Bieê0e?v Trepl rov 7ravro<? /tte%pt yevecrea)^ avQp&wlvi
15 eoiK TeXo? e%etz/.
Ta <ydp da %<ua rj yeyovev av, Sid
eTTifivyareov, o pr) Tt9 avdyKij (JUfKVVGW ovrw yap
rt9 av avrw Soête irepi TOV9 rovrwv 6yovs elvai. T^S' ovv TO
roiovrov ecrrco eyoaevov. roov yevojjbevayv dvbpwv ocroi SetXoi Kal
rov ftlov aSi&)9 &if)6ov, Kara 6yov rov eiKora yvvaiKes fiere-
10 (pvovro ev rrj Sevrepa yeveaei. Kal tear eKetvov $r) rov ypovov Sia 91 A
ravra Oeol rov T^9 %vvov<rLas epcora ereKrrfvavro, ^yov TO uev ev
3 fida post ei; addit S. 4 wdvTWf : Travrbs S.
1 6 fj./j.erpuTepos :
t(j./j.eTp6Tepos HS.
JI 77
b
3 e^ ^ Oetov 6 vovs Trpos rov av-
Opuirov, Kal 6 Kara TOVTOV |3toy êios TT/JOS
TOV dvGpunrivov [iiov ov xP'n ^ K<XTO TOI)S
irapaivovvTas avOpunriva <f>poveiv OvOpwirov
ovTa ovdt ffvrjra TOV OVIJTOV, d' ^0' oo~ov
l
ddavarifetv Kal irdvra iroielv
TO fjv KaTa TO KpaTiffTOv TUV tv
avr$. A sentence worthy of Plato him-
self.
4. ev8o.ifj.ova] i-e- evSalûv signifies
6 ?xwj/ rov Sai/J.ova ev KenoffiJ.-rm.tvov.
Oepdircia 8i 8i] iravr^] sc. TIJJ i'vxijs
etSei.
6. 5VYY*V*^S >l0"^
KIVIO-IS] cf. 47 B
rds irepupopas r^s Trap' TjjtwV Sioyo^crews
firy-yeêis eVeiVotj owas, d/aPTyrois TeTapay-
Hevas. Plato frequently fuses in his lan-
guage the symbol with what it symbolises,
the irtpupopa. with the diav6ijffis.
7. rds irpl r^v ytvttriv] The Tre-
ploSoi are distorted by the inflowing and
outflowing stream of nutrition ; see 43 A
foil.
10. icard rip; dpxafav <}>vo-iv] i.e.
according to its original and proper nature
qua soul, before contamination by con-
tact with matter : the priority being of
course logical.
90 E 92 c, c. xliv. And now our tale
is well-nigh told. For in the first gene-
ration the gods made men, and in the
second women : and they caused love
to arise between man and woman and
a desire of continuing their race. And
afterwards from such as followed not after
wisdom and truth sprang the fowls of the
air and the beasts of the field, whose
heads are turned earthwards, because

9i A] TIMAIO2. 339
the truth ;
and so far as it lies in human nature to possess im-
mortality, he lacks nothing thereof; and seeing that he ever
cherishes the divinest part and keeps in good estate the guardian
spirit that dwells in him, he must be happy above all. And the
care of this is always the same for every man, to wit that he
assign to every part its proper exercise and nourishment. To
the divine part of us are akin the thoughts and revolutions of
the All : these every man should follow, restoring the revolu-
tions in the head, that are marred through our earthly birth, by
learning to know the harmonies and revolutions of the All, so as
to render the thinking soul like the object of its thought ac-
cording to her primal nature : and when he has made it like, so
shall he have the fulfilment of that most excellent life that was
set by the gods before mankind for time present and time to
come.
XLIV. Thus then the task laid upon us at the begin-
ning, to set forth the nature of the universe down to the gene-
ration of man, seems wellnigh to have reached its fulfilment.
For the manner of the generation of other animals we may deal
with in brief, so there be no need to speak at length : thus shall
we in our own eyes preserve due measure in our account of
them. Let us then state it in this way. Of those who were
born as men, such as were cowardly and spent their life in
unrighteousness, were, according to the probable account, trans-
formed into women at the second incarnation. At that time
the gods for these reasons invented the love of sexual inter-
course, in that they created one kind of animate nature in men
they have let their reason sleep. And 781 A o Kal dXXwj ytvos ij/uwc TUI>
below these were creatures of many legs, iruv a6paidrepov fj.aoi> Kal *firtKoinb-
and worms that crawl on their belly; and, repov, TO OijXv, Sta TO daOevk. Assuredly
yet lower, the fish that for their foolish- women treated on the Athenian system
ness may not even breathe pure air, and would have been either more or less than
all living things whose habitation is in human, had they not developed some
the water. Yet these are ever changing tendency in this direction. Plato how-
their rank, rising or falling as their un- ever is apparently the only Greek thinker
derstanding grows more or less. And who saw the cause of the evil and pro-
so was the universe completed and all posed a remedy.
that is therein, one and only-begotten, 21. <jov] This curious quasi-per-
the most fair and perfect image of its sonification of sexual impulse as an ani-
eternal maker. mate being is
manifestly to be understood
19. dLSiKws 8ii]X0ov] Compare Ltiws as mythical.
22 2

340 HAATHNOS [91 A
,
TO 8' ev Tat? <yvvai%l o-vo~rr/(ravre<; e^vôv, roiwBe rporrw
endrepov. rrjv rov rrorov BieôBov, f)
Bid rov
TO TTO/ia VTTO TOl)<? Ve(f>pOVS /<? TT)V KV&TIV e6bv KOI TU>
di(f>0ev ^vveKTre/ATrei Beôêvrj, ^vverprjcrav et? rov etc rrj$
5 Kara rov avêva Kal Sid rfjs pdêw^ fj.veov ^vfjLTreTrrjyora, ov Br)
B
Grreppa ev rois rrp6<r6ev 6yois eiTrofjiev' o Se, ar lft-v|ruô?
u>v Kal
a{3(i)v dvaTTvorjv rovO* f/Trep dveTrveucre, rrjs eicpOTjs foriKrjv GTriOv-
fjilav efjLTTOir/cras avrw rov <yvvav epwra a-TrereXecre. Bto Brj rwv
fj,ev dv&pwv TO Tre/oi rrjv rwv alBoiwv <f>v<riv djreiOe^ re real avro-
10 icpares yeyovos, olov %wov dvvTrr/KOov rov 6yov, rrdvrwv 8t' eiTidv-
/ita? olarpa>8ei<f eTri%eipei tcparetv'
'
al 8' ev rats i
yvvait;lv av fj-fjrpai
re KOL varepai, Xeyoêvai Sid rd avrd ravra, %(pov eTriOvfji'rjriKov C
evov rr)s TraiSoTrot/a?, OTCH^ aicaprrov Trapd rrjv uipav xpovov TTOVV
yiyvrjrai, âXeTrcG? dyavaKrovv <j)pei, teal ifKavwêvov Trdvrrj Kara
15 TO awfjba, Ta<? ToO Trvev/JLaros 8ie68ov<; a7ro(f>pdrrov, dvarcvelv ovtc
e<av, el<> drropias rds ea-^dra^ e/i/SaXXet KOI vocrovs TravroScnrds
aXXa? Trapeêt' ê^pnrep av eiearepwv r) e-mOvîa Kal 6 epaK
vvovdovres, olov drro Sevopwv Kaprrov KaroSpe'tyavres, 009 et? D
dpovpav rrjv /nyrpav dopara vrro o-fAircpoTrjros ical d8id7raa-ra
10 %a>a Karacrwetpavres Kal irdiv Siatcpivavres /j,e<yda eWo<> t
?
/c-
6pe^lr(avrai Kal fjierd rovro els ^>ftJ9 dyayovTes âjcav drroreeo'O)cn
ryeveo~iv. yvvaiKes fiev ovv Kal TO 6rjv rrdv ovrw yeyove' TO Be
rwv opvewv ()>vov fAereppv0/j,iero, dvrl rpi%(3v rrrepd <f>vov, K
rojv dtcaKWv dvSpwv, KOIHJHOV Be, Kal nreo)pooyiK(av pev, 77701;-
25 pevwv Be 8t' cn|re&>? T? Trepl rovrcov aTroBeiêis /Se/SatoTaTa? elvai E
3 ?r6/ta :
irwîa SZ. 18 fwSi/dfoi'Tes scripsi ex Hermann! coniectura. |w5ta-
H, et, teste Bastio, A : Bekkerus autem wayay6i>Tfs in A legisse videtur.
iaya.y6vTes SZ. KaradptyavTes :
Kq.ro. dpetj/avres ASZ. 1 1 /aerd TOVTO :
perd
ravra S.
3. Bid TOV TrXevfiovos] See 70 c. this 'per tempus, quo vires maxime vi-
6. iv TOIS irp<5o-0v X6i
yous] 73 c, gent'. Lindau more correctly gives
74 A; cf. 86 c: and in the contrary sense 'praeter pubertatem': compare Critias
Aristotle de partibus animalium II vi 113 D ijSr) S' es avSpos wpav rjKovffijs rrjs
65i
b 20. /topijj, i.e. when she was old enough to
7. Xa.pa>v avairvotiv rovfl'] It is be married.
possible that some error may lurk here :
14. irXavw(ivov] This refers to the
but if we alter rovO' to ravT-ij, as Stall- metaphorical faov above. Compare 88 E
baum proposes, OI)T> is left without any rd re irepl TO ffufna Travufj.eva iraOri-
reference. para.
13. irapd rqv wpav] I think Stall- 18. ^vSuaJovrcs] This correction of
baum is
certainly mistaken in
paraphrasing Hermann's appears to me a
happy one.

E] T1MA1O2. 341
and another in women, which two they formed in the following
way. To the channel of the drink, where it receives the fluid
passing down through the lungs beneath the kidneys into the
bladder and sends it forth by pressure of the air, they opened a
passage into the column of marrow which runs from the head
down the neck and along the spine, and which we have already
termed the seed. This, being quick with soul and finding an
outlet, gave to the part where it found the outlet a lively desire
of egress and produced a longing to generate. Wherefore the
nature of the generative part in man is disobedient and head-
strong, like a creature that will not listen to reason, and en-
deavours to have all its will because of its frantic passions ;
and
again for the same reason what is called the matrix and womb
in women, which is in them a living nature appetent of child-
bearing, when it is a long time fruitless beyond the due season,
is distressed and sorely disturbed, and straying about in the
body and cutting off the passages of the breath it impedes
respiration and brings the sufferer into the extremest anguish
and provokes all manner of diseases besides ;
until the passion
and love of both unite them, and, as it were plucking fruit from
a tree, sow in the womb, as if in a field, living things invisible
for smallness and unformed, and again separating them nourish
them within till they grow large, and finally bringing them to
light complete the birth of a living creature. Such is the nature
of women and all that is female. The tribe of birds was trans-
formed, by growing feathers instead of hair, from men that were
harmless but light-minded ;
who were students of the heavenly
bodies, but fancied in their simpleness that the demonstrations
were most sure concerning them which they obtained through
The reading of A, ^vvStayayovres, is pie, astronomers who fancy that astro-
senseless, and equally so is tl-ayayovTes. nomy means nothing more than what
As to ffwayayovres, which would other- they see with their eyes. The class of
wise suit well enough, the aorist can persons indicated is clearly enough shown
hardly be tolerated, nor has this reading by Republic 529 A foil. I can see no
very good authority. The word in A reason for supposing with Martin that
is an easy corruption of wSvdfrvres, and the Ionian philosophers are meant. With
the other readings look like attempts at the epithet Kov<f>wv compare Sophocles
correcting it.
Antigone 343 Kov<f>ov6wv re <pvov opvl-
12. ri 8i TWV opvt'wv] In birds are 6uv.
incarnate the souls of harmless silly peo- 25. 81' oxj/twsj Cf. Republic 539 A KI.V-

342 riAATHNOS [91 E
oY ewjOeiav. TO o av TrefoV KOI ffijpiwSes yeyovev e'/c roav
<tocro(ta fjurjSe dOpovvTwv rr)<> Trepl TOV ovpavov
,
8id TO fir]KeTi Tai9 ev
,
da rot? 7Tpl ra crTtjOrj Trjs -^rv^rj
5 fiepeatv. etc TOVTCOV ovv TWV eirLrêvâTwv TO, T eîirpoaOia tcwXa
teal r9 /ce$aa9 et9 717^ eX/co/ieva VTTO ^vyyeveias rjpeicrav, irpo^r]-
/cet9 re /cat Trai/rota? r;oi/ TO? /copula?, OTTTJ (rvve6i<f>6r)o-av
VTTO dpyias eicaaTwv al Trepifyopai TfTpafrovv T TO 761*09 CLVTWV 92 A
e/c TavTir)<s e<f>vTO Kal 7rov7rovv T^9 7r/9o^>acrea)9, êoO /3
10 VTTOTiOevTOs 7rXe/ot9 rot9 paXKov dtypoeiv, 0)9 fjidov eVt
KOIVTO. Tot9 S'
dfypovecrTaTois avT&v TOVTOJV K
7T/309 7^ ?rai/ TO arco/Jia KaTaTeivo/ievois 0)9 ouSei' ert
01/0-779, aTToSa avTo, Kal i,va7ra>/Mva eVt 7^9 eyevwrjffav. TO 8e
TeTapTov 7^09 evvBpov yeyovev e/c TOJI/ fj,diaTa dvo^roraTWV Kal
15 dfjuaOea-TaTcov, 01)9 oJS' dvaTrvofjs Kadapds ert, rfîwaav ol
VTTO
vr ,e?TT9 /cat
BoXepdv Kal fiadeiav ewaav dvaTrvevaiv' odev l%9vcov edvos Kal TO B
ocTTpewv ^vvaTrdvTWv re ocra evvSpa <y<yove,
Svvevea ydp Kal et TIS iv 6po<j>rj TTOIKIA-
Hara Otufievos dvaKvwruv KarapavOdvoi ri,
fiyeiffdai av avrbv vorio~ei, dXX' OVK 0/j.fj.acri
It is remarkable that the compiler of
the Timaeus Locrus treats transmigra-
tion and retribution as a mere fable,
though a fable which is useful as a de-
terrent from vice: cf. 104 D ei Si KO rts
ffKapbs Kal ciTratfiJs, T$ 8' iwiffOu /c6Xo<rtj
a T' iK rwv v6fj.uv Kal a K ruv 6yuv, wuv-
rova iirdyoiffa Seip-ard re virovpdvia Kal rd
Keivrai SvcrSal/jLOffi vepripots, Kal raXXa offa
iir&ivid) rbv 'luviKbv Troirirav iK iraXaiay
iroievvra TOI)S ivayias' ws ydp rd aw/j.ara
voa&oevl iro/ca vyiao/j.es, at Ka fj.i) ef/cij
TO?J vyieivordrois, ovru rcty j/vxds dwelp-
yofjits f/ev8iffi Xo70is, et Ka fj.r) dyijrai da-
Oiffi. iyoLvro 5' av
8eiuv is yvvaiKia aKavea Tro6' vdpiv inSi-
8dfj.eva, TUV Si fiiaKpovuv is drjpluv ffia/MiTa
Trorl Koa<nv, dyvuv Si is aviav rj Kairpuv
/j.op<pds, Kotiipiav 8 Kal nereupw es irrrfvuiv
depoTropwv, dpywv 82 Kal dirpaKTUv duaOuv
re Kal dvorjTdjv is rav ruv ivtidpuv ISiav.
Compare Phaedo 8 1 E foil.
5. ^K TOUTWV 06v TWV riTt]8vp.aTwv]
There is an interesting parallel in Aris-
totle de partibus animalium IV x 686a
25
6 (iv ofiv avOpuiros dvrl ffKf<2v Kal voSuv
ruv irpoffOiuv fipaxlovas Kal rds KaXovptvas
8ia TO rtfv <pv<riv avrov Kal rrf ovalav elvai
6eiav' Zpyov 5 roO Betordrov TO voelv Kal
<f>povelv rovro Si ov paSiov TroXXoO rov avu-
0ev iiriKei/j.{vov <ru>/j.aros' ro yap jSdpos 5v<r-
Klvijrov iroie? r^v Sidvoiav KO! riv KOIVTJV
atffBrjffiv. Sib irXei'ous yevopivov rov pdpovs
Kal rov ffWfj.aroeiSovs dvdyKrj pireit> TO,
ffufj-ara fit rrf yrjv, ucrrf irpos rr/v d<r-
<pdfiav dvrl fipaxibvuv Kal xeipuv roi)r
irpoffffiovs Tro'Sas virtOrjKtv TJ (pfois rois
rerpdiroffiv. TOI)J (tip yap 6iri<r9iovs Svo
iraffiv dvayxatov TO?S iroptvriKots fyfiv, ra
Si roiavra rerpdiroSa iyivtro ou Svva/j.ivrjs
TO fidpos rrjs

92 B] TIMAIO2. 343
the sight. And the race of brutes that walk on dry land comes
from those who sought not the aid of philosophy at all nor
inquired into the nature of the universe, because they used no
longer the revolutions in the head, but followed as their guides
the parts of the soul that are in the breast. From these practices
their front limbs and their heads were by their natural affinity
drawn towards the ground and there supported ;
and their heads
were lengthened out and took all sorts of forms, just as the orbits
in each were crushed out of shape through disuse. For the same
reason such races were made four-footed and many-footed ;
for
God gave many props to the more senseless creatures, that
they might the more be drawn earthward. As to the most
senseless of all, whose whole bodies were altogether stretched
at length on the earth, seeing they had no longer any need
of feet, God made them footless to crawl upon the ground. And
the fourth class that lives in the water was formed of the most
utterly foolish and senseless of all, whom they that transfigured
them thought not worthy even of pure respiration, because their
soul was polluted with all manner of iniquity ;
but in place of
inhaling the fine pure element of air they were thrust into the
turbid and lowly respiration of water. Hence is the tribe of
fishes and of all shell-fish that live in the water ;
which have the
6. irpojM]Kis TJ KCt^ iravroCas] Their merely because it respires under water ;
heads were elongated, because the circles and water-snails are probably as intelligent
of the brain were distorted into an ellip- as land-snails. It is
possible, as Martin
tical form : the proper and typical shape suggests, that Plato may have taken the
of the head is spherical, emulating the hint from Diogenes of Apollonia : see
figure of the universe: see 44 D, 730, E; Theophrastos de sensu 44 Qpoveiv 8t,
and for the effect of the /cD/ua rijs rpo(f>TJs utairep A^x^ T<? ^Pl
Ka.0a.pq> Kal frpy'
upon the shape of the head see note on Kuveu> yap TTJV iKiuLoa rov vovv, 5io Kal
76 A. tv TOIJ VTTVOIS Ko.1 Iv TCUJ (dOais Kal tv TCUJ
12. irav TO crcojia KaTaTivo[ivois] iri)ff/jioi>cus ffnov <f>poveiv. on 5t 17 vyporijs
Plato's theory pays small regard to the d^cuperrcu TOV vovv ffrjfifiov, OTI TO, aXXa
'wisdom of the serpent': however, as f$a x ^w T17
I/ Sidvoiav' dvawveiv re yap
the serpent has an exceptional gift of TOV airo TTJJ yrjs dtpa KOI rpo<p^v vyportpav
holding its head upright, perhaps we may irpofffapfadai.. TOI)J 8 opvtOas avairvfTv
allow it to be promoted a few grades on ptv Ka.6ap6v, Qtiffiv ot buolav ?xety T <*
that account. lx.66ffi' Kal yap Trjv uapKa. ffTi<f>pai> nai
15. ofls ovS* dvairvoTJs KaOapds '<i"n TO irvevpa ov Sufrai Sia TTOVTOJ aXXA
i||ia)<rav]
It seems a little hard upon an tffTavai irepl TTV KoiXiav. Compare He-
animal so highly organised as the fish to rakleitos fr. 74 Bywater afa) ^tof? ffo<f>u-
be placed nearly at the bottom of the scale TO.TT] KM apiffTt): and fr. 73.

344 IIAATHNOS [92 B-
ecr%draa ei9 (ir)a, vov icai dvoias
oX7 ical Kryaei /zeTay3aXo/iei/a.
Ka) Brj Kal reA.09 Trepl rov 7raz/T09 vvv rj&i) rov 6yov rj^lv C
5 (fyw/jiev e-êiv' Ovrfrd yap Kal dOdvara &>a a/3coi> Kal ^vfiifKrjpwOei^
oSe 6 KOCT/AOS ovrw, â>ov oparov rd opard irepieôv, elicwv rov
Troirjrov, 6eo$ alaOrjros, /ieyicrros Kal apiaros K.diar6^ re Kal
ree(t>raro<f yeyovev, et9 ovpavos oSe fj,ovoyevr)<> wv.
7 TTOIIJTOV dedi cum A. vorjrou HSZ.
1 .
ôrxaras oUtjo-tis] This means not
the habitation of the fya in the water,
but the habitation of the soul in the
bodies of fishes, molluscs and the like.
It is plain from this passage also that
Plato did not contemplate the entrance
of a soul which had once been human
into any vegetable form : not that there
is any physical reason against this, but
for the cause pointed out on 77 A.
2. Sio.|Xi|3Tai TO! tfpa.] This pas-
sage is important, as clearly indicating
that Plato does not admit any state of
hopeless degradation. The animals are
perpetually changing places as they ad-
vance or recede in intelligence: what is
a bird in one incarnation may become a
fish in another, and vice -versa. Even
the oyster may, in course of ages of evo-
lution, become once more a human being.
Hence it is evident that the everlasting
vengeance wreaked upon desperate crimi-
nals in the Republic, Phaedo and Gorgias
is merely part of the pictorial represen-
tation. How far the present scheme of
transmigration is intended to be accepted
literally is a matter exceedingly difficult
of determination. It has no essential
connexion with the Platonic ontology; nor
again is it obviously inconsistent there-
with. The continuance of individual
personalities which it
presumes is not
material to Plato's theory, which requires
that all soul shall be eternal and shall
exist in a multitude of separate conscious
beings, as well as in its universal unity;
but it does not require that the same
consciousness shall exist as such in suc-
cessive embodiments. The question be-
longs to that mythical borderland of the
Platonic philosophy where it is not al-
ways possible to draw the line with cer-
tainty between the literal and the alle-
gorical.
6. lK(iv TOU TTOUTJTOV] About the
genuineness of this reading, which has
the support, besides A, of Vat. 173, I
can feel no doubt whatsoever. Had
Plato written VO-TJTOV, it is in the last de-
gree improbable that a phrase so familiar
and constantly recurring should have
been altered into the far more difficult
TrotTjToO. On the other hand, assuming
Plato to have written TTOITJTOV, the word
was, I may venture to say, positively
certain to be altered in some way: for,
the scribe or annotator would argue,
the KOCTMOJ is not the image of its maker,
but of the votjrbv ffiov from which the
maker copied it: therefore VOTJTOV is the
word. Add to this the probability that
some readers would suppose it to be the
genitive of TTOITJTOS (a supposition which
Lindau actually entertains), and we have
so potent causes of corruption that it is
surprising that a single manuscript has
preserved the true reading. The word
iroi-qrov must necessarily be unintelligible
to any student of the dialogue who had
not arrived at some such conclusion
about the nature of the drjfuovpyos as that
which I have done my best to defend.
Adopting then ironjrov, we have of
course but one possible inference to draw :

c] TIMA102. 345
uttermost dwelling-place in penalty for the uttermost folly. In
such manner then and now all creatures change places one with
another, rising or falling with the loss or gain of understanding
or of folly.
And now let us declare that our discourse concerning this
All has reached its end. Having received all mortal and
immortal creatures and being therewithal replenished, this uni-
verse hath thus come into being, living and visible, containing
all things that are visible, the image of its maker, a god per-
ceptible, most mighty and good, most fair and perfect, even this
one and only-begotten world that is.
the 8r)[j.iovpybs and the O.VTO foi> are one
and the same ; the STifuovpyos being sim-
ply a mythical duplicate of the avro fyov,
the introduction of which was necessi-
tated by the poetical and narrative form
of the exposition. Both the 5ri/j.iovpyt>s
and the avrb ffiov represent the primal
unity, considered as though not yet plu-
ralised, which must evolve and manifest
itself under the form of plurality and so
be a truly existent One. And surely
nothing can be more thoroughly charac-
teristic of Plato, than that, after talking
parables throughout, he should at the
very end of the dialogue drop one single
word, ipuvaev vvveroioi, which was to
open our eyes to the fact that he did
speak in parables ; that if we desire to
understand the philosopher, we must be
in sympathy with the poet.
8. tls ovpavos S8 |iovo
<
yevi]S wv] It
is worth while to note how closely the
phraseology of the concluding five lines
corresponds with that of 30 c 31 B :
compare especially the words in 31 B els
65e /novoyevfy ovpavbs yeyovws Herri re KO!
fr' {ffrai. Plato doubtless designs by
thus echoing his former language to as-
sure us that the promise made in the
beginning has been fulfilled, that the
nature of the universe has been expounded
precisely to the effect indicated in the
sixth chapter, and that not a single point
has been omitted. This very minute
correspondence serves to render the one
important deviation, flKuw TOV VOITJTOV,
all the more strikingly significant. Mark
too the emphatic stress which falls upon
the two closing words of the dialogue, /uo-
voyevrjt uv. In them is virtually summed
up Plato's whole system of idealistic
monism : this one universe ylyveral re
Kal iffri, it is create and uncreate, tem-
poral and eternal, the sum total and
unity of all modes of existence ;
in the
words of the Platonic Parmenides iravTa.
irdvTws tarl re /ecu OVK fan.

INDEX I.
dyaOwv (pvyds, 256
dyyeia dVpoy, 242
ciod/xas, 214
dStaTrXeurra fya, 340
dij0 Xcfyv, 188
aOa.va.Ta. (ppoveiv, 336
diStuv Beuv yeyovbs dfyaX/ua, 118
alOrjp, 212
is, Plato's etymology of, 148
is and Trd8r]fj.a distinguished, 235
or alffOrjTiKd, 226
iKov, not aiffBijTOv, 246
euYia iXofdvov, 325
ali!)VLov eiKOva, 1 1 8
alupTjffets, 332
aKaKUV dvdpuv, Kovcjxiiv 5^, 340
a/co?;, 246
ia due to physical causes, 324
/ecu Trpura trw/aara, 206
a/cpo7roXts
= the head, 258
ra, 1
78
i^j S6ct, 1 80
fi/aa /xaXaKOV, 260
doyov ner^xov Try 6yov, 262
dovpyoi>, 250
dXi/Ko^, 240
aXi5rws ii'Sart, 218
aX0oi)j, 318
ctXwv 0eo<f>is crwfj.a, 220
S^ta or afyta, 314
dfj.a.6ia, 322
dfJ.pXvTdT'r) TUV eiwrtduv yuviuv, 194
TOS oixria, 1 06
wy (pXefiuv, 258
epivol Trvperot, 322
Ac omitted with the relative, 324
ap, position of, 82
avcry/caia Kal dpitTTO., 280
dcaYKarov and Oetov, 252
dvdyKi), 1 66
di>alffOrjToi> ird6ijfJ.a, 234
dvaXiK/Jub/j-eva. or cb'tK/xw/xcva, 186
di/aXoYfo, 96
dvdfj.vr)ffii, 142
cu'cwraXii' ^ 7^e<ris, 310
dvcnrvori, 294
ctvctTn'oi}
= free egress, 314
dvai/'ux^s, 316
acota, 322
7rXa7as...uirT/as, 150
230
avw, 228
afw KotX^o, 270
oriys, 208
rdls /ieyiffTcus fu/ijoierptaty, 328
dirddeia. of the uTroSox';, I
?6
'ATraroi^pta, 66
direipov, 24
direipov TrcfO/oia, 101
direipovs, play on, 198
dirr/pl;a.TO or aVetpycifero, 130
diroppoal, 157
CtTOTO/X^, III
a/>0pa a form of Oarepov, 274
dprripla., 260
three, maintained by Galen, 257
^v tire dpxds, 168
294
Kal <J>0lffis, 206
ai/TTcoj <fjffa, 184
avffTfjpov, 240
ai)r6 fv /dff(j>, 230
aui-6 fvov, 41, 95

348 INDEX /.
aur6 TOVTO (<p* <j5 yeyovev eauTT/s, 184

INDEX I.
349
H
T)yefjioi>ovi>, TjyffjLoviKov, 140
TjSovai Kai virai, 234
TjSovii contrasted with ev<ppo<rvvr), 300
77 <f>ptiv irt<pvK, 1 66
tfXenTpov, 300
rj/j-epa. dtvdpa, 286
rjnepov -rjfjitpa, play on, 154
7}fj.ioia, 108
ij/j-irpiraioi irvperol, 322
yv, IffTdi, wrongly applied to di'Sioi ou-
ffla, 1 20
'Hpa.Keioi L0oi, 302
e
Odrepov, 43, 44, 106, 274
Oeiov and a'ca7Ka?o', 252
6fol OeCiv, 136
6epp.6v, etymology of, 226
260
dypiov, said of the tirtdvfi.'r)TiKoi>,
, 263
^/f, 282
6vfjua.Ti.Ka.
0upa, 256
224
larpiKal criKtiai, 298
cbs Aral oaKpvov, 314
, 318
132
va, 342
tj-es, 310
to?, 214
f<rar, 250
230
Xeupa rplyuva, 192
34*
O.VTUV arra, 188
3"
K
230
, 328
Korct didfierpov, 194
KaraKopts, 250
/card /J.T)KOS arpa.<pkv rov irpoauirov, 160
/cara coOv, 114
Kara TrXeu/sav, Kara Sid/jLerpov, 112
Kareo'Keva.o'/j.&a. ypa.fjLfj.afft, 72
/carw, 228
KIXTW /cotXla, 270
/cei/oV, Pythagorean, 101
220
>, 226
Kt<t>ari, astronomical term, 129
Kt, 216
and o-Too-ti, 208
s, play on, 1 30
, 66
KOV<f)OV, 228
KpVffTO,OS, 2l6
250
o XT}? rpo(priv ir
290
/CI/TOJ T^S î/X^s, 150
244
148
aiJLirpbv, 250
e?(jL/jia, in
eiov, 234
X^/Zyua fielfov, 280
Xewas, 318
Xef/c6j', 248
ldd)v xvra. ftSi], 224
XtTropatos X/ôs, 220
irpov, 220, 240
Xo/36v, 264
oyiff/JL<frivl vbOtf, 184
= object of reason, 116
y, 116, 180
, 280
v6/j.evos, 70
Xi/Trai /ca2 r/Sova/, 234
M
/taXa-yâ. Hermann's conjecture, 260
/j.a.aie6t>, 228
fiavla, 322
fiavrfia, 264, 266
/tacreis and irpo<pTfrij, 179

350 INDEX I.
s, 128
av, 248
av x/>w//.o txuv X/00J, 220
t, 218
Kal fJ.tr), 284
/tter' dvaiffOrjfflas airrov, 184
Herat-b Kopv<f>i)S rov re 6/j,<f>aou, 246
fj.eral;t> TtOefj.fr ov, 176
/j.fTappvdfUff6frros, 158
fj.CTe(t)pooyiKol, 340
julrptos TraiStd, said of science, 214
(jLrjrtpa Kal i/TroSox'?'', 178
fj.l/j.ri<Tis instead of /^0ets, 171
Hi^TiKbv Z0i>os, 62
ti.oi>oyei>r)s <ai>, significance of, 345
/iowrtKiJs 0o'^ x/37jVtyu.oy, 164
/xueXo's, 270
/iyXtrai l0oi, 220
N
vevpa, 274
yews xe/ff/xara, 320
oO or TroiTjToO, 41, 344
j', peculiar use of, 114
poflos Xo7itr)uos, 184
vocroi, 308
334
j3o<7tXei;s, 39
ris, 180
250
SyKuv etre dwdpeuv, 96
656$ avci} fcctTW, 4
656$ 7rp6s ri> vyyevh, 232
6dvpo/j.et>o$ a.v dpr]voi fj.a.TTjv, 164
ofos -xpvffov, 214
ol /cpefTTOi;j=the gods, 286
$, 216
raj or iXiyocrras, 200
6iff9^fJ.a<nv CSaros, 148
6X/c$j denied, 302
6Xo/cX?jpos, 152
6/xaXorijs, 208
212, 244
279
O/JL&VV/AOV, 182
^is, 184
s, 284
242
oi, 318
67TOJ, 2l8
Kpyava J(p6rev, 142, 146
6'/>os optffdeh /dyas 5id /3pax^w, 180
SpQvivov, 250
6ff/m.ai, 244
do-row, 272
offTpea, 342
ot)5eis wj' aSt/cos, 324
oupav< vyytveia, 336
ovffia, 1 06
oi)(T/as d/nws 7^ TTWS ivrexo^vnv, 1
84
oC TI yu^ 5^, 138
142, 254
n
ird6rjfj.a, peculiar sense of, 225, 249
distinguished from aXff07)ffis, 235
312
, 272
134
TrapaSfiyfJLara., 31
70
, 178
], 216
ZfJL<j>povos, 166
ir^fJ-TTTT) otiffta, 199
7re7T>7'y6s yfros, 212
Tr^pas, Tracts ^x **) 2 4 i?7
irepifioXov or irepl SXoi', 272
6/j.oiws or 8/j.oiov, 174
is, 294
Kapra fipaxtos, 80
, 240
210
iriffrov, 184
. or TrXa^rat, 122
atria, 166
232
'
(Tw/uo, 330
290
7roti?ToC or ^oT/ToO, 21, 344
iroiKlXov Trao-as 7roiKtX/as 1
76
Trofj.<j>6vyes, 242
iropeiav or iropela, 154

INDEX I. 351
TroTa/xds
= ytvefft.*, 148
Trpdffiov, 252
vafJ.v<i)v viro <rr)ire56i>os,
192
irpovoia, rrjs f/vxî 1 54
irpooifj.iov vofjiov, 90
ovros re Kal eUy, 104
134
Trpotprjrai, 266
TrvOufves <rapKos, 314
TrtfXay, 264
TTi/pa/i/y, 200
irvperol, 322
iri'ppbv, 250
pa<j>at, 280
piyos, 228
p/fa TUP rpiy&vw, 306
p/fav 7j/ua5^
= the brain, 336
pOTJ, 2 I 2
pvOpos, 164
pvirriKa,, 240
(ra^, 274
crtKivai, 298
ffKfSaffTr) ovffla, 1 16
ffKT)p6l>, 228
(TirXryvos yuavo-njj, 268
crras or Tray, 198.
0rd(m and /c^??<ris, 208
oracreis /cai votrouj, 308
(TT^yeiv
= keep in, 290
(rroixa, 1 68
ffrpv<pv6v, 240
fftijKpiffis KO.I Siaicpiffis, 240
(ruXa/37js erSeffi, 268
ffViJ.fJ.fTa.lria., 162
ffv/j.<j>uts with genitive, 236
ffvvdif/ecru', 234
crui'Swifoj'Tes, 340
<rvvr)p/j.6ffOai, middle, 202
ffvvvo/J.ov odcrjffiv airrpov, 144
0-^050$ = constitution, 334
ffvffrdvra, 202
a<7eu TrptDrai, deurtpai, 308
J, 100
, 274, 316
,
208
130
240 Ta, 330
dfj,eva, 166
TO, 5ia iou 5edi)aiovpyr)fj.â, 166
rdavrov/Jiftrji', 186
ravrov, 106
re, displacement of, 135
rAeoi' Î'tai^-oi', 128
T^TCWOI, 318
reraprauoi irvperol, 322
rerpaifrfa, geometrical, 107
rijj' TOU Kparlffrov <f>p6vr)ffiv, 1 30
T10CUTWS 7T/)6s TJ/UttS ?ffXf, 286
riOr/vy yevtffeus, 172, 186
r6 TTJS x^'Pas ttef, 182
rd TUX^ draKrov, 162
ro5e /col TOUTO /cai TijiSe, 1 74
roiourov opposed to TOUTO, 172
Tpaxtf, 234
rp/a rptxB, 186, 336
rpnrXfjv Kara. MvafMv, 192
Tptrcuoi irvptrol, 322
rplros av6p<i)TTOs, 20
T/X)jUOS, 228
rpotprjv rrjv eavrou <f>0iffiv, 102
rpoxov irepia.yofj.4vov, 296
TUX?/, 164
T<^ tairroi! Kara rpoirov ijdei, 146
j' 84
wy Trdvruv dfl re ovrwv, 178
PaXos, 224
vyp6i>, etymology of, 216
irypdv u'Swp, 212
vSpayuylav, 290
OXi;, the Aristotelian, 183
=vvood, 254
140
s, 328
, 330
1
7
virodereov, vvoreOevra., 226
1/^17 Xo/3ou<ra, 160

352 INDEX I.
<paiov, 250
<pa.Tvri, 260
(f>06yyoi, 300
<t>66vos, go
ta perform the function of nerves, 240
314
tpptves, 256
tfipovTjffis rov Kparlcrrov, 130
<f>p6vi/j.ov, TO, -236
<f>vra, 286
ri, 246
232
,
216
X'.
tw^, 216
owSes or xoXwSes, 312
3"
j, 134
oai, 248
Xpovov ftdrj, /J.pTj, 1 2O
Xpvaov 6 os, 214
Xv/^oi, 216, 238
"Xyrbv vdup, 217
Xwpa, 44, 182
^fX&s Iffapl6/J.ovs
i/'i/X'} TOU KO<TfJ.ov, 42
^v-f), relation to i*ouy, 92
^UX'7S "ffoi' BVTTOV, 224
,, 0i>T)Toi> eI5oj, 256
f/vxpo, 228
ws airoSo9r)ff6/J.fva. iraiv, 146
250
1 40

INDEX II.
Absolute knowledge impossible, 48
Accords of sound, 300
Acids, action of, 242
Acoustics, 1 08
Adamant, 214
Air, varieties of, 212
Alkali, 220, 240
Allegory, 36
Amasis, 68
Amber, phenomena of, 302
Anaxagoras, 9
,, and causation, 10
,, defects of, 1 1
,, hisdeficienciesmadegood,i88
Animal and vegetable, 286
Aorta, 289
Apaturia, 67
Appuleius on the origin of the world, 92
Aristotle, his incorrect criticism of Plato,
i5 J
75t i?9> 184, 190, 202, 229
his classification of the soul's
functions, 262
,, his views on dreams, 264
,, ,, the brain, 278
Arteries, supposed to be filled with air, 311
,, not distinguished from veins, 258
Artificer, the, 37
,, looks to the eternal type, 88
,, his works immortal, 139
Astringent, 240
Astronomers become birds, 340
Athenion quoted concerning salt, 222
Athens, the ancient, 74
Atlantis, 78
Attraction, 228
P. T.
B
Bastard reasoning, 184
Becoming, 4
Bile, several kinds of, 312
Black, 248
Black stone, 220
Blood, why it is red, 304
,, will not coagulate if the fibrine be
removed, 320
Blue, 250, 252
Bones, formation of, 252
Bones and hair insensible, 236
Brain, 272
Birds, origin of, 340
Bronze, 214
Cataclysms and conflagrations, 70
Catarrhs, 318
Categories, 116
Cathartics, worst means of iclvriffis, 332
Causation, 10, 160, 167
Causes, divine and necessary, 232
Chaotic motion, 92, 254
Circle of the Same, of the Other, 112
Circular impulsion, 296
Classes without corresponding ideas, 25
Climate, its influence on character, 77
Cold, explanation of, 226
Colours, 248
Concave mirrors, 160
Consonance, 300
Constant sum of things, 147
Constriction of the universe, 208
Continuity first conceived by Herakleitos,
4
23

354 INDEX II.
Cooling, 212
Cosmic soul, 42
Creation, motive of, 91
Cube, 196
Cupping instruments, 298
D
Daremberg, 291
Death, natural, is painless, 306
Demokritos-, his notion of dvajKij, 167
his theory that like seeks
like, 187
,, his infinity of /cooytoi, 198
Destruction of records, 72
Determinism, 324
Diaphragm, 256
Digestion, 294
Diseases, origin of, 308 foil.
,, have their natural course, 334
Dissolution, divers modes of, 222
Divination, 266
Dodecahedron, 197
Downward and upward, 228
Dreams, 158
Drink passes through the lungs, 258
Dropides, 64
Earth, question of her rotatipn, 132
,, forms of, 218
East on the right hand, 212
Education, effects of bad, 326
Egypt, considered part of Asia, 76
Egyptian institutions, similar to those of
ancient Athens, 76
Eleaticism, 6
defects of, 8
complementary to Heraklei-
teanism, 8
Elements, ideas of the four, 34
,, before generation of universe,
interchangeability of, 172, 192,
204
why not completely sorted, 208
Empedokles, 13
,, his doctrine of vision, 157
his theory of respiration, 294
Envy of the gods, 91
Epilepsy, 318
Equilateral triangles, 192
Essence, 106
Eternity contrasted with time, 120
Euripides Phoenissae, allusion to, 164
Evil, defect in presentation of the type, 33
inevitable, 92
,, responsibility for, 144
Exercise, three modes of, 332
Extension, 45
Eyes, 154
Fever relieves tetanus, 318
Fevers, quotidian, &c., 322
Fibrine, 310
Fire, varieties of, 210
its properties explained, 226
Fishes, condemned to respire in water, 342
Five K0fffj.oi. or one ? 1
98
Flesh, formation of, 276
Freewill and necessity, 324
Front and back, 154
Frost, 216
Fusion, 212
Galen on Plato's theory of respiration, 291
Genealogy of Plato, 65
God irresponsible for evil, 144
'
Gods of Gods ', 137
Gold, 214
Glass, 224
Gravity, Plato's theory of, 228
Green, 252
Grey, 250
H
Hail, 216
Hair, 282
Hard, 228
Harmony allied to the proportions of the
soul, 164
Head, spherical shape of, 154
,, the seat of intelligence, 256
why not covered with flesh, 278
Heads of beasts, why elongated, 342
Hearing, final cause of, 164
,, theory of, 246

INDEX II. 355
Heat, explanation of, 226
Herakleitean language, 1
74
Herakleitos, 4
Hermokrates, 63
Honey, 218
Ice, 216
Icosahedron, 196
Idea with but one particular, 94
Ideal theory, earlier, 16
,, ,, deficiencies thereof, 1 8
Ideas, six classes of, in the Republic, 16
,, of ffKfvaffTa, 23
,, of things evil, 25
,, regarded as types, 31
,, their plurality inevitable, 34
,, restricted to ft?a? 34
,, and the cosmic soul, 44
,, question of their existence raised,
1 80
,, pass not into aught else, 182
Image, must exist in another, 184
Immateriality conceived first by Plato, 17
Indirect interrogation, double, 135
Inexact language, 120
Infants, abeyance of reason with, 148
Interchange of elements, 172
Interpreters, 266
Intestines, functions of, 270
Inversion of right and left, 150
,, ,, ,, in mirrors, 160
Ion, the, quoted about the magnet, 302
Ionian school, 3
Isosceles, the primal, 292
Juices, 216
Knowledge, province of, 48
Lava, 220
Leprosies, 318
Light and heavy, 228
Like does not alter like, 204
Limit to duration of species and individual,
334
Liver, its functions, 262
,, its connexion with divination, 266
Loadstone, 302
Lokris, the Epizephyrian, 62
Lungs, function of, 258
Lymph, 312
M
Madness a condition of inspiration, 266
Magnet, 302
Maladies of the soul, 322
Man, the most god-fearing of animals, 142
Many and one, unknown to man, 252
Marrow, 270
,, disease of, fatal, 322
Martin, his theory of Plato's Mireda., 203
Matter, subjectivity of, 30
,, requires an atria, 86
,, no independent power, 166
,, resolved into space, 183
Means, 98
harmonical and arithmetical, 108
Medicines, use of, discouraged, 332
Melting, 212
Mercury, 124
Metals, forms of water, 212
Metempsychosis, 144, 342
Microcosm, the human body, 304
Midriff, 256
Mind, universal, 28, 29
Mirrors, 158
,, concave, 160
Mixed substances, 222
Molten gold, simile of, 174
Mortal kind of soul, 256
Motion, how continued, 208
,, of the viroSoxij, 106
Motions, the seven, 102, 148
Mouth, functions of, 280
,, compared to roots of plant, 337
Moving bodies, how propelled, 299
Music, use of, 1
64
Musical intervals, 108
N
Nails, 283
Natural science, place of, 214
Neith, 68
Nerves, unknown to Plato, 274

356 INDEX II.
Nile, cause of its inundation, 71
Numbers, plane and solid, 96
derived from the heavenly
bodies, 162
O
Octahedron, 196
Odours, sweet, are pure pleasures, 238
,, not to be classified, 244
Oil, 216
Old age explained, 306
One in the many, 252
Opinion, 180
Other, 43, 44, 106
Pain and pleasure, explanation of, 236
Panathenaia, time of celebrating, 66
Parmenides, 6
Pannenides, the, 20
Pentagon, 197
Petron of Himera, 198
Phaethon, myth of, 70
Philebus, the, 24
Philosophy, chief result of sight, 162
Phoroneus, 70
Physics, 46
Planes, 202
Plane numbers, 96
Planets, their relative distance from the
earth, 113
,, their names, 123
Plants, nature of, 284
Plato, two stages of his thought, 14
his Herakleiteanism, 15, 36
,, his teleology, 17
,, always confines himself to subject
in hand, 171
his corpuscular theory, 192
,, his determinism necessitated by his
ontology, 325
Politicus, myth in the, 102
Portal vein, 264
Pottery, 220
Predication, 16
Preplatonic contribution to Platonism, 2,
12
Projection explained, 299
Prophecy, 266
Proportion, 96
Protagoras, 13
Punishment, theory of, 325
Purple, 250
Pyramid, 194
Pythagoreans, 12
Quadrupeds, origin of, 342
Quickness of apprehension incompatible
with dense flesh, 278
Quotidian, tertian and quartan fevers, 322
R
Reason and true opinion shown to be
different, 180
Red, 250
Reflections, 158
Relativity, 21
Republic, its metaphysical side ignored, 56
Respiration, 292
Rhythm, 164
Ritual terms, 152
Rotation of the earth, 131
Rough, 234
Sais, 68
Salt, 220
Same, 106
,, applied to vwoSoxri, 176
Saps, 216
Scale, the Platonic, 109
Scalene, the rectangular, 192
Seers cannot interpret their own sayings,
266
Self-consciousness, 256
Seneca quoted on mirrors, 159
Sensation, physical theory of, 234
Sex, origin of, 340
Sifting of the elements, 186
Sinews, 274
Singular, instead of plural, 154
Skin, the, 280
Sleep, 158
Smell, theory of, 243
Smooth, 234
Snow, 216

INDEX II. 357
Soft, 228
Sokrates, 14
Solid numbers, 96
Solidification, 212
Solon, his poetry, 68
,, his Egyptian travels, 68
Sophist, the, 22
Sophists, 13
Soul, prior to body, 104
mortal kind of, 256
,, diseases of, 322
,, and body, symmetry of, 328
,, ,, to be equally exercised,
33
Souls assigned to the stars, 141
,, all have an equal chance, 142
sowed among the planets, 146
Sound, 246, 300
Space, 44, 182
Speech, final cause of, 164
Spirals, 126
Spleen, 268
Stone, how formed, 218
,, soluble, 224
Subsidiary causes, 160
Substrate, 172
,, its permanence, 176
,, its formlessness, 176
,, compared to a mother, 176
Sutures, Hippokrates on the, 281
Sweet, 242
Symbolical apprehension, 30, 32
Symmetry, 328
Synovial fluid, 311
Tastes, various, 240
Tetanus, 318
Tetrahedron, 195
Theaetettts, the, 2 1
Theogony, 136
Thought, the sole existence, 28
,, pluralised, 29
,, identified with its object, 1
15
Threefold division of existence, 1
76
Thunderbolts, 301
Timaeus, 63
Timafus, the, importance attached to it
by ancient authorities, i
Timaeus, the, key to the Platonic system, 2
,, questions left to be answered
by, 27
metaphysic of, 28 foil.
,, allegorical method of, 36
physical theories of, 46
Time, in a sense eternal, 119
,, contrasted with eternity, 120
,, coeval with the universe, 120, 122
Transmigration, 144, 342
Transparent, 248
Triangles, the primal, 190
,, variation in their size, 206
Type cannot exist in the image, 1
84
U
Unguents, simile of, 1 78
Unity and plurality, 29
Universe has no beginning in time, 86
the copy of a type, 88
its unity, 94, 198
Up and down, 228
Upright posture of man, 336
Variation in size of triangles, 206
Vegetable food, 285, 304
Veins, the channel of communication, 259
of the head cross, 289
Vena cava, 264
Venus and Mercury, motions of, 124
Vengeance, not admitted by Plato, 325
Verjuice, 218
Vertebral column, 272
Vibration of the vwodoxv, 186
Vice involuntary, 324
Violet, 250
Vision, 154
Visual current, 156
,, not subject to pleasure or
pain, 236
Void, absence of, 210
Volcanic stones, 220
w
Water, liquid and fusible, 2 1 1
Wax, 224
Weels, 291
Weighing, 232

358 INDEX II.
White, 248
Wine, 216
Winnowing fans, 186
Woman, false position of, in Plato's
theory, 144
Words, their relation to their subject, 88
World-soul, 42
X
Xenophanes, 6
Year, the great, 1
29
Yellow, 250
Zeller's theory of ideas and particulars, 182
,, platonische Studien quoted, 184
Zeno, 6
Zodiac, 197
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