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Grażyna Paliwoda-Pękosz is Associate Professor in the Department of
Informatics at Krakow University of Economics, Poland.
Piotr Soja is Associate Professor in the Department of Informatics at
Krakow University of Economics, Poland.
This book explores the current and future impacts of blockchain technolo-
gies, such as cryptocurrency, on the education system. Blockchain is a dis-
ruptive technology based on a shared, distributed ledger, where transactions
are registered by consensus in a network of peers, using cryptographic mech-
anisms that render the records virtually immutable and, ideally, enable trans-
parency, auditability, and resilience. What role, then, could it play in fostering
transformative approaches such as student-centred teaching and learning,
distributed learning environments, and lifelong learning? This book pro-
vides essential perspectives into blockchain applications and challenges
within education and offers a broader view of blockchain technology against
existing information and communication technologies used in education.
Spanning the effects on institutions, students, and the labour market, these
chapters offer critical reviews and analyses of current research, practical
first-hand applications of blockchain in education, and original conceptual
models.
SUPPORTING HIGHER EDUCATION
4.0 WITH BLOCKCHAIN

SUPPORTING HIGHER
EDUCATION 4.0 WITH
BLOCKCHAIN
Critical Analyses of Automation,
Data, Digital Currency, and Other
Disruptive Applications
Edited by Grażyna Paliwoda-Pękosz
and Piotr Soja

Designed cover image: © Getty Images
First published 2024
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 selection and editorial matter, Grażyna Paliwoda-Pękosz, Piotr Soja;
individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Grażyna Paliwoda-Pękosz, Piotr Soja to be identified as the
authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual
chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
ISBN: 978-1-032-32897-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-33212-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-31873-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003318736
Typeset in Times New Roman
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)

Editors and Contributors vii
Acknowledgements xi
Blockchain technology in Education 4.0: An introduction 1
Grażyna Paliwoda-Pękosz and Piotr Soja
1 Towards Education 4.0: Challenges and opportunities 7
Paweł Konkol and Dariusz Dymek
2 Blockchain as a disruptive technology in Education 4.0 37
Janusz Stal and Dariusz Put
3 Supporting the management of educational
institutions using blockchain 62
Jan Trąbka and Mariusz Grabowski
4 Management of student-centred learning with blockchain 94
Mariusz Grabowski and Paweł Konkol
5 Addressing labour market challenges with blockchain 119
Dariusz Put and Jan Trąbka
CONTENTS

vi Contents
6 Teaching blockchain: The case of the MSc in
Blockchain and Digital Currency of the University
of Nicosia 150
Marinos Themistocleous
7 Academic certificates issued on blockchain: The case
of the University of Nicosia and Block.co 166
Marinos Themistocleous, Klitos Christodoulou and Elias Iosif
8 Blockchain’s impact on education: Current landscape
and prospects for the future 179
Dariusz Dymek and Janusz Stal
Index 200

Grażyna Paliwoda-Pękosz is Associate Professor at the Department of
Informatics, Krakow University of Economics (KUE), Poland. She holds
a postdoctoral degree (habilitation) and Ph.D. in economics from KUE,
and MSc in computer science and mathematics from the Jagiellonian
University of Krakow, Poland. Her main research interests include appli-
cations of ICT in education and ICT for development. Grażyna has pub-
lished in Information Systems Management, Industrial Management
Data Systems, Information Technology for Development, Technological
and Economic Development of Economy, and in conference proceedings
such as AMCIS, ICEE, ISD, and ICCE. She has served as a reviewer for
a number of journals including Journal of Supercomputing, Information
Systems Management, Information Technology for Development, Journal
of Enterprise Information Management, and Technology in Society.
Grażyna has acted as Programme/Organisational Committee member in
numerous international conferences, including AMCIS, EMCIS, and
ICTM.
Piotr Soja is Associate Professor at the Department of Informatics, Krakow
University of Economics (KUE), Poland. He holds a postdoctoral degree
(habilitation) and Ph.D. in economics from KUE. His research interests
include enterprise systems, ICT for development, and ICT for active and
healthy ageing. Piotr has published in Enterprise Information Systems,
Industrial Management Data Systems, Information Systems Management,
and Information Technology for Development, among many other journals,
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

viii Editors and Contributors
as well as in numerous conference proceedings such as AMCIS, HICSS, and
ISD. He is member of the Editorial Board of several journals, including
Frontiers in Blockchain, Information Technology for Development, and Jour-
nal of Enterprise Information Management. He has acted as Programme/
Organisational Committee member in numerous international conferences,
including AMCIS, EMCIS, EuroSymposium, and ICTM. Currently, Piotr
serves as president of the Polish Chapter of AIS.
Dr. Klitos Christodoulou is Assistant Professor at the Department of Digital
Innovation, University of Nicosia, Cyprus (UNIC). Klitos obtained his
Ph.D. in computer science from the School of Computer Science at the Uni-
versity of Manchester, UK. He is also the research manager at the Institute
For the Future (IFF) and the scientific lab leader of the Distributed Ledgers
Research Centre (DLRC) at IFF; a centre that aims towards fostering

academic research on blockchain. His research interests span both data
management challenges, with a focus on machine learning techniques, and
distributed ledger technologies, with an emphasis on blockchain ledgers. His
current research activities focus on distributed ledger technologies and
blockchain ledgers. He has published more than 30 scientific papers in the
area of data integration, machine learning, and distributed ledgers. He is
also an Associate Editor at the Frontiers in Blockchain journal and acts as
the Principal Investigator for several EU research grants.
Dr. Dariusz Dymek is Associate Professor at the Department of Computa-
tional Systems, Krakow University of Economics (KUE), Poland. He
received his Ph.D. degree and a postdoctoral degree (habilitation) from the
Faculty of Management of KUE. He has a strong business experience. For
several years he was vice president of an IT company which was a leader on
the Polish market in the Data Warehouse and Business Intelligence areas.
Dariusz is an author of several dozen publications in the field of IT systems
architecture, IT project management, software quality, blockchain, and the-
oretical aspects of software engineering. The papers have been published in
Polish and English-language conferences, journals, and monographs. Dari-
usz Dymek currently gives lectures on data modelling, Data Warehouse,
software quality, and IT project management at undergraduate and post-
graduate level in Polish and English.
Dr. Mariusz Grabowski is Associate Professor at the Department of Compu-
tational Systems, Krakow University of Economics (KUE), Poland.
He received his Ph.D. degree and a postdoctoral degree (habilitation) from
the Faculty of Management of KUE. Mariusz is an author of numerous

Editors and Contributors ix
publications in the field of information systems. The papers have been pub-
lished in Polish and English-language conferences, journals and monographs
including the Americas Conference on Information Systems, European Med-
iterranean Middle Eastern Conference on Information Systems, and
Springer. Mariusz currently gives lectures on introduction to information
systems, information systems security, e-business and e-commerce at under-
graduate level, and IT governance at postgraduate level.
Dr. Elias Iosif is Assistant Professor at the Department of Digital Innovation,
University of Nicosia, Cyprus (UNIC). Dr. Iosif also serves as Associate Head
at the same department, as well as scientific lab co-leader at the Distributed
Ledgers Research Centre, Institute For the Future, UNIC. He is teaching at
the MSc in Blockchain and Digital Currency offered by UNIC, which is the
first degree programme globally on blockchain. Also, he is participating in
several European Commission funded projects focused on blockchain
technologies. Dr. Iosif has a Ph.D. degree in Electronic and Computer
Engineering. His areas of expertise include blockchain and metaverse, machine
learning, and human language technologies (natural language processing,
spoken dialogue systems). He has experience in the respective startup
ecosystem. He has authored/co-authored over 70 peer-reviewed scientific
publications. Dr. Iosif is the co-author of two award-winning research works
focusing on text sentiment analysis and consensus algorithms.
Dr. Paweł Konkol is Assistant Professor at the Department of Computational
Systems, Krakow University of Economics, Poland. He holds a Ph.D. in
management and his teaching and research interest is focused on integrated
management information systems, e-commerce, blockchain, and IT systems
in education. Dr. Paweł Konkol is the author/co-author of articles in the field
of the implementation of IT systems at higher education institutions, block-
chain, agile methodologies in IT project management, and criteria of the
selection of methods of IT project implementation. His papers were pub-
lished in Polish and international conference proceedings and monographs.
Dr. Dariusz Put is Associate Professor at the Department of Computational
Systems, Krakow University of Economics, Poland. He holds a Ph.D. in
economics and a postdoctoral degree (habilitation) in management. His
areas of research include databases, information integration, organisation
processes improvement and integration, blockchain, data science, and
machine learning. Dariusz Put has published several dozen academic papers
and coursebooks and has taken part in over 30 scientific conferences con-
cerning the above-mentioned research areas.

x Editors and Contributors
Dr. Janusz Stal is Associate Professor at the Department of Informatics,
Krakow University of Economics, Poland. He holds a Ph.D. in economics
and habilitation degree in management and quality studies from the Krakow
University of Economics. His research areas include mobile technology,
mobile knowledge management, applications of ICT in education, and
cloud computing. Janusz Stal has published articles in Information Technol-
ogy for Development, Journal of Enterprise Information Management, and
numerous conference proceedings of AMCIS, EMCIS, ECIME, SIGCSE/
SIGCUE, IIS, ICEEE, and ICEL.
Prof. Marinos Themistocleous is Associate Dean of the School of Business,
Director at the Institute For Future (IFF), and the scientific coordinator of
the world’s leading Blockchain and Digital Currency MSc programme at the
University of Nicosia, Cyprus. Before joining the University of Nicosia, he
worked for Brunel University, London and the University of Piraeus, Greece.
He has held visiting positions at Bocconi University, Milan, and IE Univer-
sity, Madrid. He served as a member of the Parallel Parliament of Cyprus
and president of the Digital Economy and Digital Governance Committee.
Marinos serves as advisor and consultant and has collaborated with many
organisations in the USA, UK, EU, and UAE in areas like blockchain, meta-
verse, digital transformation, information systems integration, eHealth,
e-business, e-government, and smart cities. He has authored more than 175
refereed journal and conference articles, 9 books and has received citations
and awards of excellence. His research has attracted funding from various
organisations. Marinos is on the editorial board of academic journals and
conferences, and in the past, he served as managing editor of the European
Journal of Information Systems (EJIS).
Dr. Jan Trąbka is Assistant Professor at the Krakow University of Econom-
ics, Poland, and he holds a Ph.D. in economics from the same university. He
works at the Department of Informatics. His research interests include anal-
ysis and design of information systems (especially in content management
and business process management areas), business process modelling,
accounting systems, and ERP systems. Jan is the author of several articles
and conference papers (presented at AMICIS, PoEM, SIGSAND/PLAIS
EuroSymposium). In his business life he has been involved in business analy-
sis and pre-implementation requirement analysis projects (ERP, Workflow,
BPMS, ECM). In the past, he worked as a project manager for Asseco
Group and for several years he managed projects in logistics, medicine, and
IT sectors.

The Project has been financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Educa-
tion within the “Regional Initiative of Excellence” Programme for 2019–
2022. Project no.: 021/RID/2018/19. Total financing: 11 897 131.40 PLN.
The book editors would like to thank all authors for their valuable contribu-
tions and the interviewees from the University of Nicosia, Cyprus, for shar-
ing their first-hand experience with teaching and implementing blockchain
technology at their university. Special thanks are also addressed to Artur
Pękosz and Monika Pękosz for their help during proofreading. Last but not
least, the editors would like to thank Daniel Schwartz, editor at Taylor
Francis, for his guidance throughout the publication process.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

DOI: 10.4324/9781003318736-1
This book explores how blockchain technology can reshape education. In so
doing, it aims to recognise the state-of-the-art in the area of blockchain
applications in education, investigate the possibilities of future use, evaluate
the impact of blockchain on the educational ecosystem, and give a broader
view of blockchain technology in comparison with existing Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) used in education. In particular, it
investigates the potential of blockchain technology to support the idea of
Education 4.0.
Blockchain is a disruptive technology based on a shared, distributed led-
ger, where transactions are registered by consensus in a network of peers,
using cryptographic mechanisms that render the records virtually immuta-
ble. Such a solution enables transparency, auditability, and resilience. The
most prominent and well-known application of this technology is in crypto-
currencies, with Bitcoin being the most famous example. However, there are
other blockchain-based innovative experiments in high-profile areas such as
healthcare, financial services, transport, and management (Cunha et al.,
2021; Frizzo-Barker et al., 2020).
Blockchain also has the potential to transform the educational domain, sup-
porting the implementation of Education 4.0, the concept that emerged in
recent years as a response to the changes in society and economy related to
globalisation and the constant development of ICT. Education 4.0 is an
approach to learning related to the fourth industrial revolution and involves the
transformation of education through advanced digital technology and auto-
mation (Joshi, 2022). The Forth Industrial Revolution, or in other words Indus-
try 4.0, describes a new industrial revolution centred around cyber-physical
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY IN
EDUCATION 4.0
An introduction
Grażyna Paliwoda-Pękosz and Piotr Soja

2 Grażyna Paliwoda-Pękosz and Piotr Soja
systems and the trend towards digitisation, automation, and the increasing use
of ICT in the manufacturing environment (Oesterreich Teuteberg, 2016;
Olsen Tomlin, 2020). In essence, Education 4.0 is a new education shift aimed
at the values represented by Industry 4.0 and focuses on adaptive learning to
enable students to develop the skills needed on the present labour market
(Stroe, 2022).
Although blockchain has been explored in numerous fields, the research
works that investigate blockchain applications in education are still scarce.
This also refers to the book publications concerning blockchain in education.
On top of that, already published books tend to focus on individual aspects
of blockchain applications (e.g., distance learning, certificate issuance) and
do not approach the topic in a comprehensive way that would provide a big-
ger picture of the existing environment, targeting Education 4.0 challenges.
These include, among other things, student-centred teaching and learning,
distributed learning, lifelong learning, and the role of disruptive ICT.
The main topics of investigation in the field of blockchain for education
are in line with the Gartner report “4 Ways Blockchain Will Transform
Higher Education” published on 16 October 2019, which identified four
main paths of blockchain applications in education, i.e. record keeping,
business processes, digital assets, and a new business model (Gartner, 2019).
However, those are very general and call for further development and exami-
nation. Indeed, blockchain, as an emerging and disruptive technology,
requires investigation into the new possibilities of its applications. Future
will show which of them are worth implementing, but at the current stage of
technology development the overview of blockchain technology in educa-
tion in a broader context is valuable and desirable.
Therefore, the current book strives to deal with the topic in a multi-faceted
way, considering the standpoints of the three main education stakeholders:
educational institutions, students, and the labour market. To this end, it
investigates the potential role of blockchain in the existing educational eco-
system and evaluates the possibilities of transforming this environment. Not
only the bright sides of blockchain but also the threats that might be involved
with this technology adoption are discussed. In the critical evaluation of the
role of blockchain in education, the book also draws from practice by pre-
senting a number of first-hand insights from the University of Nicosia,
Cyprus, the world’s leading university in blockchain teaching and educa-
tional applications (Bitcoin.com, 2016; Buntinx, 2017; NOWPayments,
2020). Overall, the book consists of eight chapters, of which six chapters
critically evaluate the role of blockchain in education, and two chapters
describe real-life applications of blockchain technology in a university.
Chapter 1 provides a broad overview of the contemporary educational
environment. In so doing, Paweł Konkol and Dariusz Dymek discuss the

Blockchain technology in Education 4.0 3
challenges related to Education 4.0 from the viewpoints of its main stake-
holders, i.e. the labour market, higher educational institutions, and students.
They put special attention to the need of competence-based learning that
requires an introduction of new learning methods and forms, supported by
disruptive technologies, e.g., augmented reality, artificial intelligence, cloud
computing, big data, and blockchain.
Next, in Chapter 2, Janusz Stal and Dariusz Put outline the fundamentals
of blockchain technology. This chapter provides a reference point for other
chapters that discuss various aspects of blockchain technology applications
which need to refer to some technology-related underpinnings of block-
chain. More specifically, in the chapter, the concept of Distributed Ledger
Technology, on which the idea of blockchain is based, is presented. Further-
more, the consensus algorithms and the concept of smart contracts are out-
lined. Finally, a critical evaluation of blockchain’s potential for reshaping
education is delivered.
The focus of Chapter 3 is educational institutions, which are one of the
three main stakeholders of education. The educational institutions’ percep-
tion of blockchain-based applications is evaluated. Starting with the outlin-
ing of the concept of business process management, Jan Trąbka and Mariusz
Grabowski discuss the prospects of supporting this idea by blockchain.
They summarise the current state of blockchain endeavours in this area and
discuss the future possibilities. One of the most valuable contributions of
this chapter is setting a big picture by mapping blockchain applications onto
a two-dimensional plot, with the first dimension considering the time-span
of benefits (short-term versus long-term), and the second related to the pro-
cess orientation of an organisation (internal versus external).
The student’s standpoint has been given the main attention in Chapter 4.
To this end, Mariusz Grabowski and Paweł Konkol outline one of the main
principles of Education 4.0, i.e. student-centred learning. They present the
most important concepts related to this idea, such as distributed learning
and lifelong learning, and discuss how these can be supported by blockchain
technology. Special attention is paid to accessing educational content, which
is strongly related to the protection of intellectual property rights. It appears
that blockchain technology can be especially useful in enforcing these rights.
In Chapter 5, Dariusz Put and Jan Trąbka discuss the expectations, chal-
lenges, and needs of the contemporary labour market in the light of Industry
4.0. In this way, the authors examine the perspective of the third main stake-
holder of Education 4.0. Special attention is paid to the changes in industry
that result in the appearance of new jobs, the decline in some traditional
occupations, and the need of lifelong and competency-based learning. These
require competency-based management and validation of different kinds of
certificates, as expected by employers. This area also appears promising for

blockchain applications, and the authors present the architecture of a block-
chain-based system for competence management.
Following the discussion of the main blockchain concepts and education
stakeholders’ perspectives elaborated in the previous chapters, Chapter 6 by
Marinos Themistocleous presents hands-on experience with the develop-
ment of the world’s first course related to blockchain at the University of
Nicosia, Cyprus. It should be noted that this course was supported from the
very beginning by some blockchain-based solutions; e.g. graduates received
blockchain-based certificates and were allowed to pay tuition fees in crypto-
currencies. The motto of the University of Nicosia: “Think big”, cited in the
lessons learnt section, can be a great and encouraging takeaway from this
chapter.
Continuing the reflections on the lessons learnt from a real-world use of
blockchain, Chapter 7 focuses on the issuance of blockchain-based certificates
at the University of Nicosia. Marinos Themistocleous, Klitos
Christodoulou,
and Elias Iosif present Block.co – a platform developed at the University for
this purpose. The platform’s main goal is not to use blockchain just for the
sake of using it but to show that blockchain can meet the requirements of a
decentralised system for the issuance of certificates. This approach is in line
with the needs of graduates, the labour market, and educational institutions,
as discussed in the previous chapters.
Chapter 8 is the concluding chapter, in which Dariusz Dymek and Janusz
Stal deliver a critical evaluation of the existing and potential areas of block-
chain applications in education. To this end, the chapter provides an overview
of the factors that need to be taken into account when the use of blockchain
is considered. The authors’ opinion which deserves the readers’ special atten-
tion is as follows:
Blockchain technology has a potential to support higher education institu-
tions in their shift towards Education 4.0. However, it might be a time-con-
suming process. Ongoing projects that use blockchain play a
significant role
in this transformation. Their failure can slow down the process of block-
chain technology adoption, but their success will most likely attract more
institutions and make the whole community more open to blockchain
applications.
In our opinion, this can be a concluding remark of the book as a whole.
We believe that the book makes an important contribution to the populari-
sation of blockchain technology in the educational context, which is espe-
cially important in the light of this generally underdeveloped subject and
restricted scope of existing books. The book’s comprehensive character would

Blockchain technology in Education 4.0 5
be valuable for readers with various backgrounds, including researchers and
practitioners. Researchers will gain a broad outline of the considerations
associated with education transformation with the use of blockchain that can
guide their research. Practitioners will obtain a comprehensive overview of
the possibilities and ideas for applications, including insights into first-hand
experience with blockchain applications at a university. In particular, the
book will be interesting for policy makers at the university and governmental
level (e.g. the Ministry of Education), university IT departments, companies
that develop software for universities, and software suppliers. Furthermore,
since blockchain technology is still in the process of entering university cur-
ricula, the book may also be useful for postgraduate students. By the same
token, selected chapters (e.g., Chapters 1, 2, 8) can also be used as supplemen-
tary reading for undergraduate students within courses such as Computer

Science, Information Systems, Management, and Pedagogy.
In short, the current book critically evaluates blockchain’s potential for
reshaping education. To this end, on the one hand, the most promising areas
are delineated, and on the other hand, the most challenging issues are out-
lined. As a result, the book would be helpful in raising awareness about the
role of blockchain in education and in gaining a broader insight into the
future role of blockchain in educational institutions.
References
Bitcoin.com. (2016). Students Graduate from First Ever Blockchain Master’s Program.
Retrieved Feb. 8, 2023, from: https://news.bitcoin.com/students-graduate-block
chain-masters/
Buntinx, J. P. (2017). Top 5 University Bitcoin Courses. Retrieved Feb. 8, 2023, from:
https://themerkle.com/top-5-university-Bitcoin-courses/
Cunha, P. R., Soja, P., Themistocleous, M. (2021). Blockchain for development: a
guiding framework. Information Technology for Development, 27(3), 417–438.
Frizzo-Barker, J., Chow-White, P. A., Adams, P. R., Mentanko, J., Ha, D., Green,
S. (2020). Blockchain as a disruptive technology for business: A systematic review.
International Journal of Information Management, 51, 102029.
Gartner. (2019, October, 16). 4 Ways Blockchain Will Transform Higher Education.
Gartner Report. Retrieved Feb. 8, 2023, from: https://www.gartner.com/smarter
withgartner/4-ways-blockchain-will-transform-higher-education
Joshi, N. (2022, March, 31). Understanding Education 4.0: The Machine Learning-
Driven Future of Learning. Forbes. Retrieved Feb. 4, 2023, from: https://www.
forbes.com/sites/naveenjoshi/2022/03/31/understanding-education-40-the-
machine-learning-driven-future-of-learning/
NOWPayments. (2020). Top 5 Universities Offering Courses in Blockchain in 2020.
Retrieved Feb. 8, 2023, from: https://www.unic.ac.cy/top-5-universities-offering-
courses-in-blockchain-in-2020-4/

Oesterreich, T. D., Teuteberg, F. (2016). Understanding the implications of digiti-
sation and automation in the context of Industry 4.0: A triangulation approach
and elements of a research agenda for the construction industry. Computers in
Industry, 83, 121–139.
Olsen, T. L., Tomlin, B. (2020). Industry 4.0: Opportunities and challenges for
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to embrace Education 4.0? Informatica Economica, 26(3), 16–25.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003318736-2
1.1 Introduction
Nowadays, the higher education sector faces various challenges related to
the social and economic transformation linked with Industry 4.0 and wide-
spread digitalisation of almost every professional activity and occupation.
Social aspects of the labour market evolution over the recent years have been
associated with new generations entering the workforce (Millennials,

Generation Z, Generation Alpha) combined with rapid development of new
Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) and their impact on
the economy (Bielińska-Dusza Gierałt, 2021). These factors influence the
higher education sector which must transform in order to adapt to new con-
ditions. This adaptation should meet the expectations coming from different
stakeholders, including students (as future employees) and employers. These
expectations refer more to specific, sometimes narrow, practical compe-
tences and skills, rather than general, theoretical knowledge.
Technology and innovation can be perceived as an important driver for
transformation in the higher education area whose aim is to ensure high
responsiveness to labour market demands by educating goal-oriented gradu-
ates able to adapt to the rapidly changing requirements and ready to con-
tinuously acquire new knowledge and skills within the lifelong learning
framework (Hong Ma, 2020). Since digitalisation is accelerating, the
problem of insufficient supply of graduates with relevant digital skills and
competences is observed in different countries. A good illustration of this
problem is data from the European Digital Economy and Society Index
(DESI) which show that only 54% of Europeans aged between 16 and 74
1
TOWARDS EDUCATION 4.0
Challenges and opportunities
Paweł Konkol and Dariusz Dymek

8 Paweł Konkol and Dariusz Dymek
have at least basic digital skills (European Commission, 2022). This is one
example of indicators which characterises external environment in which
higher education operates and shifts towards Education 4.0. This is an
approach to learning that is related to the fourth industrial revolution and
considers transforming education through advanced digital technology and
automation (Joshi, 2022). Education 4.0 includes a new education shift
aimed at values represented by Industry 4.0 and focuses on adaptive learning
to enable students develop skills needed in the present labour market (Stroe,
2022). This shift is based on the conviction that present employers concen-
trate less on conceptual and theoretical knowledge, but rather on how future
employees can adapt and integrate this general knowledge with new tech-
nologies, having capabilities to up-skill, re-skill, and pursue lifelong learning
(Hong Ma, 2020). Continuous education helps to remain professionally
agile. Looking from the perspective of Industry 4.0 transformation, one of
the challenges to the current workforce and new generations of employees is
the process automation and predictions of its influence on the labour mar-
ket. Education offering short and long learning paths helps to limit and
avoid potential risks linked with automation.
The importance of Education 4.0 transformation has also been recog-
nised by the World Economic Forum which estimates that a global enhance-
ment in students’ collaborative problem-solving capacity to the average level
of today’s top 10 scoring countries should yield an additional $2.54 trillion
in increased productivity to the global economy (World Economic Forum,
2022).
This chapter presents the concept of Education 4.0 in the context of the
changes taking place in society and economy and shows how these changes
affect higher education. Section 1.2 describes the current social and econ-
omy phenomena and the challenges created by the ongoing changes to edu-
cation. In response to these challenges, new concepts of functioning in the
area of higher education were developed (described in Section 1.3), sup-
ported by new forms and methods of teaching (Section 1.4). As discussed in
Section 1.5, such an answer would not be possible without new technologies
that increase the scope of activities of educational organisations, thus allow-
ing them to adapt to changing conditions.
1.2
Education 4.0 ecosystem
1.2.1
Fourth Industrial Revolution and its influence on education
The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), often referred to as the Industry
4.0, is a common name for economic and social changes resulting from the
widespread digitisation of production processes and services, the beginning

Towards Education 4.0 9
of which dates back to the end of the 20th century (Davis, 2016). But despite
its name, its effects extend far beyond the industry. The following quotation
is a good illustration of that phenomenon (Schwab, 2016, p. 109):
In the fourth industrial revolution, digital connectivity enabled by software
technologies is fundamentally changing society. The scale of the impact and
the speed of the changes taking place have made the transformation that is
playing out so different from any other industrial revolution in human
history.
The important aspect of 4IR transformation is the combination of tech-
nologies which results in blurring the boundaries between physical, digital,
and biological spheres (Xu, David, Kim, 2018). The results of 4IR are
deep changes in the labour market. The high dynamics of transformation
associated with the adaptations of new technologies makes employers alter
their expectations towards current and future employees, which in turn
translates into a change in expectations towards educational institutions.
The challenges faced by education are well described by the famous quote
of RichardRiley, the former AmericanSecretaryof Education (Ton-Quinlivan
Hackwood, 2017, p. 3):
We are currently preparing students for jobs that don’t yet exist … using
technologies that haven’t been invented … in order to solve problems we
don’t even know are problems yet.
The key aspect here is the dynamic change of professions with new types of
jobs arising in different domains and specialisations. According to the World
Economic Forum 65% of children who begin their school education nowa-
days will work in professions that yet do not exist at present (World Eco-
nomic Forum, 2016).
This is not the first time that education has faced challenges, although it
might be the first time when changes have been so quick. Throughout recent
history, educational institutions went through various periods of transfor-
mation. Looking at past evolution of education and dividing it into stages,
four main periods can be distinguished. The first one, referred to as Educa-
tion 1.0, was focused mainly on the needs of agricultural society; the second,
Education 2.0, on the needs of industrial society; and the third one, referred
to as Education 3.0, on transformation oriented on how to take advantage
of technology. The aim of the next stage, Education 4.0, is to meet the needs
of an era of innovations (Himmetoğlu, Ayduğ, Bayrak, 2020). These
innovations not only represent a fundamental change for the industrial sec-
tor but also evoke various changes in the way people live and work.

Taking into account the dynamic character of the labour market, the
challenges that contemporary education is facing can be summarised as fol-
lows (Dimitrova, Madzhurova, Raychev, Stoyanova, 2022):
• increased demand for advanced-level cognitive skills (e.g., problem-
solving, critical thinking, and advanced communication);
• increased demand for lifelong learning as employees often must change
career paths throughout their professional lives;
• expecting higher educational institutions to act as the platform for the
development of innovation.
Summing up, the transformation towards Education 4.0, forced largely by
4IR processes, is associated with significant changes in the labour market.
These changes have a great impact on higher educational institutions and
demand to rethink the way and methods of providing education for students.
1.2.2
New generations on the labour market
Transformation of the labour market refers to changes in expectations of
new generations who enter workforce. Generation Y or Generation Z may
serve as good examples of the challenge posed by young employees to
employers. Generation Y refers to the group of people born between 1981
and 1994/96. An important feature related to representatives of Generation
Y, often referred to as Millennials, is the growing impact of Internet on their
everyday life. They are team-oriented, have high hopes for themselves and
others, and are sociable and ready for changes (Pysarevskyi et al., 2022).
Generation Z represents the latest wave of young employees starting their
professional career and includes the people born between 1995 and 2012.
One of the most important characteristics of this cohort is digitalisation.
Generation Z is the first global generation whose life began in the world
determined and dominated by digital technologies, making Generation Z
representative digital experts since their childhood. Constant access to the
Internet when reaching and consuming information is one of the typical
features of this generation (Machov et al., 2021). Generation Z (also called
post-millennials and centennials) may be also described by a higher level of
individualism, multitasking and entrepreneurial skills (Pysarevskyi et al.,
2022).
These new generations entering the labour market also bring new expec-
tations, demands, and attitudes towards building their professional career
and shaping their work–life balance. Taking representatives of Generation
Y into consideration and comparing this cohort with the previous ones,
including their parents, it is important to mention different approaches

referring to job perception and the role of the employer. This includes, for
instance, willingness to spend less time on professional activity and perceiv-
ing free time as more important than additional working hours (Robak,
2017). These kinds of changes raise the challenge to employers who have to
meet different expectations of young professionals; for example, developing
an organisational culture supporting work–life balance.
Considering present changes in individual preferences, flexibility of
work schemes needs to be broadened (OECD, 2017). In these new circum-
stances, the old question of how many hours we spend at work turns into
whether the required task is finished. Focus on result, not on workload,
makes jobs easier and customised and creates more flexible conditions
regarding the place and pace of work. However, a side effect of this might
be blurring the boundary between personal and professional life, which
creates the significant challenge both for employees and employers: how to
develop working conditions allowing work–life integration (e.g., combin-
ing family and working responsibilities). Similar expectations can also be
observed in higher education institutions (HEIs), where students want to
link the education with gaining a professional experience, often starting
their first job during their studies. Furthermore, many countries are facing
problems with a persistent gap between the skills and knowledge needed on
the market and those possessed by graduates entering workforce (Malik
Venkatraman, 2017). This poses a challenge to both labour market institu-
tions and HEIs regarding the anticipation of future demands in order to
prepare and transform existing educational programmes and teaching
methods. It is expected that HEIs will put more stress on very specific, lim-
ited set of skills and competences, rather than concentrate on some general
knowledge from a given discipline. In particular, this is true for studies in
the area of IT, where HEIs compete on the educational market with train-
ing institutions providing very narrow and specific trainings (recognisable
by employers) which fit directly into the current demands of the labour
market.
1.2.3
Possibilities of educational processes automation
An important element of IR4 is automation, which can lead to the redefini-
tion of some professions or even causing them to disappear from the labour
market. Hawksworth, Berriman and Goel (2018) point out three basic waves
of how automation processes may look like over the next few decades:
1. Algorithm wave – related to automation of basic, simple computational
tasks and analysis of structured data in fields concerning finance, com-
munication, and information. This first wave is already underway.

2. Augmentation wave – concerning communicating and exchanging infor-
mation based on dynamic technological support, automation of repeatable
tasks like filling in forms, and analysis of unstructured data in semi-
controlled environments. These processes are already going on but will
intensify in the coming years.
3. Autonomy wave – related to automation of physical labour and manual
dexterity, working out problems in dynamic real conditions, like manu-
facturing and transport (e.g., autonomous cars). This wave is already in
the development stage, but its full maturity is expected in 2030s.
Automation exerts strong pressure on the entire economy and the shape of
the labour market. In this context, the question about the impact of automa-
tion on education can appear. Can automation support education in facing
the challenges posed by the changing labour market? To answer this ques-
tion, a closer look at activities linked with educational processes and their
characteristic in the context of automation is necessary. Figure 1.1 presents
such a characteristic in comparison to other sectors.
Compared to other sectors, the characteristic of tasks and skills in the
education sector shows that they have rather low automatability potential
since, compared to average, they are more focused on social skills or man-
agement, the areas which are difficult to be replaced by technology and
machines. Obviously, automation will have an impact on educational
processes, but this impact will not affect education as strongly as many other
sectors (Hawksworth, Berriman, Goel, 2018).
FIGURE 1.1
Composition of tasks involved in jobs in education.
Source: Based on (Hawksworth, Berriman, Goel, 2018).

It should be underlined that the automation of processes through digi-
talisation, combined with globalisation, beside positive impact, also cre-
ates various problems. The one related to education and training is the
disappearance of some professions with another new ones being created at
the same time. This means that there is the necessity for continuous trans-
formation of study programmes, both in terms of content and methods
used, with the increasing use of ICT tools facilitating flexibility in many
aspects (e.g., distance learning, individual study paths). Hence, looking at
these changes from the perspective of HEIs, one of the main challenges
for the future is how to equip graduates with such skills and knowledge
that will ease the navigation in this technology-driven environment. Con-
sidering dynamic character of changes, the emphasis has to be put on the
development of the lifelong learning opportunities offering ways to
acquire skills needed at various stages of an individual’s professional
career.
1.2.4
Higher education institutions in the changing environment
Looking generally at the education market, an increasing number of stu-
dents reflects the growing importance of HEIs in society. Taking into
account past two decades, global participation in higher education by the
year 2020 reached 228 million students, as compared to 82 million in 1995
(Higher education in a changing and challenging world, 2022). Transforma-
tion of higher education based on advanced digital technologies facilitates
provision of educational resources and knowledge for such a wide popula-
tion of students at different levels. The move towards distance learning has
taken place in the worldwide tertiary education, with some important limita-
tions and obstacles encountered. One of them refers to the fact that low-
income countries are the place of living for 96% of the 2.9 billion people
who have never used the Internet (Higher education in a changing and chal-
lenging world, 2022). Increasing popularity of distance learning also moves
the attention to the general growing importance of remote work in the
labour market. In the era of globalisation and common access to the Inter-
net, it is easy to search for manpower worldwide. Splitting jobs into lower-
level tasks, allows the possibility to hire employees to perform individual
tasks, without the necessity to create more formal relationships. It results in
enlarging the sector of freelancers or the platform economy (e.g., Upwork,
Freelancer, Guru) (Pongratz, 2018).
The pace of transformation towards Education 4.0 has been accelerated
by the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, preferences of Generation Z stu-
dents, discussed in Section 1.2.2, also contributed to changes in expectations

towards an educational system that can be summarised as follows (Fisk,
2017):
• diverse time and place (more opportunities to learn at different places
and times, e-learning tools and methods),
• personalised learning (adaptation of the study programme and methods
to the capabilities of a student, increasing importance of mentoring),
• project-based learning and assessing of students’ progress (learning based
on project and teamwork approach),
• field experience (more opportunities oriented on practical skills),
• data interpretation (increasing importance of competencies in data
analysis).
It should be noted that HEIs operate in the growing competitive environ-
ment, which raises challenges especially to the public higher education sec-
tor. HEIs compete for new students, budget, and subsidies, as well as for the
academic staff. What is more important, competition in the higher educa-
tion sector evolves in such a way that it refers not only to individuals or
countries but also to institutional level, turning universities into real com-
petitors (Musselin, 2018). From this perspective of the growing competitive-
ness, the term marketisation of higher education is used to describe trends
of providing higher education based on a pure market basis. This generally
may be perceived as a method of ensuring balance between the demand and
supply of student education, scientific research, and other activities of
higher education institutions based on price mechanism (Brown, 2015). In
this context, it is worth mentioning that the emerging competition from
organisations is not directly included in the education sector (in particular,
public education). They offer their own programmes and courses whose
scope and form are driven by market needs or are aimed at promoting their
own methods and tools. For instance, Oracle Academy (academy.oracle.
com)orMicrosoftImagineAcademy(microsoft.com/en-gb/education/imagine-
academy) offers many complete programmes or individual courses based on
their own software.
Competitiveness refers also to distance learning educational market where
HEIs have to compete with various institutions offering non-degree training
programmes which are nowadays growing in popularity (Morris, Ivancheva,
Coop, Mogliacci, Swinnerton, 2020). For instance, in some areas like IT,
the market of training courses is very extensive, and some training pro-
grammes are regarded by employers as comparable to formal HEIs’ degree
courses.
Considering generation-related changes, today’s students often start their
studies with detailed expectations for their future professional career path.

This causes a change in the role of students in the educational process, from
passive listeners to active participants who have their own requirements and
expectations that the HEIs should meet. The answer of HEIs to this chal-
lenge is the idea of student-centred learning, which is included in the Educa-
tion 4.0 concept. Student-centred learning underlines the need to provide
students with higher level of autonomy, independence, and control over
their learning experiences (Lathika, 2016). In the student-centred learning
approach, students are perceived as the owners of their learning processes.
They build learning opportunities and have the possibility to reconstruct
knowledge in a dynamic way based on an open-ended learning environment
(Lee Hannafin, 2016). Compared to the past decades, when traditional,
externally directed learning in which students’ engagement and participation
were more passive, in student-centred learning student’s role is more active.
This approach provides more opportunities to develop soft skills and com-
petences necessary for the project team collaboration. These types of skills
are prerequisite for the effective team collaboration and are essential to suc-
ceed in project realisation in different business sectors and to facilitate the
spread of necessary knowledge across organisations.
HEIs that change their teaching methods towards student-centred
approach concentrate on skills and practices that facilitate lifelong learning
and an independent problem-solving approach. More emphasis is put on
students’ interests, enabling them to decide what and how will they learn.
This method of education provision transforms a teacher into a facilitator
of the educational process for an individual student during their study track,
rather than for a class or group perceived as a whole.
Student-centred learning needs efficient methods and tools facilitating
adjustment of teaching programmes to present and future needs of the
labour market. The higher education system should be more responsive to
labour market needs providing graduates with relevant competencies and
employability perspectives (OECD, 2019). Apart from the labour market or
employers’ needs, this adjustment may also be seen from the perspective of
students’ expectations for education. Education more tailored for individual
requirements should provide counselling and recommendation for students
based on their prior educational achievements. Introduction of student-cen-
tred learning approach may be enhanced by the usage of different teaching
methods, and at the same time, implementing various new ICT tools and
technologies in the teaching processes. These methods include computer-
supported collaborative learning, problem-based learning, active learning,
and cooperative learning (Judi Sahari, 2013).
One of the important challenges to stakeholders of the labour market,
mainly employers and educational institutions, considers verifications of edu-
cational achievements and diploma. This challenge is enforced by globalisation

and the mobility of workers. Looking from the point of view of HEIs, it is
necessary to provide fast and reliable methods for employers to verify docu-
ments that job candidates present as the proof of their academic achievements.
HEIs issue various documents like transcripts, diploma supplements, and
other documents that provide potential employers and other institutions with
deeper understanding of student achievements. However, employers encounter
difficulties on how to guarantee that these documents are real and not fraudu-
lent, taking into account that the level of fraud in this area is high. According
to the statistics from the United Kingdom (HEDD, 2021), about 30% of stu-
dents and graduates cheated by fabricating or
exaggerating their academic
achievements. Another data for the United Kingdom shows that half of large
businesses and small- and medium-sized enterprises have encountered an
employment candidate who cheated about degree qualifications, presenting a
false degree or by inflating their grade (Half of UK employers have been vic-
tims of degree fraud, 2019).
Furthermore, an important problem is an educational black market offer-
ing fake degrees and diplomas. This can lead to serious consequences like in
the case of police in Brazil, where new police staff joined the forces present-
ing fake diplomas (Lepiane et al., 2019). In the United States, problem of
fake diplomas has existed for a long time. According to an estimation from
2011 by Attewell and Domina (2011), 6% of bachelor’s degrees and 35% of
associate degrees in the United States were fake. Frauds referring to educa-
tional documents relate to other aspects like misrepresenting achievements,
changing grades, and inflating work experience. These kinds of problems
with frauds are deepened by the fact that some institutions issuing docu-
ments disappear from the market or have problems with their archives stor-
ing documents. This also affects students who are not able to validate their
achievements.
All these challenges create additional, unnecessary costs for companies
with regard to verification procedures. According to estimations for the
United Kingdom, on average, companies’ spendings to address these issues
account for £ 40 000 (Henle, Dineen, Duffy, 2019; Awaji Solaiman,
2022). Therefore, various stakeholders in the labour market (educational
institutions, companies, human resources, and recruitment agencies) should
be interested in implementing new digital solutions improving practices in
this field. When considering verification of educational achievements by the
labour market, digital technologies such as blockchain may be used to pro-
vide learners with better access and ownership of their qualifications with
accompanying documents and certificates.
Education 4.0 transformation takes place in the environment which is
characterised by the mobility of students and staff. This raises another chal-
lenge considering verification of students’ achievements related to mobility.

Mobility-related processes are not only managed at intra-organisational
level but also refer to many interactions and recognition procedures between
HEIs from different countries. In order to provide more transparency and
accountability in this area, HEIs need efficient tools to control access to
students’ data, maintaining the appropriate level of privacy and security.
This is the domain in which new digital technologies such as blockchain may
produce positive effects. The recent example can be the Erasmus Without
Paper, the digital solution for higher education institutions whose aim is to
provide methods to connect and exchange data between institutional

Erasmus+ mobility management systems for the better management of
international students’ mobility. In case of students’ mobility experience
blockchain may be used for the management of certificates attesting courses
completed at host institutions.
1.3 Competency-based learning
1.3.1
Impact of the labour market on learning approaches
Common requirements for present employees include the ability to acquire
new skills, solve problems, effectively work in team and quickly embrace new
technologies and methods of operations. This increases the responsibility of
higher education institutions which have to concentrate more on the devel-
opment of practical skills rather than the transfer of general theoretical
knowledge. This more holistic approach to the learning process better pre-
pares graduates to apply knowledge to real-life problems. An emphasis on
more competency-based education is linked with the requirements towards
higher education institutions to offer more practice-oriented approach
(Bauer, 2021). This orientation on practice does not refer only to hard skills
but also to soft ones which are perceived as the very important asset of
employees, and higher educational institutions have to put emphasis on their
development among students. As stated in the famous adage, “You get hired
for hard skills, but get fired for soft skills”, they form the important part of
an employee’s professional portfolio. Helping students to develop soft skills
is probably the greatest challenge faced by higher education today (Pérez
et al., 2020). The competency-based learning concept has been developed to
respond to these challenges. This transformation of educational entities is
enhanced at regional and international level. Various regulations at Euro-
pean level which underline the need for more competency-based education
may serve as examples (European Union, 2018). Looking at competences
from different standpoints, some level of ambiguity can be observed. The
general concept of competences refers to knowledge, skills, and experience
(Serafin, 2016), whereas more detailed distinctions indicate competences as

the category embracing not only skills but also knowledge, abilities, and
broader predispositions (OECD, 2005). The distinction between behavioural
and technical competencies has also been underlined, where the former may
be associated with soft skills, like teamwork or leadership (Armstrong
Taylor, 2014). The topic related to competencies and skills in the light of the
labour market transformation is discussed in Chapter 5.
One of the challenges to the labour market is how to effectively manage
competencies and provide convenient methods of their verification. Various
new ICT solutions and technologies may be used to improve these processes,
with blockchain being one of the most promising examples (Dymek, Konkol,
Stal, Put, Trąbka, 2020). Competence-oriented teaching relates with the
shift to more practice-oriented study programmes or teaching methods and
closer links with external stakeholders from the labour market. It is also
associated with an enhancement of work–life relevance of higher education
as the way to meet the demands of the labour market (Bauer, 2021). The
emphasis on competences leads to the growing importance of student-cen-
tred approach, in which the learning scope and the speed of the learning
paths are adjusted to various students in a more individual way (see Section
1.2.4). Combining this with an increasing number of students, it becomes
clear that without the support of ICT technologies these goals will not be
achievable. Competency-based teaching should be based on data analyses to
build individual learning paths or monitor progress and achievements of an
individual student. These analyses may be supported by advanced business
intelligence functionalities offering various tools like student’s progress
dashboard presenting data from different perspectives.
1.3.2
Industry 4.0 and the focus on skills in education
A paradigm shift towards competency-based curriculum is accelerated by
various demands addressed at HEIs. Many of them belong to the conse-
quences of the Industry 4.0 transformation. Hence, the Education 4.0 should
be analysed from the perspective of methods and ways used by HEIs trying
to align educational processes with the needs raised by Industry 4.0 processes
(Bonfield, Salter, Longmuir, Benson, Adachi, 2020). Present-day students
do not necessarily look for vast and complete encyclopaedic knowledge and
broad multi-angle analyses but rather concentrate on specific skills and
methods to complete particular tasks. The European Union funded project
called “The University for the Future”, launched by HEIs, companies and
public bodies, aims to bridge the actual gap in the present higher education
offer from the perspective of digitalisation processes. The emphasis is put on
a better cooperation between HEIs, business sector, and public authorities as
the response to Industry 4.0 transformation. Table 1.1 presents the skills

necessary for the Industry 4.0-based labour market workforce identified
within this project. Most of these skills are the result of intensive digitalisa-
tion processes. As in the case of engineering or design and innovation, man-
agement processes are also supported by a wide range of digital solutions
and systems. Study programmes should be more focused on the development
of digital skills, and graduates (e.g., project managers) will have to be more
digitally professional to effectively run projects in the era of the Industry 4.0
revolution (Universities of the future, 2019).
Competency-based approach in education is a promising direction for the
development of HEIs which have to be flexible in responding to the labour
TABLE 1.1
Competencies in Industry 4.0.
Engineering Management Design and innovation
Data science and advanced
(big data) analytics
Technology awareness Understanding the
impact of
technology
Novel human–machine
interfaces
Change management and
strategy
Human–robot
interaction and
user interfaces
Digital-to-physical transfer
technologies, such as 3-D
printing
Novel talent management
strategies
Tech-enabled product
and service design
Advanced simulation and
virtual plant modelling
Organisational structures
and knowledge
Tech-enabled
ergonomic
solutions and user
experience
Closed-loop integrated product
and process quality, control
and management systems
The role of managers –
more as teamwork
facilitators than task
assigners
Data communication and
networks and system
automation
Tech-enabled processes:
Forecasting and
planning metrics,
scheduling
Real-time inventory and
logistics optimisation
systems
Business analysis
Artificial Intelligence, robotics,
automation, programming
Digital skills
Information Technologies
Mechatronics, cybersecurity,
augmented and virtual
reality
Source: Based on (Universities of the future, 2019).

market demands. The shift towards this competency-based approach has to
be accompanied by the implementation of new teaching methods which is
discussed Section 1.4.
1.4
New learning methods and forms
1.4.1
Stakeholders of educational process
Requirements of the labour market and the attitude of young generation
towards education system make the traditional form of higher education
offered by HEIs insufficient. New challenges require a new form of acting.
These challenges can be considered from different points of view, which can
be shortly represented as Who, What, and How.
The first perspective (Who) refers to stakeholders, both people and organ-
isations, participating in the educational process. It covers their needs,
requirements, capabilities, and motivations – generally all aspects influenc-
ing their attitudes towards education. The second perspective (What) refers
to the problems related to the educational content: scope and form. The
process of its development, in most cases is the internal process of a given
HEI, but it is under impact of many internal (e.g., capabilities, staff avail-
ability) and external (e.g., labour market needs, students’ expectations) fac-
tors. The third perspective (How) represents the way of interaction between
Who and What, in particular, describing the newly developed and intro-
duced forms and methods used in the educational process (Figure 1.2).
New learning methods and forms which are developed in a higher educa-
tion environment reflect the transformation of goals and priorities shared by
educational institutions. The role of a contemporary education institution is
not mainly to deliver theoretical knowledge but rather to provide an inspir-
ing environment in which learners can improve their problem-solving skills
and analytical competences. Problem-solving skills and creativity are listed
among the top five skills which will be necessary on the labour market taking
into account the perspective of the year 2025 (World Economic Forum,
2020). This approach implies more active role of students in the teaching
process and the necessity of adjustment of teacher’s role and teaching meth-
ods used (Calvão, Ribeiro, Simões, 2019).
Taking into account skills expected from HEIs graduates (Table 1.2), it is
necessary to redesign methods of teaching in order to develop competencies
important for the current labour market. New methods should focus on a
more interactive way of teaching, and for this purpose new digital technolo-
gies can be widely used (see Section 1.5).

Towards
Education
4.0
21
FIGURE 1.2 Perspectives of the HE teaching process.

1.4.2
Evolution of teaching methods and digitalisation
Although digital technologies bring various opportunities for teaching
methods’ transformation, some obstacles have to be taken into consider-
ation. One of them refers to the level of resistance among teaching staff to
use modern digital technologies. Hence, the challenge faced by higher educa-
tion in the 21st century does not refer to modern technologies as such but to
the ability of teaching staff to use and embed them into the teaching prac-
tice (Watty, McKay, Ngo, 2016). To overcome this obstacle, academics
should enhance their understanding of technologies to be able to see what
benefits they can bring to the teaching process.
Digital tools that can be used to transform teaching process are based on
a variety of ICTs. Digital tools that can support education include the fol-
lowing (Watty et al., 2016):
• intelligent tutoring systems – enabling to profile student work and pro-
vide customised instruction and feedback,
• social media technologies – used for collaboration, communication, and
effective content delivery,
• click technology – enabling active engagement of students in the learning
process (e.g., pooling tools to keep students engaged),
• video learning resources and social media – facilitating content dissemi-
nation and open access for students with any type of barriers hindering
learning process,
• flipped classroom technologies – used to switch from traditional way of
teaching towards blended, flipped approach,
• instant web response tool – directed to develop critical thinking and
reflection skills.
TABLE 1.2
Skills expected from a student in Education 4.0.
Category of skills Sample skills
Personal characteristics Productive, investigative, leader, entrepreneur,
adaptable, curious
Technological skills Producing new information and technologies,
using technology effectively, catching up
technological developments
Cooperation-communication
skills
Teamwork skills, effective communication
Learning skills Analytical thinking, problem-solving and critical
thinking, learning anywhere and anytime
Source: Based on (Himmetoğlu, Ayduğ, Bayrak, 2020).

Guàrdia et al. (2021) elaborated the list of innovative approaches for the
teaching process at higher education institutions. Most of them refer to
some aspects of digitalisation and involvement of new ICTs. Even though
some trends have been present in the higher education area for a long time,
new disruptive technologies boost their usage in teaching. The sample list of
these methods includes the following (Guàrdia, Clougher, Anderson,
Maina, 2021):
• adaptive learning – the approach to education where students receive tai-
lored resources, materials, and activities. Artificial Intelligence (AI) can
be used to expand the range of possibilities in this area,
• event-based learning – education realised in the frame of planned events
in real-life context. Popular activities include Hackathon, Charette (col-
laborative event for group work on a particular task), Editathon (collab-
orative event for editing and generating content for digital applications
and information repositories), GameJam (collaborative event to develop
games and concepts of games), Installfest (collective instalment of a par-
ticular software, accompanied sometimes by tutorials and walkthroughs),
World Café (discussion event for knowledge sharing based on a specific
workflow),
• gamification – uses game elements to increase motivation, enjoyment,
and engagement of students in order to improve knowledge retention,
• rhizomatic learning – based on the assumption that learning is a multi-
dimensional process with a complex and chaotic character (teacher as a
facilitator of conversation).
Another approach to teaching that supports Education 4.0 principles is the
concept of flipped classroom (Smith, Legaki, Hamari, 2022). In this
approach to teaching, knowledge transfer should be realised more individu-
ally by students prior to their participation in a class. As a result, class time
can be devoted to assist students in the assimilation of what they have
accessed and attempted to understand in teaching resources (Farmer, 2018).
As ICT technologies facilitate access to educational resources, in case of
flipped classroom, students can easily acquire theoretical knowledge at
home, whereas on-campus classrooms can provide more opportunities for
individual guidance, discussions, practical instructions, and experiments.
Since higher education stakeholders, like students and faculty staff, live in
a society where technology gains more importance, evolution of teaching
methods should reflect this shift. An important feature of the new teaching
methods is interactive character which can be easily achieved through the
combination of traditional classroom experience with new ways of knowl-
edge dissemination and provision.

1.4.3
Next generation pedagogy framework
The IDEAS framework developed by Guàrdia et al. (2021) may be treated as
the set of guideposts on the path to the next generation pedagogy (Figure 1.3).
The intelligent pedagogy concept points at learning analytic tools to provide
more adaptive teaching, based on student actual performance. Analysis of
individual learning paths can help to identify students with potential prob-
lems during study progress. Another important aspect refers to expanded
learning activities outside a particular institutional learning platform which
provides students with broader learning experiences and ensures higher level
of autonomy in the learning process.
Agile pedagogy is another characteristic of the teaching process where
the emphasis is put on flexibility and responsiveness to learners’ needs. One
of the very interesting examples of how to provide this flexibility refers to
micro-credentials, which certify learning outcomes of short-term learning
activities. This approach has been discussed and developed across European
FIGURE 1.3 IDEAS pedagogy framework.
Source: Based on (Guàrdia, Clougher, Anderson, Maina, 2021).

Higher Education Area with the aim to provide access to education and
training to broader population of students, also from disadvantaged groups
(The Council of the European Union, 2022).
Situated pedagogy emphasises the importance of the real-world relevance
of study curricula and the contextualisation of the learning process which
should address students’ personal and professional goals. Learning activities
should provide opportunities to apply knowledge in practice based on part-
nership with companies and other organisations.
Distributed teaching underlines the importance of cooperation among
various stakeholders, like educational institutions, business partners, or pro-
fessional bodies. From this perspective, creation of study programmes is
based on the prior collaboration between different partners, providing stu-
dents with more adequate knowledge and skills addressing and responding
to the current needs of the labour market.
Engaging pedagogy refers to the shift from the passive content-based
approach to methods of teaching where students play a more active role.
More responsibility is transferred on students encouraging them to search
actively for resources and applying them to the real-life context.
All the above-discussed transformation processes of HEIs and new meth-
ods and approaches to education are strongly linked with the growing impor-
tance of digital technologies. The impact of digitalisation on the learning
process is difficult to overestimate. Various ICTs change the educational
landscape, providing tools to replace traditional teaching methods. One of
the examples refers to the use of virtual and augmented reality in the class-
room in order to create augmented learning experience (eLearning Industry,
2021). The important consequence of the present transformation of educa-
tion is the emphasis on flexibility based on students’ individual needs. To
support this, HEIs have to provide more options for educational track stu-
dents choose, offer flexible schedules, and extend distance learning options.
1.5
Impact of disruptive technologies
1.5.1
Introduction to disruptive technologies
Disruptive technologies bring various opportunities but also challenges to
their implementation in organisations (Benner, 2020; Ghawe Chan,
2022). They offer ways for the improvement of economic efficiency or the
quality of life, but also pose new forms of risk by triggering unexpected
changes in organisations (Taeihagh, Ramesh, Howlett, 2021). Disruptive
technologies may be analysed from the perspective of the Industry 4.0 revo-
lution. Since Education 4.0 is linked with the Fourth Industrial Revolution,

some flagship disruptive technologies listed in the context of the 4IR may
also be referenced in the case of Education 4.0. These technologies include
(Chaka, 2022): blockchain, autonomous robots, artificial intelligence,
cloud computing, big data, smart sensors, extended reality (XR) embracing
such forms as augmented, mixed and virtual reality, and Internet of Things
(Figure 1.4).
Disruptive technologies may be perceived as tools that create possibili-
ties to do things in a way which was not possible in the past. However, also
in the case of higher education, implementation of a new disruptive

technology does not mean automatic modernisation of existing teaching
processes (Christensen, Horn, Johnson, 2008). Incentives for these

technology-based modernisation often come from other institutions which
are competitors in the same market. HEIs are nowadays faced by the
increasing competitiveness of various non-academic educational initiatives
and organisations which are more eager to benefit from new technologies
to provide educational content, focusing more on the online approach.
Such initiatives may enhance faster implementation of new disruptive tech-
nologies in HEIs whose educational offer is based on regular degree pro-
grammes. These technologies enhance personalised education based on the
identification of students’ learning strategies and abilities. Below the main
disruptive technologies are discussed with indication on their potential
usage of education.
FIGURE 1.4 Disruptive technologies.

1.5.2 Big data
Big data solutions refer to data sets that exceed the ability of traditional data
processing to capture, manage, and process the data. Big data analytics
refers to the use of advance analytic techniques on a very large amount of
data (IBM, 2023). Organisations, also HEIs, have been generating an increas-
ing amount of data. Analysis of this data can provide a valuable insight into
organisational processes and operations.
Big data systems in education are one of the tools that help to eliminate prob-
lems related to siloed database systems and insufficient data exchange between
various areas of organisational activities. Big data analytics can bring advan-
tages for HEIs, since they produce large amount of data related in particular to
study-oriented processes. Educational institutions can use big data solutions to
offer innovative teaching (Huda et al., 2016). For example, collecting and ana-
lysing large amount of data about students’ behaviour allows to elaborate pre-
dictions enabling to build learning process in a more individual way (e.g., prog-
nosis on student preferences concerning course or learning materials).
Furthermore, big data solutions may be used in recommendation systems which
are based on data related to students’ learning methods, habits, and interests.
These systems can help to solve problems of information overload through rec-
ommendation of personalised educational resources (Fu, Tian, Tang, 2022).
1.5.3 Cloud computing
According to the definition of the American National Institute of Standards
and Technology,
Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand
network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g.,
networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly
provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service pro-
vider interaction.
(Mell Grance, 2011, p. 2)
Cloud computing has been widely implemented in HEIs, providing tools to
share online teaching materials and manage academic assessment and exam-
ination. The importance of cloud computing for higher education sector
increased dramatically during the COVID-19 pandemic (Noh Amron,
2021). Applications like Google Classroom, Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and
other learning management systems and study-oriented services allowed to
organise teaching process based on distance or blended learning approach.
They are based on cloud computing services, providing tools to share
resources and collaborate on common tasks.

1.5.4 Extended reality
Extended reality is the term embracing both virtual reality (VR) and aug-
mented reality (AR). While in the case of virtual reality, where an immersive
virtual environment is created, in augmented reality visual, auditory, or other
type of sensory information is overlaid onto the real-world environment. Aug-
mented reality allows user to see both real and virtual objects superimposed on
natural view. Hence, one of the main differences between augmented and vir-
tual reality is that the latter creates its own cyber environment whereas the
former adds additional digital layer to the real world. Augmented reality can
be divided into the following categories (Sinha, 2021): marker-based AR
(linked with physical image triggering an augmented experience and additional
content), marker-less AR (surrounding environment scanned before placing
digital content on a given surface), location-based AR (based on responding to
information produced by GPS, accelerometer or digital compasses).
AR has revolutionised the transmission of data. It has some advantages
over virtual reality since in case of the latter the user is completely immersed
in an artificial environment and shut out from the surroundings (Tan,

Chandukala, Reddy, 2022). Virtual and augmented reality offer new tools
for the dissemination of knowledge and facilitate educational content cre-
ation which is more intuitive for users (Qushem et al., 2021). Virtual Reality
provides methods for creating realistic scenarios which can, in particular, be
used for studies like medicine or archaeology. Using AR in education

provides tools to create 3D models which improve students’ learning experi-
ence. AR and VR may clarify abstract and complex content thanks to the
visualisation capabilities and interactivity (Dikusar, 2018). AR and VR may
be used to explore abstract concepts and study various phenomena in more
details (Hernandez-de-Menendez, Díaz, Morales-Menendez, 2020).
1.5.5 Artificial Intelligence
According to Dikusar (2018), artificial intelligence is one of the two most
promising disruptive technologies for education, together with extended real-
ity discussed above. As defined in documents of the European Commission:
Artificial Intelligence refers to systems that display intelligent behaviour by
analysing their environment and taking actions – with some degree of
autonomy – to achieve specific goals. AI-based systems can be purely soft-
ware-based, acting in the virtual world (e.g., voice assistants, image analysis
software, search engines, speech and face recognition systems) or AI can be
embedded in hardware devices (e.g. advanced robots, autonomous cars,
drones or Internet of Things applications).
(European Commission, 2018, p. 1)

Artificial intelligence may be implemented in supporting digital and web-
based educational systems providing tools for the assessment of students’
personality traits. Furthermore, it may be used to collect data on student-
learning styles or create alerts related to the probability of students’ early
dropouts (Qushem et al., 2021).
1.5.6 Blockchain
Blockchain as a disruptive technology may play an important role in the
transformation of HEIs in the direction towards Education 4.0 (Logofatu,
2017). Its possible implementations in the educational sector, especially in
higher education, are broadly discussed in the subsequent chapters. Higher
education institutions investigate various ways in which this technology
could be implemented for areas like identity management or transcripts of
records and diploma management. Since blockchain solutions are based on
a distributed data structure with records being replicated in multiple loca-
tions and taking into account elimination of the role of a central authority
on the top of a ledger, this technology allows to increase the trust among all
participants of a blockchain-based system (Alexander et al., 2019). More-
over, blockchain can serve as an interface with other systems based on such
disruptive technologies like artificial intelligence, Internet of Things (IoT),
big data, which are also being implemented in HEIs (Gutowski, Markie-
wicz, Niedzielski, Klein, 2022).
Apart from many conceptual approaches, there are a number of examples
of already existing solutions in HEIs where blockchain is used to improve the
management of processes. They refer to keeping records of degrees, diplomas,
certificates, and credentials in blockchain, providing students with better con-
trol over verification and recognition processes. Blockchain can help to prevent
fraud in skills recognition on the labour market and streamline recruitment-
related processes (Steiu, 2020). Blockchain-based transcript of records listing
all educational achievements can not only improve processes on the labour
market but also facilitate students’ mobility between institutions, for example
in the context of the European Union students’ mobility programmes.
1.5.7
Other disruptive technologies
Other major disruptive technologies that may be used in higher education
sector include Internet of Things and smart sensors or robotics (Choi,
Kumar, Yue, Chan, 2021). These technologies refer more to industry sec-
tor, but they may also bring some advantages for education.
Internet of Things concept embraces the solutions where objects, sensors,
and other items generate, exchange and consume data based on network

connectivity and computing capability with minor human intervention
(Rose, Eldridge, Chapin, 2015). Smart sensors are IoT components that
are used to transform real-world variables into digital data. IoT can be used
to streamline different operations at HEIs to prepare them better for learn-
ing activities. For example, it can support solutions that facilitate tracking
students’ attendance based on wearable devices; they help to eliminate
teacher’s obligation on tracking and reporting in this area (Bakla, 2019). IoT
can be also useful in managing university infrastructure, for instance through
monitoring temperature in classrooms and enabling to create appropriate
conditions for learning.
Educational robotics may be used as a teaching tool in higher education.
This technology can improve motivation and students’ educational perfor-
mance by providing motivating activities, real experiences, and an attractive
learning environment (Sánchez, Martínez, González, 2019).
Referring to aforementioned technologies (e.g., AR, VR, blockchain), the
recent concept of metaverse should be also added to the list of new techno-
logical advancements which can be used in education. Metaverse can be
defined as
a persistent and immersive simulated world that is experienced in the first
person by large groups of simultaneous users who share a strong sense of
mutual presence. It can be fully virtual and self-contained (a virtual meta-
verse) or it can exist as layers of virtual content overlaid on the real world
(an augmented metaverse).
(Rosenberg, 2022)
Metaverse with other technologies like artificial intelligence may offer edu-
cational content for students in a more personalised manner and allow a
deeper integration of new disruptive technologies in education (Contreras
et al., 2022).
Technology which is directly linked with augmented reality and has a
potential to transform the way of how people learn is the holographic tech-
nology. This technology refers to the usage of lasers, illumination, and light
recording to build 3D images. A hologram is produced with photographic
projection that records the light scattered from some object and displays it in
a way that provides three-dimensional impression. Potential use and benefits
of digital holograms for education refer in particular to providing students
with more realistic images, creating more appropriate speciation of abstract
topics, combining non-alive characters with the real world (Turk Kapucu
Seckin, 2021). Holograms provide methods to perform experiments close to
learners without the necessity to sit in one classroom. This technology is
already in use in developed countries, and it may be also used by universities

to provide education for developing countries, but one of the obstacles of its
adoption refers to relatively high costs of the necessary equipment for holo-
graphic projection (Habboosh, 2022).
1.6 Conclusions
The landscape of Education 4.0 has a dynamic character determined by
transformation processes in a social and economic environment (e.g., Indus-
try 4.0). Increasing demands from new generations entering labour market
and raising expectations from employers result in a more and more turbu-
lent environment in which higher education institutions operate. An addi-
tional important factor which has an impact on the education sector is the
emergence of other organisations not related to formal education. These
organisations, offering different programmes and courses, become the com-
petitors for traditional HEIs.
In such circumstances, HEIs have no choice but to change their way of
acting and adapt to that situation. To operate efficiently in a competitive
market and meet the expectations of both the labour market and new gen-
erations, HEIs must not only implement new concepts and methods of
teaching, but also alternate the processes of management and administra-
tion. All these cannot be done without extensive use of digital technologies.
Modern disruptive technologies like augmented reality, artificial intelli-
gence, and blockchain play an important role in this transformation. They
can alternate not only the way of teaching but also enable HEIs to create
environment in which every student can be treated individually, according to
individual needs, capabilities, and requirements. These new technologies
have a great, not fully known, potential which gives HEIs the possibility to
meet the expectations of all participants of the education domain.
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DOI: 10.4324/9781003318736-3
2.1 Introduction
Industry 4.0 (see Chapter 5) is characterised by, among other things, the
use of the Internet and cyber-physical systems in industrial fields. The
introduction of increasingly technologically advanced production and
organisational processes places new demands on the education sector. As a
result, a new paradigm of Education 4.0 has emerged that redefines such
concepts as learning, student, teacher, and school, according to the needs
of Industry 4.0. Education 4.0 is characterised by open access, student-
centred education, introduction of digital technologies to education,

seamless learning, lifelong learning, and exploratory and multidisciplinary
education (Himmetoğlu, Ayduğ, Bayrak, 2020). These new challenges
posed by Education 4.0 require the use of adequate solutions and tools to
support educational processes. One of them may be Distributed Ledger
Technology (DLT) and, derived from this concept, blockchain. It can sup-
port processes such as storing archives, securing diplomas and transcripts
to prevent their forgery, financial transactions, storage of teachers’ and stu-
dents’ data, and flexible certificate storage and sharing (Cassandra et al.,
2020; Himmetoğlu, Ayduğ, Bayrak, 2020; Prawiyogi et al., 2021; Rizky,
Silen, Putra, 2021).
Distributed Ledger Technology is a distributed database which allows
users to store and access information in a shared mode (Natarajan, Krause,
Gradstein, 2017). This information is distributed among users, who can
use it to settle their transfers without the need to rely on a central validation
system (Pinna Ruttenberg, 2016; Rauchs et al., 2018).
2
BLOCKCHAIN AS A DISRUPTIVE
TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION 4.0
Janusz Stal and Dariusz Put

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Robert the Pious, his notion of perjury, 31
forbids ordeal of Eucharist, 349
Robert III. (Scotland), torture not used under, 572
Robert Curthose tests his sons by the ordeal, 294
Robert the heretic convicted by ordeal, 411
Rodolph I. limits the duel, 205
his charter to Styria, 213
intervenes against torture, 476
Rodolph II. confirms privilege of Lorraine, 238
Rodriguez de los Puertos, case of, 540
Roger of Naples, his charter to Bari, 201
Roman law, grades of proof in, 21
importance of oaths in, 21
its influence on compurgation, 72
rejects negative proofs, 74
its centralization, 78
its influence on the duel, 211
its influence on ordeals, 426
its regulations of torture, 435
its influence on the Goths, 456
its influence in Germany, 524
its influence in Scotland, 572
rejected in England, 566
Romans, traces of ordeals among, 270
Rome, guarantees of oaths, 26
oaths of priests in, 36
council of, 384, condemns torture, 477
Rosbach, Emerich von, his work on criminal law, 525
Rotharis, his law on compurgation, 47
forbids withdrawal of confession, 52
prescribes the judicial duel, 113

restricts the judicial duel, 114
Rotruda, St., her relics tested with fire, 316
Roumania, modern use of torture, 588
Royal courts not liable to appeal, 126
Ruaille, 168
Rumor suffices to justify torture, 537
Russia, the Mir, 15
wer-gild, 15
early use of duel, 110
no limitation of weapons, 178
duels with foreigners prohibited, 178
use of champions, 195
exemption of German traders, 204
duel abolished, 238
use of ordeals, 274
water and iron ordeals, 292
converted by ordeal of fire, 310
household ordeal for theft, 334
bier-right, 359
ordeal in all cases, 386
for accuser, 389
torture introduced, 509
abolished, 581
used in political cases, 587
Sachentages, 477
Sachsenspiegel—
value or purgatorial oaths, 23
compurgation, 81
appeals from judgment, 126
limitations on the duel, 141
difference of rank, 151
champions for the dead, 152

guardians must provide champions, 153
penalty for defeat in duel, 171
penalty for default in duel, 173
weapons provided for the poor, 175
advantages equally divided, 177
regulations of use of champions, 181
disabilities of champions, 188
duel condemned by Gregory XI., 210, 420
use of hot-water ordeal, 283
accused selects the ordeal, 292, 383
land titles settled by ordeal, 324
ordeal for convicts, 393
no allusion to torture, 480
Sachsische Weichbild—
formula of oath, 26
purgatorial oath of father, 41
compurgation, 81
kinship an impediment to duel, 141
wounds sufficing for duel, 142
infamy of champions, 187
hiring of champions forbidden, 190
duel only in criminal cases, 204
the dead cleared by ordeal, 294
ordeal for convicts, 393
Sacramentales (see Conjurators).
Sacrifices as guarantee of oaths, 26
Sacrificial ordeals, 258
Saighi, 18
St. Adrian of Zala, abbey of, 157

St. Aignan, chapter of, challenges a knight, 159
St. Albans, abbey of, its claims for the duel, 162
St. Andrews, bishop of, exempted from duel, 159
witch-pool of, 330
St. Aubin, abbey of, its duel, 158
St. Bascul, council of, 395
St. Bonnet, customs of, 219
St. Brieuc, Bishop of, orders the duel, 164
St. Disier, torture not used in, 497
St. Martin-des-Champs, use of torture, 499
St. Omer, its traders exempted from the duel, 204
Saint-Pé, abbey of, its fees for ordeals, 415
St. Quentin, challenging of courts, 124
council of, 1235, complains of St. Louis, 217
St. Remy, abbey of, decrees the duel, 163
St. Sergius, case of priory of, 137
St. Sever, abbey of, gains land by ordeal, 323
St. Vaast d’Arras, abbey of, 164
Saints’ tombs, oaths on, 372
Salaried champions, 192, 196
Salic law, use of compurgation in, 34
number of compurgators, 42
compurgation in default of testimony, 52
penalties of conjurators, 64
accusatorial conjurators, 94
judicial duel in, 112, 118
ordeal of hot water, 274, 282
hot-water ordeal for Antrustions, 323

enforcement of the ordeal, 383
compounding for the ordeal, 384
ordeal in failure of compurgation, 390
torture of slaves, 452
Salisbury, Bishop and Earl of, duel between, 139
Salt, blessed, used in ordeal, 281
lumps of, used as ordeal, 257
Salvation, exclusive, results of belief in, 589
Salzburg, council of, 799, prescribes the ordeal, 409
Samaritan legend of fire-test, 314
Samoa, punishment of perjury, 374
Samoiedes, oath ordeal among, 259
Sanballat, his triumph in fire-test, 314
Sancar, his ordeal, 290
Sanctio of Orleans, his trial for simony, 61
Sand-bag used in duels, 244
Sandemend, 562
Sanila and Bera, duel of, 117
Sapor I., his religious reforms, 267
Saraad, 55
Saracens, duels with Christians forbidden, 151
Saragossa, council of, 592, tests relics by fire, 315
Sardinia, perjury on relics, 374
Sassanids, ordeals under the, 267
Sassy-bark, ordeal of, 254
Satan, aids witches in ordeals, 300, 327, 328, 332
in torture, 555

Satane ordeal, 258
Sathee, 344
Savonarola, his Sperimento di fuoco, 311
Saxon laws (see also Sachsenspiegel)—
purgatorial oaths in, 23
reclamation of stolen horse, 26
judicial duel in, 114
Saxons offer duel to Luitzes, 130
Saxony, torture in 1130, 474
no defence allowed to accused, 544
exile for retracted confession, 549
abolition of torture, 580
Sayn, Count, his compurgation, 89
Scandinavian nations, torture not used by, 562
Scavenger’s Daughter, the, 569
Scheingehen, 365
Schoolmen on duel and ordeal, 209
Schwabenspiegel, value of oaths, 24
purgatorial oath of father, 41
compurgation retained, 80
faith in judgment of God, 102
judges must be vigorous men, 123
appeals from judgment, 126
theory of guilt, 136
limitations on the duel, 141
cripples must provide champions, 152
duels of women, 153
penalty of bail of defaulter, 174

disabilities of champions, 188
hired champions forbidden, 190
accused selects the ordeal, 292, 383
ordeal in default of evidence, 387
for convicts, 393
no allusion to torture, 480
Schwartzenberg challenges von Hutten, 238
Schwerin, Synod of, condemns the duel, 210
Scialoja, his work on torture, 525
Scipio, oath administered by, 271
Scober, James, a witch-pricker, 571
Scone, abbey of, its jurisdiction, 162
Scotland, use of compurgation, 34
selection of conjurators in, 44
compurgation in default of evidence, 53
compurgation for the aged, 57
compurgation retained, 82
first evidence of duel in, 162
champions as witnesses, 183
charters exempting from duel, 201
restrictions on duel in towns, 203
persistence of duel, 239
cold-water ordeal for slaves, 323
cold-water ordeal for witchcraft, 330
cases of bier-right, 361
bribes in ordeal forbidden, 406
ordeals disused, 421
use of torture in, 572
abolition of torture, 574
witch-burning in 1722, 575

Scottish Marches, duel universal, 145
liability of clerics to duel, 158
death does not release from duel, 174
Scourging as torture, 466, 467
a torture for children, 528
for retracted confession, 549
Scribonius on cold-water ordeal in witchcraft, 327
Scuz iarn, 288
Sebakemsauf, violation of his tomb, 430
Secrecy of inquisitorial process, 496, 513, 546
Secta, 84, 96
Secular law, exemption from, for clerics, 414
jurisdiction of prelates, 161
legislation against ordeals, 421
Security required of combatants, 173
Seguidors, 51
Seigneur, his power over the villein, 490
Sejanus, plot of, 435
Selection of compurgators, 38
of mode of compurgation, 383
Selingenstadt, council of, 1023, prescribes the ordeal, 410
Semites, ordeals among, 260
torture among, 430
Semperfri, 150
Senan, St., his golden bell, 397
Senchus Mor, duel prescribed in, 109
Senckenberg reprints Zanger’s treatise, 578
Senlis, case of torture in, 491

Sens, Archbishop of, compelled to duel, 159
Sentence of torture, appeals from, in Castile, 465, 467
consultation over, in France, 507, 513
appeal from, in Germany, 545
deliberation required for, 547
its revision in Saxony, 580
Sepulture denied to duellists, 207, 210
Serfs allowed to bear testimony, 122
cannot challenge freemen, 140
and master, no duel between, 146
duels between, 149
cold-water ordeal for, 322
Servia, survival of the duel, 239
Servitude must be proved before torture, 438
Severity of ordeal, 394
of torture, limitations eluded, 532
of the strappado, 543
Severus, Sept., on evidence of slaves against masters, 444
Sexhendeman, 47
Shadrach, Mesach, and Abednego, their ordeal, 304
Shakespeare, his description of bier-right, 360
Shaving of witches to neutralize charms, 556
Shaving, sin of, in laymen, 403
Shells used in ordeal, 257
Sheriff selects compurgators, 48
his presence required at ordeal, 406
Shower-bath, punishment of, 510
Shrewsbury, Countess of, her case, 570

Shrift of combatant, 242
Shrines of saints, oaths on, 372
Shu-king, its theo-philosophy, 252
Siawush, fire ordeal of, 266
Sicily, modern use of torture, 587
Sicularum Constitutiones—
no compurgation in, 75
defendant allowed choice of weapons, 177
champions as witnesses, 183
punishment of defeated champion, 185
champions provided at public expense, 190
severe restriction on duel, 212
ordeals prohibited, 422
use of torture, 482
Sieve-driving, ordeal of, 358
Sigurd Thorlaksson, case of, 404
Silanus, prosecution of, 443
Silence under torture does not acquit, 519
Simancas on compurgation for heresy, 89
on universality of torture, 468
disapproves deceit in witch-trials, 559
Simon de Montfort limits the duel, 208
Simony, trials for, 59, 62, 350
compurgation for, 92
Simple ordeals, 278, 287, 391
Simplicius, St., of Autun, his ordeal, 305
Sinking requisite in cold-water ordeal, 318
Sins, previous, cause failure in duel, 137
cause failure in ordeal, 403

Sita, ordeal undergone by, 267
Skevington, Sir Wm., invents a torture, 569
Skirsla or ordeal of turf, 274
Slavs, communities among, 15
prolonged use of compurgation, 83
use of judicial duel, 110
ordeals used by, 274
of Mecklenburg, ordeal introduced, 277
Slaves cleared by master’s oath, 22
ordeal in default of master’s oath, 390
their right to the duel, 148
ordeal for, in Rome, 272
red-hot iron ordeal for, 291, 292
fire ordeal for, 306
cold-water ordeal for, 322
ordeal of the lot, 353
subjected to ordeal, 394
as vicarious victims in ordeal, 396
torture reserved for, in Greece, 433
their evidence requires torture in Greece, 433
tortured as witnesses in Rome, 441
restriction on, 445, 446
by their owners in Rome, 444
torture of, under Ostrogoths, 457
under Wisigoths, 458
under Barbarians, 451, 452
in civil suits in Germany, 530
of churches tortured by priests, 554
unprotected in Iceland, 562
not tortured against their masters in Rome, 442
except in treason, 443
other exceptions, 444
under Wisigoths, 459
in Spain, 464

tortured, damage paid to master in Rome, 445
among the Barbarians, 452
in Castile, 468
thief sold as, in Wales, 564
Slavery, its extent in Greece, 433
its extent in Rome, 441
Slavonia, use of compurgation, 84
Sleeplessness, torture of (see Vigils).
Smith, Sir Thos., on use of torture, 567
Snake-fang, ordeal of, 254
Soaper’s case, in appeal of death, 247
Soavo, champion of, 196
Soest, accusatorial conjurators in laws of, 97
exempted from duel, 202
Soissons, Bishop of, uses ordeal for heretics, 410
Chapter of, duel in its court, 224
council of, 853, uses the ordeal, 410
the vase of, 450
Solidarity of the family, 14
in Lombard Law, 48
Somali, ordeals among the, 256
Son to be tortured in presence of father, 543
his evidence against parents in witch-trials, 554
Sophocles, ordeals enumerated by, 270
Sorcerers, loss of weight by, 326, 335
tortured in Rome, 439
their punishment by Theodoric, 457
their evidence not received, 523
unconscious, 553

Sorcery forbidden in duels, 139
in ordeal, 407
duel in trial for, 230
red-hot iron ordeal for, 291, 300, 409
use of cold-water ordeal, 325
torture in accusations of, 469
used to justify torture, 539
detention after torture without confession, 551
torture necessary in trials for, 554
Sortes sanctorum, 354
Southampton, ordeal of Bible and key, 357
South Carolina, compurgation in, 88
appeal of death in, 247
Spain (see also Wisigothic Laws).
jusjurandum in jure, 22
purgatorial oaths, 24
simplicity of oaths, 32
use of compurgation, 34, 75
selection of compurgators, 49
compurgation of Alfonso VI., 67
negative proofs rejected, 74
compurgation in the Fuero Viejo, 80
duel among Celtiberians, 108
introduction of Roman ritual, 132, 313
Catalonia, limitation on duel, 146
Aragon, limit of value for duel, 148
difference of rank in duels, 151
ordeals for women, 154
charters exempting from duel, 202
restrictions on the duel, 214
red-hot iron ordeal, 288
paternity proved by iron ordeal, 294

Arian relics tested by fire, 315
truce of God enforced by ordeal, 323
ordeal of Eucharist, 351
bier-right, 366
ordeal for loose women, 393
escape of adulteress in ordeal, 403
decline of ordeals, 423
torture under the Goths, 458
mediæval and modern, 462
irregular use of, 476
abolished in 1811, 583
Speculum Saxonicum (see Sachsenspiegel).
Speculum Suevicum (see Schwabenspiegel).
Sperimento di fuoco of Savonarola, 311
Spies, use of in witch-trials, 558
Spiritual courts, duel in, 155
ordeal in, 409
torture in, 510
Spoon, ordeal of the, 264
Spot, insensible, of witches, 571
Sprenger admits lawfulness of duel, 213
objects to ordeal in witchcraft, 300
no allusion to cold-water ordeal, 326
his explanation of bier-right, 369
recommends deceit, 559
Sringa, 375
Staff, ordeal of, 397
Stalla hringr, 95
Stansfield, Philip, case of, 361
Stapfsaken, 274

Stare ad crucem, 336
Stars, duel to end when they appear, 178
Starvation and cold employed as torture, 530
State questions decided by duel, 130
Statute of Gloucester, 242
Staundford, Sir Wm., on ordeals, 426
Steil, historic duel at, 129
Stephen, St., supplies champions for abbey, 157
ordeals not in his laws, 277
Stephen V. condemns the ordeal as a torture, 395
Stephen VII. condemns Formosus, 382
Stercorarian heresy proved by ordeal, 411
Stockneffn, 49
Stonyng’s case, torture in, 568
Strangers, fire ordeal for, 306
subject to torture in Greece, 433
Strappado, the, 466, 467
description of, 516
five degrees of, 543
Strassburg, heretics convicted by ordeal, 297, 419
Stream of water, torture of, 510
Style’s “Practical Register,” 86
Styria, duel restricted in, 212
Styx, oath of the gods on its water, 371
Suabia, use of oaths in, 32, 24
Subico of Speyer takes ordeal of Eucharist, 348

Substitutes in the ordeal, 295, 337, 390, 398, 400
for torture, 578, 580, 582, 583
Succession, law of, decided by duel, 129
Sudra caste, oaths required of, 25
cold-water ordeal used for, 320
Suidger of Munster, his improvised ordeal, 302
Sunset, duel to end at, 178
Superstition, its persistence, 427
Surlet, Gilles, case of, 505
Suspicion, ordeal for, 388
punishment for, 519
of incontinency, compurgation for, 87
of heresy, compurgation for, 88, 90
Swaddling cloth of Christ tested by fire, 315
Swantopluck of Bohemia, his use of torture, 476
Sweden, selection of compurgators, 49
prolonged use of compurgation, 82
red-hot iron ordeal, 287, 298
paternity proved by the ordeal, 294
fees to priest for ordeal, 416
prelates liable to ordeal, 417
ordeals prohibited, 422
torture not used in, 563
Swinefield, Bishop, his hired champion, 192
Switzerland, torture abolished, 581
Synagogues, oaths taken in, 28
Syrians, duels with Franks, 151
Szegedin, witches tried by ordeal in 1730, 332, 335

Tacitus, his account of the Germans, 112
Tacitus (Emp.) on evidence of slave against master, 444
Tahiti, ordeal in, 257
Talio, the, applied to the duel, 143, 169
used in Ashantee, 255
in Rome, 440
applied to accusation of slaves in Rome, 445
for accusers under Wisigoths, 459
adopted by the Church, 513
rejected in inquisitorial process, 513
Tangena nut, ordeal of, 256
Tanner on number of witch-trials, 560
Taoism, its influence in China, 252
Tarbes, Cathedral of, its revenue from ordeals, 415
Tarragona, council of, 1244, on heresy, 89
Tassilo, allusion to ordeal by, 274
Tears, inability of witches to shed, 556
Teeth, question as to, in duel, 144
Templars offer to undergo the ordeal, 299
use of torture on, 486
torture of, in England, 511
Temple, the, oaths taken in, 27
Temporal jurisdiction of prelates, 161
Tempting of God in the ordeal, 207, 411
Terouane, torture in 1127, 474
Testes synodales, 41
Testimonis, 51
Testimony (see Evidence).

Teutberga, her divorce, 281
Teutonic Knights introduce the ordeal, 423
Texas, torture used in, 588
Thangbrand, Deacon, 199
Thebe, people of, float in water, 326
Theft, Russian ordeal for, 334
Theodore, penitential of, on oaths, 30
Theodore Lascaris prescribes the ordeal, 299
Theodoric tries to suppress judicial duel, 115
his use of torture, 457
Theodosius I. exempts priests from torture, 438
Thibaut of Champagne, his grant to church of Châteaudun, 415
Thief and receiver, duel between, 136, 171
Thieves convicted by the duel, 135
Thomas of Gloucester, his rules of duel, 171, 241
Thomas, Christian, opposed to torture, 577
Thumb, indestructible, of Pyrrhus, 314
Thuringians, kinsmen as champions, 180
minimum limit for duel, 147
red-hot iron ordeal, 291
Tiberius, his use of torture, 435
his devices to elude the laws, 443
Tibet, hot-water ordeal in, 269
Tiers-État, influence of, 200
Tiht-bysig man sent to ordeal, 392
Tirel, Hugues, case of, 77

Tison, Marie, case of, 585
Tithes, contested, settled by ordeal, 410
Titles to land settled by duel, 182, 197
by cold-water ordeal, 324
Tobbach, 18
Toledo, council of, 683, on abuse of torture, 461
Tombs of saints, oaths on, 372
Tonga, punishment of perjury, 374
Tongue, red-hot iron ordeal applied to, 264, 289, 291, 293
Tooth-relic of Buddha tested by fire, 314
Toribio, St., limits fees for torturing, 511
Torture, 429
as preliminary to compurgation, 91
ordeal as preparatory to, 329
used as torture, 394
its influence on ordeals, 426
in Egypt and Asia, 400
in Greece, 432
limitations on, in Rome, 445
estimate of evidence under, in Rome, 446
under the Barbarians, 451
its use by the Goths, 456
in mediæval and modern Spain, 462
its repetition illegal, 466
under the Carlovingians, 469
its use for extortion, 476
condemned by the Church, 477
its reappearance in 13th century, 479
unlimited repetition, 500
to discover previous offence, 501, 546
is ecclesiastical law, 511

to discover accomplices, 484, 515, 517, 546, 562, 570, 584
of witnesses, 440, 453, 459, 533, 541
its influence on judges, 534
its abuse by judges, 539
in surplusage after conviction, 546
without confession is acquittal, 551
as punishment, 579
indispensable in witch-trials, 554
witches insensible to, 556
devices to elude, 558
use of, is homicide in England, 565
to compel pleading in England, 575
its decline and abolition, 575
substitutes for, 578, 580, 582, 583
Toulouse, duel forbidden there, 224
exempted from torture, 495
Tournay, charter of, 54, 392
exempted from duel, 202
Tours, council of, 813, on use of chrism in ordeal, 407
council of, 925, prescribes the ordeal, 410
Tout Lieu de S. Disier, 497
Towel of Christ tested by fire, 316
Towns, champions of, 196
Tower of London, torture in, 569
Townships, responsibility of, 42
Trade, its influence adverse to duel, 204
Trahent, André de, case of, 397
Trajan on evidence of slave against master, 443
Trallian laws, 15
Transylvania, witches tried by ordeal, 322

Travancore, ordeal abolished in, 284
Treason, duel necessary in cases of, 144
torture for, in Rome, 435, 438, 443
its extension in Rome, 436, 437
torture for, in Spain, 459, 463
torture of witnesses in cases of, 541
torture for, in Denmark, 562
torture for, in England, 568
nobles not tortured for, in England, 570
torture retained for, in Prussia, 579
Trebinje, ordeal for witches in 1857, 333
Trent, Bishop of, tried for simony, 62, 71
council of, prohibits the duel, 237
Trèves, Holy Coat of, 422
council of, 1227, forbids iron ordeal, 419
Treviño exempted from duel, 202
ordeals prohibited in, 424
Trial by jury, rise of, 48
by combat, 101
Tribal responsibility, 42
Tribur, council of, 895, on accusatorial conjurators, 96
prescribes the ordeal, 291, 410
ordeal for those outsworn, 390
Triple ordeals, 278, 287
Triumviri capitales, their functions as torturers, 444
Truce of God, enforcement of, 58, 323
Trux iarn, 287
Tucca, her ordeal, 271
Tudors, use of torture under, 566

Turks, divination among, 265
use of ordeal for witches, 333
Turf, ordeal of, 274
Tuscany, torture abolished, 586
Twelfhendeman, 47
Twins in Wales are one person, 177
Twyhindus, 47
Tyndareus, oath exacted by, 26
Tynemouth, priory of, its champion, 197
Uberto of Tuscany recognized by his son, 381
Ueberlingen, case of bier-right, 363
Ulpian, his estimate of torture, 446
Ulric of Cosheim, 133
Umbrians, judicial duel among, 108
Uncertainty of compurgation, 91
Unguents as protection in fire ordeals, 408
Unitas Fratrum, use of lot by, 355
United States, wager of law in, 88
appeal of death, 246
bier-right, 366
divining rod, 428
use of shower bath, 510
use of torture, 588
Untersuchungschaft, 582
Upstallesboom, laws of, ordeals obsolete in, 422
Upton, Nicholas, his work on the duel, 231
Urim and Thummim, 261

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