System requirements analysis

Section III:2 System Requirements Analysis

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NYS Project Management Guidebook

2

SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS
Purpose
The purpose of System Requirements Analysis is to obtain a
thorough and detailed understanding of the business need as
defined in Project Origination and captured in the Business
Case, and to break it down into discrete requirements, which
are then clearly defined, reviewed and agreed upon with the
Customer Decision-Makers. During System Requirements
Analysis, the framework for the application is developed, providing the foundation for all future design and development
efforts.
System Requirements Analysis can be a challenging phase,
because all of the major Customers and their interests are
brought into the process of determining requirements. The
quality of the final product is highly dependent on the effectiveness of the requirements identification process. Since the
requirements form the basis for all future work on the project,
from design and development to testing and documentation, it
is of the utmost importance that the Project Team create a
complete and accurate representation of all requirements that
the system must accommodate. Accurately identified requirements result from effective communication and collaboration
among all members of the Project Team, and provide the best
chance of creating a system that fully satisfies the needs of the
Customers.
The primary goal of this phase is to create a detailed Functional
Specification defining the full set of system capabilities to be
implemented, along with accompanying data and process models illustrating the information to be managed and the processes to be supported by the new system. The Functional Specification will evolve throughout this phase of the SDLC as
detailed business requirements are captured, and as supporting process and data models are created, ensuring that the
eventual solution provides the Customers with the functionality they need to meet their stated business objectives.

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List of Processes
This phase consists of the following processes:

N Prepare for System Requirements Analysis, where steps
are taken to ensure that the project environment and
Project Team members are adequately prepared to both
capture and analyze the system requirements;

N Determine Business Requirements, where in-scope and
out-of-scope business requirements are identified, business
rules are defined and documented, and interfaces to and
from the new application are discussed;

N Define Process Model, where a pictorial top-down
representation of the major business processes that
interact with the system is diagrammed and decomposed
into manageable functions and sub-functions until no
further breakdown is feasible;

N Define Logical Data Model, where data that supports
the processes and business rules is logically modeled,
identifying entities and their relationships to other entities,
and defining attributes with their business definitions;

N Reconcile Business Requirements With Models, where
the Project Team ensures that the Process and Logical
Data Models accommodate all requirements and business
rules;

N Produce Functional Specification, where interfaces,
processes and data are merged to describe systematically
how the Consumer will use the application, and how data
will be retrieved, processed and stored.
The following chart illustrates all of the processes and deliverables of this phase in the context of the system development
lifecycle.


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Figure 2-1
System Initiation

System Requirements Analysis

Prepare for
System
Requirements
Analysis

Prepare for
System
Initiation

System Design

Prepare for
System Design

Define
Technical
Architecture

Determine
Business
Requirements
Business
Requirements

Validate
Proposed
Solution

Define
System
Standards

Define
Process Model
Validated
Solution

Process Model

Define
Logical Data
Model
Iterative and
Concurrent

Logical Data Model

Reconcile
Business
Requirements
with Models

Develop
System
Schedule

System Requirements
Analysis Schedule
High-Level System
Development
Schedule

Create
Physical
Database

Prototype
System
Components
Validated Business
Requirements
and Models

Produce
Functional
Specification

Produce
Technical
Specifications
Functional Specification

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List of Roles
The following roles are involved in carrying out the processes
of this phase. Detailed descriptions of these roles can be found
in the Introductions to Sections I and III.

N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N

Project Manager
Project Sponsor
Facilitator
Business Analyst
Database Administrator
Data/Process Modeler
Technical Lead/Architect
Software Quality Assurance (SQA) Analyst
Technical Services (HW/SW, LAN/WAN, TelCom)
Information Security Officer (ISO)
Technical Support (Help Desk, Documentation, Trainers)
Customer Decision-Maker
Customer Representative
Consumer
Performing Organization
Stakeholders

List of Deliverables
The following table lists all System Requirements Analysis
processes, some techniques available for use in executing
these processes, and process outcomes and deliverables.


Figure 2-2
Processes

Techniques

Process Deliverables
(Outcomes)

Prepare for System
Requirements
Analysis

Team Skills Assessment
Site Walk-throughs
Technology Needs Assessment
Tool Needs Assessment

Established Team and
Environment for
Requirements Analysis

Determine Business
Requirements

Interviews
JAD Sessions
Brainstorming
Storyboarding
Critical Success Factor
Interviewing
Context Diagramming
Use Case Diagramming
Prototyping
Walk-throughs
Potential Problem Analysis
Expressing Logic: Pseudo Code,
Structured English, Object
Oriented Logic

Business Requirements

Define Process
Model

Work Flow Diagramming
Flow Chart Diagramming
Process Modeling
Customer Event Diagramming
Use Case Diagramming
Decision Trees
Prototyping

Process Model

Define Logical Data
Model

Entity Relationship Diagramming
Data Normalization/
De-Normalization

Logical Data Model

Reconcile Business
Requirements
With Models

CRUD Matrices
Gap Analysis

Analysis Assessment
Validated Business
Requirements and
Models

Produce Functional
Specification

Process Association and Grouping Functional Specification
Logical Organization
Work Flow Clustering
Expressing Logic: Pseudo Code,
Structured English, Object
Oriented Logic

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2.1

PREPARE FOR SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS
Purpose
The purpose of Prepare for System Requirements Analysis
is to position the Project Team and their working environment
to ensure successful completion of System Requirements
Analysis. This is the point at which the Project Team prepares
to capture the detailed functional, technical, operational, and
transitional requirements of the system.

Description
In preparing for this phase, the Project Manager must focus on
the Project Team and the environment in which the team will
work.

Roles

With each new project phase comes the need for new skills,
experience, and, potentially, new Project Team members. The
team needed during this phase must possess analytical skills
that allow them to continually “peel the onion”, driving to continuously deeper levels of requirements definition. Experience
in effective interviewing, facilitation, various
modeling techniques, requirements gathering,
and gap analysis will be extremely beneficial.

G Project Manager
G Project Sponsor
G Business Analyst
G Facilitator
G Data/Process Modeler
G Technical Lead/Architect
G Customer Decision-Maker
G Customer Representative

In reviewing the Validated Solution all team
members must share a clear and common
understanding of the scope of this phase of
the project, the Project Schedule, the deliverables to be produced, and their individual
responsibilities relating to the creation of
these deliverables.

Regardless of the size of the development
effort being undertaken, System Requirements Analysis may place the greatest demand upon Customers
in terms of resources and the extent of their required participation. During the preparation for this phase, the Project
Manager should continue to manage the Customer’s expectations surrounding this participation. Less involvement typically
leads to a less acceptable finished product. In addition, many


37


individuals earmarked to participate in the requirements gathering sessions may not have been privy to earlier project scopesetting sessions. This can lead to the possible perception of
these upcoming sessions as opportunities to identify or request
functionality and features that are beyond the original intent of
the project. Since management of scope creep is an essential
role of the Project Manager, this may be an appropriate time to
review the established change management processes with the
Customer.
At the start of the System Requirements Analysis phase, it is
the Project Manager’s responsibility to ensure that the environment in which the Project Team will work is properly established. Beyond the obvious need to ensure that team members
have adequate equipment to perform their duties, there are
additional elements of the environment that should not be overlooked. The project repository, a secure area for maintaining
work products and deliverables that was established during
Project Initiation, continues to evolve over subsequent phases
of the project. Although the establishment of the repository
itself is important, it is equally necessary to define the mechanisms and processes to be followed for creating and maintaining all System Requirements Analysis related materials.

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2.2

DETERMINE BUSINESS REQUIREMENTS
Purpose
In Determine Business Requirements, information is gathered from a variety of project participants relating to the vision
and scope of the system. From this, specific detailed requirements are identified and documented so that they address the
stated business need. These requirements are then decomposed into a set of business rules.

Description

Roles

While this process specifically addresses the capturing of
Business Requirements for the new system, the reality is that it
may be necessary, and is often beneficial, for the Project Team
to determine these requirements while simultaneously defining
the supporting process and data models. By conducting these
three processes (Determine Business Requirements, Define
Process Model, and Define Logical Data Model) concurrently,
as opposed to sequentially, the team can develop the process
and data models as information and requirements are defined, and can update these models as a result of gathering new or changed
information.

G Project Manager
G Project Sponsor

Because the three processes are performed
not only concurrently, but also often iterativeFacilitator
ly, it is important for the Project Team to tightData/Process Modeler
ly manage the documentation for each process
so that requirements are not lost, misunderTechnical Lead/Architect
stood or overlooked. The Project Manager
Technical Services
may need to utilize techniques and/or tools to
Information Security Officer
help document requirements and ensure that
Technical Support
they are not missed. The Glossary contains a
Customer Decision-Maker
brief description of some of the techniques
Customer Representative
available to the Project Manager; examples
Stakeholders
include storyboarding, interviews, joint application design sessions (JAD), Unified
Modeling Language (UML), prototyping, data flow diagramming, process modeling, and entity-relationship diagramming.

G Business Analyst
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G


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Don’t hesitate to use one of the commercially available tools to assist the Project Team
in their documentation efforts. Through use of these tools, changes made to a process
are automatically carried through to all other associated processes or business rules.

Determining Business Requirements requires eliciting, analyzing, specifying, prioritizing, verifying and negotiating business
functions that the system must deliver and support. The results
are captured in a Business Requirements deliverable (use
Figure 2-5, Business Requirements template, as a guide).
During this process it is important to have all of the
Stakeholders involved. Since this is the process in which all
business and processing requirements are determined and
agreed to, it is critical that all parties understand the ramifications of including or excluding requirements from scope. This
is an opportunity to work out business process issues as a
group, in order to reach optimal performance and efficiency
within an organization or even across organizations or functional areas. Decisions made will impact remaining phases, so
all parties involved in the project lifecycle should be heard, and
all areas of concern or question should be thoroughly
addressed. Reaching consensus and agreement on the final
deliverable from this phase will help to ensure that everyone
gets the product to which they agreed.
As stated in the SDLC Overview, requirements fall into multiple
categories that, while related, are themselves separate and distinct. These categories are:

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Figure 2-3
Category

Description

Functional
Requirements

Requirements that define those features of the system that
will specifically satisfy a Consumer need, or with which the
Consumer will directly interact.

Technical
Requirements

Requirements that identify the technical constraints or
define conditions under which the system must perform.

Operational
Requirements

Requirements that define those “behind the scenes”
functions that are needed to keep the system operational
over time.

Transitional
Requirements

Requirements that define those aspects of the system that
must be addressed in order for the system to be successfully implemented in the production environment, and to
relegate support responsibilities to the Performing
Organization.

When capturing Business Requirements, the Project Manager
must ensure that the Project Team addresses all of the categories above. Figure 2-4 illustrates the types of considerations
and requirements that the Project Team must capture specific
to System Requirements Analysis.

Figure 2-4 System Requirements Analysis Considerations

System Development Lifecycle
System
Initiation

System
Requirements
Analysis

System
Design

Typical Considerations
Prepare for Systems
Requirements
Analysis

Impacts the
Business
Process
Technical
Requirements

Define Logical
Data Model
Reconcile Business
Requirements
With Models

Impacts the
System
Infrastructure

Operational
Requirements
Impacts
Operations and
Support
Transitional
Requirements

Produce Functional
Specification

• System Performance
• Data Archival
• Audit and Controls
• System Administration
• SQA
• Business Continuity
• Data Conversion
• Release Validation
• Documentation
• Training
• Deployment

Representative Requirements To Be Captured
Common features and functions.
Screen layout, report characteristics, and navigational requirements.
Data exchange between this system and others.
Off-hours processing requirements.

Authorizations, roles, and access privileges.

Technology guidelines, regulations, and constraints.
Environment for system operation and maintenance (geography,

internal/external hosting).
Strategies for long-term protection and operation of the system/data.

System performance and responsiveness expectations.
Activities related to administration and maintenance of

system/data.
Organizational procedures involving audits, data archival/retrieval,

and quality assurance.
Historical data cleansing, conversion, and import into the new system.
Requirements associated with validation of the system prior to

release.
Expectations for user/technical documentation, and supporting

training materials.
Mechanics of physically deploying/transitioning the application.

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Impacts
Implementation

• Accessibility
• Encryption
• Hosting
• Environment
• Disaster Recovery

System
Implementation


Define Process
Model

• Common Functions
• GUI Functions
• Reporting Functions
• Interface Functions
• Batch Functions
• Security Functions

System
Acceptance


Determine Business
Requirements

Functional
Requirements

System
Construction

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One approach to eliciting requirements from the Customer is to
hold one or more JAD sessions. For these sessions, assembling individuals from both the program areas and IT into crossfunctional groups can help clarify how proposed changes to a
business process may impact operations. The benefit of having
a session with multiple representatives from the program areas
is that the pros and cons of business process changes are heard
and discussed by all involved.
Requirements gathering, when properly facilitated, establishes
a forum for everyone to be heard, for issues to be worked
through, and for resolutions to be defined that meet the needs of
all parties. Through this forum, multiple opinions may enhance
the team’s understanding of how certain processes are currently being performed, better defining how they should be structured within the context of the new application. This approach
may also result in negotiations of functionality. There may need
to be some trade-offs, and as a result processes may be reexamined and redefined. As the sessions progress, the Project
Team must constantly assess and analyze the requirements.

A common mistake when coordinating the logistics of interviews or group requirements
definition sessions is to hold these meetings where the majority of the participants represent only the Customer and Consumer populations. Doing so may set the stage for the
Project Team to form a type of tunnel vision in which business requirements that focus primarily, or even exclusively, on the functional aspects of the system are captured. Just by the nature
of their day-to-day responsibilities, Customers will often approach these requirements definition
sessions from the perspective of, “What do I need this system to do in order for me to perform
my duties?” Many operational, technical, and transitional requirements do not fall within the
answers to that question. It is up to the Project Team member running these sessions (typically a Business Analyst or Facilitator) to make certain that these aspects of the system are also discussed, and that the individuals best positioned to provide this information are represented at
the requirements definition meetings.

It is not unrealistic to assume that there may come a point at
which negotiation or consensus building activities will break
down, and that resolution of an issue may require insight or
information not available to the Project Team. Ultimately, there
must be a single decision making body responsible for resolving such issues. A key role of the Project Sponsor or Customer
Decision-Maker is to make the final determination regarding
these issues, and to communicate the decision to the Project
Team. The Project Sponsor may or may not choose to share the


43


rationale for such decisions with the entire team, nor is it guaranteed that the team will agree with determinations that are
made. The Project Manager should encourage the team to support the decisions and move forward.
The following steps should assist the team in building a useful
and comprehensive Business Requirements document:
Absorb the requirements. Before the requirements can be
analyzed, they must first be collected. Team members need to
be sponges and take everything in, no matter how unimportant
or inconsequential it may seem. There are many approaches to
gathering these requirements, but all start with effective listening. Regardless of the technique used, the Project Team
must remember that the goal of this process is to understand
what the Customers need – not what the team members think
they need.
Interpret the requirements. Now that the requirements have
been captured, the Project Team must think about them. What
have they heard? What was missed? Look for unanswered
questions or contradictions. The requirements must be stated
as clearly and concisely as possible, avoiding combining
requirements and eliminating subjective wording. If the system
must do A and B and C and D, there should be four distinct and
verifiable requirements that can each be approved or rejected
on its own merits. Avoid ambiguities and opinions. If the
requirement is that some process should be “easy”, the team
should go back and find out exactly what that means. What
would make something about that process difficult or more
complex than it should be?
Bind the requirements. While defining what the business
requirements are, it is also necessary to determine what they
are not! This is done to establish consensus on the Project
Scope and to clarify any scope issues. At least some requirements that were captured will be labeled “out of scope.”
Categorize the requirements. Even for a relatively small system, you are likely to end up with scores of requirements. To
understand how they relate to each other, and to effectively
deal with them later on in the process, it is necessary to separate them into categories, logically grouping the requirements
according to related business functions or organizational
boundaries.

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Prioritize the requirements. Regardless of how accurately
the business requirements reflect the business need, it may not
be feasible to implement them all at once (or even at all). In
finalizing the requirements to be implemented, it will be necessary to prioritize them according to their criticality to the business. This classification into core, essential, and desirable will
very likely involve both the Project Sponsor and Customer
Decision-Makers.
The following guidelines may be used: “Core” requirements are
the ones without which the system may as well not be developed at all; it will be of no use to most Customers without
these. “Essential” requirements are those for which a shortterm work-around could be developed (or for which an old
process can hobble along for a little while longer) but over the
long run, they have to be there. “Desirable” requirements are
the “bells and whistles” that may be precious to certain constituencies, but without which the system will function just fine.
To put it another way, the system must go into production with
all Core and a good portion of Essential requirements represented, and with a plan to implement the remaining Essential
requirements in the subsequent phase.

Deliverable
N Business Requirements – A document containing detailed
requirements for the system being developed. These
requirements define the functional, technical, operational,
and transitional capabilities, restrictions, and features that
must be provided by the new system.


Figure 2-5 Business Requirements Document
Name of Agency

Business Requirements Document
System Name

Agency
Project Name
Project Sponsor
Project Manager
Document Date
Prepared By
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter

the
the
the
the

name of the Agency for which the system is being developed.
Project Name, and the names of the Project Manager and the Project Sponsor.
Date as of which this document is current.
names of the Project Team members by whom the document was Prepared.

45

46


Figure 2-5 (Continued)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Table of Contents should be at least two levels deep.

1.0 DOCUMENT SCOPE
Document Scope describes the goal of this document in a narrative.
Example:
To define a consistent set of business requirements for the XYZ system and to identify
what is in and out of scope.
The narrative should also provide an overview of the efforts conducted to gather business
requirements.
Example:
This document summarizes the requirements gathered in a series of X Joint Application
Design (JAD) sessions that were conducted by members of the Project Team with DEF
and GHI business units between date and date.

2.0 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
The General Requirements section lists high-level business requirements that apply to the
whole system.
Example:
This system will provide a central repository for all XYZ data.
It should also include those requirements that are common to all Customer groups.
Example:
This system will provide ad hoc reporting capabilities to each Consumer business unit.
NOTE: By default, all requirements listed in this section are deemed to be Core to the system.
Those general requirements that do not meet these criteria should be listed below under “4.0,
Business Requirements Not Being Implemented”.


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3.0 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS
The Specific Requirements section lists business requirements specific to each Customer
group. A concise and specific listing of Business Requirements by Business Function
should be provided. Requirements should be categorized, bulleted, detailed, and prioritized.
These requirements should encompass the multi-dimensional aspects of the system (i.e., the
functional, technical, operational, and transitional requirements).

3.1

Business Unit
Description

The Description identifies the purpose and main functions of the Business Unit.

3.1.1

Business Function 1
Description

In addition to Business Function Description, the narrative focuses on the desired business
processes that will be in place when the new system is implemented as opposed to the current
state of the business function, which can be documented, if necessary, in the Appendix.

I Business Requirement 1
I Etc.

3.1.2

(Priority)
(Priority)

Business Function 2
Description
I Etc.

(Priority)
(Priority)

This format is repeated for all Customer and Consumer groups and their respective functions
that require interaction with the system.
Example:
XYZ Unit
Description:
This unit is responsible for developing the ABC deliverable, maintaining the DEF
function and executing the GHI process.
Business Function:
Developing the ABC Deliverable
Description:
The XYZ unit personnel will utilize the system reports to compile and produce the ABC
deliverable (see attached).
Business Requirements
1. The System will provide a report detailing JKL expenditures that
will be used for Page 2 of the ABC Deliverable.
2. Etc.

(Priority)
(Essential)

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4.0 BUSINESS REQUIREMENTS NOT BEING IMPLEMENTED
This section specifies requirements that will NOT be part of the new system.
Example:
Director of Contracts and Director of Claims have determined that the following functions
are outside the scope of this system:
1. ABC Process
2. DEF Deliverable
3. Etc.

APPENDIX A – Requirements Definition Supporting Details
All published work products (meeting notes, session results, etc.) of individual interviews and
group facilitated sessions held to determine business requirements should be included in this
section.
A table detailing dates, times, topics and participants of all interviews and sessions should
precede the compilation.


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2.3

DEFINE PROCESS MODEL
Purpose
The purpose of the Define Process Model process is to create
a pictorial representation of the functions and operations (i.e.,
the processes) that will eventually be performed by the system
being developed.

Description
The second of the three concurrent processes within System
Requirements Analysis, Define the Process Model may begin at
any time after the Project Team has started collecting specific
business requirements. The resulting
Process Model of the system, also often
Roles
referred to as the “To Be” model, illustrates
the system processes as they are envisioned
G Project Manager
for the new system. Over time, this pictorial
G Business Analyst
top-down representation of the major busiG Facilitator
ness processes will be decomposed into
manageable functions and sub-functions
until no further breakdown is possible. When
G Technical Services
combined with the detailed set of Business
Requirements and the supporting Logical
G Information Security Officer
Data Model, this Process Model should comG Technical Support
pletely address not only the full list of busiG Customer Decision-Maker
ness needs to be satisfied by the new system,
but also the vision for how the new system
G Stakeholders
will provide and support this functionality.
During the Determine Business Requirements process, a picture
of the current business processes and practices will begin to
evolve. This can be a useful tool in confirming that all current
processes have been identified, and can be used by the Project
Team as a means of ensuring that their Process Model has not
neglected any existing functionality. There is a risk, however,
that too much focus on current business processes may cause
Customers to take a myopic view of the their true business
needs, ultimately defining a system that provides little value
over the system that is already in place.

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A key to successful process modeling is to find a way to get your Customers to look
beyond “what they do and how they do it”, and to instead describe “what they need
and how it could best be accomplished” if they were not forced to perform their duties within
the constraints or limitations of existing systems and processes. One of the most common mistakes made during this phase of the development lifecycle is to automate a bad process, simply because that’s the way the business has always operated.

Remembering that much of System Requirements Analysis is
iterative, the Project Manager must ensure that as requirements are updated as a result of continued efforts to Determine
Business Requirements, the Project Team also refines the
Process Model to accommodate those changes.
The Project Manager must ensure that the Stakeholders and
Customers periodically validate the Process Model as it is
being developed. It is important that they understand that the
Process Model is a representation of the proposed business
solution, an attempt to meet everyone’s needs. As part of validating the final Process Model deliverable with the Customer, it
may be beneficial to conduct walk-throughs to map the defined
business requirements to the diagrammed Process Model. A
walk-through helps to identify any requirements missed by both
the Project Team and the Customer, and helps to further validate that the requirements and processes are accurately
decomposed.

Before the Customer accepts the final deliverable for this process, ensure that he or she
understands the ramifications of acceptance. For instance, if a process critical to the application was overlooked in a JAD session, and therefore not modeled, and the deliverable has
been approved, change control may be necessary. Ensuring that the processes have been identified and decomposed will make it more likely that the data model built to support the process
is adequate. If a process has been overlooked, there will most likely be an impact to the design
of the data model, and therefore to the database itself. This could definitely warrant change control downstream. This applies to the Business Requirements and Logical Data Model deliverables
as well as the Process Model. You may need to validate these three deliverables incrementally
during this phase, and provide the Customer with a final walk-through at the conclusion of this
process, before proceeding to the development of the Functional Specification.


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Deliverable
N Process Model – A graphical representation of the decomposition of all business processes that interact with the
system.

2.4

DEFINE LOGICAL DATA MODEL
Purpose
The purpose of Define Logical Data Model is to identify all
uniquely distinguishable objects either used or produced by the
system (the data entities), to capture all of the characteristics
that help define those objects (the data attributes), and to
describe the relationships between the entities.

Description

Roles
G Project Manager

Like process modeling, definition of the data model can start
as soon as the interviews or JAD sessions begin. A Data
Modeler is most often responsible for designing the logical representation of the data to support the business
need. Typically, this model will evolve throughout
the iterations of capturing and documenting the
business requirements.

G Business Analyst
G Facilitator
G Database Administrator
G Technical Support

The Data Modeler may begin to work on one of two
paths: the first assumes that the application is
brand new, and that the Data Modeler is working
from a blank slate. In this case, informational
requirements are captured as they are identified
during the JAD sessions or interviews. As sessions
are held, a view of potential entities and attributes
is constructed and organized.

G Stakeholders

The second path assumes that the new application
is going to replace an existing system. In this case,
the Data Modeler may work with the current Data
Base Administrator (DBA) to reverse engineer the existing
database or file structures, often using a modeling tool. This
enables the Project Team to use the existing structures as a
starting point for the new Logical Data Model, and as a means

52


of validating that all informational needs of the system are
being accommodated for in the Process Model.
It is important to define the entities and attributes in business
English to facilitate Customer consensus and to ensure consistency with the organizational nomenclature forming the framework for the design of the application and the database. As
additional requirements are flushed out during the interviews
or sessions, the informational needs of the system are continually re-analyzed and re-applied to the data model. It is important to keep in mind, when identifying data sources, that consideration must be given to enterprise data and standard data
that may be maintained in external systems (e.g., County Code
Table, OSC code tables, etc.)

A key to successful data modeling is to ensure that the logical data model is not
dependent on how the system processes the data. This ensures that data is grouped
and organized based strictly on the informational needs of the system, and not based on an
implied or assumed usage of the data by the system. The benefit is that the integrity of the data
model will remain intact even if future business needs change the functionality of the system.

Defining the data model also helps to define the business rules
by establishing the data entities (tables) and identifying attributes (fields). With the requirements and business rules known,
and the Process Model outlined, the Project Team can begin to
establish relationships between the data entities. This
becomes the foundation of the data repository (or physical data
model). As attributes are identified, the Data Modeler begins
to build the Data Dictionary – again, in business English. Data
normalization, a process in which complex relationships are
simplified, is important once the Data Dictionary has been
established. This eliminates redundancy, creates stable data
structures, prevents anomalies, and simplifies data maintenance. The Logical Data Model is the basis for the DBA to create the physical database, so it is important that the Data
Dictionary is clear in its definitions, and that all the data has
been modeled appropriately.


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The experience that a seasoned Data Modeler can bring to the Project Team can often
make the difference between a successful project and one that encounters multiple
setbacks or surprises. Understanding how to identify entities and attributes, establish relationships between the entities, normalize the attributes and define the Data Dictionary are important to developing a high performing application. These activities lay the groundwork for the
technical team to build the physical database.

The Project Manager’s goal for this process is to ensure that the
Project Team accurately reflects the data requirements as they
are defined, and as they relate to the Business Requirements
and Process Model. The Project Manager should ensure that a
process exists for the various Project Team members to share
information and refine the requirements and models without
risk of losing information, or jeopardizing the consistency and
inter-dependencies of these deliverables.
The evolution of the Logical Data Model is analogous to the creation and confirmation of the Process Model in that it requires
frequent interaction and validation by the Customer. While
many of the deliverables in System Requirements Analysis present information in formats and terminology with which the
Customer is familiar, this may not always be the case with data
models. As a result, the Project Manager should anticipate the
need for additional interaction during these reviews to ensure
that the Customer can accurately interpret the output of this
process. In addition, walk-throughs must be conducted in conjunction with, or in close proximity to, the reviews of the
Process Model to be most effective.

Deliverable
N Logical Data Model – Diagrams and Data Dictionary
information defining data elements, their attributes, and
logical relationships as they align within a business area,
with no consideration yet given to how data will be
physically stored in actual databases.

54


2.5

RECONCILE BUSINESS REQUIREMENTS WITH MODELS
Purpose
The purpose of Reconcile Business Requirements With
Models is to ensure that all business requirements and rules
that have been captured have been accurately reflected and
accommodated for in the Process Model and the Logical Data
Model.

Description
Since the Process and Logical Data Models will ultimately form
the basis of the system design, it is critical to invest the time
here in System Requirements
Analysis to ensure that these modRoles
els are complete and accurate. If
business requirements have been
G Project Manager
identified that are not reflected in
G Business Analyst
these models, or if discrepancies
G Facilitator
exist between these models, then it
G Database Administrator
is almost certain that this step will
be revisited at some point later in
the project. As Figure 2-6 indiG Technical Lead/Architect
cates, the further out in the project
G SQA Analyst
that deficiencies in the business
requirements are identified, the
more costly the effort required to
G Technical Support
correct these deficiencies.
G Stakeholders

Cost of Change

Figure 2-6 Impact of Change on Project Costs

Requirements
Analysis

Design

Construction

Acceptance

Timing of Change

Implementation


55


A typical technique at this point in the SDLC is to perform an
analysis assessment, which validates and cross-references all
requirements to the process and data models, and which continues until all gaps have been identified, resolved, or recognized as an out of scope item.
One technique to reconcile the Business Requirements,
Process Model and Logical Data Model is for the Business
Analyst to create a gap analysis checklist or matrix that may be
used to display the interactions among the requirements, data
entities and the processes. This will help to ensure that all the
requirements have been captured and modeled appropriately.
It is helpful to walk Customers through this exercise so that
they understand how all requirements have been captured and
modeled. These reviews are often iterative, and any gaps identified are corrected through subsequent revisions to the
Business Requirements, the Process Model, or the Logical Data
Model. It may be necessary to hold several review sessions to
go over the reconciliation with different sets of Customers,
remembering that the more people who review the output, the
less likely it will be that key elements have been missed.
The Project Manager must ensure that the Customer understands the ramifications of overlooking a process, or of failing
to decompose and model data appropriately. By understanding
the potential impacts on both schedule and cost, the Customer
is more likely to dedicate the appropriate staff to participate in
these reviews.

Deliverable
N Validated Business Requirements and Models – An
updated set of Business Requirements, Process and Logical
Data Models that have been modified to address any gaps
or weaknesses identified as a result of a gap assessment
performed on these documents as a single unit.

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2.6

PRODUCE FUNCTIONAL SPECIFICATION
Purpose
Produce Functional Specification maps the Logical Data
Model and Process Model to the organizations and locations of
the business. This process also produces the final deliverable
for the phase – the Functional Specification.

Description
The ultimate goal of this process is to derive a comprehensive
representation of the application that logically organizes related business processes, functions, data, and workflows. This
provides a detailed roadmap from which the Customer
Representatives can fully
envision the final solution,
Roles
and from which the Project
Team can progress into the
G Project Manager
Design and Construction
G Project Sponsor
phases of the project lifecyG Business Analyst
cle. Whereas all System
G Facilitator
Requirements
Analysis
efforts up to this point have
been focused on continually
G SQA Analyst
decomposing information
into discrete requirements
or processes that can each
be reviewed and validated on
G Technical Support
their own merits, this final
process now builds a broadG Customer Representative
er view of the system that
G Stakeholders
groups the individual pieces
of the solution into logically
related business functions. The final result, the Functional
Specification, defines and illustrates how each requirement of
the system will eventually be satisfied in terms of business
processes (or transactions).
Deliverables resulting from this phase of the lifecycle must capture the full set of requirements for the new system in a way
that is completely independent of any development approach,
methodology, or organizational constraints. Much like System


57


Initiation defined why the new system was needed, the System
Requirements Analysis deliverables must define what the system must do without making any assumptions regarding how the
system will be built.
The Functional Specification will present many views of the system, from different perspectives and at different levels of detail.
For example, the System Context Diagram shows how the new
system fits into the larger picture of the performing organization’s application portfolio. The Business Flow Diagram shows
how Customer and Consumer business units will interact with
the new system from the business process and data flow perspectives. And the System Interface Diagram will present a
view of the system from a perspective of Consumer interface,
depicting menu structures and navigation paths of online system components, and organization and distribution of reports
and other batch interfaces.
Within the Functional Specification, each business process or
transaction will correlate to the set of Business Requirements
that it satisfies and a representation of the corresponding data
elements. The reports associated with each process, business
constraints (such as related security or controls), interfaces to
other systems and business functions, and any related administrative operations required to support the system should also
be identified.

When identifying the new vision of the system with its proposed sets of related
processes and functions, organizational or operational changes may be introduced.
Ultimately, the Customer must be comfortable with these changes, and be willing and able to
institute them. The Project Team must take this into account when establishing this framework.
Both the Project Manager and the Stakeholders must find the appropriate balance between the
potential need for the change, and the likelihood that it will be embraced throughout the
organization.

As discussed in Determine Business Requirements, requirements gathering sessions frequently result in features or functions above and beyond those initially envisioned during Project
Origination being identified. One advantage of a well-defined

58


Functional Specification is that it provides the Project Team
with a vehicle to assist the Customer with decisions on tradeoffs in functionality and scope, should the situation arise that
sufficient budget is not available to support the development of
the full set of capabilities.
To ensure that the Customer agrees with the final deliverable,
the Project Manager should schedule a walk-through to review
the concepts and flow of the Functional Specification, and to
achieve consensus that the proposed grouping of processes
defines a solution that will satisfy the Customer’s needs.

Deliverable
N Functional Specification – Document describing the logical grouping of related processes and functions within the
new system, along with the mapping of these processes to
both the business requirements that they satisfy and the
data items with which they interact.


Figure 2-7 Functional Specification Template
Name of Agency

System Name

Agency
Project Name
Project Sponsor
Project Manager
Document Date
Prepared By
Enter
Enter
Enter
Enter

the
the
the
the

name of the Agency for which the system is being developed.
Project Name, and the names of the Project Manager and the Project Sponsor.
Date as of which this document is current.
names of the Project Team members by whom the document was Prepared.

59

60



TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Table of Contents should be at least two levels deep.

1.0 DOCUMENT SCOPE
Document Scope describes the goal of this document in a narrative.
Example:
To define a comprehensive set of functional specifications for the XYZ system and to
identify what is in and out of scope.
The narrative also provides an overview of the efforts conducted to gather business requirements, derive process and logical data models, and to reconcile business requirements with
these models.

2.0 GENERAL FUNCTIONAL SPECIFICATIONS
The General Functional Specifications section details those specifications that are common
to all aspects of the system (e.g., the menu structure, security, accessibility, overall performance requirements, etc.).
Three graphical representations of the overall system should be included:
G a System Context Diagram, showing how this system will interact with other existing systems,
G a Business Flow Diagram, showing how Customer and Consumer business units will interact
with the system; and
G a System Interface Diagram, showing the application structure (menu structure and navigation of online components), organization of reports and other batch interfaces, and utilities.

3.0 DETAILED FUNCTIONAL SPECIFICATIONS
The Detailed Functional Specifications section lists functional specifications for each aspect
of the system. The structure of this section is dependent on system organization. For
example, if the system is organized to follow the business unit structure, with each sub-system
supporting a specific Customer or Consumer group, then each Sub-system Description
should list main characteristics and functions of that group; on the other hand, if the system is
organized by type of interface (data entry, reporting, etc.), then the Sub-system Description
should outline common characteristics of those system components.
It may also be useful to provide more detailed versions of the Business Flow and System
Interface diagrams for each sub-system.



3.1

Sub-system

The Sub-system Description describes the sub-system in a narrative.

3.1.1

Component Type

Depending on system structure (and Functional Specification document), it may be useful to
organize system components by type (such as screens vs. reports, or tracking vs. auditing). If
that is the case, Component Type Description would provide a rationale for such structural
breakdown, and describe common elements of all components within that type.

Component Type Description
3.1.1.1 Component 1
I Component Description
I Component Mockup (where appropriate)
I Component Business Flow
• Cross-reference to Business Requirement(s), Logical Data and
Process Models
• Flowchart
• Detailed Business Rules for each Flowchart element
The Component Description should identify the appropriate Customer or Consumer group,
and provide a description of how their needs are being met by this component.
Where appropriate, a mockup of the component should be included in the document.
Component Business Flow details how the system supports the business process.
A Cross-Reference is provided to all prior deliverables.
A Flowchart details the system component’s interaction with the business process. Every
shape and arrow on the Flowchart is annotated with detailed descriptions of Business
Rules governing that particular interaction or transformation.

3.1.1.2 Component 2
I Component Description
I Component Mockup (where appropriate)
I Component Business Flow
• Cross-reference to Business Requirement(s), Logical Data
and Process Models
• Flowchart
• Detailed Business Rules for each Flowchart element

61

62



4.0 OTHER SPECIFICATIONS
Besides functional aspects of the Business Requirements, the specifications for the system
should also enumerate technical, operational and transitional aspects of the system.

4.1 Technical Specifications
This section documents in detail the technical specifications, regulations and existing constraints that must be considered in relation to business requirements. These include considerations such as accessibility, encryption, security, disaster recovery, and other technical areas.

4.2 Operational Specifications
This section should document in detail the operational specifications that must be considered
in relation to business requirements. These include considerations such as system performance, data archival, audit and controls, system administration, software quality assurance and
business continuity. The narrative should specify how these operational requirements may
affect the organization and its current business processes.

4.3 Transitional Specifications
This section documents in detail the transitional specifications that must be considered in
relation to business requirements. These include considerations such as data conversion,
system testing, documentation, training and deployment. The narrative should describe how
historical data will be cleansed, converted and imported into the new system, how expectations
must be set for the deployment of and support of user and technical documentation and
training, and what approach may be employed to physically deploy and transition the system
into the organization.

5.0 BUSINESS REQUIREMENTS NOT BEING IMPLEMENTED
This section specifies those requirements that will NOT be part of the new system. If this list is
identical to the one published in the Business Requirements document, a simple reference to
the prior document may be substituted.

APPENDICES – SUPPORTING DOCUMENTS
The Appendices should contain all relevant documents provided by Customers and Consumers
during System Requirements Analysis, as well as documents supporting decisions made while
compiling the Functional Specification.


63


Measurements of Success
The immediate measurement of success for System Requirements Analysis is the acceptance of all deliverables by the
Customer, while the ultimate measurement is whether or not
the Project Team has created solid groundwork for the upcoming design and development of the application. Each process in
this phase builds towards the final deliverable: Functional
Specification. It is necessary to validate that certain steps have
been successfully executed to ensure that the Functional
Specification has been derived appropriately.
The Project Manager can assess how successfully this phase is
proceeding by utilizing the measurement criteria outlined
below. More than one “No” answer indicates you may have serious risk to the Project.

Figure 2-8
Process
Prepare for System
Requirements Analysis

Have all new team members participated in project
orientation sessions?
Is the team comfortable with the process defined for
managing the deliverable repository?
Do all team members have experience with (or
training on) the tools that will be used in this phase?

Determine Business
Requirements

Do the business requirements state what is in scope
as well as what is out of scope?
Have the business requirements been reviewed and
approved by the Customer?
Are the requirements stated in such a way as to allow
for easy validation of their existence in the final
solution (i.e., a Yes/No determination of whether or
not the requirement has been satisfied by the
new system)?
Are requirements prioritized within the Business
Requirements deliverable?
Do the requirements consider the technical,
operational and transitional aspects of the system,
including elements such as:
• Security/access needs;
• Existing technical standards (accessibility,
encryption, etc.);
• Application hosting;

Yes

No

64


Process


Determine Business
Requirements
(Continued)

No

• Disaster recovery;
• Archiving, audit and regulatory needs;
• Performance requirements by all Customers and
Consumers for all aspects of the system;
• Business continuity;
• Data conversion?

Define Process Model

Yes

Have all known business requirements and
associated business rules been mapped and
accommodated for in the Process Model?
Has the Process Model deliverable been reviewed
and approved by the Customer?

Define Logical Data
Model

Have all known business requirements and
associated business rules been mapped and
accommodated for in the Logical Data Model?
Has the data model been normalized?
Has the Logical Data Model deliverable been
reviewed and approved by the Customer?

Reconcile Business
Requirements With
Models

Does the Customer agree that all aspects of the
requirements and rules have been accommodated
for in the process and data models?

Produce Functional
Specification

Has the Functional Specification deliverable been
reviewed and approved by the Customer?
Has a system validation and testing approach
been formulated?
Have training needs been identified?
Has an approach for the implementation and
transition of the application been developed?

Phase Risks / Ways to Avoid Pitfalls
PITFALL #1 – IF YOU BUILD IT (TOO SOON), WILL THEY COME?
Your Project Team is top-notch and you can’t believe your luck
in securing their stellar capabilities. You have the guru of
gurus as your development lead. After the first JAD session he
tells you he already has envisioned the application – it’s a financial module and similar to one he has previously developed. He
convinces you that he needs to skip the rest of the JAD sessions
so he can begin to prototype immediately. He is so enthusiastic and convincing in his argument to you, that you bless him to
go off and start creating. You have already re-forecast your


65


Project Schedule mentally and foresee an early delivery date.
How sweet it is!
Four weeks into the JAD sessions, you haven’t yet seen any output from him. He tells you he’s almost there, just a few more
tweaks … you remind him it is just a prototype, not a fullfledged construction effort yet. He assures you it is just what
the Customer wants. But you realize that the Customer hasn’t
been involved in the prototyping exercise. How can your lead
developer be creating anything without the Customer vision?
You arrange a meeting with the developer and the Customer to
review the prototype as it is so far, and to elicit feedback. Your
developer is giddy with anticipation, convinced that what he
has already built will make their dreams come true. Then, the
moment of truth: the developer begins to walk the Customer
through the first screen, and it is already apparent that there is
a huge disconnect between the developer’s and the Customer’s
visions of the application. Productive dialogue quickly turns
into heated debate.
It all could have been avoided if the developer’s vision really
was the Customer’s vision. If only he had gone to the interviews
and JAD sessions and heard the requirements, instead of making assumptions as to what HE thought the Customer should
have. If you build it, you’d better make sure they can see it, or
they won’t come…..

PITFALL #2 – LET’S CROSS THAT BRIDGE WHEN WE COME TO IT
During your JAD sessions the Project Team has collected and
prioritized a set of issues that need to be resolved by Customer
Decision-Makers or a Steering Committee. However, some of
the issues appear to be so huge that no one thinks they’ll be
able to resolve them. Instead of using the defined escalation
process outlined in your Communication Plan, group consensus
based on speculation and gut feeling is that by the time the
Project Team is ready to start development, the issue will have
been resolved by the ‘higher ups’. Thus, the old saying, “Let’s
cross that bridge when we come to it.”
Unfortunately, everyone’s crystal ball that day was cloudy
and/or cracked, and assumptions were proven wrong. The
issue did not go away and it has suddenly become a high priority need because legislation was passed to ‘make it so’.

66


Because the team did not address or resolve the issue, a major
piece of functionality for the application is missing, and has a
negative downstream effect on other modules. Why oh why
didn’t you escalate the issue when it arose, so you wouldn’t be
in the boat you’re in now?
Taking the time NOW, during those JAD sessions, to address all
issues, assess their impact and develop resolutions to them, is
critical to achieving success in the ultimate design and development of the application. You will also save yourself hours of
regret and heartache later.

PITFALL #3 – DESIGNING ON THE FLY
By nature, most technicians – including system developers –
are natural problem-solvers. They are the kind of folks that
disdain reading the twenty pages of directions, but immediately start fitting the parts together by eye; the kind of people who
never read the manual, but just start pushing the buttons to see
what happens.
When you sit with them at a requirements gathering session,
you may see their eyes glaze over and their faces assume this
far-away look. This is by no means due to a lack of interest, but
because they are already designing – and may be even programming – the new system in their heads, based on some initial snatches of conversation.
Tell them to “Snap out of it!”
If the system requirements are not sufficiently defined and
understood, the Project Team may experience “expectation
gaps” – for example, the developers may build a Taj Mahal,
while the Customer wanted a simple privy. At best, this may
result in frustration and friction between the Project Team and
the Customers – at worst, it can mean significant cost and
schedule overruns that can impact many aspects of the
Customer’s business operations.
The trick to successfully capturing business requirements is to
make sure that the Project Team does not get ahead of itself.
The Business Requirements deliverable is a detailed and concise list that, without passing judgment and without in any way


67


indicating a solution, identifies the full set of business requirements that must be met by the system. If the list has been done
correctly, the Project Team should be able to walk through it at
any future point in the lifecycle and determine whether the
emerging solution satisfies each requirement.

PITFALL #4 – GOT PICTURES?
Contrary to what the SDLC preaches, the wording used in
Business Requirements can end up high-level, leaving many of
the actual requirements open to interpretation. As this chapter
has discussed, the decomposition of these requirements
involves translating the business need into discrete, welldefined components that collectively provide the desired functionality. Therefore, you need to be creative in the ways in
which these requirements are captured. Whenever possible, do
not limit your understanding and representation of the requirements strictly to the written word.
As we all know, the English language is open to misinterpretation. How many of us have walked in for a haircut, described
exactly what we’re looking for, and walked out 30 minutes later
wondering how “Take a little off the sides” turned into “I’d like
you to make me as physically repulsive as possible, so that
young children cry at the sight of me, and junkyard dogs turn
and flee for safety”? In this case, a picture would have been
worth more than a thousand words (at least to the children and
junkyard dogs of the world).
The same is true when capturing system requirements. Words
like “automate”, “process”, and “calculate” may mean different
things to different people, and it is essential that everyone
involved in the project share the same view of these requirements. Moving forward with an incomplete or incorrect vision
of the system can be more terrifying than the haircut, except
that this time, the ones running away will be your Customers.
Never underestimate the power of prototyping, diagrams, illustrations, and modeling when trying to fully represent and validate the requirements that your Customer is communicating to
you. These techniques, and the pictures that result from them,
can be worth 1000 words, and many times that in dollars.

68


?

Frequently Asked Questions
What do you do if you don’t have a Project Team schooled
in the art of early life cycle techniques?
The skills required for the requirements definition and analysis
activities are very different from those utilized in other phases
of the System Development Lifecycle. The best strategy is to
get an experienced Facilitator, if only for a few initial sessions,
to transfer the skills to the team. However, if no early life cycle
expert is available, you need to identify candidates among your
team who are best suited to an interactive mode of communications, get them into some training, and have them study all
available materials (including this chapter of the Guidebook).
Then, make sure the team follows the SDLC methodology, and
you, the Project Manager, follow the PM methodology to the letter, and rely on Project Sponsor and Customer Decision-Maker
feedback to make sure your team is doing the right things.
How does your Project Team know when done is done?
In the normal course of events, if you have identified ALL
Customers, Consumers and Stakeholders, gathered ALL their
requirements as they relate to this system, built your Process
and Logical Data Models, and then validated, cross-checked
and verified everything, obtaining Customer and Project
Sponsor approvals all along the way – then you are done!
However, you are probably talking about cases when Customers
keep changing their minds and you are trapped in an endless
cycle of revisions and clarifications. Or cases when you keep
chasing Customers who just won’t spare a moment to talk to
you. In either instance, think Time Box. With the help of your
Project Sponsor, declare a deadline, communicate it to all participants, and end the game there.
What if you don’t know which tools to select to help you
through this phase?
While many tools exist that can simplify the creation of documents, illustrations, and other materials that support requirements analysis efforts, it should be stated that a pretty chart
does not a good system make. People used to draw flowcharts
by hand – and their systems did not come out any worse. The
important thing is to get all the requirements, understand how


69


they relate to each other and to current and proposed business
processes, and to get agreement and consensus on what will be
delivered and when. And if in the process you can use some
nifty tool and generate some neat documents – great!
What is the risk of just compiling all the process deliverables into one big deliverable, and foregoing the final
deliverable: Functional Specification?
The Functional Specification deliverable has many aspects to it
that its constituent parts miss (look at the annotated templates
earlier in this chapter to see what they are). It is not enough
to slap a bunch of work products together, tie them with a rubber band, and declare victory. “The whole is greater than the
sum of its parts.” The Functional Specification is a document
that supplies the background for the effort and organizes the
work products in a logical sequence that makes it easy to
understand the process and verify the result.
How do I deal with a Customer who is afraid to commit?
We’ve all dealt with folks who believe that putting their signature
on that acceptance form will forever doom them to dealing with
an inadequate and cumbersome system; and whether that attitude comes from having such forms flung back into their faces
in the past in response to reasonable requests or from genuine
personality disorders is beside the point: you need to get the
Customer OK, and he won’t have any part of it! What to do?
For starters, don’t say, “Just trust me!” (or equivalent). Like
love, trust takes a while to form, and you can’t really force it.
Try to figure out what the underlying concern is. Is it fear of
being locked into a particular design? Mistrust of the process
used to gather the requirements? Lack of confidence in the
players? Misunderstanding of the nature or purpose of the
deliverable? Lack of knowledge about what will come next?
Education is the key here. Try to have a reasonable, calm conversation with the Customer Decision-Makers. Go over the
process used to gather the requirements and prepare the deliverable. Explain the methodology, and the intent behind it: to
support the Customer’s business process with the best darn
system a bunch of chip-heads can come up with.

70


And if they are still holding up the process without a good reason, pull out your big gun – the Project Sponsor – and have him
earn his keep.
Where in the lifecycle do I define that a phone number is
ten digits with dashes and parentheses?
Yes, it’s a lot easier to record vague functionality requests (“the
system should produce the required reports accurately and on
time”) than to get to brass tacks and figure out exactly what is
going to happen, when and how.
When you are gathering business requirements, you should
document every data source the Customer mentions, and mock
up every interface the Customer requests. The data elements
thus captured are formalized in the Data Dictionary (part of the
Logical Data Model deliverable), and then further refined during requirements reconciliation, development of the Functional
Specification deliverable, and creation of the prototype. By the
time technical specifications are created, your data definitions
should be set in concrete.

System requirements analysis

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