![time in lukewarm water, and afterwards melting it in a water bath, and straining it through a piece of
muslin whilst hot. When scented it is esteemed equal to bear’s grease for promoting the growth of the
hair.
MARSH GAS. Light carbonetted hydrogen.
MARSH’S TEST. See Arsenious acid.
MARSHMALLOW. Syn. Althæa (Ph. L. & E.), L. The root (leaves and root—Ph. E.) of Althæa
officinalis, Linn., or common marshmallow. (Ph. L.) It is emollient and demulcent; the decoction is useful
in irritation of the respiratory and urinary organs, and of the alimentary canal. The flowers as well as
the root are reputed pectoral.
MARTIN’S POWDER. A mixture of white arsenic and the powdered stems of Orobanche
virginiana (Linn.), a plant common in Virginia. An American quack remedy for cancer.
MASS. Syn. Massa, L. This term is commonly applied in pharmacy and veterinary medicine to
certain preparations which are not made up into their ultimate form. Thus, we have ‘ball-masses,’ ‘pill-
masses,’ &c.; of which, for convenience, large quantities are prepared at a time, and are kept in pots or
jars, ready to be divided into balls or pills, as the demands of business may require. (See below.)
MASSES (Veterinary).[24]
[24] Reprinted from Tuson’s ‘Veterinary Pharmacopœia.’
Massa Aloes. Mass of aloes. Syn. Cathartic mass. Prep. Take of Barbadoes aloes, in small pieces, 8
parts; glycerin, 2 parts; ginger, in powder, 1 part; melt together in a water bath, and thoroughly
incorporate by frequent stirring.—Use. Cathartic for the horse.—Dose. From 6 to 8 dr.
Massa Aloes Composita. Compound mass of aloes. Syn. Alterative mass. Prep. Take of Barbadoes
aloes, in powder, 1 oz.; soft soap, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 oz.; thoroughly incorporate by beating in a
mortar, so as to form a mass.—Use. Alterative for the horse.—Dose, 1 oz.
Massa Antimonii Tartarata Composita. Compound mass of tartarated antimony. Syn. Fever ball.
Prep. Take of tartrated antimony, in powder, 1⁄2 dr.; camphor, in powder, 1⁄2 dr.; nitrate of potash, in
powder, 2 dr.; common mass, a sufficiency; mix so as to form a bolus.—Use. Febrifuge for the horse.—
Dose. The above mixture constitutes 1 dose.
Massa Belladonnæ Composita. Compound mass of belladonna. Syn. Cough ball. Prep. Take of
extract of belladonna, 1⁄2 to 1 dr.; Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 1 dr.; nitrate of potash, in powder, 2 dr.;
common mass, a sufficiency; mix so as to form a bolus.—Use. For the horse in chronic cough.—Dose.
The above mixture constitutes 1 dose.
Massa Cathechu Composita. Compound mass of catechu. Syn. Astringent mass. Prep. Take of extract
of catechu, in fine powder, 1 oz.; cinnamon bark, in fine powder, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 oz.; mix.—Use.
Astringent for the horse.—Dose, 1 oz., in the form of a bolus.
Massa Communis. Common mass. Prep. Take of linseed, finely ground, and treacle, of each equal
parts; mix together so as to form a mass.—Use. An excipient for medicinal agents when they are to be
administered in the form of bolus.
Massa Cupri Sulphatis. Mass of sulphate of copper. Syn. Tonic Mass. Prep. Take of sulphate of
copper, finely powdered, 1 oz.; ginger, in powder, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 oz.; mix.—Use. Tonic for the
horse.—Dose, 6 to 8 dr.
Massa Digitalis Composita. Compound mass of digitalis. Syn. Cough ball. Prep. Take of Barbadoes
aloes, in powder, 2 oz.; digitalis, 1 oz.; common mass, 13 oz.; mix.—Use. For the horse in chronic
cough.—Dose, 1 oz. once or twice a day.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/20277-250406211437-e7bf363e/85/Systems-Architecture-7th-Edition-Burd-Test-Bank-47-320.jpg)
![MATCHES (Cooper’s). Syn. Sweetening matches. These are made by dipping strips of coarse linen
or canvas into melted brimstone. For use, the brimstone on one of them is set on fire, and the match is
then at once suspended in the cask, and the bung loosely set in its place. After the lapse of 2 or 3 hours
the match is removed and the cask filled with liquor. Some persons pour a gallon or two of the liquor
into the cask before ‘matching’ it. The object is to allay excessive fermentation. The operation is
commonly adopted in the Western Counties for cider intended for shipment, or other long exposure
during transport. It is also occasionally employed for inferior and ‘doctored’ wines.
MATCHES (Instantaneous Light). Of these there are several varieties, of which the one best
known, and most extensively used, is the common phosphorus match, known as the ‘congreve’ or
‘lucifer.’[25] We need not describe the ‘chemical matches,’ ‘phosphorus bottles,’ and ‘prometheans,’ in use
during the early part of the present century, as these are quite obsolete. We will simply sketch the
general process of manufacture now in use for phosphorus matches:
[25] The original ‘LUCIFERS,’ or ‘LIGHT-BEARING MATCHES,’ invented in 1826, consisted of strips
of pasteboard, or flat splints of wood, tipped first with sulphur, and then with a mixture of sulphide
of antimony and chlorate of potassa, and were ignited by drawing them briskly through folded
glass-paper. They required a considerable effort to ignite them, and the composition was apt to be
torn off by the violence of the friction. The term ‘lucifer’ having become familiar, was applied to the
simpler and more effective match afterwards introduced under the names of ‘CONGREVE’ and
‘CONGREVE LIGHT,’
Manuf. The wooden splints are cut by steam machinery from the very best quality of pine planks,
perfectly dried at a temperature of 400° Fahr. English splints are of two sizes—‘large’ and ‘minnikins,’ the
former 21⁄4 inches longer, and the latter somewhat shorter. In the manufacture double-lengths are
used, so that each splint may be coated with the igniting composition at both ends, and then cut
asunder in the middle to form two matches. In England the splints are usually cut square in form, but in
Germany they are cylindrical, being prepared by forcing the wood through circular holes in a steel plate.
The ends of the double splints having been slightly charred by contact with a red-hot plate, are coated
with sulphur by dipping them to the requisite depth in the melted material. In some cases the ends are
saturated with melted wax or paraffin instead of sulphur. The splints are then arranged in a frame
between grooved boards in such a manner that the prepared ends project on each side of the frame.
These projecting ends are then tipped with the phosphorus composition, which is spread to a uniform
depth of about 1⁄8 inch on a smooth slab of stone, kept warm by means of steam beneath. When
partially dry, the tipped splints are taken from the frames, cut through the middle, and placed in heaps
of 100, ready for ‘boxing.’
The different compositions for tipping the matches in use in different countries and factories all
consist essentially of emulsions of phosphorus in a solution of glue or gum, with or without other
matters for increasing the combustibility, for colouring, &c. In England the composition contains a
considerable quantity of chlorate of potassa, which imparts a snapping and flaming quality to the
matches tipped with it, and but little phosphorus, on account of the moisture of the climate. In Germany
the proportion of phosphorus used is much larger, and nitre, or some metallic peroxide, replaces
chlorate of potassa. The German matches light quietly with a mild lambent flame, and are injured
quickly by damp. The following formulæ have been selected:
1. (English.) Fine glue, 2 parts, broken into small pieces, and soaked in water till quite soft, is added
to water, 4 parts, and heated by means of a water bath until it is quite fluid, and at a temperature of
200° to 212° Fahr. The vessel is then removed from the fire, and phosphorus, 11⁄2 to 2 parts, is
gradually added, the mixture being agitated briskly and continually with a ‘stirrer’ having wooden pegs
or bristles projecting at its lower end. When a uniform emulsion is obtained, chlorate of potassa, 4 to 5
parts, powdered glass, 3 to 4 parts, and red lead, smalt, or other colouring matter, a sufficient quantity
(all in a state of very fine powder) are added, one at a time, to prevent accidents, and the stirring
continued until the mixture is comparatively cool.
According to Mr G. Gore, the above proportions are those of the best quality of English
composition. The matches tipped with it deflagrate with a snapping noise. (See above.)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/20277-250406211437-e7bf363e/85/Systems-Architecture-7th-Edition-Burd-Test-Bank-49-320.jpg)
![Like the smallpox, the measles are contagious, and seldom attack the same person more than once
during life. See Rash.
MEASURE. Syn. Mensura, L. The unit or standard by which we estimate extension, whether of
length, superficies, or volume. The following tables represent the values and proportions of the principal
measures employed in commerce and the arts:—
Table I. English Lineal Measures.
Inches. Feet. Yards. Poles. Furlongs. Miles.
1· ·083 ·028 ·00505·00012626·0000157828
12· 1· ·333 ·06060·00151515 ·00018939
36· 3· 1· ·1818 ·004545 ·00056818
198· 16·5 5·5 1· ·025 ·003125
7920· 660· 220· 40· 1· ·125
63360· 5280· 1760· 320· 8· 1·
⁂ The unit of the above table is the yard, of which no legal standard has existed since that
established by the statute of 1824 was destroyed by the fire which consumed the two Houses of
Parliament in 1834.
Table II. English Measures of Superficies.
Square Feet.Square Yards. Poles. Roods. Acres.
1· ·1111 ·00367309·000091827·000022957
9· 1· ·0330579 ·000826448·000206612
272·25 30·25 1· ·025 ·00625
10890· 1210· 40· 1· ·25
43560· 4840· 160· 4· 1·
Table III. English Measure of Volume.—The Imperial Standard, and the relative value of its divisions,
including those used in Medicine, with their EQUIVALENTS in avoirdupois and troy weight.
[minims]
Minims
or
drops.
fʒ Fluid
Drachms.
f℥ Fluid
Ounces.
O. Pints.
Oij.
Quarts.
C. Gallons.Pecks.Bushels. Quarters.
Equivalents in
distilled water
at 62° Fahr., i
Troy
grains.
Avoird
weigh
1· ·01666666·00208333·00010416·00005208·00001302 — — — ·91146
60· 1· ·125 ·00625 ·003125 ·00078125 — — — 54·6875 lb. o
480· 8· 1· ·05 ·025 ·00625 — — — 437·5
9600· 160· 20· 1· ·5 ·125 ·0625 ·015625·001953125 8750· 1 4
19200· 320· 40· 2· 1· ·25 ·125 ·03125 ·00390625 17500· 2 8
76800· 1280· 160· 8· 4· 1· ·5 ·125 ·015625 70000· 10
2560· 320· 16· 8· 2· 1· ·25 ·03125 — 20
1280· 64· 32· 8· 4· 1· ·125 — 80
512· 256· 64· 32· 8· 1· — 640](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/20277-250406211437-e7bf363e/85/Systems-Architecture-7th-Edition-Burd-Test-Bank-52-320.jpg)
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- 5. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 1 1. For video display, a pixel displays no light or light of a specific color and intensity. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 2. Image quality improves as dots per inch increases. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 3. Image quality improves as pixel size increases. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 4. On paper, pixel size corresponds to the smallest drop of ink that can be placed accurately on the page. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 5. Decades ago, printers adopted 1/32 of an inch as a standard pixel size. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 6. For people and computers, a printed character must exactly match a specific pixel map to be recognizable. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 7. Point size refers to characters’ width. a. True b. False
- 6. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 2 ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 8. A monochrome display can display black, white, and many shades of gray in between, so it requires 8 bits per pixel. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 233 9. An IDL can represent image components as embedded fonts, vectors, curves and shapes, and embedded bitmaps. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 235 10. IDLs are a simple form of compression. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 237 11. LCD displays have less contrast than other flat panel displays because color filters reduce the total amount of light passing through the front of the panel. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 242 12. Phosphors emit colored light in liquid crystal displays. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 242 13. Because plasma displays actively generate colored light near the display surface, they’re brighter and have a wider viewing angle than LCDs. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1
- 7. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 3 REFERENCES: 242 14. OLED displays combine many of the best features of LCD and plasma displays. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 243 15. Impact technology began with dot matrix printers. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 244 16. Color laser output uses four separate print generators. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 247 17. An advantage of optical over mechanical mice is a lack of moving parts that can be contaminated with dust and dirt. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 248 18. Bar-code readers are typically used to track large numbers of inventory items, as in grocery store inventory and checkout, package tracking, warehouse inventory control, and zip code routing for postal mail. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 250 19. Modern bar codes encode data in three dimensions. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 251 20. Character and text recognition is most accurate when text is printed in a single font and style, with all text oriented in
- 8. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 4 the same direction on the page. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 252 21. Error rates of 1-2% are common using OCR software with mixed-font text and even higher with handwritten text. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 252 22. A digital still camera captures and stores one image at a time. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 252 23. Moving image quality improves as the number of frames per second (fps) decreases. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 253 24. Typically, digital cameras capture 14 to 20 fps. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 253 25. Most portable data capture devices combine a keyboard, mark or bar-code scanner, and wireless connection to a wired base station, cash register, or computer system. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 253 26. For sound reproduction that sounds natural to people, frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 KHz must be sampled at least 96,000 times per second. a. True
- 9. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 5 b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 253 27. Sound varies by frequency (pitch) and intensity (loudness). a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 253 28. Continuous speech is a series of nonstop interconnected phonemes. a. True b. False ANSWER: False POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 254 29. Phonemes sound similar when voiced repetitively by the same person. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 254 30. A significant advantage of MIDI is its compact storage format. a. True b. False ANSWER: True POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 257 31. Each cell in the matrix representing one part of a digital image is called a ____. a. bubble b. pixel c. Dot d. Block ANSWER: b POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 32. The ____ of a display is the number of pixels displayed per linear measurement unit. a. resolution b. refinement
- 10. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 6 c. accuracy d. pitch ANSWER: a POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 33. In the United States, resolution is generally stated in ____. a. lines per inch b. pixels per line c. dots per inch d. dots per millimeter ANSWER: c POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 34. Written Western languages are based on systems of symbols called ____. a. fonts b. characters c. types d. schemes ANSWER: b POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 35. A collection of characters of similar style and appearance is called a ____. a. type b. scheme c. pitch d. font ANSWER: d POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 36. The number of distinct colors or gray shades that can be displayed is sometimes called the ____. a. resolution b. palette c. range d. chromatic depth ANSWER: d POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 233 37. A(n) ____ is simply a table of colors. a. palette b. spectrum
- 11. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 7 c. RGB system d. color scheme ANSWER: a POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 233 38. ____ is a process that generates color approximations by placing small dots of different colors in an interlocking pattern. a. Merging b. Banding c. Dithering d. Retracing ANSWER: c POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 234 39. In graphics, a ____ is a line segment with a specific angle and length in relation to a point of origin. a. course b. vector c. path d. route ANSWER: b POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 236 40. Components of a video controller include display generator circuitry, software stored in ROM, a video processor, and ____. a. RAM b. font tables c. display pixels d. secondary storage ANSWER: a POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 239 41. Video display panels are connected to a ____ that’s connected to a port on the system bus or a dedicated video bus. a. video buffer b. video manager c. video station d. video controller ANSWER: d POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 239 42. The number of refresh cycles per second is normally stated in hertz and called the ____.
- 12. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 8 a. refresh rate b. pixel depth c. resolution d. scan rate ANSWER: a POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 240 43. A(n) ____ display includes one or more transistors for every display pixel. a. cathode ray tube b. active matrix c. liquid crystal d. Passive matrix ANSWER: b POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 242 44. ____ technology etches display pixels and the transistors and traces that control/illuminate them onto a glass substrate. a. CRT b. Neon c. backlight d. TFT ANSWER: d POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 242 45. A ____ contains a matrix of liquid crystals sandwiched between two polarizing filter panels that block all light except light approaching from a specific angle. a. Plasma b. CRT c. liquid crystal display d. light emitting diode ANSWER: c POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 241 46. ____ displays use excited gas and phosphors to generate colored light. a. Plasma b. liquid crystal c. light emitting diode d. thin film transmission ANSWER: a POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 242
- 13. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 9 47. Modern ____ displays achieve high-quality color display with organic compounds. a. LCD b. TFT c. CRT d. LED ANSWER: d POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 243 48. OLED displays combine features from both LED and plasma display, including: ____. a. thin, bright, and high power b. thin, bright, and low power c. thin, backlit, and high power d. thin, backlit, and low power ANSWER: b POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 243 49. A(n) ____ printer moves a print head containing a matrix of pins over the paper. a. laser b. dot matrix c. inkjet d. dye sublimation ANSWER: b POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 244 50. A modern large format printer is a _____ printer that can print on wider-than normal rolls of paper. a. laser b. dye sublimation c. inkjet d. impact ANSWER: c POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 247 51. A(n) ____ operates with an electrical charge and the attraction of ink to this charge. a. laser printer b. inkjet printer c. impact printer d. thermal printer ANSWER: a POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 246
- 14. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 10 52. A ____ is a printer that generates line drawings on wide sheets or rolls of paper. a. sublimation b. thermal c. line printer d. plotter ANSWER: d POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 247 53. Pointing devices can be used to enter drawings into a computer system or control the position of a(n) ____ on a display device. a. pointer b. arrow c. cursor d. marker ANSWER: c POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 248 54. Touch position sensing in a touch screen is usually based on ____. a. resistance b. flux c. capacitance d. inductance ANSWER: c POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 249 55. ____ sensors capture input from special-purpose symbols placed on paper or the flat surfaces of 3D objects. a. Dot and image b. Mark and image c. Mark and pattern d. Image capture ANSWER: c POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 250 56. A(n) ____ detects specific patterns of bars or boxes. a. bar-code scanner b. image scanner c. dimensional scanner d. linear scanner ANSWER: a POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 250
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- 16. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 11 57. Bar-code readers use ____that sweep a narrow beam back and forth across the bar code. a. scanning LEDs b. high-intensity lamps c. high resolution CCDs d. scanning lasers ANSWER: d POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 250 58. PDF417 bar codes can hold around ____ of data. a. 1 KB b. 1 MB c. 1 GB d. 1 TB ANSWER: a POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 251 59. A(n) ____ generates bitmap representations of printed images. a. bar-code scanner b. image scanner c. optical scanner d. visual scanner ANSWER: c POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 251 60. ____ devices combine optical-scanning technology with a special-purpose processor or software to interpret bitmap content. a. Optical image recognition b. Optical character recognition c. Optical character reproduction d. Optical image resolution ANSWER: b POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 251 61. The process of converting analog sound waves to digital representation is called ____. a. reducing b. interpreting c. sampling d. transforming ANSWER: c POINTS: 1
- 17. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 12 REFERENCES: 253 62. A(n) ____ accepts a continuous electrical signal representing sound (such as microphone input), samples it at regular intervals, and outputs a stream of bits representing the samples. a. analog-to-digital converter b. analog-to-digital inverter c. analog-to-digital diverter d. analog-to-digital parser ANSWER: a POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 254 63. A(n) ____ accepts a stream of bits representing sound samples and generating a continuous electrical signal that can be amplified and routed to a speaker. a. digital-to-analog processor b. digital-to-analog parser c. digital-to-analog compiler d. digital-to-analog converter ANSWER: d POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 254 64. ____ output is only able to generate one frequency (note) at a time. a. Stereophonic b. Monophonic c. Polyphonic d. Monosyllabic ANSWER: b POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 254 65. ____ is the process of recognizing and responding to the meaning embedded in spoken words, phrases, or sentences. a. Text recognition b. Pattern recognition c. Speech recognition d. Natural recognition ANSWER: c POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 254 66. Human speech consists of a series of sounds called ____, roughly corresponding to the sounds of each letter of the alphabet. a. phonemes b. homonyms c. cheremes
- 18. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 13 d. visemes ANSWER: a POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 254 67. Most current speech-recognition systems are ____, which means they must be “trained” to recognize the sounds of human speakers. a. speaker independent b. speaker dependent c. speaker neutral d. speaker attuned ANSWER: b POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 255 68. A(n) ____ is a microprocessor specialized for processing continuous streams of audio or graphical data. a. analog signal processor b. virtual signal processor c. electronic signal processor d. digital signal processor ANSWER: d POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 256 69. ____ is a standard for storing and transporting control information between computers and electronic musical instruments. a. Musical Instrument Digital Interface b. Musical Instrument Digital Interface c. Musical Interface Digital Interconnection d. Musical Interconnection Digital Interface ANSWER: a POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 257 70. Up to ____ channels of MIDI data can be sent over the same serial transmission line a. 4 b. 8 c. 16 d. 32 ANSWER: c POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 258 71. As ____________________ size increases image quality improves. ANSWER: pixel
- 19. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 14 POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 72. To an observer, the quality of a printed or displayed image increases as ____________________ size increases. ANSWER: pixel POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 73. Font size is measured in units called ____________________. ANSWER: points POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 231 74. The ____________________ colors are cyan, magenta, and yellow. ANSWER: subtractive POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 233 75. A stored set of numbers describing the content of all pixels in an image is called a(n) ____________________. ANSWER: bitmap POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 233 76. ____________________ dithering is usually called half-toning. ANSWER: Grayscale POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 234 77. Postscript is a(n) ____________________ designed mainly for printed documents, although it can also be used to generate video display outputs. ANSWER: image description language (IDL) POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 237 78. Each transfer of a full screen of data from the display generator to the monitor is called a(n) ____________________. ANSWER: refresh cycle POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 240 79. Direct3D and ____________________ are widely-used video controller IDLs. ANSWER: OpenGL POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 240 80. A(n) ____________________ matrix display uses one or more transistors for every pixel. ANSWER: active
- 20. Chapter 07 - Input/Output Technology Cengage Learning Testing, Powered by Cognero Page 15 POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 242 81. A(n) ____________________ matrix display shares transistors among rows and columns of pixels. ANSWER: passive POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 242 82. A(n) plasma display pixel excites gas into a(n) ____________________ plasma state to generate UV light. ANSWER: plasma POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 242 83. Of all flat panel displays, ____________________ have the shortest operational lifetimes. ANSWER: plasma displays POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 243 84. When keys are pressed, a keyboard controller generates output called a(n) ____________________. ANSWER: scan code POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 248 85. A(n) mouse that can detect motion with ____________________ dimensions uses an embedded gyroscope. ANSWER: three POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 249 86. A(n) ____________________ is an LCD or LED display with additional TFT layers that detect the position of electrical field changes based on capacitance. ANSWER: touchscreen POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 249 87. Digitizing tablets and tablet PCs are examples of ____________________, a general class of input devices. ANSWER: input pads POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 260 88. ____________________ touchscreen input interprets a sequence of touch information as a single command ANSWER: Gesture-based POINTS: 1 REFERENCES: 249 89. A(n) ____________________ scans for light or dark marks at specific locations on a page. ANSWER: mark sensor
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- 22. Prop. The ordinary or light carbonate of magnesia is a white, inodorous, tasteless powder, possessing similar properties to calcined magnesia, except effervescing with acids, and having less saturating power. An ounce measure is filled by 45 to 48 gr. of the powder lightly placed in it. The heavy carbonate is sometimes fully thrice as dense (see below), but in other respects is similar. Dose. As an antacid, 1⁄2 to a whole teaspoonful, 3 or 4 times daily; as a laxative 1⁄2 dr. to 2 dr. It is commonly taken in milk. It is apt to produce flatulence, but in other respects is preferable to calcined magnesia. General Remarks. Although commonly called ‘carbonate of magnesia,’ the above substance, whether in the light or heavy form, appears to be a compound of carbonate with hydrate, in proportions which are not perfectly constant. (For B. P. formula see preceding article.) On account of the excess of base in its composition it was formerly regarded as a subsalt (subcarbonate of magnesia). A great deal has been written uselessly respecting the preparation of these carbonates, about which, however, there is neither mystery nor difficulty, as some writers would lead their readers to suppose. If the solutions are very dilute, the precipitate is exceedingly light and bulky; if otherwise, it is denser. By employing nearly saturated solutions, and then heating them and mixing them together whilst very hot, a very heavy precipitate is obtained, but it is apt to be gritty or crystalline. The same occurs when cold solutions are mixed, and no heat is employed. The lightest precipitate is obtained from cold, highly dilute solutions, and subsequent ebullition of the mixture. Mr Pattinson, a chemist of Gateshead, prepares a very beautiful and pure heavy carbonate from magnesian limestone. The latter is calcined at a dull red heat (not hotter) for some time, by which the carbonic anhydride is expelled from the carbonate of magnesium, but not from the carbonate of calcium, which hence continues insoluble. The calcined mass is next reduced to a milk with water in a suitable cistern, and the carbonic anhydride resulting from its own
- 23. calcination forced into it under powerful pressure. The result is a saturated solution of carbonate of magnesia, the lime remaining unacted on so long as the magnesium is in excess. The solution by evaporation yields the heavy carbonate, whilst carbonic anhydride is expelled, and may be again used in the same manufacture. 154 to 160 gr. of the heavy carbonate are required to fill an ounce measure when lightly placed in it, by which it appears to be fully thrice as dense as the light carbonate. The bicarbonate of magnesium (magnesiæ bicarbonas, L.) exists only in solution. The so-called ‘fluid magnesias’ of Murray, Dinneford, Husband, &c., are solutions of this salt. The small prismatic crystals which are deposited when ‘fluid magnesia’ is exposed to the air for some time consist of hydrated neutral carbonate, and not bicarbonate, as is sometimes stated. Magnesium, Chloride of. MgCl2. Syn. Magnesii chloridum, L. Prep. (Liebig.) By dissolving magnesia in hydrochloric acid, evaporating to dryness, adding an equal weight of chloride of ammonium, projecting the mixture into a red-hot platinum crucible, and continuing the heat till a state of tranquil fusion is attained. On cooling, it forms a transparent, colourless, and very deliquescent mass, which is anhydrous, and soluble in alcohol. Obs. Without the addition of the chloride of ammonium it is impossible to expel the last portion of the water without at the same time driving off the chlorine, in which case nothing but magnesia is left. The fused mass should be poured out on a clean stone, and when solid broken into pieces, and at once transferred to a warm, dry bottle. The P. Cod. orders the solution to be evaporated to the sp. gr. 1·384, and to be put, whilst still hot, into a wide-mouthed flask to crystallise.—Dose, 1 to 4 dr.; as a laxative. Magnesium, Cit′rate of. Mg3(C6H5O7)2. Syn. Magnesiæ citras. L. Prep. There is some difficulty in obtaining this salt in an eligible form for medicinal purposes. When precipitated from a solution it is insoluble. The following formulæ can be highly recommended.
- 24. 1. (Parrish.) Dissolve crystallised citric acid, 100 gr., in water, 15 drops, and its own ‘water of crystallisation’ by the aid of heat; then stir in calcined magnesia, 35 gr.; a pasty mass will result, which soon hardens, and may be powdered for use. Obs. The chief practical difficulty in this process results from the great comparative bulk of the magnesia, and the very small quantity of the fused mass with which it is to be incorporated. A part of the magnesia is almost unavoidably left uncombined, and the salt is consequently not neutral. The uncombined earth should be dusted off the mass before powdering the latter. A high temperature must be avoided. 2. (Robiquet.) Citric acid, 351⁄4 parts, is powdered and dissolved in boiling water, 105⁄8 parts; when the solution is cold, and before it crystallises, it is poured in a wide earthen vessel, kept cold by surrounding it with water; then, by means of a sieve, carbonate of magnesium, 211⁄6 parts, is distributed evenly and rapidly over the surface without stirring; when the reaction ceases the mixture is beaten rapidly as long as it retains its pasty consistence. The salt should be dried at a temperature not exceeding 70° Fahr. 3. (Effervescing; Magnesiæ citras effervescens, L.)—a. Citric acid (dried and powdered), 7 parts; heavy carbonate of magnesium, 5 parts; mix, and preserve in well-corked bottles. b. (Ellis.) Mix powdered citric acid, 21⁄2 oz., with powdered sugar, 8 oz.; triturate to a fine powder, and drive off the water of crystallisation by the heat of a water bath; add citrate of magnesium (prepared by fusion), 4 oz., and oil of lemons, 10 drops, and mix intimately; then add bicarbonate of sodium, 3 oz., and again triturate until the whole forms a fine powder, which must be preserved in stoppered bottles. From 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls, mixed in a tumbler of water, furnishes an effervescing draught in which the undissolved portion is so nicely suspended, that it can be taken without inconvenience.
- 25. c. (Ph. Germ.) Light carbonate of magnesia, 25 oz.; citric acid, 75 oz.; distilled water, q. s.; mix into a thick paste and dry at 86° Fahr. With 14 oz. of the dried mass mix bicarbonate of soda, 13 oz.; citric acid, 6 oz.; sugar, 3 oz. Sprinkle over the mixture enough rectified spirit so as to make it sufficiently moist to be granulated by rubbing through a tinned iron sieve. d. (Extemporaneous.) Citric acid (cryst.), 20 gr.; carbonate of magnesium, 14 gr.; mix in a tumbler of cold water, and drink the mixture whilst effervescing. A pleasant saline. Obs. A dry white powder, sometimes sold as citrate of magnesia in the shops, is quite a different preparation to the above, and does not contain a particle of citric acid. The following formula is that of a wholesale London drug-house that does largely in this article:— Calcined magnesia, magnesium oxide, 11⁄4 lb. (or carbonate, 2 lbs.); powdered tartaric acid, 11⁄2 lb.; bicarbonate of sodium, 1 lb.; dry each article by a gentle heat, then mix them, pass the mixture through a fine sieve in a warm dry room, and keep it in well-corked bottles. A few drops of essence of lemon and 3 lbs. of finely powdered sugar are commonly added to the above quantity. This addition renders it more agreeable. Prop., &c. Citrate of magnesium is a mild and agreeable laxative; its secondary effects resemble those of the carbonate.— Dose. As a purgative, 1⁄2 to 1 oz. The dose of the effervescing citrate must depend on the quantity of magnesia present. A solution of this salt in water, sweetened and flavoured with lemon, forms magnesian lemonade. Magnesium, Boro-cit′rate of. Syn. Magnesiæ boro-citras, L. Prep. (Cadet.) Boracic acid (in powder), 113 gr.; oxide of magnesium, 80 gr.; mix in a porcelain capsule, and add enough of a solution of citric acid, 260 gr., in water, 31⁄2 pints, to form a thin paste; then add the remainder of the citric solution, and gently evaporate, with constant stirring, to dryness. A cooling saline, and,
- 26. in small doses, emmenagogue and lithontriptic.—Dose. As an aperient, 3 to 6 dr. Magnesium, Oxide of. MgO. Syn. Oxide of Magnesium, Calcined Magnesia, Magnesia (B. P., Ph. L.). Prep. 1. (B. P.) Magnesium carbonate, heated in a crucible until all the carbonic anhydride is driven off. Prop., &c. White heavy powder, scarcely soluble in water, but readily soluble in acids without effervescence. Its solution in hydrochloric acid, neutralised by a mixed solution of ammonia and ammonium chloride, gives a copious crystalline precipitate when sodium phosphate is added to it. See next preparation. Magnesia levis (B. P.) Syn. Light magnesia. Prep. (B. P.) 1. Light carbonate of magnesium heated in a Cornish crucible until all the carbonic anhydride is driven off. A bulky white powder, differing from the magnesia (B. P.) only in its density, the volume occupied by the same weight being 31⁄2 to 1. The properties of the two varieties of magnesium oxide are identical, and are used in medicine as antacids, laxatives, and antilithics, and much used in dyspepsia, heartburn, &c.—Dose, 10 to 20 gr. as an antacid and 20 to 60 gr. as a purgative. Magnesium, Phos′phate of. MgHPO4.6Aq. Syn. Magnesiæ phosphas, L. Prep. From the mixed solutions of phosphate of sodium and sulphate of magnesium, allowed to stand for some time. Small, colourless, prismatic crystals, which, according to Graham, are soluble in about 1000 parts of cold water. Phosphate of magnesium exists in the grains of the cereals, and in considerable quantity in beer. It is also found in guano. Magnesium and Ammo′′nium, Phosphate of. MgNH4.PO4, 6 Aq. Syn. Ammonio-phosphate of magnesia; Magnesiæ et ammoniæ phosphas, L. This compound falls as a white crystalline precipitate whenever
- 27. ammonia or carbonate of ammonium is added, in excess, to a solution of a salt of magnesium which has been previously mixed with a soluble phosphate, as that of soda. It subsides immediately from concentrated solutions, but only after some time from very dilute ones. Prop., &c. Ammonio-phosphate of magnesium is very slightly soluble in pure water; when heated, it is resolved into pyrophosphate of magnesium, and is vitrified at a strong red heat. It is found in wheaten bran, guano, potatoes, &c., and occasionally forms one of the varieties of urinary calculi. Magnesium, Sil′icates of. There are several native silicates of magnesia, more or less pure, of which, however, none is directly employed in medicine. Meerschaum and steatite or soapstone are well-known varieties. Serpentine is a compound of silicate and hydrate of magnesium. The minerals augite and hornblende are double salts of silicic acid, magnesium, and calcium with some ferrous oxide. The beautiful crystallised mineral called chrysolite is a silicate of magnesium, coloured with ferrous oxide. Jade is a double silicate of magnesium and aluminum, coloured with chromic oxide. Magnesium, Sulphate of. MgSO4, 7 Aq. Syn. Epsom salt, Magnesiæ sulphas (B. P. Ph. L. E. & D.), Sal Epsomensis, L. This compound was originally extracted from the saline springs of Epsom, Surrey, by Dr Grew, in 1695. It is now exclusively prepared on the large scale, and from either magnesian limestone or the residual liquor of the sea-salt works. Prep. 1. From dolomite or magnesian limestone.—a. The mineral, broken into fragments, is heated with a sufficient quantity of dilute sulphuric acid to convert its carbonates into sulphates; the sulphate of magnesium is washed out of the mass with hot water, and the solution, after defecation, is evaporated and crystallised. b. The ‘limestone,’ either simply broken into fragments or else calcined (burnt), and its constituents quicklime and oxide
- 28. magnesium converted into hydrates by sprinkling (slaking) it with water, is treated with a sufficient quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve out all the calcium hydrate without touching the magnesium hydrate; the residuum of the latter, after being washed and drained, is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, and crystallised as before. 2. From bittern.—a. The residual liquor or mother-water of sea- salt is boiled for some hours in the pans which are used during the summer for the concentration of brine; the saline solution is then skimmed and decanted from some common salt which has been deposited, after which it is concentrated by evaporation, and, finally, run into wooden coolers; in about 36 hours, 1-8th part of Epsom salts usually crystallises out. This is called ‘singles.’ By re-dissolving this in water, and re-crystallisation, ‘doubles,’ or Epsom salts fit for the market, are obtained. A second crop of crystals may be procured by adding sulphuric acid to the mother-liquor, and re-concentrating the solution, but this is seldom had recourse to in England. Bittern yields fully 5 parts of sulphate of magnesia for every 100 parts of common salt that has been previously obtained from it. b. A concentrated solution of sulphate of sodium is added to bittern, in equivalent proportion to that of the chloride of magnesium in it, and the mixed solution is evaporated at the temperature of 122° Fahr. (Ure); cubical crystals of common salt are deposited as the evaporation proceeds, after which, by further concentration and repose, regular crystals of sulphate of magnesia are obtained. c. A sufficient quantity of calcined and slaked magnesian limestone is boiled in bittern to decompose the magnesium salts, and the liquid is evaporated, &c., as before. This is a very economical process. Prop. Small acicular crystals, or (by careful crystallisation) large four-sided rhombic prisms; colourless; odourless, transparent; slightly efflorescent; extremely bitter and nauseous; when heated, it fuses in its water of crystallisation, the larger portion of which readily
- 29. passes off, but one equivalent of water is energetically retained; at a high temperature it runs into a species of white enamel; it dissolves in its own weight of cold water, and in 3-4ths of that quantity of boiling water; it is insoluble in both alcohol and ether. Sp. gr. 1·66. Pur. Sulphate of magnesium is soluble in an equal weight of water at 60° Fahr., by which it may be distinguished from sulphate of sodium, which is much more soluble. An aqueous solution in the cold is not precipitated by oxalate of ammonium. The precipitate given by carbonate of sodium from a solution of 100 gr. should, after well washing and heating to redness, weigh 16·26 gr. (B. P.) Digested in alcohol, the filtered liquid does not yield a precipitate with nitrate of silver nor burn with a yellow flame, and evaporates without residue. “Not deliquescent in the air.” (Ph. L.) 100 gr. of the pure crystallised sulphate yields 161⁄4 gr. of calcined magnesium oxide. (Pereira.) 10 gr., dissolved in 1 fl. oz. of water, and treated with a solution of carbonate of ammonium, are not entirely precipitated by 280 minims of solution of phosphate of sodium. (Ph. E.) Uses, &c. Sulphate of magnesium is an excellent cooling purgative, and sometimes proves diuretic and diaphoretic.—Dose, 1 dr. to 1 oz., as a purgative, or an antidote in poisoning by lead. Large doses should be avoided. Instances are on record of their having proved fatal. Dr Christison mentions the case of a boy 10 years old who swallowed 2 oz. of salts, and died within 10 minutes. The best antidote is an emetic. A small quantity of Epsom salts, largely diluted with water (as a drachm to 1⁄2 pint or 3⁄4 pint), will usually purge as much as the common dose. This increase of power has been shown by Liebig to result rather from the quantity of water than the salt. Pure water is greedily taken up by the absorbents; but water holding in solution saline matter is rejected by those vessels, and consequently passes off by the intestines.
- 30. Obs. Oxalic acid has occasionally been mistaken for Epsom salt, with fatal results. They may be readily distinguished from each other by the following characteristics:—
- 31. EPSOM SALT. OXALIC ACID. Tastes extremely bitter and nauseous. Tastes extremely sour. Does not volatilise when heated on platinum foil. Volatilises when heated on platinum foil. Does not produce milkiness when dissolved in hard water. Produces milkiness when dissolved in hard water. Magnesium, Tar′trate of. Syn. Magnesiæ tartras, Magnesia tartarica, L. Prep. By saturating a solution of tartaric acid with carbonate of magnesium, and gently evaporating to dryness. It is only very slightly soluble in water.—Dose, 20 to 60 gr., or more; in painful chronic maladies of the spleen. (Pereira, ex Radmacher.) The effervescing tartrate of magnesium, commonly sold under the name citrate, has already been noticed. Magnesium and Potas′sium, Tartrate of. Syn. Potassio-tartrate of magnesia; Magnesiæ potassio- tartras, M. et potassæ tartras, L. Prep. From acid tartrate of potassium (in powder), 7 parts; carbonate of magnesium, 2 parts; water, 165 parts; boiled until the solution is complete, and then evaporated and crystallised. A mild aperient.—Dose, 1 to 5 dr.; in scurvy, &c. MAG′NET. Syn. Magnes, L. Besides its application to the loadstone, this name was formerly given to several compounds used in medicine.—Arsenical magnet (MAGNES ARSENICALIS), a substance once used as a caustic, consisted of common antimony, sulphur, and arsenious acid, fused together until they formed a sort of glass. Magnes epilepsiæ was native cinnabar. MAHOG′ANY. This is the wood of Swietenia Mahogoni (Linn.), a native of the hotter parts of the new world. It is chiefly imported from Honduras and Cuba. The extract is astringent, and has been used in tanning, and as a substitute for cinchona bark. The wood is chiefly employed for furniture and ornamental purposes, and, occasionally, in ship-building. Imitations of mahogany are made by staining the surface of the inferior woods by one or other of the following methods: 1. Warm the wood by the fire, then wash it over with aquafortis, let it stand 24 hours to dry, and polish it with linseed oil reddened by digesting alkanet root in it; or, instead of the latter, give the wood a coat of varnish, or French polish which has been tinged of a mahogany colour with a little aloes and annotta. 2. Socotrine aloes, 1 oz.; dragon’s blood, 1⁄2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; dissolve, and apply 2 or 3 coats to the surface of the wood, previously well smoothed and polished; lastly, finish it off with wax or oil tinged with alkanet root. 3. Logwood, 2 oz.; madder, 8 oz.; fustic, 1 oz.; water, 1 gall.; boil 2 hours, and apply it several times to the wood boiling hot; when dry, slightly brush it over with a solution of pearlash, 1 oz.; in water, 1 quart; dry, and polish as before. 4. As the last, but using a decoction of logwood, 1 lb., in water, 5 pints. The tint may be brightened by adding a little vinegar or oxalic acid, and darkened by a few grains of copperas. Stains and spots may be taken out of mahogany furniture with a little aquafortis or oxalic acid and water, by rubbing the part with the liquid by means of a cork till the colour is restored; observing afterwards to well wash the wood with water, and to dry it and polish it as before. MAIZE. Syn. Indian corn. The seeds of Zea Mays (Linn.). Like the other corn plants, it belongs to the Grass family (Graminaceæ), and has albuminous grains sufficiently large and farinaceous to be ground into flour.
- 32. Maize is extremely nutritious, and although it is poorer in albumenoid matters than wheat, it is, of all the cereal grains, the richest in fatty oil, of which it contains about 9%. (Dumas and Payen.) It is remarkable for its fattening quality on animals, but is apt to excite slight diarrhœa in those unaccustomed to its use. Its meal is the ‘POLENTA’ of the shops. The peculiar starch prepared from it is known as ‘CORN FLOUR,’ In America the young ears are roasted and boiled for food. The centesimal composition of maize is as follows:—Flesh formers (albumenoid bodies), 9·9; heat and fat formers (starch, dextrin, and fat), 71·2, fibre, 4·0; ash, 1·4; water, 13·5. Letheby says of maize: “The grain is said to cause disease when eaten for a long time, and without other meal—the symptoms being a scaly eruption upon the hands, great prostration of the vital powers, and death after a year or so, with extreme emaciation. These effects have been frequently observed amongst the peasants of Italy, who use the meal as their chief food, but I am not aware of any such effects having been seen in Ireland, where it is often the only article of diet for months together.” Millions of bushels are grown every year in the United States of America, and large quantities are continually imported into England, where it is held in high esteem by cattle breeders, it being much cheaper than many of our home-grown productions. It is occasionally given to horses as a substitute for oats. MALAG′MA. In pharmacy, a poultice or emollient application. MA′LIC ACID. H3C4H3O5. Syn. Acidum malicum, L. This acid exists in the juice of many fruits and plants, either alone or associated with other acids, or with potassa or lime. In the juice of the garden rhubarb it exists in great abundance, being associated with acid oxalate of potassa. Prep. (Everitt.) The stalks of common garden rhubarb are peeled, and ground or grated to a pulp, which is subjected to pressure; the juice is heated to the boiling point, neutralised with carbonate of potassa, mixed with acetate of lime, and the insoluble oxalate of lime which falls is removed by filtration; to the clear and nearly colourless liquid, solution of acetate of lead is next added as long as a precipitate (‘malate of lead’) continues to form; this is collected on a filter, washed, diffused through water, and decomposed by sulphuric acid, avoiding excess, the last portion of lead being thrown down by a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen; the filtered liquid is, lastly, carefully evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, and left in a dry atmosphere until it becomes converted into a solid and somewhat crystalline mass of malic acid. If perfectly pure malic acid is required, the malate of lead must be crystallised before decomposing it with sulphuretted hydrogen. Prod. 20,000 gr. of the peeled stalks yield 12,500 gr. of juice, of which one imperial gallon contains 11,1391⁄4 gr. of dry malic acid. Obs. By a similar process malic acid may be prepared from the juice of thee berries of the mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia), just when they commence to ripen, or from the juice of apples, pears, &c. Prop., &c. Malic acid is slightly deliquescent, very soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, and has a pleasant acidulous taste. The aqueous infusion soon gets mouldy by keeping. When kept fused for some time at a low heat, it is converted into fumaric acid; and when quickly distilled, it yields maleic acid, while fumaric acid is left in the retort. With the bases malic acid forms salts called malates. Of these the acid malate of ammonia is in large, beautiful crystals; malate of lead is insoluble in cold water, but dissolves in warm dilute acid, from which it separates on cooling in brilliant silvery crystals; acid malate of lime also forms very beautiful crystals, freely soluble in water; neutral malate of lime is only sparingly soluble in water; the first is obtained by dissolving the latter in hot dilute nitric acid, and allowing the solution to cool very slowly. MALLEABIL′ITY. The peculiar property of metals which renders them capable of extension under the hammer. MALT. Syn. Bina, Byne, Brasium, Maltum, L. The name given to different kinds of grain, such as barley, bere or bigg, oats, rye, maize, &c., which have become sweet, from the conversion of a portion
- 33. of their starch into sugar, in consequence of incipient germination artificially produced. Barley is the grain usually employed for this purpose. Var. Independently of variations of quality, or of the grain from which it is formed, malt is distinguished into varieties depending on the heat of the kiln employed for its desiccation. When dried at a temperature ranging between 90° and 120° Fahr., it constitutes ‘PALE MALT,’ when all the moisture has exhaled, and the heat is raised to from 125° to 135°, ‘YELLOW,’ or ‘PALE AMBER MALT,’ is formed; when the heat ranges between 140° and 160°, the product receives the name of ‘AMBER MALT,’ at 160° to 180°, ‘AMBER-BROWN,’ or ‘PALE BROWN MALT,’ is obtained. Roasted, PATENT, or BLACK MALT, and CRYSTALLISED MALT, are prepared by a process similar to that of roasting coffee. The malt is placed in sheet-iron cylinders over a strong fire, and the cylinders made to revolve at the rate of about 20 revolutions per minute if roasted malt is required, or 120 for crystallised malt. In the former case the finished malt has a dark brown colour; in the latter, the interior of the grain becomes dark brown, whilst the husk assumes a pale amber hue. The temperature must never exceed 420°, or the malt will become entirely carbonised. Qual. Good malt has an agreeable smell and a sweet taste. It is friable, and when broken discloses a floury kernel. Its husk is thin, clean, and unshrivelled in appearance, and the acrospire is seen extending up the back of the grain, beneath the skin. The admixture of unmalted with malted grain may be discovered, and roughly estimated, by throwing a little into water, malt floats on water, but barley sinks in it. The only certain method, however, of determining the value of malt is to ascertain the amount of soluble matter which it contains, by direct experiment. This varies from 62 to 70%, and for good malt is never less than 66 to 67%. If we assume the quarter of malt at 324 lbs., and the average quantity of soluble matter at 66%, then the total weight of soluble matter will be fully 2133⁄4 lbs. per quarter; but as this, “in taking on the form of gum and sugar” during the process of mashing, “chemically combines with the elements of water, so the extract, if evaporated to dryness, would reach very nearly 231 lbs.; and this reduced to the basis of a barrel of 36 gallons, becomes in the language of the brewer, 87 lbs. per barrel, which, however, merely means that the wort from a quarter of malt, if evaporated down to the bulk of a barrel of 36 gallons, would weigh 87 lbs. more than a barrel of water.” (Ure.) Assay. 1. A small quantity of the sample being ground in a coffee or pepper mill, 100 gr. are accurately weighed, and dried by exposure for about 1 hour at the temperature of boiling water. The loss in weight, in grains, indicates the quantity of moisture per cent. This, in good malt, should not exceed 61⁄2 gr. 2. A second 100 gr. is taken and stirred up with about 1⁄2 pint of cold water; the mixture is then exposed to the heat of boiling water for about 40 minutes; after which it is thrown on a weighed filter, and the undissolved portion washed with a little hot water; the undissolved portion, with the filter, is then dried at 212° Fahr., and weighed. The loss in weight, less the percentage of moisture last found, taken in grains, gives the percentage of soluble matter. This should not be less than 66 gr. The same result will be arrived at by evaporating the filtered liquid and ‘washings’ to dryness, and weighing the residuum. 3. A third 100 gr. is taken and mashed with about 1⁄2 pint of water at 160° Fahr., for 2 or 3 hours; the liquid is then drained off, the residue gently squeezed, and the strained liquid evaporated to dryness, as before, and weighed. This gives the percentage of saccharine matter, and should not be less than about 71 gr., taking the above average of malt as the standard of calculation. Uses, &c. Malt is chiefly employed in the arts of brewing and distillation. Both roasted and crystallised malt are merely used to colour the worts produced from pale malt. 1 lb. of roasted malt, mashed with 79 lbs. of pale malt, imparts to the liquor the colour and flavour of ‘porter.’ The paler varieties of malt contain the largest quantity of saccharine matter. After the malt has been kiln-dried, the rootlets may be removed by means of a sieve. Before malt is mashed for beer it must be broken up, and the law requires that it be bruised or crushed by smooth metal rollers, and not ground by millstones. It has also been proposed to employ malt, instead of raw grain, for fattening domestic
- 34. animals, and as food for their young and those in a sickly state. Infusion of malt (sweet wort, malt tea) is laxative, and has been recommended as an antiscorbutic and tonic. It has been given with great advantage in scurvy; but for this purpose good, well-hopped, mild beer is equally serviceable and more agreeable. See Brewing, Distillation, Fermentation, &c. MALT LIQ′UORS. The qualities of ale, beer, and porter, as beverages, the detection of their adulteration, and the methods of preparing them, are described under their respective names and in the article upon ‘BREWING’; the present article will, therefore, be confined to a short notice of the cellar management, and the diseases of malt liquors generally. Age. The appearance and flavour to which this term is applied can, of course, be only given to the liquor by properly storing it for a sufficient time. Fraudulent brewers and publicans, however, frequently add a little oil of vitriol (diluted with water) to new beer, by which it assumes the character of an inferior liquor of the class 1 or 2 years old. Copperas, alum, sliced onions, Seville oranges, and cucumbers, are also frequently employed by brewers for the same purpose. Bottling. Clean, sweet, and dry bottles, and sound and good corks, should be had in readiness. The liquor to be bottled should be perfectly clear; and if it be not so, it must be submitted to the operation of ‘fining.’ When quite fine, and in good condition, the bung of the cask should be left out all night, and the next day the liquor should be put into bottles, which, after remaining 12 or 24 hours, covered with sheets of paper to keep out the flies and dust, must be securely corked down. Porter is generally wired over. The wire for this purpose should be ‘annealed,’ and not resilient. If the liquor is intended for exportation to a hot climate, the bottles should remain filled for 2 or 3 days, or more, before corking them. The stock of bottled liquor should be stored in a cool situation; and a small quantity, to meet present demands only, should be set on their sides in a warmer place to ripen. October beer should not be bottled before Midsummer, nor March beer till Christmas. Cloudiness. Add a handful of hops boiled in a gallon of the beer, and in a fortnight fine it down. Fining. See Clarification and Brewing. Flatness. When the liquor is new, or has still much undecomposed sugar left in it, a sufficient remedy is to remove it into a warmer situation for a few days. When this is not the case, 2 or 3 pounds of moist sugar (foots) may be ‘rummaged’ into each hogshead. In this way a second fermentation is set up, and in a few days the liquor becomes brisk, and carries a head. This is the plan commonly adopted by publicans. On the small scale the addition of a few grains of carbonate of soda, or of prepared chalk, to each glass, is commonly made for the same purpose; but in this case the liquor must be drunk within a few minutes, else it becomes again flat and insipid. This may be adopted for home-brewed beer which has become sour and vapid. Foxing or Bucking. The spontaneous souring of worts or beer during their fermentation or ripening, to which this name is applied, may generally be remedied by adding to the liquor some fresh hops (scalded), along with some black mustard seed (bruised). Some persons use a little made mustard, or a solution of alum or of catechu, and in a week or 10 days afterwards further add some treacle, or moist sugar. Frosted beer is recovered by change of situation; by the addition of some hops boiled in a little sweet wort; or by adding a little moist sugar or treacle to induce a fresh fermentation. Heading. This is added to thin and vapid beer to make it bear a frothy head. The most innocent, pleasant, and effective addition of this sort is a mixture of pure ammonio-citrate of iron and salt of tartar, about equal parts in the proportion of only a few grains to a quart. Improving. This is the trade synonym of ‘ADULTERATION’ and ‘DOCTORING,’ Nevertheless there are cases in which ‘improvement’ may be made without affecting the wholesome character of the liquor. Of this kind is the addition of hops, spices, &c., during the maturation of beer that exhibits a tendency to deteriorate. For this purpose some persons cut a half quartern loaf into slices, and after toasting them
- 35. very high, place them in a coarse linen bag along with 1⁄2 lb. of hops, and 2 oz. each of bruised ginger, cloves, and mustard seed, and suspend the bag by means of a string a few inches below the surface of the beer (a hogshead), which is then bunged close. The addition of a little ground capsicum in the same way is also a real improvement to beer, when judiciously made. Mustiness. To each hogshead, racked into clean casks, add 1 lb. of new hops boiled in a gallon of the liquor, along with 7 lbs. of newly-burnt charcoal (coarsely bruised, and the fine dust sifted off), and a 4-lb. loaf of bread cut into thin slices and toasted rather black; ‘rouse up’ well every day for a week, then stir in of moist sugar 3 or 4 lbs., and bung down for a fortnight. Recovering. This is said of unsaleable beer when rendered saleable, by giving it ‘head’ or removing its ‘tartness.’ Ripening. This term is applied to the regular maturation of beer. It is also used to express the means by which liquors already mature are rendered brisk, sparkling, or fit and agreeable for immediate use. In the language of the cellar, malt liquors are said to be ‘up’ when they are well charged with gaseous matter, and bear a frothy head. These qualities depend on the undecomposed sugar undergoing fermentation, which, when active, can only be of comparatively short duration, and should, therefore, be repressed rather than excited in beers not required for immediate consumption. When we desire to give ‘briskness’ to these liquors, whether in cask or bottle, it is only necessary to expose them for a few days to a slight elevation of temperature, by removing them, for instance, to a warmer apartment. This is the plan successfully adopted by bottlers. The addition of a small lump of white sugar to each bottle of ale or beer, or a teaspoonful of moist sugar to each bottle of porter, just before corking it, will render it fit for drinking in a few days in ordinary weather, and in 2 or 3 days in the heat of summer. A raisin or a lump of sugar candy is often added to each bottle with a like intention. The Parisians bottle their beer one day and sell it the next. For this purpose, in addition to the sugar as above, they add 2 or 3 drops of yeast. Such bottled liquor must, however, be drunk within a week, or else stored in a very cold place, as it will otherwise burst the bottles or blow out the corks. Ropiness. A little infusion of catechu or of oak bark, and some fresh hops, may be added to the beer, which in a fortnight should be rummaged well, and the next day ‘fined’ down. Sourness. Powdered chalk, carbonate of soda, salt of tartar, or pearlash, is commonly added by the publicans to the beer, until the acidity is nearly removed, when 4 or 5 lbs. of moist sugar or foots per hogshead are ‘rummaged’ in, together with sufficient water to disburse double the amount of the outlay and trouble. Such beer must be soon put on draught, as it is very apt to get flat by keeping. Oyster shells and egg shells are also frequently used by brewers for the same purpose. To remove the acidity of beer, on the small scale, a few grains of carbonate of soda per glass may be added just before drinking it. Storing. The situation of the beer-cellar should be such as to maintain its contents at a permanently uniform temperature, ranging between 44° and 50° Fahr., a condition which can only be ensured by choosing for its locality an underground apartment, or one in the centre of the basement portion of a large building. Vamping. Half fill casks with the old liquor, fill them up with some newly brewed, and bung close for 3 weeks or a month. MALTIN. A nitrogenous ferment obtained from malt, which it is believed by Dubrunfaut to be the active principle, and is more energetic than diastase. The above chemist states it may be precipitated from extract of malt, by the addition of two molecules of alcohol at 90 per cent. According to Dubrunfaut maltin exists in all cereal grains, and in the water of rivers and brooks; but not in the well water of Paris. MALTING. The method of converting barley, wheat, oats, or any other description of grain into malt. There are four successive stages in the process of malting, viz., steeping, couching, flooring, and kiln-drying.
- 36. 1. Steeping or moistening.—The grain is placed in a large wooden or stone cistern, and sufficient water run in to cover it. Here it remains for a period of from 40 to 60 hours, depending on the temperature of the weather, or until it becomes soft enough to be easily pierced with a needle, or crushed between the thumb and finger without yielding a milky juice. While in steep the grain swells, increasing nearly one fifth in bulk, and about 50 per cent. in weight. The water is then drained off, and the grain is ready for the next operation. 2. Couching or germinating.—From the cistern the swollen barley is thrown out into the couch frame to the depth of from 14 or 20 inches, where heat is generated and germination induced. Here it is allowed to remain for from 20 to 30 hours, according to the state of the weather, until the acrospire or pumule shoots forth. Were the grain to remain long in the couch, particularly in warm weather, it would be either unduly forced or turn sour. Whilst in couch it rises in temperature about 15 degrees, and gives off some of its extra moisture. This is called sweating, and as the rootlets now begin to shoot out, means must be taken to check the germination. 3. Flooring or regulating.—This consists in spreading the heated barley on the floor at different depths, according as it is required to increase or retard germination. During this stage of the operation the art of the maltster may be more properly said to commence, as now all his judgment is brought into requisition. The grain must be turned three or four times a day, and at each turning the layer is spread out more and more, until it is reduced to the depth of about three or four inches. The chief object to be attained by this operation is a regular germination of the grain. 4. Kiln-drying.—The sprouted barley is next spread in a thin layer on the malt kiln, and heat applied. The temperature to which the kiln is raised varies according to the purpose for which the malt is required, the difference between pale, amber, and brown malt depending solely on the degree of heat to which each has been subjected, and the manner in which the heat has been applied (see Malt). If the malt were not kiln-dried it would not keep, but would become mouldy. By the process of drying, the vitality of the seed is destroyed, and it may then be preserved without suffering further change. Product.—Good barley yields about 80% by weight and 109% by measure, of dried and sifted malt. Of the loss by weight 12% must be referred to water existing in the raw grain. MAN′′GANESE. Mn. Syn. Manganesium, L. A hard, brittle metal, discovered by Gahn in the black oxide of manganese of commerce. Prep. Reduce manganous carbonate to fine powder, make it into a paste with oil, adding about 1- 10th of its weight of calcined borax, place the mixture in a Hessian crucible lined with charcoal, lute on the cover, and expose it to the strongest heat of a smith’s forge for 2 hours; when cold, break the crucible and preserve the metallic button in naphtha. Obs. The product is probably a carbide of manganese, just as steel is a carbide of iron. Deville has lately prepared pure manganese by reducing the pure oxide by means of an insufficient quantity of sugar charcoal in a crucible made of caustic lime. Prop. As prepared by Deville, metallic manganese has a reddish lustre, like bismuth; it is very hard and brittle; when powdered, it decomposes water, even at the lowest temperature. Dilute sulphuric acid dissolves it with great energy, evolving hydrogen. Sp. gr. 7·13. In an oxidised state manganese is abundant in the mineral kingdom, and traces of it have been found in the ashes of plants and in mineral waters. The salts of manganese may be easily prepared in a state of purity by dissolving the precipitated carbonate in the acids. Most of them are soluble, and several are crystallisable. Tests. Manganous salts are distinguished as follows:—The hydrates of potassium and sodium give white precipitates insoluble in excess, and rapidly turning brown. The presence of ammonium salts interferes with these tests. Ammonia gives similar results.
- 37. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a white precipitate. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives no precipitate in acid solutions, and precipitates neutral solutions only imperfectly; but in alkaline solutions it gives a bright, flesh-coloured, insoluble precipitate, which becomes dark brown on exposure to the air. Sulphide of ammonium, in neutral solutions, also yields a similar precipitate, which is very characteristic. A compound of manganese fused with borax in the outer flame of the blowpipe gives a bead, which appears of a violet-red colour whilst hot, and upon cooling acquires an amethystine tint; this colour is lost by fusion in the inner flame. Heated upon platinum foil with a little carbonate of sodium, in the outer flame, it yields a green mass whilst hot, which becomes bluish green when cold. Manganous Ace′tate. Mn(C2H3O2)2. Syn. Acetate of protoxide of manganese; Manganii acetas, L. Prep. 1. By neutralising concentrated acetic acid with manganous carbonate, and evaporating the solution so that crystals may form. Prop., &c. The crystals, when pure, are of a pale red colour; permanent in the air; soluble in alcohol, and 31⁄2 parts of water, and possess an astringent and metallic taste.—Dose, 5 to 10 gr., as an alterative, hæmatinic, &c. Manganous Car′bonate. MnCO3. Syn. Carbonate of protoxide of manganese; Manganesii carbonas, L. Prep. Reduce the black oxide of manganese of commerce to fine powder, and after washing it in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, dissolve it in strong hydrochloric acid, and evaporate the resulting solution to dryness; dissolve the residue in water, and add to the solution sufficient sodium carbonate to precipitate all the iron present; digest the mixed precipitate in the remainder of the liquid, filter, add ammonium sulphide until it begins to produce a flesh-coloured precipitate, then filter, and add sodium carbonate as long as a precipitate falls; lastly, well wash the newly-formed carbonate in water, and dry it by a gentle heat. 2. By directly precipitating a solution of the chloride with sodium carbonate, and washing and drying the powder as before. Prop., &c. A pale buff or cream-coloured powder; insoluble in water; freely soluble in acids; exposed to a strong heat, it loses its carbonic acid, absorbs oxygen, and is converted into the red oxide. It is chiefly employed in the preparation of the other salts of manganese. Manganous Chlo′′ride. MnCl2. Syn. Protochloride of manganese, Muriate of m.; Manganesii chloridum, L. Prep. 1. By saturating hydrochloric acid with manganous carbonate; the solution is greatly concentrated by evaporation, when crystals may be obtained, or it is at once evaporated to dryness; in either case the product must be placed in warm, dry, stoppered bottles, and preserved from the air. 2. From the dark brown residual liquid of the process of obtaining chlorine from binoxide of manganese and hydrochloric acid; this liquid is evaporated to dryness, and then slowly heated to dull redness in an earthen vessel, with constant stirring, and kept at that temperature for a short time; the greyish-looking powder thus obtained is treated with water, and the solution separated from the ferric oxide and other insoluble matter by filtration; if any iron still remains, a little manganous carbonate is added, and the whole boiled for a few minutes; the filtered solution is then treated as before. This is the least expensive and most convenient source of this salt. Prop., &c. Rose-coloured tabular crystals; inodorous; very soluble both in water and alcohol; very deliquescent; when gradually heated to fusion the whole of the water is expelled, and at a red heat it slowly suffers decomposition. Astringent, tonic, hæmatinic, and alterative.—Dose, 3 to 10 gr.; in scorbutic, syphilitic, and certain chronic cutaneous affections; anæmia, chlorosis, &c. Manganous Hydrate. Mn(HO)2. Syn. Hydrated protoxide of manganese. Prep. Formed by adding potassium hydrate to manganous sulphate, and filtering and drying the precipitate in vacuo. White powder rapidly absorbing oxygen and burning first green and then brown from formation of higher oxides.
- 38. Manganous I′odide. MnI2. Syn. Manganesii iodidum, L. Prep. By dissolving the carbonate in hydriodic acid and evaporating the filtered liquid in vacuo or out of contact with air.—Dose, 1 to 3 gr.; in anæmia, chlorosis, &c., occurring in scrofulous subjects. Manganous Oxide. MnO. Syn. Protoxide of Manganese. Prep. By passing a current of hydrogen over manganous carbonate heated to whiteness in a porcelain tube. Olive-green powder rapidly oxidising on exposure to air, and soluble in acids forming manganous salts. There are four other oxides and two oxyhydrates that may be treated of here, but of which only the peroxide and the manganates and permanganates are of practical importance. Manganous-manganic Oxide. Mn3O4, or MnO.Mn2O3. Syn. Red oxide of manganese, Protosesquioxide of manganese. Found native as “Hansmanite”. It is produced by igniting manganous carbonate, or manganic oxide, or manganic peroxide. Reddish-brown, coloured crystals or powder, and communicates an amethyst colour to glass when fused with it. Manganous-manganic Peroxide. Mn4O7 or MnO3.Mn2O3. Syn. Intermediate, oxide of manganese. Found native as “Varvicile,” as a black hard crystalline mass. Decomposed when heated into a lower oxide and oxygen. Manganous Phosphate. MnH.PO4 + 6Aq. Syn. Phosphate of protoxide of manganese; Manganesii phosphas, L. Prep. By precipitating a solution of manganous sulphate with a solution of sodium phosphate. It must be preserved from the air.—Dose, 3 to 12 gr.; in anæmia, rickets, &c. Manganous Sul′phate. MnSO4. Syn. Sulphate of protoxide of manganese; Manganesii sulphas, L. Prep. 1. By dissolving manganous carbonate in dilute sulphuric acid, and evaporating the filtered solution so that crystals may form, or at once gently evaporating it to dryness. Pure. 2. (Commercial.) By igniting manganic peroxide (pyrolusite) mixed with about 1-10th of its weight of powdered coal in an iron crucible or gas-retort, and digesting the residuum of the calcination in sulphuric acid, with the addition after a time of a little hydrochloric acid; the solution of manganous sulphate thus obtained, after defecation, is evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness as before; the mass, after ignition, is crushed small, and treated with water; the solution is nearly pure, the whole of the iron having been reduced into the state of insoluble peroxide. Used by the calico printers. Cloth steeped in the solution, and afterwards passed through a solution of chloride of lime, is dyed of a permanent brown. Prop., &c. Pale rose-coloured crystals of the formulæ MnSO4, 7Aq.; MnSO4, 5Aq.; or MnSO4, 4Aq.; according to the method of crystallising, furnishing a solution of a rich amethystine colour. With sulphate of potassa it forms a double salt (‘manganese alum’).—Dose. As an alterative and tonic, 5 to 10 gr.; as a cholagogue cathartic, 1 to 2 dr., dissolved in water, either alone or combined with infusion of senna. According to Ure, its action is prompt and soon over; 1 dr. of it occasions, after the lapse of an hour or so, one or more liquid bilious stools. In large doses it occasions vomiting, and in excessive doses it destroys life by its caustic action on the stomach. (Dr G. C. Mitscherlich.) It has been administered with manifest advantage in torpor of the liver, gout, jaundice, syphilis, and certain skin diseases; and, combined with iron, in anæmia, chlorosis, rickets, &c. Manganous Tar′trate. MnC4H4O6. Syn. Manganesii tartras, L. Prep. By saturating a solution of tartaric acid with most manganous carbonate. Alterative and tonic.—Dose, 4 to 12 gr. Manganate of Barium. BaMnO4. Green insoluble powder, obtained by fusing barium hydrate, potassium chlorate, and manganic peroxide together, and washing the product. Manganate of Potassium. K2MnO4. Finely powdered manganic peroxide, potassium chlorate, and potassium hydrate, made into a thick paste with water, and heated to dull redness. The fused product is treated with a small quantity of water, and crystallised by evaporation in vacuo.
- 39. Dark green, almost black crystals, readily soluble in water, but decomposed by excess, or by acids into manganic peroxide, and potassium permanganate. Manganate of Sodium. Na2MnO4. Prepared on the large scale by heating a mixture of manganic peroxide and sodium hydrate to redness in a current of air. Used in strong solution as a disinfectant under the name of “Condy’s green fluid.” Manganic Acid. H2MnO4. This acid has not yet been obtained free, but some of its salts are extensively employed as disinfectants, as “green Condy’s fluid.” The chief compounds are the following: — Manganic Hydrate. Mn2(HO)6. Syn. Hydrated sesquioxide of manganese. Found native as “manganite,” in reddish-brown crystals. Prep. By passing a current of air through recently precipitated and moist manganous hydrate. Soft dark brown powder converted into the oxide by heat. Manganic Oxide. Mn2O3. Syn. Sesquioxide of manganese. Found native as “Braumite,” and readily formed by exposing manganous hydrate to the action of air, and drying, or by gently igniting the peroxide brown or black powder decomposed by heat. Manganic Peroxide. MnO2. Syn. Permanganic oxide, Binoxide of manganese, Peroxide of manganese, Black oxide of manganese, Oxide of manganese, Manganesii oxidum nigrum (B. P.), Manganesii binoxydum (Ph. L.), Manganese oxydum (Ph. E.). It is the only oxide of manganese that is directly employed in the arts. It is a very plentiful mineral production, and is found in great abundance in some parts of the West of England. The manganese of the shop is prepared by washing, to remove the earthy matter, and grinding in mills. The blackest samples are esteemed the best. It is chiefly used to supply oxygen gas, and in the manufacture of glass and chlorine; in dyeing and to form the salts of manganese. It has been occasionally employed in medicine, chiefly externally in itch and porrigo, made into an ointment with lard. It has been highly recommended by Dr Erigeler in scrofula. Others have employed it as an alterative and tonic with variable success. When slowly introduced into the system during a lengthened period, it is said to produce paralysis of the motor nerves. (Dr Coupar.)—Dose, 3 to 12 gr., or more, thrice daily, made into pills. Pur. Native binoxide of manganese (pyrolusite) is usually contaminated with variable proportions of argillaceous matter, calcium carbonate, ferric oxide, silica, and barium sulphate, all of which lower its value as a source of oxygen, and for the preparation of chlorine. The richness of this ore can, therefore, be only determined by an assay for its principal ingredient. Assay. There are several methods adopted for this purpose, among which the following recommend themselves as being the most accurate and convenient. 1. A portion of the mineral being reduced to very fine powder, 50 gr. of it are put into the little apparatus employed for the analysis of carbonates described at page 406, together with about 1⁄2 fl. oz. of cold water, and 100 gr. of strong hydrochloric acid, the latter contained in the little tube (b); 50 gr. of crystallised oxalic acid are then added, the cork carrying the chloride of calcium tube fitted in, and the whole quickly and accurately weighed or counterpoised; the apparatus is next inclined so that the acid contained in the small tube may be mixed with the other contents of the flask, and the reaction of the ingredients is promoted by the application of a gentle heat; the disengaged chlorine resulting from the mutual decomposition of the hydrochloric acid and the manganic peroxide converts the oxalic acid into carbonic acid gas, which is dried in its passage through the chloride of calcium tube before it escapes into the air. As soon as the reaction is complete, and the residual gas has been driven off by a momentary ebullition, the apparatus is allowed to cool, when it is again carefully and accurately weighed. The loss of weight in grains, if doubled, at once indicates the percentage richness of the mineral examined in manganic peroxide; or, more correctly, every grain of carbonic anhydride evolved represents 1·982 gr. of the peroxide.
- 40. 2. (Fresenius and Will.) The apparatus employed is the ‘alkalimeter’ figured at page 30. The operation is similar to that adopted for the assay of alkalies, and is a modification of the oxalic acid and sulphuric acid test for manganese, originally devised by M. Berthier. The standard weight of manganic peroxide recommended to be taken by Fresenius and Will is 2·91 grammes, along with 6·5 to 7 grammes of neutral potassium oxalate. The process, with quantities altered to adapt it for employment in the laboratories of these countries, is as follows:—Manganic peroxide (in very fine powder), 50 gr.; neutral potassium oxalate (in powder), 120 gr.; these are put into the flask A (see engr., p. 31), along with sufficient water to about 1-4th fill it; the flask A and B (the latter containing the sulphuric acid) are then corked air-tight, and thus connected in one apparatus, the whole is accurately weighed. The opening of the tube b being closed by a small lump of wax, a little sulphuric acid is sucked over from the flask B into the flask A; the disengagement of oxygen from the manganese immediately commences and this reacting upon the oxalic acid present, converts it into carbonic anhydride gas, which passing through the concentrated sulphuric acid in the flask B, which robs it of moisture, finally escapes from the apparatus through the tube d. As soon as the disengagement of carbonic acid ceases, the operator sucks over a fresh portion of sulphuric acid, and this is repeated at short intervals, until bubbles of gas are no longer disengaged. The little wax stopper is now removed, and suction is applied at h until all the carbonic acid in the apparatus is replaced by common air. When the whole has become cold it is again weighed. The loss of weight, doubled, indicates the amount of pure manganic peroxide, in the sample, as before. 3. (Otto.) 50 gr. of the sample reduced to very fine powder are mixed in a glass flask, with hydrochloric acid 11⁄2 fl. oz., diluted with 1⁄2 oz. of cold water, and portions of ferrous sulphate, from a weighed sample, immediately added, at first in excess, but afterwards in smaller doses, until the liquid ceases to give a blue precipitate with red prussiate of potash, or to evolve the odour of chlorine; heat being employed towards the end of the process. The quantity of ferrous sulphate consumed is now ascertained by again weighing the sample. If the peroxide examined was pure, the loss of weight will be 317 gr.; but if otherwise, the percentage of the pure peroxide may be obtained by the rule of three. Thus: suppose only 298 gr. of the sulphate were consumed, then 317 : 100 :: 298 : 94, and the richness of the sample would be 94%. The percentage value of the oxide for evolving chlorine may be obtained by multiplying the weight of the consumed ferrous sulphate by ·2588, which, in the above case, would give 76% of chlorine. For this purpose, as well as for chlorometry, the ferrous sulphate is best prepared by precipitating it from its aqueous solution with alcohol, and drying it out of contact with air until it loses its alcoholic odour. Obs. Before applying the above processes it is absolutely necessary that we ascertain whether the peroxide examined contains any carbonates, as the presence of these would vitiate the results. This is readily determined by treating it with a little dilute nitric acid:—if effervescence ensues, one or more carbonates are present, and the sample, after being weighed, must be digested for some time in dilute nitric acid in excess, and then carefully collected on a filter, washed, and dried. It may then be assayed as before. The loss of weight indicates the quantity of carbonates present, with sufficient accuracy for technical purposes. The determination of this point is the more important, as these contaminations not merely lessen the richness of the mineral in pure manganic peroxide, but also cause a considerable waste of acid when it is employed in the manufacture of chlorine. Permanganic Acid. HMnO4. Obtained by distilling cautiously potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid. Dark violet-black liquid, green by reflected light, and rapidly absorbing water forming a violet solution. Oxidises organic matter with explosive violence. Permanganate of Barium. Ba(MnO)45. Black soluble prisms, formed by decomposing silver permanganate by means of barium chloride, and cautiously evaporating. Permanganate of Potassium. KMnO4. Prep. Potassium chlorate, or nitrate, and potassium hydrate are made into a paste with water, and manganic peroxide added; the mass is dried and heated
- 41. to redness. The residue is boiled with water, filtered through asbestos, and evaporated down and recrystallised. Dark purple, red, almost black anhydrous long prisms, readily soluble in 16 pints of water. Decomposed in presence of acids by most organic matter. Permanganate of Silver. AgMnO4. Prep. Precipitate a strong solution of silver nitrate by means of a concentrated solution of potassium permanganate. Small black prisms, soluble in 100 parts of water, with a purple colour. Permanganate of Sodium. NaMnO4. Obtained as a dark purple liquid by passing a current of carbonic anhydride through sodium manganate. Condy’s red fluid is chiefly a sodium permanganate dissolved in water. MANGE. An eruptive disease, corresponding to the itch in man, resulting from the burrowing into the skin of minute animalcules (mites or acari), and common to several domestic animals, more especially the dog and horse. Like the itch, it is contagious. The causes are confinement, dirt, and bad living. The treatment should consist in the immediate removal of the cause, the frequent use of soft soap and water, followed by frictions with sulphur ointment, solution of chloride of lime or sporokton, the administration of purgatives, and a change to a restorative diet. Dun states that in India a very efficient remedy for mange is employed by the native farriers, which consists of castor oil seeds well bruised, steeped for twelve hours in sour milk, and rubbed into the skin, previously thoroughly cleansed with soap and water. “The itchiness disappears almost immediately and the acari are speedily destroyed.” A dressing consisting of 1 oz. of chloride of zinc (Burnett’s disinfectant fluid) and 1 quart of water may also be applied with advantage. MAN′′GEL WUR′ZEL. Syn. Mangold-wurzel, Hybrid beet, Root of scarcity. The Beta vulgaris, var. campestris, a variety of the common beet. The root abounds in sugar, and has been used in Germany as a substitute for bread in times of scarcity. In these countries it is chiefly cultivated as food for cattle. The young leaves are eaten as spinach. The percentage composition of mangold wurzel is as follows:— Flesh-formers (albumenoid bodies), 1·54; heat and fat-formers (sugar, &c.) 8·60; indigestible fibre, 1·12; ash, 0·96; 87·78. MAN′HEIM GOLD. A gold-coloured brass. See Gold (Dutch). MAN′NA Syn. Manna (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. A concrete exudation from the stem of Fraxinus ornus and F. rotundifolia, obtained by incision. (B. P.) “The juice flowing from the incised bark” of “Fraxinus rotundifolia and F. ornus, hardened by the air.” (Ph. L.) The finest variety of this drug is known as flake manna, and occurs in pieces varying from 1 to 6 inches long, 1 or 2 inches wide, and 1⁄2 to 1 inch thick. It has a yellowish-white or cream colour; an odour somewhat resembling honey, but less pleasant, a sweet, mawkish taste; and is light, porous, and friable. It is laxative in doses of 1 to 2 oz. Manna Factitious, made of a mixture of sugar, starch, and honey, with a very small quantity of scammony to give it odour and flavour, and to render it purgative, has been lately very extensively offered in trade, and met with a ready sale. MAN′NACROUP. A granular preparation of wheat deprived of bran, used as an article of food for children and invalids. (Brande.) MAN′NITE. C6H14O6. Syn. Manna sugar, Mushroom s.; Mannita, L. A sweet, crystallisable substance, found in manna and in several other vegetable productions. It has been formed artificially by the action of sodium-amalgam upon an alkaline solution of cane sugar. Prep. 1. Digest manna in boiling rectified spirit, and filter or decant the solution whilst hot; the mannite crystallises as the liquid cools in tufts of slender, colourless needles. 2. (Ruspini.) Manna, 6 lbs.; cold water (in which the white of an egg has been beaten), 3 lbs.; mix, boil for a few minutes, and strain the syrup through linen whilst hot; the strained liquid will form a semi-
- 42. crystalline mass on cooling; submit this to strong pressure in a cloth, mix the cake with its own weight of cold water, and again press it; dissolve the cake thus obtained in boiling water, add a little animal charcoal, and filter the mixture into a porcelain dish set over the fire; lastly, evaporate the filtrate to a pellicle, and set the syrup aside to crystallise. Large quadrangular prisms; perfectly white and transparent. Prop., &c. Mannite has a powerfully sweet and agreeable taste; dissolves in 5 parts of cold water and about half that quantity of boiling water; freely soluble in hot, and slightly so in cold alcohol; fuses by heat without loss of weight; with sulphuric acid it combines to form a new acid compound. It is distinguished from the true sugars by its aqueous solution not being susceptible of the vinous fermentation, and not possessing the property of rotary polarisation. When pure, it is perfectly destitute of purgative properties. It is now extensively imported from Italy, and is chiefly used to cover the taste of nauseous medicines, and as a sweetmeat. MANURES′. Substances added to soils to increase their fertility. The food of vegetables, as far as their organic structure is concerned, consists entirely of inorganic compounds; and no organised body can serve for the nutrition of vegetables until it has been, by the process of decay, resolved into certain inorganic substances. These are carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, which are well known to be the final products of putrefaction. But even when these are applied to vegetables, their growth will not proceed unless certain mineral substances are likewise furnished in small quantities, either by the soil or the water used to moisten it. Almost every plant, when burned, leaves ashes, which commonly contain silica, potassa, and phosphate of lime; often, also, magnesia, soda, sulphates, and oxide of iron. These mineral bodies appear to be essential to the existence of the vegetable tissues; so that plants will not grow in soils destitute of them, however abundantly supplied with carbonic acid, ammonia, and water. The carbon of plants is wholly derived from carbonic acid, which is either absorbed from the atmosphere, and from rain water, by the leaves, or from the moisture and air in the soil, by the roots. Its carbon is retained and assimilated with the body of the plant, while its oxygen is given out in the gaseous form; this decomposition being always effected under the influence of light at ordinary temperatures. The hydrogen and oxygen of vegetables, which, when combined with carbon, constitute the ligneous, starchy, gummy, saccharine, oily, and resinous matters of plants, are derived from water chiefly absorbed by the roots from the soil. The nitrogen of vegetables is derived chiefly, if not exclusively, from ammonia, which is supplied to them in rain, and in manures, and which remain in the soil till absorbed by the roots. According to the celebrated ‘mineral theory’ of agriculture advanced by Liebig a soil is fertile or barren for any given plant according as it contains those mineral substances that enter into its composition. Thus, “the ashes of wheat-straw contain much silica and potassa, whilst the ashes of the seeds contain phosphate of magnesia. Hence, if a soil is deficient in any one of these, it will not yield wheat. On the other hand, a good crop of wheat will exhaust the soil of these substances, and it will not yield a second crop till they have been restored, either by manure or by the gradual action of the weather in disintegrating the subsoil. Hence the benefit derived from fallows and from the rotation of crops. “When, by an extraordinary supply of any one mineral ingredient, or of ammonia, a large crop has been obtained, it is not to be expected that a repetition of the same individual manure next year will produce the same effect. It must be remembered that the unusual crop has exhausted the soil probably of all the other mineral ingredients, and that they also must be restored before a second crop can be obtained. “The salt most essential to the growth of the potato is the double phosphate of ammonia and magnesia; that chiefly required for hay is phosphate of lime; while for almost all plants potassa and ammonia are highly beneficial.” From these principles we “may deduce a few valuable conclusions in regard to the chemistry of agriculture. First, by examining the ashes of a thriving plant, we discover the mineral ingredients which must exist in a soil to render it fertile for that plant. Secondly, by examining a soil, we can say at once
- 43. whether it is fertile in regard to any plants the ashes of which have been examined. Thirdly, when we know the defects of a soil, the deficient matters may be easily obtained and added to it, unmixed with such as are not required. Fourthly, the straw, leaves, &c., of any plant, are the best manure for that plant, since every vegetable extracts from the soil such matters alone as are essential to it. This important principle has been amply verified by the success attending the use of wheat-straw, or its ashes, as manure for wheat, and of the chippings of the vines as a manure for the vineyard. When these are used (in the proper quantity) no other manure is required. Fifthly, in the rotation of crops, those should be made to follow which require different materials; or a crop which extracts little or no mineral matter, such as peas, should come after one which exhausts the soil of its phosphates and potassa.” (Liebig.) The experiments of Messrs Lawes and Gilbert have forced upon them opinions differing from those of Baron Liebig on some important points in relation to his ‘mineral theory,’ which endeavours to prove that “the crops on a field diminish or increase in exact proportion to the diminution or increase of the mineral substances conveyed to it in manure.” The results obtained by the English investigators appear to prove that it is impossible to get good crops by using mineral manures alone, and that nitrogenous manures (farm-yard manure, guano, ammoniacal salts, &c.) are fertilising agents of the highest order. Of the chemical manures now so much used bone-dust is, perhaps, the most important, as it supplies the phosphates which have been extracted by successive crops of grass and corn, the whole of the bones of the cattle fed on these crops having been derived from the soil; its gelatin also yields ammonia by putrefaction. Guano acts as a source of ammonia, containing much oxalate and urate of ammonia, with some phosphates. Nightsoil and urine, especially the latter, are most valuable for the ammonia they yield, as well as for the phosphates and potassa; but are very much neglected in this country, although their importance is fully appreciated in Belgium, France, and China. Nitrate of soda is valued as a source of nitrogen. All organic substances may be employed as manures; preference being, however, given to those abounding in nitrogen, and which readily decay when mixed with the soil. The analysis of manures, soils, and the ashes of plants, for the purpose of ascertaining their composition and comparative value, is not easily performed by the inexperienced; but a rough approximation to their contents, sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, may be generally made by any intelligent person with proper care and attention. See Agriculture, Bone-dust, Guano, &c. Manures, Artificial. Various formulæ belonging to this head will be found dispersed, under their respective names, throughout this work. The following are additional ones:— 1. (Anderson.) Sulphate of ammonia, common salt, and oil of vitriol, of each 10 parts; chloride of potassium, 15 parts; gypsum and sulphate of potassa, of each 17 parts; saltpetre, 20 parts; crude Epsom salts, 25 parts; sulphate of soda, 33 parts. For clover. 2. (Huxtable.) Crude potash, 28 lbs.; common salt, 1 cwt.; bone-dust and gypsum, of each 2 cwt.; wood-ashes, 15 bushels. For either corn, turnips, or grass. 3. (Johnstone.) Sulphate of soda (dry), 11 lbs.; wood-ashes, 28 lbs.; common salt, 3⁄4 cwt.; crude sulphate of ammonia, 1 cwt.; bone-dust, 7 bushels. As a substitute for guano. 4. (Lawes’ ‘Superphosphate.’) See Coprolite. 5. (Fertilising powder.) A mixture of very fine bone-dust, 18 parts; calcined gypsum, and sulphate of ammonia, of each 1 part. The seed is ordered to be steeped in the ‘drainings’ from a dunghill, and after being drained, but whilst still wet, to be sprinkled with the powder, and then dried. See Flowers, Lime (Superphosphate), &c. MANUSCRIPTS, Faded, to Restore. One of the methods in use for the restoration of old or faded writing is to expose it to the vapours of hydrosulphate of ammonia (hydrosulphide of ammonium) until the ink becomes darkened by the formation of sulphide of iron. Another consists in carefully
- 44. washing, or sponging, the faded manuscript over with a weak solution of the ammonic sulphide, and as soon as the characters become legible, soaking it in water so as to remove the remaining sulphide, and then drying it between folds of blotting paper. A third plan, and one attended with less risk to the paper, is to brush over the manuscript with a moderately strong aqueous solution of gallo-tannic acid, to wash with water, and afterwards to dry it at a temperature of about 150° Fahr. The solution of gallo-tannic acid may be obtained by making a strong infusion of bruised nutgalls in boiling water, and when cold, straining it. Some old and mediæval manuscripts are written in inks made of carbon. To such the above treatment is inapplicable; being suited only to those traced in ordinary writing ink. For parchments the latter method is preferable. MAPS. These, as well as architect’s and engineer’s designs, plans, sections, drawings, &c., may be tinted with any of the simple liquid colours mentioned under ‘VELVET COLOURS,’ preference being given to the most transparent ones, which will not obscure the lines beneath them. To prevent the colours from sinking and spreading, which they usually do on common paper, the latter should be wetted 2 or 3 times with a sponge dipped in alum water (3 or 4 oz. to the pint), or with a solution of white size, observing to dry it carefully after each coat. This tends to give lustre and beauty to the colours. The colours for this purpose should also be thickened with a little gum water. Before varnishing maps after colouring them, 2 or 3 coats of clean size should be applied with a soft brush—the first one to the back. MARASCHI′NO (-kēno). Syn. Marasquin, Fr. A delicate liqueur spirit distilled from a peculiar cherry growing in Dalmatia, and afterwards sweetened with sugar. The best is from Zara, and is obtained from the marasca cherry only. An inferior quality is distilled from a mixture of cherries and the juice of liquorice root. MAR′BLE. Syn. Limestone, Hard carbonate of Lime; Marmor, Calcis carbonas durus, M. album (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Marbles are merely purer and more compact varieties of limestone, which admit of being sawn into slabs, and are susceptible of a fine polish. White marble is employed for the preparation of carbonic acid and some of the salts of lime. It contains about 65% of lime. Sp. gr. 2·70 to 2·85. The tests of its purity are the same as those already noticed under Chalk. Marble is best cleaned with a little soap-and-water, to which some ox-gall may be added. Acids should be avoided. Oil and grease may be generally removed by spreading a paste made of soft soap, caustic potash lye, and fullers earth over the part, and allowing it to remain there for a few days; after which it must be washed off with clean water. Or, equal parts of American potash (crude carbonate of potash) and whiting are made into a moderately stiff paste with a sufficiency of boiling water, and applied to the marble with a brush. At the end of two or three days the paste is removed and the marble washed with soap-and-water. Any defect of polish may be brought up with tripoli, followed by putty powder, both being used along with water. Marble is mended with one or other of the compounds noticed under Cements. Marble may be stained or dyed of various colours by applying coloured solutions or tincture to the stone, made sufficiently hot to make the liquid just simmer on the surface. The following are the substances usually employed for this purpose:— Blue. Tincture or solution of litmus, or an alkaline solution of indigo. Brown. Tincture of logwood. Crimson. A solution of alkanet root in oil of turpentine. Flesh colour. Wax tinged with alkanet root, and applied to the marble hot enough to melt it freely. Gold colour. A mixture of equal parts of white vitriol, sal ammoniac, and verdigris, each in fine powder, and carefully applied.
- 45. Green. An alkaline solution or tincture of sap green, or wax strongly coloured with verdigris; or the stone is first stained blue, and then the materials for yellow stain are applied. Red. Tincture of dragon’s blood, alkanet root, or cochineal. Yellow. Tincture of gamboge, turmeric, or saffron; or wax coloured with annotta. Success in the application of these colours requires considerable experience. By their skilful use, however, a very pleasing effect, both of colour and grain, may be produced. MARBLING (of Books, &c.). The edges and covers of books are ‘marbled’ by laying the colour on them with a brush, or by means of a wooden trough containing mucilage, as follows:—Provide a wooden trough, 2 inches deep, 6 inches wide, and the length of a super-royal sheet; boil in a brass or copper pan any quantity of linseed and water until a thick mucilage is formed; strain this into the trough, and let it cool; then grind on a marble slab any of the following colours in table beer. For—blue, Prussian blue or indigo;—red, rose-pink, vermilion, or drop lake;—yellow, king’s yellow, yellow ochre, &c.;—white, flake white;—black, ivory black, or burnt lampblack;—brown umber, burnt u., terra di sienna, burnt s.; black mixed with yellow or red also makes brown;—green, blue and yellow mixed;— purple, red and blue mixed. For each colour provide two cups—one for the ground colours, the other to mix them with the ox-gall, which must be used to thin them at discretion. If too much gall is used the colours spread; when they keep their place on the surface of the trough, on being moved with a quill, they are fit for use. All things being in readiness, the prepared colours are successively sprinkled on the surface of the mucilage in the trough with a brush, and are waved or drawn about with a quill or a stick according to taste. When the design is thus formed, the book, tied tightly between cutting boards of the same size, is lightly pressed with its edge on the surface of the liquid pattern, and then withdrawn and dried. The covers may be marbled in the same way, only the liquid colours must be allowed to run over them. The film of colour in the trough may be as thin as possible; and if any remains after the marbling, it may be taken off by applying paper to it before you prepare for marbling again. This process has been called French marbling. To diversify the effect, a little sweet oil is often mixed with the colours before sprinkling them on, by which means a light halo or circle appears round each spot. In like manner spirit of turpentine, sprinkled on the surface of the trough, produces white spots. By staining the covers with any of the liquid dyes, and then dropping on them, or running over them, drops of the ordinary liquid mordants, a very pleasing effect may be produced. Vinegar black, or a solution of green copperas, thus applied to common leather, produces black spots or streaks, and gives a similar effect with most of the light dyes. A solution of alum or of tin in like manner produces bright spots or streaks, and soda or potash water dark ones. This style has been called Egyptian marble.—Soap marbling is done by throwing on the colours, ground with a little white soap to a proper consistence, by means of a brush. It is much used for book- edges, stationery, sheets of paper, ladies’ fancy work, &c.—Thread marble is given by first covering the edge uniformly of one colour, then laying pieces of thick thread irregularly on different parts of it, and giving it a fine dark sprinkle. When well managed the effect is very pleasing.—Rice marble is given in a similar way to the last by using rice.—Tree marble is done on leather book-covers, &c., by bending the board a little in the centre, and running the marbling liquid over it in the form of vegetation. The knots are given by rubbing the end of a candle on those parts of the cover.—Wax marble is given in a similar way to thread marble, but using melted wax, which is removed after the book is sprinkled and dried; or a sponge charged with blue, green, or red may be passed over. This, also, is much used for stationery work, especially for folios and quartos. The ‘vinegar black’ of the bookbinders is merely a solution of acetate of iron, made by steeping a few rusty nails or some iron filings in vinegar. All the ordinary liquid colours that do not contain strong acids or alkalies may be used, either alone or thickened with a little gum, for marbling or sprinkling books. Sprinkling is performed by simply dipping a stiff-haired painter’s brush into the colour, and suddenly striking it against a small stick held in the left hand over the work. By this means the colour is evenly scattered without producing ‘blurs’ or ‘blots.’
- 46. Paper, PASTEBOARD, &c., in sheets, are marbled and sprinkled in a similar manner to that above described, but in this case the gum trough must, of course, be longer. MARGAR′IC ACID. This term was formerly applied to a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids, produced by decomposing the alkaline soaps of solid fats with an acid, but it is now given to a fatty acid which can only be obtained artificially. MAR′GARIN. Syn. Margarate of glyceryl. A constituent formerly supposed to exist in solid fats, but now regarded as a mixture of stearin and palmitin. MARINE′ ACID. See Hydrochloric acid. MARL. A natural mixture of clay and chalk, with sand. It is characterised by effervescing with acids. According to the predominance of one or other of its component parts, it is called argillaceous, calcareous, or sandy marl. It is very generally employed as a manure for sandy soils, more particularly in Norfolk. See Soils. MAR′MALADE. Originally a conserve made of quinces and sugar; now commonly applied to the conserves of other fruit, more especially to those of oranges and lemons. Prep. Marmalades are made either by pounding the pulped fruit in a mortar with an equal or a rather larger quantity of powdered white sugar, or by mixing them together by heat, passing them through a hair sieve whilst hot, and then putting them into pots or glasses. The fruit-pulps are obtained by rubbing the fruit through a fine hair sieve, either at once or after it has been softened by simmering it for a short time along with a little water. When heat is employed in mixing the ingredients, the evaporation should be continued until the marmalade ‘jellies’ on cooling. See Conserves, Confections, Electuaries, Jams, Jellies, and below. Marmalade, Apricot. From equal parts of pulp and sugar. Marmalade, Mixed. From plums, pears, and apples, variously flavoured to palate. Marmalade, Orange. Prep. 1. From oranges (either Seville or St Michael’s, or a mixture of the two), by boiling the peels in syrup until soft, then pulping them through a sieve, adding as much white sugar, and boiling them with the former syrup and the juice of the fruit to a proper consistence. 2. By melting the confection of orange peel (Ph. L.), either with or without the addition of some orange or lemon juice, and then passing it through a sieve. 3. (Candied orange marmalade.) From candied orange peel, boiled in an equal weight each of sugar and water, and then passed through a sieve. 4. (Scotch marmalade.)—a. Seville orange juice, 1 quart; yellow peel of the fruit, grated; honey, 2 lbs.; boil to a proper consistence. b. Seville oranges, 8 lbs.; peel them as thinly as possible, then squeeze out the juice, boil it on the yellow peels for 1⁄4 of an hour, strain, add white sugar, 7 lbs., and boil to a proper consistence. Marmalade, Quince. Syn. Diacydonium. From quince flesh or pulp and sugar, equal parts; or from the juice (miva cydoniorum, gelatina c.), by boiling it to half, adding an equal quantity of white wine and 2⁄3rds of its weight of sugar, and gently evaporating the mixture. Marmalade, Tomato. Like APRICOT MARMALADE, adding a few slices of onion and a little parsley. MARMORA′TUM. Finely powdered marble and quicklime, well beaten together; used as a cement or mortar. MAR′ROW (Beef). This is extensively employed by the perfumers in the preparation of various pomades and other cosmetics, on account of its furnishing an exceedingly bland fat, which is not so much disposed to rancidity as the other fats. It is prepared for use by soaking and working it for some
- 47. time in lukewarm water, and afterwards melting it in a water bath, and straining it through a piece of muslin whilst hot. When scented it is esteemed equal to bear’s grease for promoting the growth of the hair. MARSH GAS. Light carbonetted hydrogen. MARSH’S TEST. See Arsenious acid. MARSHMALLOW. Syn. Althæa (Ph. L. & E.), L. The root (leaves and root—Ph. E.) of Althæa officinalis, Linn., or common marshmallow. (Ph. L.) It is emollient and demulcent; the decoction is useful in irritation of the respiratory and urinary organs, and of the alimentary canal. The flowers as well as the root are reputed pectoral. MARTIN’S POWDER. A mixture of white arsenic and the powdered stems of Orobanche virginiana (Linn.), a plant common in Virginia. An American quack remedy for cancer. MASS. Syn. Massa, L. This term is commonly applied in pharmacy and veterinary medicine to certain preparations which are not made up into their ultimate form. Thus, we have ‘ball-masses,’ ‘pill- masses,’ &c.; of which, for convenience, large quantities are prepared at a time, and are kept in pots or jars, ready to be divided into balls or pills, as the demands of business may require. (See below.) MASSES (Veterinary).[24] [24] Reprinted from Tuson’s ‘Veterinary Pharmacopœia.’ Massa Aloes. Mass of aloes. Syn. Cathartic mass. Prep. Take of Barbadoes aloes, in small pieces, 8 parts; glycerin, 2 parts; ginger, in powder, 1 part; melt together in a water bath, and thoroughly incorporate by frequent stirring.—Use. Cathartic for the horse.—Dose. From 6 to 8 dr. Massa Aloes Composita. Compound mass of aloes. Syn. Alterative mass. Prep. Take of Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 1 oz.; soft soap, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 oz.; thoroughly incorporate by beating in a mortar, so as to form a mass.—Use. Alterative for the horse.—Dose, 1 oz. Massa Antimonii Tartarata Composita. Compound mass of tartarated antimony. Syn. Fever ball. Prep. Take of tartrated antimony, in powder, 1⁄2 dr.; camphor, in powder, 1⁄2 dr.; nitrate of potash, in powder, 2 dr.; common mass, a sufficiency; mix so as to form a bolus.—Use. Febrifuge for the horse.— Dose. The above mixture constitutes 1 dose. Massa Belladonnæ Composita. Compound mass of belladonna. Syn. Cough ball. Prep. Take of extract of belladonna, 1⁄2 to 1 dr.; Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 1 dr.; nitrate of potash, in powder, 2 dr.; common mass, a sufficiency; mix so as to form a bolus.—Use. For the horse in chronic cough.—Dose. The above mixture constitutes 1 dose. Massa Cathechu Composita. Compound mass of catechu. Syn. Astringent mass. Prep. Take of extract of catechu, in fine powder, 1 oz.; cinnamon bark, in fine powder, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 oz.; mix.—Use. Astringent for the horse.—Dose, 1 oz., in the form of a bolus. Massa Communis. Common mass. Prep. Take of linseed, finely ground, and treacle, of each equal parts; mix together so as to form a mass.—Use. An excipient for medicinal agents when they are to be administered in the form of bolus. Massa Cupri Sulphatis. Mass of sulphate of copper. Syn. Tonic Mass. Prep. Take of sulphate of copper, finely powdered, 1 oz.; ginger, in powder, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 oz.; mix.—Use. Tonic for the horse.—Dose, 6 to 8 dr. Massa Digitalis Composita. Compound mass of digitalis. Syn. Cough ball. Prep. Take of Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 2 oz.; digitalis, 1 oz.; common mass, 13 oz.; mix.—Use. For the horse in chronic cough.—Dose, 1 oz. once or twice a day.
- 48. Massa Ferri Sulphatis. Mass of sulphate of iron. Syn. Tonic mass. Prep. Take of sulphate of iron, in powder, 2 oz.; ginger, in powder, 1 oz.; common mass, 5 oz.; mix.—Use. Tonic for the horse.—Dose, 6 to 8 dr. Massa Resinæ Composita. Compound mass of resin. Syn. Diuretic mass. Prep. Take of resin, in powder, nitrate of potash, in powder, hard soap, of each equal parts; mix.—Use. Diuretic for the horse.— Dose, 1 oz. Massa Zingiberis Composita. Compound mass of ginger. Syn. Cordial mass. Prep. Take of ginger, in powder, gentian root, in powder, treacle, of each equal parts, a sufficiency; mix so as to form a mass.— Use. Stomachic for the horse.—Dose, 1 oz. MAS′SICOT. Syn. Masticot, Yellow protoxide of lead; Plumbi oxydum flavum, Cerussa citrina, L. The dross that forms on melted lead exposed to a current of air, roasted until it acquires a uniform yellow colour. Artists often apply the same name to white lead roasted until it turns yellow. Used as a pigment. MAS′TIC. Syn. Mastich, Gum mastic; Mastiche, L. The “resin flowing from the incised bark of Pistacia Lentiscus, var. Chia.” (Ph. L.) It occurs in pale yellowish, transparent, rounded tears, which soften between the teeth when chewed, and giving out a bitter, aromatic taste. Sp. gr. 1·07. It is soluble in both rectified spirit and oil of turpentine, forming varnishes. It is chiefly used as a ‘masticatory,’ to strengthen and preserve the teeth, and perfume the breath. Mastic. Fine mortar or cement used for plastering walls, in which the ingredients, in a pulverulent state, are mixed up, either entirely or with a considerable portion of linseed oil. It sets very hard, and is ready to receive paint in a few days. See Cements. MASTICA′TION. The act of chewing food, by which it not only becomes comminuted, but mixed with the saliva, and reduced to a form fit for swallowing. It has been justly regarded by the highest authorities as the first process of digestion, and one without which the powers of the stomach are overtasked, and often performed with difficulty. Hence the prevalence of dyspepsia and bowel complaints among persons with bad teeth, or who ‘bolt’ their food without chewing it. MAS′TICATORIES. Syn. Masticatoria, L. Substances taken by chewing them. They are employed as intoxicants, cosmetics, and medicinals; generally with the first intention. The principal masticatory used in this country is tobacco. In Turkey, and several other Eastern nations, opium is taken in a similar manner. In India, a mixture of areca nut, betel leaf, and lime, performs the same duties; whilst in some other parts of the world preparations of the cacao are employed. As cosmetics, orris root, cassia, cinnamon, and sandal wood are frequently chewed to scent the breath. Among medicinals, mastic and myrrh are frequently chewed to strengthen the teeth and gums; pellitory, to relieve the toothache; and rhubarb, ginger, and gentian, to relieve dyspepsia and promote the appetite. Prep. 1. (Augustin.) Mastic, pellitory (both in powder), and white wax, of each 1 dr.; mixed by heat and divided into 6 balls. In toothache, loose teeth, &c. 2. (W. Cooley.) Mastic, myrrh, and white wax, of each 1 part; rhubarb, ginger, and extract of gentian, of each 2 parts; beaten up with tincture of tolu, q. s., and divided into boluses or lozenges of 10 gr. each. One or two to be chewed an hour before dinner; in dyspepsia, defective appetite, &c. 3. (Quincy.) Mastic, 3 oz.; pellitory and stavesacre seed, of each 2 dr.; cubebs and nutmegs, of each 1 dr.; angelica root, 1⁄2 dr.; melted wax, q. s. to make it into small balls. As a stimulant to the gums, and in toothache. 4. Opium, ginger, rhubarb, mastic, pellitory of Spain, and orris root, of each 1 dr.; melted spermaceti, q. s. to mix; for 6-gr. pills. As the last, and in toothache and painful gums. MAS′TICOT. See Massicot.
- 49. MATCHES (Cooper’s). Syn. Sweetening matches. These are made by dipping strips of coarse linen or canvas into melted brimstone. For use, the brimstone on one of them is set on fire, and the match is then at once suspended in the cask, and the bung loosely set in its place. After the lapse of 2 or 3 hours the match is removed and the cask filled with liquor. Some persons pour a gallon or two of the liquor into the cask before ‘matching’ it. The object is to allay excessive fermentation. The operation is commonly adopted in the Western Counties for cider intended for shipment, or other long exposure during transport. It is also occasionally employed for inferior and ‘doctored’ wines. MATCHES (Instantaneous Light). Of these there are several varieties, of which the one best known, and most extensively used, is the common phosphorus match, known as the ‘congreve’ or ‘lucifer.’[25] We need not describe the ‘chemical matches,’ ‘phosphorus bottles,’ and ‘prometheans,’ in use during the early part of the present century, as these are quite obsolete. We will simply sketch the general process of manufacture now in use for phosphorus matches: [25] The original ‘LUCIFERS,’ or ‘LIGHT-BEARING MATCHES,’ invented in 1826, consisted of strips of pasteboard, or flat splints of wood, tipped first with sulphur, and then with a mixture of sulphide of antimony and chlorate of potassa, and were ignited by drawing them briskly through folded glass-paper. They required a considerable effort to ignite them, and the composition was apt to be torn off by the violence of the friction. The term ‘lucifer’ having become familiar, was applied to the simpler and more effective match afterwards introduced under the names of ‘CONGREVE’ and ‘CONGREVE LIGHT,’ Manuf. The wooden splints are cut by steam machinery from the very best quality of pine planks, perfectly dried at a temperature of 400° Fahr. English splints are of two sizes—‘large’ and ‘minnikins,’ the former 21⁄4 inches longer, and the latter somewhat shorter. In the manufacture double-lengths are used, so that each splint may be coated with the igniting composition at both ends, and then cut asunder in the middle to form two matches. In England the splints are usually cut square in form, but in Germany they are cylindrical, being prepared by forcing the wood through circular holes in a steel plate. The ends of the double splints having been slightly charred by contact with a red-hot plate, are coated with sulphur by dipping them to the requisite depth in the melted material. In some cases the ends are saturated with melted wax or paraffin instead of sulphur. The splints are then arranged in a frame between grooved boards in such a manner that the prepared ends project on each side of the frame. These projecting ends are then tipped with the phosphorus composition, which is spread to a uniform depth of about 1⁄8 inch on a smooth slab of stone, kept warm by means of steam beneath. When partially dry, the tipped splints are taken from the frames, cut through the middle, and placed in heaps of 100, ready for ‘boxing.’ The different compositions for tipping the matches in use in different countries and factories all consist essentially of emulsions of phosphorus in a solution of glue or gum, with or without other matters for increasing the combustibility, for colouring, &c. In England the composition contains a considerable quantity of chlorate of potassa, which imparts a snapping and flaming quality to the matches tipped with it, and but little phosphorus, on account of the moisture of the climate. In Germany the proportion of phosphorus used is much larger, and nitre, or some metallic peroxide, replaces chlorate of potassa. The German matches light quietly with a mild lambent flame, and are injured quickly by damp. The following formulæ have been selected: 1. (English.) Fine glue, 2 parts, broken into small pieces, and soaked in water till quite soft, is added to water, 4 parts, and heated by means of a water bath until it is quite fluid, and at a temperature of 200° to 212° Fahr. The vessel is then removed from the fire, and phosphorus, 11⁄2 to 2 parts, is gradually added, the mixture being agitated briskly and continually with a ‘stirrer’ having wooden pegs or bristles projecting at its lower end. When a uniform emulsion is obtained, chlorate of potassa, 4 to 5 parts, powdered glass, 3 to 4 parts, and red lead, smalt, or other colouring matter, a sufficient quantity (all in a state of very fine powder) are added, one at a time, to prevent accidents, and the stirring continued until the mixture is comparatively cool. According to Mr G. Gore, the above proportions are those of the best quality of English composition. The matches tipped with it deflagrate with a snapping noise. (See above.)
- 50. 2. (German.)—a. (Böttger.) Dissolve gum Arabic, 16 parts, in the least possible quantity of water, add of phosphorus (in powder), 9 parts, and mix by trituration; then add of nitre, 14 parts; vermillion or binoxide of manganese, 16 parts, and form the whole into a paste, as directed above; into this the matches are to be dipped, and then exposed to dry. As soon as the matches are quite dry they are to be dipped into very dilute copal varnish or lac varnish, and again exposed to dry, by which means they are rendered waterproof, or at least less likely to suffer from exposure in damp weather. b. (Böttger.) Glue, 6 parts, is soaked in a little cold water for 24 hours, after which it is liquefied by trituration in a heated mortar; phosphorus, 4 parts, is now added, and rubbed down at a heat not exceeding 150° Fahr.; nitre (in fine powder), 10 parts, is next mixed in, and afterwards red ochre, 5 parts, and smalt, 2 parts, are further added, and the whole formed into a uniform paste, into which the matches are dipped, as before. Cheaper than the last. c. (Diesel.) Phosphorus, 17 parts; glue, 21 parts; red lead, 24 parts; nitre, 38 parts. Proceed as above. Obs. Matches tipped with the above (a, b, and c) inflame without fulmination when rubbed against a rough surface, and are hence termed ‘noiseless matches’ by the makers. 3. (Safety matches.) The latest improvement of note in the manufacture of matches is that of Landstrom, of Jonkoping, in Sweden, adopted by Messrs Bryant and May (Patent). It consists in dividing the ingredient of the match-mixture into two separate compositions, one being placed on the ends of the splints, as usual, and the other, which contains the phosphorus, being spread in a thin layer upon the end or lid of the box. The following are the compositions used by the patentee:—a. (For the splints.) Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; sulphuret of antimony, 2 to 3 parts; glue, 1 part.—b. (For the friction surface.) Amorphous phosphorus, 10 parts; sulphuret of antimony or peroxide of manganese, 8 parts; glue, 3 to 6 parts; spread thinly upon the surface, which has been previously made rough by a coating of glue and sand. By thus dividing the composition the danger of fire arising from ignition of the matches by accidental friction is avoided, as neither the portion on the splint nor that on the box can be ignited by rubbing against an unprepared surface. Again, by using the innocuous red or amorphous phosphorus, the danger of poisoning is entirely prevented. MATÉ. Syn. Paraguay Tea. This is the dried leaf of a small shrub, the Ilex Paraguayenses, or Brazilian holly, growing in Paraguay and Brazil; by the inhabitants of which places, as well as South America generally, it is largely employed in the form of a beverage as tea. Its active ingredient, Paraguaine, formerly supposed to be a distinct principle, has from further researches into its composition been discovered to be identical with theine and caffeine—the alkaloids of tea and coffee. Mr Wanklyn ascribes the following composition to maté:— Moisture 6·72 Ash 5·86 Soluble organic matter 25·10 Insoluble organic matter 62·32 ——— 100·00 MATE′′RIA MED′ICA. A collective name of the various substances, natural and artificial, employed as medicines or in the cure of disease. In its more extended sense it includes the science which treats of their sources, properties, classification, and applications. The materia medica of the Pharmacopœia is a mere list, with occasional notes, “embracing the animal, vegetable, and chemical substances, whether existing naturally, prepared in officinal chemical preparations, or sold in wholesale
- 51. trade, which we (the College) direct to be used either in curing diseases or in preparing medicines.” (Ph. L.) MAT′ICO. Syn. Soldier’s herb; Mateco (B. P., Ph. D.); Matica, Herba maticæ, L. The dried leaves of a Peruvian plant, generally believed to be the Artanthe elongata, one of the Piperaceæ. The leaves have been employed with considerable success as a mechanical external styptic; applied to leech-bites, slight cuts, and other wounds, &c., and pressed on with the fingers, they seldom fail to arrest the bleeding. Matico has also been much lauded as an internal astringent and styptic, in hæmorrhages from the lungs, stomach, bowels, uterus, &c.; but as it is nearly destitute of astringent properties, its virtues in these cases must have been inferred from its external action. As an aromatic, bitter stimulant, closely resembling the peppers, it has been proposed as a substitute for cubebs and black pepper, in the treatment of diseases of the mucous membranes, piles, &c.—Dose, 1⁄2 to 2 dr.; in powder; or under the form of infusion, tincture, or boluses. MATURA′TION. Growing ripe. Amongst surgeons this term is applied to the process of suppuration, or that which succeeds inflammation, and by which pus or matter is collected in an abscess. Warmth, irritation, and a liberal diet promote this change; cold, sedatives, and depletion, retard it. The maturation of fermented liquor is noticed under Brewing, Malt liquors, Wines, &c. MEAD. Syn. Mellina, L. An old English liquor, made from the combs from which the honey has been drained, by boiling them in water, and fermenting the saccharine solution thus obtained. It is commonly confounded with metheglin. Some persons add 1 oz. of hops to each gallon; and, after fermentation, a little brandy. It is then called sack mead, See Metheglin. MEAL. The substance of edible grain ground to powder, without being bolted or sifted. Barley meal and oat meal are the common substances of this class in England. In North America the term is commonly applied to ground Indian corn, whether bolted or not. (Goodrich.) The four resolvent meals of old pharmacy (quatuor farinæ resolventes) are those of barley, beans, linseed, and rye. MEALS. The “periods of taking food, usually adopted, in conformity with convenience and the recurrences of hunger, are those which are best adapted to the purposes of health; namely, the morning meal, the midday meal, and the evening meal.” “That these are the proper periods for meals is evident from the fact of their maintaining their place amid the changes which fashion is constantly introducing.” “If we look at these periods in another point of view, we shall find an interval of four hours left between them for the act of digestion and subsequent rest of the stomach. Digestion will claim between two and three hours of the interval; the remaining hour is all that the stomach gets of rest, enough, perhaps, but not too much, not to be justly infringed.” (Eras. Wilson.) MEA′SLES. Syn. Rubeola, Morbilli, L. This very common disease is characterised by feverishness, chilliness, shivering, head-pains, swelling and inflammation of the eyes, shedding of sharp tears, with painful sensibility to light, oppressive cough, difficulty of breathing, and sometimes vomiting or diarrhœa. These are followed about the fourth day by a crimson rash upon the skin, in irregular crescents or circles, and by small red points or spots, which are perceptible to the touch, and which, after four or five days, go off with desquamation of the cuticle. The fever, cough, &c., often continue for some time; and unless there have been some considerable evacuations, either by perspiration or vomiting, they frequently return with increased violence, and occasion great distress and danger. Treat. When there are no urgent local symptoms, mild aperients, antimonial diaphoretics, and diluents, should be had recourse to; but when the inflammatory symptoms are emergent, and the lungs are weak, especially in plethoric habits, blood may be taken. The cough may be relieved by expectorants, demulcents, and small doses of opium; and the diarrhœa by the administration of the compound powder of chalk and opium; the looseness of the bowels, however, had better not be interfered with, unless it be extreme. Measles are most prevalent in the middle of winter, and though common to individuals of all ages, are most frequent amongst children. The plethoric, and those of a scrofulous habit, or one which has a syphilitic taint, suffer most from them.
- 52. Like the smallpox, the measles are contagious, and seldom attack the same person more than once during life. See Rash. MEASURE. Syn. Mensura, L. The unit or standard by which we estimate extension, whether of length, superficies, or volume. The following tables represent the values and proportions of the principal measures employed in commerce and the arts:— Table I. English Lineal Measures. Inches. Feet. Yards. Poles. Furlongs. Miles. 1· ·083 ·028 ·00505·00012626·0000157828 12· 1· ·333 ·06060·00151515 ·00018939 36· 3· 1· ·1818 ·004545 ·00056818 198· 16·5 5·5 1· ·025 ·003125 7920· 660· 220· 40· 1· ·125 63360· 5280· 1760· 320· 8· 1· ⁂ The unit of the above table is the yard, of which no legal standard has existed since that established by the statute of 1824 was destroyed by the fire which consumed the two Houses of Parliament in 1834. Table II. English Measures of Superficies. Square Feet.Square Yards. Poles. Roods. Acres. 1· ·1111 ·00367309·000091827·000022957 9· 1· ·0330579 ·000826448·000206612 272·25 30·25 1· ·025 ·00625 10890· 1210· 40· 1· ·25 43560· 4840· 160· 4· 1· Table III. English Measure of Volume.—The Imperial Standard, and the relative value of its divisions, including those used in Medicine, with their EQUIVALENTS in avoirdupois and troy weight. [minims] Minims or drops. fʒ Fluid Drachms. f℥ Fluid Ounces. O. Pints. Oij. Quarts. C. Gallons.Pecks.Bushels. Quarters. Equivalents in distilled water at 62° Fahr., i Troy grains. Avoird weigh 1· ·01666666·00208333·00010416·00005208·00001302 — — — ·91146 60· 1· ·125 ·00625 ·003125 ·00078125 — — — 54·6875 lb. o 480· 8· 1· ·05 ·025 ·00625 — — — 437·5 9600· 160· 20· 1· ·5 ·125 ·0625 ·015625·001953125 8750· 1 4 19200· 320· 40· 2· 1· ·25 ·125 ·03125 ·00390625 17500· 2 8 76800· 1280· 160· 8· 4· 1· ·5 ·125 ·015625 70000· 10 2560· 320· 16· 8· 2· 1· ·25 ·03125 — 20 1280· 64· 32· 8· 4· 1· ·125 — 80 512· 256· 64· 32· 8· 1· — 640
- 53. ⁂ The standard unit of the above table is the gallon, which is declared, by statute, to be capable of “containing ten pounds avoirdupois weight of distilled water, weighed in the air at the temperature of 62° Fahr., the barometer being at 30 inches.” The pound avoirdupois contains 7000 grains, and it is declared that a cubic inch of distilled water, under the above conditions, weighs 252·458 grains; hence the capacity of the imperial gallon and its divisions are as follows:— Imperial gallon = 277·274 cubic inches. ” quart = 69·3185 ” ” pint =34·65925 ” Fluid ounce = 1·73296 ” ” drachm= ·21662 ” ‡‡‡ The imperial gallon is 1-5th larger than the old wine gallon,—1-60th smaller than the old beer gallon, and—1-32nd larger than the old dry-measure gallon. Table IV. French Metrical or Decimal Measures of Length. Names. Eq. in Mètres. Equivalents in English Inches, at 32° Fahr.English Long Measure, at 62° Fahr. Miles. Fur. Yds. Feet. Inch. Millimètre ·001 ·03937 Centimètre ·01 ·39371 Décimètre ·1 3·93708 Mètre 1· 39·37079 1 0 3·37 Decamètre 10· 393·70790 10 2 9·7 Hectomètre 100· 3937·07900 109 1 1·078 Kilomètre 1000· 39370·79000 4 213 1 10·3 Myriamètre 10000· 393707·90000 6 1 156 0 9·17 ⁂ The standard unit of the above table is the mètre, which has been determined to be 39·37079 inches, at 32° Fahr. (Capt. Kater); the English foot is taken at 62° Fahr. The true length of the mètre, reduced to the latter temperature, is 39·370091 English inches; a number which varies from that in the table only at the fourth decimal figure. It will be perceived that the principle of nomenclature adopted in applying the names, was to prefix the Greek numerals to the decimal multiples, and the Latin numerals to the decimal subdivisions. Table V. French Metrical or Decimal Measures of Volume. Names. Eq. in Litres.Eq. in English Cubic Inches Equivalent in English Measures. Gall. Pints.Oz.Dr.Minims. Millilitre ·001 ·0610 16·9 Centilitre ·01 ·6103 2 49· Decilitre ·1 6·1028 3 4 10·36 Litre 1· 61·028 1 15 1 43·69 Decalitre 10· 610·28 2 1 12 1 16·9 Hectolitre 100· 6102·8 22 0 1 4 49· Kilolitre 1000· 61028· 220 0 16 6 40· Myrialitre 10000· 610280· 2201 (= 2751⁄8 bushels).
- 54. ⁂ The standard unit in the above table is the litre, or the cube of the 1⁄10 of a mètre. The French centiare contains 1 square mètre,—the are, 100 do.,—the hectare, 10,000 do. The old Paris pint is equal to 1·678 English imperial pint. ‡ ‡ ‡ The capacity of solids and aëriform fluids is taken in cubic inches, or feet, in England. In France, the stere, or mètre cube, equal to 35·31658 English cubic feet, is the standard unit. Table VI. Miscellaneous Measures and their Equivalents: Tea or coffee spoonful (average)= 1 fl. dr. Dessert spoonful ” = 2 ” Table spoonful ” = 4 ” Wine-glassful ” = 2 fl. oz. Tea-cupful ” = 5 ” Breakfast-cupful ” = 8 ” Tumblerful ” = 8 ” Basinful ” = 12 ” Thimbleful ” = 3⁄4 fl. dr. Pinch (of leaves and flowers) ” = 1 dr. Handful (of leaves and flowers) ” = 10 ” Cubic inch of water, at 62° Fahr. = 252·458 gr. Cubic foot of water, at 62° Fahr. =62·32106 lb. Line = 1⁄12 inch. Barleycorn = 1⁄3 ” Hand = 4 ” Chain = 4 or 22 poles yards. MEAT. The muscular tissue or flesh of the principal animals constituting the food of man may be said to be composed of the same proximate principles, and, given an equal digestibility and power of being assimilated, may be also said to have an equally nutritive value. Since meat, however, is generally eaten with a certain amount of fat, which accompanies it in varying quantity, the capacity of the meat for forming muscle will, of course, be in inverse proportion to the amount of fat it contains; on the contrary, its power of raising the bodily temperature will be in direct proportion. Moleschott (quoted by Parkes) gives the following as the mean composition of fresh beef, as determined by all the Continental chemists:— Water 73·4 Soluble albumen and hæmatin 2·25 Insoluble albuminous substances15·20 Gelatinous substances 3·30 Fat 2·87 Extractive matter 1·38 Creatin 0·068 Ash 1·6 Dr Parkes remarks of the amount of fat given in the above analysis “that it is evidently too low.”
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