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The Theory And Practice Of Change Management 3rd Edition John Hayes

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The Theory And Practice Of Change Management 3rd Edition John Hayes The Theory And Practice Of Change Management 3rd Edition John Hayes The Theory And Practice Of Change Management 3rd Edition John Hayes

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The Theory And Practice Of Change Management 3rd Edition John Hayes
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The theory and practice of change management Third edition John Hayes palorave macmillan
© John Hayes 2010 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2010 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries ISBN 978—0-230—2 1069-1 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources, Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. LOD OOM Ono 4S 082. nil LIM eons. 14 Sse 12 died Printed in China
To Martha, Ruby, Izaac, Isabel and Miranda
The Theory And Practice Of Change Management 3rd Edition John Hayes
Part I Part Il List offigures and tables ix List ofcase studies xi List ofresearch reports, examples and change tools xii Preface xiv Acknowledgements ax Abbreviations . Xxii Introduction and overview 7 The nature of change 14 1 Patterns ofchange 16 2 The process of change management 40 Recognizing the need for change and starting the change process 58 3 Recognizing the need for change 60 4 Starting the change process > 72 Part Ill Eleanosi) 84 -§ Open systems models and alignment 87 Parrt IV Part V 6 Other diagnostic models 10S 7 Gathering and interpreting information for diagnosis 122 a — 8 Power, politicsand stake management 143 9 The role of leadership in change management 159 10 Somamicens anes a 174 11 Motivating others tochange 191 12 Managing personal transitions 208 13 Modes of intervening 225 Planning and preparing for change 240 14 Shaping implementation strategies 243 15 Developing a change plan 258
oe CONTENTS Part VI Part VII Part VIII 16 17 Types of intervention Selecting interventions Implementing change 18 16) 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Collective learning in organizations Action research Appreciative inquiry Training and development High performance management Business process re-engineering Lean Restructuring for strategic gain: mergers and acquisitions Merging groups: combining people for enhanced performance Reviewing change 27 Reviewing change Sustaining change 28 29 30 Making change stick Spreading change Pulling it all together: a concluding case study Author index Subject index 270 283 300 304 325 337 350 307 370 377 394 407 426 427 436 438 448 456 458 463
Figures Pattern of industry evolution Punctuated equilibrium: a recurring pattern of continuous and transformational change Types of organizational change Internal alignment Lewin’s three-step change process Intensity of change A force field Steps in the change process The relationship between Chapters 3-29 and the generic process model of change The trap of success Examples of functional misalignment A causal map of a diagnostic model The organization as an open system Kotter’s integrative model of organizational dynamics Congruence model Strebel’s cycle of competitive behaviour Greiner’s five phases of growth Flamholtz’s pyramid of organizational development The absorptive capacity/tipping point framework for growth firm states The 7S model Weisbord’s six-box model The Burke-Litwin causal model of organizational performance and change The transformational factors CEO’s model of causal relationships affecting performance of SSSE A force field Results of the 1993 BBC staff survey Strategic coupling Organizational coupling Environmental coupling Effectiveness of communication strategies Dynamics giving rise to organizational silence An oversimplified model of the interview The interaction between change agents and organizational members The expectancy model of motivation An expectancy model of the motivation to support or resist change Bridges’ model of transition Transition phases A continuum of intervention strategies The Awakishi diagram Change participants’ perceptions of the appeal and likelihood of the change Clarity of end state and content and structure of the plan A matrix organization structure
@ . LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES 15.5 Acritical path analysis 16.1 Developments in types of intervention over the past century 16.2 Cummings and Worley’s typology of interventions based on focal issues 17.1. A three-dimensional model to aid choice of interventions 17.2 Examples of human process interventions 17.3 Examples of technostructural interventions 17.4 Examples of human resource interventions 17.5 Examples of strategic interventions 18.1 Individual learning 18.2 Individual and collective learning in organizations 18.3 A conference method for developing a ‘preferred future’ 18.4 Double loop learning 19.1 The experiential learning model 19.2 The action research process 19.3 The action research process at Freedman House 19.4 The meeting canoe 20.1 The five steps of an appreciative inquiry 23.1 GP referral for a routine X-ray at a local hospital 24.1 Parts being pulled in response to customer requests 24.2 The Toyota Production System house 25.1 The acquisition process 25.2 Acquisition objectives and the required degree of integration 26.1 Acquired firm’s preferred mode of acculturation 26.2 Acquiring firm’s preferred mode of acculturation 26.3 Acculturative model for implementing organizational fit 26.4 Suitable culture 26.5 Transition phases 27.1 Translating the change strategy into a set of operational goals 27.2 The service profit chain 27.3 Factors affecting how people respond to the change 28.1 Classes of sustainability at cell level 28.2 Factory-level improvement model 28.3 A push approach to securing change Tables 2.1 Possible actions 5.1 Examples of the kind of information that might be attended to 5.2 Interdependencies between elements 5.3. An example of a matrix of interdependencies 5.4 Mechanistic and organic organization forms 5.5 Examples of element states that do and do not facilitate system adaptation 7.1. Examples of questions asked in a BBC staff survey 7.2. Asimple SWOT template 7.3. Amore detailed SWOT template 7.4 Using SWOT to develop action plans 8.1 Positive frame 8.2 Negative frame 8.3 Differences between the two trusts 12.1 The social readjustment rating scale 25.1 Post-merger integration tasks 26.1 Suitability of culture matches 29.1 Implementation climate and innovation/values fit: effects on employees’ affective responses and innovation use 265 271 278 286 287 287 288 288 305 306 314 319 326 329 332 333 342 373 383 384 396 401 412 412 413 417 420 432 432 434 439 440 441 41 88 91 91 94 98 124 134 134 135 148 148 150 210 402 416 453
11.1. The BBC 33 11.2 UK Coal 34 11.3 Leicester Royal Infirmary 34 1.1.4 McDonald’s 35 iPoeGNER 36 3.1. The Active Sports Equipment Company 63 8.1 Stakeholder brainstorm 149 8.2 Stakeholder mapping ey 8.3 Managing stakeholder relationships 154 10.1 Galaxy Z 188 14.1. Asda: a winning formula 243 14.2 Direct Banking 256 17.1. Designing an intervention to improve the effectiveness of primary healthcare centres in southwest India 295 17.2 Designing an intervention to increase the motivation and flexibility of the workforce in a large dairy company 295 17.3 Designing an intervention to improve the treatment offered by the trauma orthopaedic care department in a large NHS hospital 296 17.4. Designing an intervention to reduce absenteeism in the elderly care sector of Silkeborg Council, Denmark 297 24.1 Grampian Police 390 30.1 KeyChemicals 456
Research reports 1.1. Study of microcomputer producers 2.1 Testing Lewin’s three-step model of change 8.1 Perceptions of fair treatment 9.1 Collective leadership and strategic change 10.1 Communicating bad news 11.1 Effect of group participation on resistance to change 16.1 Sociotechnical systems 21.1 Enterprise-level training in Australia 21.2 Relationship between enterprise-level training and organizational change 26.1 The realistic merger preview 28.1 Two enablers that help to promote stickability Examples 2.1 Car importer case 2.2 Concrete Flags Ltd 4.1 Failure to convince others of the need for change at AT&T 4.2 Leading change at Lyons Confectionery 6.1. The Site Security and Secure Escorts case 7.1 The effect of being observed 13.1 Using a supportive approach 13.2 Using force-field analysis 13.3 Using a challenging approach 13.4 Using an information-gathering approach 14.1. The implementation of an economic strategy at the BBC 14.2 The implementation of an OD strategy at the BBC 15.1 Matrix structures 18.2 Bone density scans 18.3 Google: a good example of a learning organization 19.1 Action research at Xerox 19.2 Action research at Freedman House 20.1 Médecins Sans Frontiéres 20.2 Using collective inquiry for organization development at Médecins Sans Frontiéres 25.1 GNER and MTR 25.2 Brenntag’s history of restructuring for strategic gain 26.1 BT Cellnet’s acquisition of Martin Davies 26.2 United Distillers & Vintners 29.1 Asda’s roll-out of ‘Store Renewal’ Change tools Sal lat (ay Checking alignment between steps in the transformation process The 7S matrix Using a SWOT analysis 130 133
LIST OF RESEARCH REPORTS, EXAMPLES AND CHANGE TOOLS +—— xi 7.3 A force-field approach to opportunity development or problem management 136 8.1 Stakeholder grid 1S 11.1 Assessing the availability of valued outcomes 198 15.1. The Awakishi diagram 260 15.2 Critical path analysis 265 18.1 Organizational visits 310 18.2 Priority review 312 18.3 Organization mirror SZ 18.4 A conference method for developing a ‘preferred future’ 313 18.5 The after action review 316 18.6 Beckhard’s process for improving intergroup relations 320 19.1. The Axelrod canoe: a blueprint for getting people involved in meetings 330 20.1 Using appreciative inquiry to clarify values at the Hammersmith Hospital NHS Trust 347 22.1 Diagnosing the alignment of HR practices 364 23.1 The plan, do, study, act (PDSA) cycle 375 24.1 The seven wastes 385 22.1 The 5S methodology 386 22.3 The five whys 386 27.1 The change management indicator 433
On many academic programmes, change management is positioned as the inte- grating course because it requires students to reflect on and synthesize the various perspectives on organizational functioning offered by other modules studied, such as finance, operations management, marketing, organizational behaviour and stra- tegic management. Studying change management is important because factors such as the availa- bility of credit, technological advances, increasing competitive pressures, changes in the boundaries of organizations, the development of new organizational forms, regulatory reforms and globalization are creating opportunities and threats that organizations need to address if they are to survive and prosper. Managers, at all levels, have to be competent at identifying the need for change. They also have to be able to act in ways that will secure change. Getting it ‘wrong’ can be costly. It is imperative, therefore, that managers get it ‘right’, but getting it right is not easy. There is no single ‘recipe’ that can be applied to all organizations at all times. This book addresses a broad range of issues that will affect the likelihood that change efforts will be successful. Studying change management will provide you with an opportunity to reflect on what you have learned from other courses and from your work experience about: > sense making — drawing on different perspectives of organizational functioning > ways of knowing - sources of data and evaluating evidence » shaping behaviours — ways of influencing and coordinating behaviour > designing interventions — ways of ‘doing’ that purposely disrupt the status quo in order to move the organization towards a more effective state. The Theory and Practice ofChange Management is designed to help you to: > develop your investigative and diagnostic skills so that you will be more effective in assessing what is going on in organizations > extend your ability to manage issues arising from internally planned and externally imposed organizational changes > improve your awareness of how people can facilitate or resist change and extend your ability to manage human resources in the context of change. Features of the book The book has the following distinctive features, and includes the use of logos: > Underlying model: In Chapter 2, ‘change’ is conceptualized as a process. A conceptual model is presented to help you think about the theory and practice of
PREFACE —— ow change management, and to provide a framework that will help you act effectively to bring about change. > Clear signposting: The process model of change, presented at the end of this Preface and again in the Introduction, the Part I opener and at the end of Chapter 2, is elaborated to show how each part of the book and each chapter in each part relates to this model. The model is referred to in the introduction to each part and a smaller version of the model is included at the beginning of each chapter, with the relevant part of the model highlighted to show how that chapter relates to the process model. > Exercises An : These draw on your personal experience of change. Some are presented at the beginning of a chapter and invite you to articulate and critically examine your own implicit theories of change and change management before studying the literature on the topic. Others are presented later and invite you to apply concepts and theories to your own experience of change. > Change tools fu) : Change management is most effective when the use oftools and techniques is guided by theory. Throughout the book, a number of carefully selected change tools are presented alongside theory to provide change managers with some ideas about the kinds of practical tools and techniques that might be useful in specific circumstances. > Research reports Q : Much of the knowledge about the management of change that is available to managers is practice based. There is, however, a growing body of research evidence that can complement, and in some cases challenge, this craft-based expertise. Throughout the book, embedded in the text, there are frequent references to research studies, but from time to time, selected studies are presented in research reports. These give a flavour of some of this research- based knowledge and how research is contributing to our knowledge about change management. They also indicate some of the different approaches that researchers have adopted to the study of change. > Examples : These illustrate a point. They describe an instance or refer to a pattern of behaviour that demonstrates the relevance, or aids the understanding, of a concept or theory. > Case studies cal : These invite you to apply theory to a variety of problematic situations unrelated to your own experience of change. The case studies are all based on actual events, although in some instances, the name of the organization has been changed. Research reports This is not a text on research methods but the research reports do provide material that can be used to stimulate debate about how we can develop a theory of change management. Some ofthe research reports focus on studies that seek to test a theory and explain causal relationships between variables. They adopt a deductive approach. An example is Research report 1.1 on Romanelli and Tushman’s study of organizational transformation as punctuated equilibrium. Starting with a theory, they deduced a set of hypotheses, expressed them in operational terms and conducted an empirical inquiry to test them. Other research reports point to a number ofissues students of change need to be aware of when designing studies. For example, Research report 10.1 on Greenberg's study of communicating bad news provides a good illustration of expressing a hypothesis in a way that facilitates meas- urement, wherein the effect of bad news is measured using pilfering rates and labour
ow ——: PREFACE Case studies turnover. Research report 11.1 on Coch and French’s study of resistance to change provides an example of using controls to facilitate hypothesis testing. Inductive studies adopt a different approach. They involve moving from data to theory. Researchers involve themselves in a situation to understand what is going on. They collect data, often using interviews and observation, and use this under- standing to formulate theory. Trist and Bamforth’s study (Research report 16.1) involved them following and maintaining relatively continuous contact with 20 coalface workers over a period of two years in order to gain a deep understanding of why the introduction of the longwall method of coal getting failed to yield improvements in performance. This study led to the formulation of a theory of sociotechnical systems. Some studies combine deductive and inductive approaches. Denis et al’s research on the dynamics of collective leadership (Research report 9.1) involved five case studies over a five-year period. Based on their initial case studies, they developed some theoretical ideas about the collective nature of leadership. In their later studies, they went on to examine how these ideas could be generalized and enriched to aid the understanding of leadership in more complex and pluralistic settings. This book was originally written for MBA students and practising managers and others who have considerable experience of working in organizations. In the second edition, the many exercises designed to help experienced managers apply theory to their own practice of management were supplemented with a range of examples and case studies that could aid understanding for those without much direct experience of managing change. In this third edition, the range of case studies has been extended. The case studies are used in different ways. Sometimes they are presented at the end of a chapter to test your understanding of theory. For example, at the end of Chapter 1, you are invited to use a typology of change presented in the chapter to identify the kind of change confronting the BBC, UK Coal, Leicester Royal Infir- mary, McDonald’s and GNER (Case studies 1.1.1-1.1.5). In some chapters, the case studies are presented at the beginning or early in the chapter to encourage you to think about how you might manage a situation before you are introduced to theory that will help you to diagnose the problem and formulate a course of action. Exam- ples include Case study 3.1 on the Active Sports Equipment Company and Case study 14.1 on Asda. Sometimes a case study is broken down into a series of related mini-cases to help you to discover ways in which theory can improve your practice of change management. An example in Chapter 8 involves the merger of two hospi- tals. First, Case study 8.1 invites you to identify all those who might be affected by and/or could affect the outcome of the change. Later on, Case study 8.2 involves mapping stakeholders in accordance with how much power and influence they have and their attitude towards the change. Lastly, Case study 8.3 involves developing strategies for managing relationships with each group of stakeholders. Sometimes cases relate to a part of the book rather than specific chapters. At the end of Chapter 17, four case studies invite you to imagine that you are a consultant who has been asked to design an intervention that will address the issues raised in Part VI, Implementing change. Case study 17.1 is set in southwest India and involves improving the effectiveness of primary healthcare centres. Case study 17.2 involves designing an intervention to increase the motivation and flexibility of the workforce of a Danish dairy company operating in the UK. Case study 17.3 involves designing an intervention to improve the treatment offered by the trauma orthopaedic care
PREFACE a) department of a large UK hospital. Case study 17.4 involves reducing absenteeism in the elderly care sector of Silkeborg Council in Denmark. Chapter 30 introduces a concluding case study designed to provide you with an opportunity to review what you have read and to think about how the many theo- ries, models, techniques and tools can be applied to the management of a single case. You can do this on your own or with others. The case studies relate to public and private sector organizations, operating in a variety of areas such as healthcare, local government, broadcasting, energy, chemi- cals, dairy, fast foods, leisure, manufacturing and security. The case studies also relate to situations in the UK, Denmark, Germany, India and elsewhere, and to multinational companies that operate in several countries. Although not presented as a case study, enterprise-level training in Australia is discussed in some detail in Chapter 21. Changes to the content of the third edition New chapters Reorganization The content of the book is organized into eight parts and 30 chapters. This structure reflects some of the theoretical and practical issues that have been important in my experience consulting with a wide variety of clients on a range of change-related issues. The third edition includes six new chapters, three in Part VI, Implementing change: > Chapter 24 — Lean > Chapter 25 — Restructuring for strategic gain > Chapter 26 —- Merging groups and three in Part VIII, Sustaining change: > Chapter 28 — Making change stick > Chapter 29 - Spreading change >» Chapter 30 — Pulling it all together: the concluding case. The first part of the second edition entitled Core concepts has been reduced from five to two chapters and retitled The nature of change. Two of the remaining orig- inal chapters in Part I have been moved. Open systems models and alignment is now the first chapter in Part III. Collective learning is now the first chapter in Part VI. Material from the chapter on organizational effectiveness has been incorpor- ated into Chapter 3, Recognizing the need for change, at the beginning of Part III. The final part of the second edition has been replaced by a new final part on sustaining change. The chapter Modes of intervening, the penultimate chapter in the second edition, has been moved to Part IV, and has been expanded to included material from the final chapter in the second edition. This revised structure supports the underlying model presented in Chapter 2. The following are changes to other chapters: > Chapter 6 has been extended to include a discussion of life cycle models of organizational growth and development. > Chapter 9 has been extended to include a discussion of leadership styles, situational leadership and ‘new genre’ models including charismatic leadership.
@ PREFACE Pathways The ‘essentials’ > Chapter 15 has been extended to include a discussion of the danger of adopting a fragmented approach to leading change. > Chapter 17 includes the addition of trans-organization to the levels included in the three-dimensional model for selecting interventions. In addition there have been minor additions to most other chapters. One of the strengths of this book is its wide scope. Not everybody, however, will want to read all 30 chapters. Some may want a quick overview of the ‘essentials’ of change management and others may want to focus on a particular issue. If you want to use the book to quickly grasp the essentials of change management, you might find it helpful to begin by reading Chapter 2. This chapter presents a process model and briefly describes the key steps in the process of change manage- ment. Each step is covered in much greater detail in Parts II-VII, but you might find it helpful to begin by focusing attention on a few chapters that provide more infor- mation about diagnosis, managing people through change and planning for imple- mentation. An essentials pathway might therefore include: The process model of change management: Chapter 2 Diagnosis: Chapters 5 and 6 Managing people issues: Chapters 8-10 Shaping implementation strategies: Chapter 14 Ways of intervening: Chapters 16 and 17. wrT vwvwevTwv Implementing change Ifyou want to quickly review the theory and practice that relates to implementation, you might find the following pathway helpful: > The process of change management: Chapter 2 > Stakeholder management: Chapter 8 > Planning and preparing for change: Chapters 14-17 > Implementation: Some or all of the nine chapters in Part VI- Chapters 18-20 address interventions that focus on human process problems, Chapters 21 and 22 focus on interventions that address human resource issues, Chapters 23 and 24 focus on technostructural interventions and Chapters 25 and 26 on interventions that address strategic issues. > Reviewing and keeping the change on track: Chapter 27. Other ways to access content relevant to your needs While most readers will find it helpful to begin by reading Chapters 1 and 2, you might want to start by dipping into chapters that relate to an immediate concern. Consulting the Introduction and overview, which follows this Preface, might help you to identify relevant chapters. For example, ifyour concern is sustaining change, Chapters 28 and 29 might provide a relevant start. Ifyour immediate concern relates to mergers or acquisitions, you might want to begin by looking at Chapters 25 and 26. If you want some ideas about who should lead the change process, you might find it helpful to look at Chapters 4, 9 and 15S.
PREFACE — @ A tutor’s guide is available for those who adopt this book at www.palgrave.com/ business/hayes3. It includes a set of PowerPoint slides and a full debrief of many of the case studies, including Case study 14.1 and Case studies 17.1-17.4. JOHN Hayes Ext 3 Recognizing the need for change ste 4 Starting the change process change Problems and opportunities 5 Open systems models 6 Other diagnostic models 7 Gathering and interpreting information 8 Stakeholder management 11 Motivating others to change 9 Leadership 12 Managing personal transitions 10 Communicating change 13 Modes of intervening 14 Shaping implementation strategies 15 Developing a change plan - 16 Types of intervention < 17 Selecting interventions m = 18 Organizational learning 23 Business process re-engineering 19 Action research 24 Lean 20 Appreciative inquiry 25 Restructuring for strategic gain 21 Training and development 26 Merging groups 22 High performance management 27 Reviewing change 28 Making change stick 29 Spreading change The relationship between Chapters 3-29 and the generic process model of change
The author and publishers wish to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: Harvard Business Review for Figure 6.2 ‘Greiner’s five phases of growth, Greiner, L.E. (1972) Evolution and revolution as organisations grow, Harvard Business Review, 50(4): 41. Sage Publications for Figure 6.6 “Weisbord’s six-box model’, Weisbord, M.R. (1976) Organization diagnosis: six places to look for trouble with or without a theory, Group and Organization Management, 1(4): 432; Figures 6.7 and 6.8 “The Burke- Litwin causal model of organizational performance and change’ and “The transfor- mational factors, Burke, W.W. and Litwin, G.H. (1992) A causal model of organizational performance and change, Journal ofManagement, 18(3): 528. The Academy of Management for Figure 10.1 ‘Effectiveness of communication strat- egies, Clampitt, P.G., DeKoch, R.J. and Cashman, T. (2000) A strategy for commu- nicating about uncertainty, Academy of Management Executive, 14(4): 48; Figure 10.2 ‘Dynamics giving rise to organisational silence’, adapted from Morrison, E.W. and Milliken, F. J. (2000) Organizational silence: a barrier to change and develop- ment in apluralistic world, Academy ofManagement Review, 25(4): 709; Figure 24.2 ‘The Toyota Production System house’, Liker, J.K. and Morgan, J.M. (2006) The Toyota way in services: the case of lean product development, Academy ofManage- ment Perspectives, 20(2): 7; Figures 26.1 and 26.2 ‘Acquired firm’s preferred mode of acculturation’ and ‘Acquiring firm’s preferred mode of acculturation’, Nahavandi, A. and Malekzadeh, A.R. (1988) Acculturation in mergers and acquisitions, Academy ofManagement Review, 13(1): 83-4; Table 29.1 ‘Implementation climate and innov- ation/values fit, Klein, K.L. and Sorra, J.S. (1996) The challenge of innovation implementation, Academy ofManagement Review, 21(4): 1066. Elsevier Publishers for Table 12.1 “The social readjustment rating scale’, adapted from Holmes, T. and Rahe, R. (1967) The social readjustment rating scale, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11: 215. Cengage Publishers for Figure 16.2 ‘Cummings and Worley’s typology of interven- tions based on focal issues, adapted from Cummings, T.G. and Worley, C.G. (2001) Organizational Development and Change, 7th edn. Emerald Group Publishing for Table 25.1 “Post-merger integration tasks’, Shrivas- tava, P. (1986) ‘Postmerger integration’ Journal ofBusiness Strategy, 7(1): 67; Figures
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - 28.1 and 28.2 ‘Classes of sustainability at cell level’ and ‘Factory-level improvement model, Bateman, N. and David, A. (2002) Process improvement programmes: a model for assessing sustainability, International Journal ofOperations and Production Management, 22(5/6): 520. Wiley for Figure 1.3 “Types of organizational change’, adapted from Nadler, D. and Shaw, R. (1995) Change leadership, in Nadler, D., Shaw, R. and Walton, A.E. (eds) Discontinuous Change, Jossey-Bass; Figure 3.1 “The trap of success, Nadler, D. and Shaw, R. (1995) Change leadership, in Nadler, D., Shaw, R. and Walton, A.E. (eds) Discontinuous Change, Jossey-Bass; Exercise 5.1 ‘Raising awareness of your implicit model of organizational functioning’, described in Tichy, N.M. and Hornstein, H.A. (1980) Collaborative model building, in Lawler, E.E., Nadler, D.A. and Cammann, C. (eds) Organizational Assessment, Wiley; Figure 5.3 ‘Kotter’s integ- rative model of organizational dynamics’, Nadler, D. and Tushman, M. (1980) Congruence model for organizational assessment, in Lawler, E.E., Nadler, D.A. and Cammann, C. (eds) Organizational Assessment, Wiley; Table 5.5 ‘Examples of element states that do and do not facilitate system adaptation, adapted from Nadler, D. and Tushman, M. (1980) Congruence model for organizational assess- ment, in Lawler, E.E., Nadler, D.A. and Cammann, C. (eds) Organizational Assess- ment, Wiley; Figure 5.4 ‘Congruence model’, Nadler, D and Tushman, M. (1980) Congruence model for organizational assessment, in Lawler, E.E., Nadler, D.A. and Cammann, C. (eds) Organizational Assessment, Wiley; Figure 6.3 ‘Flamholtz’s pyramid of organizational development’, Flamholtz, E. (1995) Managing organiz- ational transition: implications for corporate and human resource management, European Management Journal, 13(1): 44; Figure 6.4 “The absorptive capacity/ tipping point framework for growth firm states’, Phelps, R., Adams, R. and Bessant, J. (2007) Life cycles of growing organizations: a review with implications for know- ledge and learning, International Journal ofManagement Reviews, 9(1): 13; Figure 16.1 ‘Developments in types of intervention over the past century’, Weisbord, M. (1987) Productive Workplaces: Organising and Managing forDignity, Meaning and Community, Jossey-Bass. Simon & Schuster for Figure 6.5 “The 7S model; Pascale, R. and Athos, A. (1981) The Art ofJapanese Management. Every effort has been made to trace rights holders, but ifany have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers would be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
after action review accident and emergency business process re-engineering chief executive chief executive officer enterprise resource planning human resources human resource management information technology just in time National Health Service organization development plan, do, study, act political, economic, social, technological severe acute respiratory syndrome strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats total quality management
The Theory and Practice ofChange Management is designed to help you: > develop your investigative and diagnostic skills so that you will be more effective in assessing what is going on in organizations » extend your ability to manage issues arising from internally planned and externally imposed organizational changes > improve your awareness of how people can facilitate or resist change and extend your ability to manage the human resource in the context of change. The book is divided into eight parts. The first examines the nature of change and in Chapter 2 presents a model of change as a process. The following seven parts of the book address each stage of this process in turn. Part II focuses on recognizing the need for change and starting the change process. Part III looks at diagnosis and how change managers identify what it is that needs to be changed. Part IV explores the many people issues that have to be attended to. Part V is concerned with planning and preparing to implement a change. Part VI focuses on implementation. Part VII looks at how change managers can monitor and review how well the change is progressing and how feedback can draw attention to unanticipated consequences and the need for corrective action. Part VIII is about sustaining change, hanging on to gains and spreading good practice. Part! The nature of change The first part of this book reviews some important theoretical perspectives on the nature of change and a range of the issues and choices that need to be considered when developing an approach to managing change. Patterns of change The first chapter examines the nature of change, reviews theories relating to patterns of change, considers some of the factors that facilitate or limit change and explores some of the implications of different types of change for change management practice. Until recently almost all received models of change were incremental and cumu- lative. The gradualist paradigm posits that organizations can adapt and transform themselves, as required, through aprocess of continuous adjustment. This is in stark contrast to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, which posits that systems (organizations) evolve through the alternation of periods of equilibrium, in which persistent ‘deep structures’ only permit limited incremental change, and periods of revolution, in which these deep structures are fundamentally altered. It is argued
eo — INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW that, with a few exceptions, most organizations experience change as a pattern of punctuated equilibrium. After reading this chapter, you will be invited to assess your understanding of some of the issues discussed by identifying the nature of change involved in Case studies 1.1-1.5. You will also be invited to reflect on the nature of the changes confronting the organization you work for, or another organization you know well. Chapter 2 The process of change This chapter opens with an activity designed to explore the issues and choices involved in developing an approach to managing organizational change. It then moves on to consider change from a process perspective and presents a generic model that provides the structure for Chapters 3-29 of this book. The way in which chapters relate to the generic model is illustrated below. w Recognizing the need for change External 4 Starting the change process change Problems and opportunities 5 Open systems models 6 Other diagnostic models 7 Gathering and interpreting information 8 Stakeholder management 11 Motivating others to change 9 Leadership 12 Managing personal transitions 10 Communicating change 13 Modes of intervening > 14 Shaping implementation strategies 15 Developing a change plan = 4 > 16 Types of intervention < 17 Selecting interventions m = 18 Organizational learning 23 Business process re-engineering 19 Action research 24 Lean 20 Appreciative inquiry 25 Restructuring for strategic gain 21 Training and development 26 Merging groups 22 High performance management 27 Reviewing change 28 Making change stick 29 Spreading change The relationship between Chapters 3-29 and the generic process model of change
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ~~ Part Il Recognizing the need for change and starting the change process Part Ill 3 Recognizing the need for change 4 Starting the change process dosd Bulbeueyw le implement a Sustain a> Chapter 3 Recognizing the need for change The focus of this chapter is recognizing the need for change. Particular attention is given to how internal factors can affect this. These include strong organizational ideologies that inhibit learning, the composition of the top team, the way the agenda for change is formulated and the extent to which organizational members are encouraged or allowed to contribute to the change agenda. Chapter 4 Starting the change process Diagnosis This chapter examines some of the issues associated with starting the change process. Most important is translating the need for change into a desire for change. Organizational members may be reluctant to pursue change because they lack confi- dence in their own and others’ ability to make a difference. This chapter (and book) adopts a ‘voluntaristic’ perspective and argues that organizational members are not powerless pawns, unable to affect change, but are independent actors able to inter- vene in ways that can make an important difference. To do this they need concepts and theories that will help them to understand the process of changing and ways of intervening, but they also need to believe in their own ability to affect outcomes. Attention is given to who should lead the change and how they can build effective change relationships. Organizational diagnosis is concerned with identifying what it is that needs to be changed. Organizational behaviour, at all its different levels, is a complex phenom- enon and it is impossible for managers to pay attention to every aspect of organiza- tional functioning. Diagnostic models help change managers to cope with this complexity.
4 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW extemal change ol Open systems models Other diagnostic models Gathering and interpreting information a ~N Chapter 5 Opensystems models and alignment This chapter opens with an examination of the role of models in organizational diagnosis and introduces an exercise designed to help raise your awareness of the implicit models you use when thinking about organizations and assessing the need for change. Often our implicit models provide a good basis for understanding what is going on and predicting what kinds of actions or interventions will produce desired change. Sometimes, however, they are subjective and biased; they overemphasize some aspects of organizational functioning and completely neglect others. The aim of the model-building exercise is to help you to develop a greater awareness of your own model of organizational functioning, assess whether it is consistent with or relevant to the problems or opportunities you may need to address, and consider ways in which you can improve the efficacy of your approach to diagnosing and identifying what needs to be changed. The second part of Chapter S considers the attributes of holistic models of organ- izational functioning, summarizes the main features of open systems models and discusses the utility of the concept of alignment. Chapter 6 Other diagnostic models This chapter presents a range of other models that can be used to aid diagnosis. It is argued that ‘good’ diagnostic models are those that are relevant to the issues under consideration, help to identify critical cause-and-effect relationships and focus attention on elements that change managers can affect. Chapter 7 Gathering and interpreting information for diagnosis This chapter examines the process of gathering and interpreting information for the purpose of diagnosis. Attention is focused on five main steps: 1 selection of an appropriate conceptual model for diagnosis 2 clarification of information requirements 3 information gathering 4 analysis 5 interpretation.
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW @ Attention is also drawn to the political issues associated with data collection that can frustrate attempts to gain an accurate impression of organizational functioning. At the end of this chapter, you are invited to think about a recent occasion when you, or somebody working close to you attempted to introduce and manage a change, and reflect on the extent to which this change initiative was based on an accurate diag- nosis of the need for change, as well as consider the extent to which the accuracy of the diagnosis was related to the appropriateness of the diagnostic model used, the nature of the information collected and the way in which it was interpreted. Part IV Managing the people issues 8 Stakeholder management | External | | change // Recognize 9 Leadership f | ee rn ae i | 10 Communicating change t ied | 11 Motivating others to change > Diagnosis rs 12 Managing personal eee ee 3 transitions gee | a 13 Modes of intervening ” Plan © ° Sea | =) oO 4> o 0) c oO o 4> People issues need to be attended to throughout the whole change process. Just because ‘managing people issues’ is presented as Part IV does not mean that they are unimportant prior to implementation. A common mistake is to treat the early stages of starting the change and diagnosis and goal setting as purely technical activities. Too often, too little attention is given to political and motivational issues early on. It is not unusual for ‘expert’ change agents to decide when and where change is required and to define change objectives without taking into account the concerns of stakeholders or recognizing the ways in which they can contribute to or sabotage the change process. The six chapters in Part I[V examine some of the people issues that change managers need to address. Chapter 8 Power, politics and stakeholder management This chapter explores the politics of organizational change and the need to enlist the support of key stakeholders. An instrumental theory of stakeholder management is elaborated with reference to resource dependence theory, prospect theory and life cycle models. It provides a conceptual framework for identifying which stakeholders are likely to be most important at various stages ofachange project and for selecting appropriate ways of managing relationships with them. After completing an exercise designed to help you to explore some of the issues involved in stakeholder manage- ment, you will be invited to think about a recent change in your organization or else- where and, with the advantage of hindsight: > identify the stakeholders involved in the change
@ Chapter 11 — INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW > classify them according to their power to influence and their attitude towards the change > assess the extent to which the change manager was aware of these stakeholders and took proper account of them when managing the change. Chapter 9 The role of leadership in change management This chapter examines the role of leadership in change management. Special atten- tion is given to the leader’s role in terms of creating a vision, aligning relationships around the vision and inspiring others to achieve the vision. Leadership is also considered as a. collective process and some of the issues associated with maintaining coherence in the leadership group and between the leadership group and internal and external stakeholders are reviewed. The chapter closes with a review of Kotter's _ eight-point checklist of what leaders can do to promote change. : Chapter 10 Communicating change This chapter considers the role of communication in the management of change. Often the focus is exclusively on the ‘what, when, who and how’ of communicating from the perspective of the change manager communicating to others. In this chapter, attention is also given to issues associated with change managers perceiving, interpreting and using information communicated to them by others. After studying this chapter, you will be invited to consider how the quality of communication has helped or hindered change in your organization, or some other situation with which you are familiar. Motivating others to change This chapter considers how the general level of commitment in an organization can affect the level of support for change and identifies some of the most common sources of resistance to change. The utility of expectancy theory for assessing and managing resistance to change is explored. The second half of the chapter involves an exercise designed to help you to use expectancy and equity theory to motivate others to change. Chapter 12 Managing personal transitions This chapter addresses the way organizational members experience change. It exam- ines the response to change, irrespective of whether the change is viewed as an opportunity or a threat, as a progression through a number of stages of psychological reaction. It also considers how an understanding of the way individuals react to change can help managers to plan and implement organizational change in ways that will maximize benefit and minimize cost for the organization and those affected by the change. In this chapter, you will be invited to reflect on how you reacted to a change that was lasting in its effects, took place over a relatively short period of time and affected a number of key assumptions you made about how you related to the world around you. The information generated by this exercise will be used to validate a generic stage model of transition.
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW —@ Chapter 13 Modes of intervening This chapter argues that the most effective way of facilitating change is to intervene in a way that helps others to help themselves. Usually this involves adopting acollab- orative approach but sometimes there may be special circumstances that call for a more prescriptive approach. Five different modes of intervening are discussed. One of these, advising, is prescriptive and the other four — supporting, theorizing, chal- lenging and information gathering — are collaborative. Part V Planning and preparing for implementation BE eee i Baten Banu y a ee Recognize 4> 14 Shaping implementation strategies 15 Developing a change plan 16 Types of intervention 17 Selecting interventions 4 implement a ee ) 4> The four chapters in Part V examine some of the issues that change managers need to attend to, after they have diagnosed what needs to be changed, in order to decide how to achieve the required change. Chapter 14 Shaping the implementation strategy This chapter looks at the broad picture and considers the strengths and weaknesses of three approaches to managing change, explores some of the situational variables that need to be considered when shaping an implementation strategy and considers how and why a change strategy may need to change over time. The chapter concludes with a brief review of some alternative start points for change. After reading this chapter, you will be invited to critically assess the strategy used to manage a recent change within your organization or some other situation with which you are familiar. Chapter 15 Developing a change plan It is not unusual for change to disrupt normal work and undermine existing manage- ment systems. This chapter considers some of the steps that need to be considered when developing a change plan. These are: > appoint a transition manager identify what needs to be done produce an implementation plan, with clear targets and goals, which can indicate progress and signal a need for any remedial action > use multiple and consistent leverage points for change
eo -—. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW schedule activities ensure that adequate resources are allocated to the change and that an appropriate balance is maintained between keeping the organization running and implementing the changes necessary to move towards the desired future state > implement reward systems that encourage experimentation and change > develop feedback mechanisms that provide the information required to ensure that the change programme moves forward in a coordinated manner, especially where the plan calls for change in a number of related areas. After reading this chapter, you will be invited to reflect on an occasion when you were involved in the management of a change, at work or elsewhere, and consider what you or others might have done differently to develop an effective implementa- tion plan. Chapter 16 Types of intervention Interventions are intentional acts designed to disrupt the status quo and move the organization towards a more effective state. Change efforts can be less successful than they might be because those responsible for managing the change are unaware of the full range of interventions available to them. This chapter reviews interven- tions using two contrasting typologies. The first focuses attention on who does the intervening and what it is they do to bring about change. Four classes of intervention are discussed: > experts applying scientific principles to solve specific problems > groups working collaboratively to solve their own problems > experts working to solve system-wide problems > everybody working to improve the capability of the whole system for future performance. The second classifies interventions in terms of the issues they address. Again, four main types of intervention are identified, which focus on: » human process issues > technology/structural issues > human resource issues > strategic issues. Chapter 17 Selecting interventions This chapter reviews some of the factors that need to be considered when selecting which kind of intervention to use. They include the nature of the diagnosed problem, the level of change target — individual, group, organization and so on — and the required depth of intervention. These factors are combined to provide a three- dimensional model to aid choice. Attention is also given to the factors that can affect the sequencing of interven- tions. These include the intent or purpose of the change, organizational politics and how they can affect the support for different interventions, the need for an early success to maintain motivation, the stakes involved, and causal links that affect the dynamics of change.
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW & Part VI Implementing change External oe | change Organizational learning Action research Appreciative inquiry Training and development High performance management Business process re-engineering Lean Restructuring for strategic gain Merging groups Implementation is the step in the change process that involves taking action to bring about change. Part VI reviews the theory that underpins nine types of inter- vention and considers how each can be used to secure change. The first three inter- ventions (chapters) address human process problems, the next two focus on human resource issues, the following two on technostructural problems and the final two on strategic issues. /’ Chapter 18 Collective learning in organizations This chapter reviews how collective learning can contribute to organizational effec- tiveness and presents examples of interventions that promote learning in different situations. Different kinds of collective learning are discussed. Single loop learning is concerned with continuous improvement through doing things better. Double loop learning involves challenging current thinking and exploring the possibility of doing things differently or doing different things. Attention is also given to the role of knowledge transfer within and between organizations. Chapter 19 Action research Action research is the basic model underpinning most organizational change inter- ventions. It involves the application of scientific methods (fact finding and experi- mentation) to organizational problems and underpins the generic process model of change presented in Chapter 2. Action research is based on the premise that people learn best and are more willing to apply what they have learned when they manage the problem-solving process for themselves. The learning process involves: > observing what is going on > developing hypotheses that specify cause-and-effect relationships and point to actions that could help organizational members to manage their problem more effectively > taking action > collecting data to evaluate the effect of the action and test the hypothesis.
@e INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW Chapter 20 Appreciative inquiry Appreciative inquiry is a process that involves exploring the best of what is and amplifying this best practice. It seeks to accentuate the positive rather than eliminate the negative; it focuses attention on what is good and working rather than on what is wrong and not working. Whereas action research promotes learning through attending to dysfunctional aspects of organizational functioning (problems), appreciative inquiry is concerned with embracing possibilities. This involves: » Discovering the best of whatever is the focus of the inquiry, for example team working, leadership > Understanding what creates the best of ... > Amplifying the people or processes that create the best of ... . This chapter examines appreciative inquiry from three perspectives: a philosophy of knowledge, an intervention theory, and a methodology for intervening in organiz- ations to improve performance and the quality of life. Chapter 21. Training and development This chapter considers how training can contribute to the change process. Attention is directed towards the main elements of an effective approach to training. These are: 1 A training needs analysis, which involves three steps: « a system-level review to determine which parts of the organization will be affected by the change » amore focused task analysis to determine how the pattern of task demands and required competencies will change * a person analysis to identify the extent to which existing organizational members possess the required competencies. 2 The design and delivery of training. 3 The evaluation of the training. The final section reviews the development of training practice in Australia over a 10-year period and highlights a number of trends in training provision. Chapter 22 High performance management This chapter considers how people management practices can affect performance by: 1 improving employees’ knowledge and skills 2 motivating them to engage in discretionary behaviours that draw on their knowledge and skill 3 modifying organizational structures in ways that enable employees to improve the way they perform their jobs. Rather than focusing on separate people management practices, high perform- ance management involves developing and implementing a ‘bundle’ or system of practices that are internally consistent, aligned with other business processes, and aligned with the organization's business strategy. Alignment is the defining feature of high performance management interventions.
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW AB Chapter 23 Business process re-engineering This chapter examines the nature of business process re-engineering (BPR). While it is often regarded as a fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business proc- esses to achieve dramatic change, the benefits of less ambitious approaches that adopt BPR principles to improve existing processes are also considered. The seven stages of BPR are discussed. These are: process mapping identifying processes for re-engineering understanding the selected process defining key performance objectives designing new processes testing implementation. NAO fd wWN Chapter 24 Lean This chapter traces the development of lean thinking and presents Womark and Jones's five lean principles: > specifying value for each product or product family > identifying value streams for each product to expose waste > making value flow without interruption > letting customers pull value from the producer > pursuing perfection by searching out and eliminating further waste. A number of lean tools and techniques are reviewed along with issues to be considered when implementing lean. The chapter ends with an exploration of how lean has been applied in manufacturing and non-manufacturing settings. Chapter 25 Restructuring for strategic gain: mergers and acquisitions Acquisition success depends on both strategic and organization fit. This chapter adopts a process perspective and considers some of the conditions and critical junctures that can affect the quality of strategic fit and the integration process. Some of the issues that those leading the acquisition need to recognize and address are identified. Many of the problems that undermine the acquisition process can be avoided, or at least minimized, if careful attention is given to: > specifying acquisition objectives > developing an acquisition overview that provides the bridge between the acquisition objectives and what needs to happen ifthey are to be achieved > elaborating this overview to develop an implementation plan > taking care to avoid managing the actual implementation in a heavy-handed way. Chapter 26 Merging groups: combining people for effective performance This chapter draws on social identity and acculturation theories to provide a concep- tual framework for thinking about how managers can intervene to promote people synergy and achieve merger success. Attention is focused on three types of intervention: > culture profiling — to pre-screen potential merger partners and, later in the merger process, guide the integration process
@e — INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW Part Vil > change communication — to provide organizational members with clear and unambiguous information about what is going to change as aresult of the merger socioemotional support — to care for those affected by the change, minimize alienation and promote post-merger organizational identity. Reviewing change External change MA3AlAAY 4> «> Recognize Sustain Chapter 27 Reviewing change Part VIII Buribeueyp eidood 27 Reviewing change This chapter focuses special attention on how the process of reviewing progress can provide change managers with feedback they can use to assess whether interven- tions are being implemented as intended, whether the chosen interventions are having the desired effect and whether the change plan continues to be valid. | External change Sustaining change 4) ee a — Sen i Recognize On ere Diagnosis Plan eee implement 28 Making change stick 29 Spreading change Lewin (1951) argued that all too often change is short-lived. After a ‘shot in the arm, life returns to the way it was before. In his view, it is not enough to think of change in terms of simply reaching a new state. The first two chapters look at what managers
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW -.@ can do to sustain change. The final chapter presents a case study that provides an opportunity to reflect on and pull together all the concepts and ideas discussed in the book. Chapter 28 Making change stick This chapter looks at ‘stickability’ and what managers can do to consolidate a change and hold on to gains. Attention is focused on two key issues: 1 The way the change process is managed from the beginning. It is argued that tough top-down (push) strategies are more likely to foster compliance than commitment and ownership. Compliance often evaporates when the pressure to maintain the change is eased. 2 How change managers can act to sustain change after the initial change goals have been achieved. Chapter 29 Spreading change This chapter looks at ‘spreadability’, the extent to which new methods and processes that have delivered gains in one location are applied, or adapted and then applied elsewhere across the organization. Attention is given to what managers can do to promote the spread of change. Chapter 30 Pulling it all together: a concluding case study This book covers a lot of ground. Chapter 30 introduces a concluding case study designed to provide you with an opportunity to review what you have read and think about how the many theories, models, techniques and tools can be applied to the management of a single case. You can do this on your own or with others.
Part THE NATURE OF CHANGE The first part of this book reviews some important theoretical perspectives on the nature of change and a range of the issues and choices that need to be considered when developing an approach to managing change. The way in which chapters relate to the generic model is illustrated below. 3 Recognizing the need for change 4 Starting the change process External change Problems and opportunities =, Diagnosis 5 Open systems models 6 Other diagnostic models 7 Gathering and interpreting information 8 Stakeholder management 11 Motivating others to change 9 Leadership 12 Managing personal transitions 10 Communicating change 13 Modes of intervening 14 Shaping implementation strategies 15 Developing a change plan os 4 > 16 Types of intervention < 17 Selecting interventions m = 18 Organizational learning 23 Business process re-engineering 19 Action research 24 Lean 20 Appreciative inquiry 25 Restructuring for strategic gain q » 21 Training and development 26 Merging groups 22 High performance management 27 Reviewing change 28 Making change stick 29 Spreading change The relationship between Chapters 3-29 and the generic process model of change
Chapter 1 I- THE NATURE OF CHANGE — @ Patterns of change The first chapter examines the nature of change, reviews theories relating to patterns of change, considers some of the factors that facilitate or limit change and explores some of the implications of different types of change for change manage- ment practice. Until recent times almost all received models of change were incremental and cumulative. The gradualist paradigm posits that organizations can adapt and trans- form themselves, as required, through a process of continuous adjustment. This is in stark contrast to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, which posits that systems (organizations) evolve through the alternation of periods of equilibrium, in which persistent deep structures only permit limited incremental change, and periods of revolution, in which these deep structures are fundamentally altered. It is argued that, with a few exceptions, most organizations experience change as a pattern of punctuated equilibrium. After reading this chapter, you will be invited to assess your understanding of some of the issues discussed by identifying the nature of change involved in Case studies 1.1.1-1.1.5. You will also be invited to reflect on the nature of the changes confronting the organization you work for, or another organization that you know well. Chapter 2 The process of change This chapter opens with an activity designed to explore the issues and choices involved in developing an approach to managing organizational change. It then moves on to consider change from a process perspective and presents a generic model that provides the structure for Chapters 3-29 of this book.
The Shorter Oxford Dictionary offers several definitions of change, ranging from the ‘substitution or succession of one thing in place of another’ to the ‘alteration in the state or quality of anything. Changes can be large or small, evolutionary or revolu- tionary, sought after or resisted. This chapter examines the nature of change, reviews theories relating to patterns of change, considers some of the factors that facilitate or limit change and explores some of the implications of different types of change for change management practice. Attention is also given to the effects of change on individuals. The chapter ends with two exercises. The first invites you to analyse the nature of the change involved in four case studies. The second invites you to reflect on the nature of the changes confronting the organization you work for, or another organiz- ation that you know well, and classify these changes using the conceptual frame- works presented in this chapter. Until recently almost all received models of change were incremental and cumu- lative. This theoretical consensus had implications for change management practice. The aim of planned change efforts tended to be continuous improvement (what the Japanese refer to as ‘kaizen’) and most attention was focused on changing subsys- tems or parts of the organization in turn, rather than attempting to change the whole organization at once. Over the past 30 years, however, many traditional assumptions about the incremental nature of change have been revised. The rate of change is not constant Starting in the late 1970s, Tushman and his colleagues at Columbia University studied hundreds of companies in several industries over time (see Tushman and Romanelli, 1985; Tushman et al., 1986). They found evidence to support what many already knew. The rate of change, as an industry evolves, is not constant. It follows a sigmoidal (s-shaped) curve, with a slow beginning (lag phase) associated with experimentation and slow market penetration, a middle period of rapid growth (log phase) as the product gains acceptance and as dominant designs emerge, and finally a tapering off as more advanced or completely different products attract consumers’ attention (Figure 1.1). The pattern then starts all over again. Similar variations in the rate of change were identified much earlier by Ryan and Gross (1943), when they studied how 259 farmers in Iowa responded to the intro- duction of a new superior hybrid seed corn. The new seed was available in 1928 but it was 1932 before the first farmers began planting. In 1934, 16 farmers adopted the new seed, followed by slightly higher numbers in the following two years. But it was nine years after the seeds were first available before there was widespread accept- ance. The breakthrough came in 1937. The first users were innovators who
PATTERNS OF CHANGE 17 ‘infected’ the early adopters, a group who carefully monitored the success of the initial trials before deciding what to do. This group was followed by a mass of movers, the early and the late majority. The last group to adopt the seeds were the laggards and it was 1942 before all but two of the 259 farmers were planting the new seeds. é Decline of old and emergence of new r t Level of Bae activity in 4q— Mature product, slow an industr J or little growth q—_ Product acceptance and dominance: rapid growth New product/service: <—— experimentation and slow growth Time Figure 1.1. Pattern of industry evolution Gladwell (2000), in his book The Tipping Point, cites some more dramatic exam- ples — including the sudden and dramatic decline in crime in New York in 1990 and the takeoff of fax machines in the USA, when, only three years after they were first introduced, over a million machines were sold — to support his assertion that many social changes do not occur gradually. They spread like viral epidemics and change, when it happens, is sudden. The ‘tipping point’ is the name he gives to the dramatic moment in an epidemic when everything changes at once. The proposition that some changes happen quickly, over relatively short periods of time, whereas others gradually evolve suggests that the tempo of change might provide a useful basis for thinking about the nature of change and the implications of different types of change for change management practice. The punctuated equilibrium paradigm Gould (1978) challenges the notion of incremental, cumulative change. He is a natural historian with an interest in Darwin’s theory of evolution. Traditionalists assert that evolution involves a slow stream of small changes (mutations) that are continuously being shaped over time by environmental selection. While Gould accepts the principle of natural selection, he rejects the proposition that change is gradual and continuous. Gould (1978: 15) asserts that the evidence points to ‘a world punctuated with periods of mass extinction and rapid origination among long stretches of relative tranquillity: Some of his essays focus on the two greatest ‘punc- tuations. After four billion years of almost no change, there was the Cambrian explo- sion of life (about 600 million years ago) and, after another longish period of very slow change, the Permian extinction that wiped out half the families of marine inver- tebrates (225 million years ago). Gersick (1991) has studied models of change in six domains — individual change, group development, organization development, history of science, biological evolu- tion and physical science — and found support for the punctuated equilibrium para- digm in every domain. According to Gersick (1991: 12), the paradigm has the
. ee I+ THE NATURE OF CHANGE Deep structure following components: ‘relatively long periods of stability (equilibrium), punctuated by compact periods of qualitative, metamorphic change (revolution). She goes on to assert that in all the models she studied across the six domains: the relationship of these two modes is explained through the construct of a highly durable underlying order or deep structure. This deep structure is what persists and limits change during equilibrium periods and is what disassembles, reconfig- ures, and enforces wholesale transformation during revolutionary periods. (Gersick, 1991: 12) The essence of the punctuated equilibrium paradigm is that systems (organizations) evolve through the alternation of periods of equilibrium, in which persistent ‘deep structures’ only permit limited incremental change, and periods of revolution, in which these deep structures are fundamentally altered. This is in stark contrast to the traditional gradualist paradigm, which suggests that: > an organization (or an organizational subsystem) can accommodate any change at any time so long as it is a relatively small change > astream of incremental changes can, over a period of time, fundamentally transform the organization’s deep structure. Gersick (1991: 16) refers to deep structure as the fundamental choices an organiz- ation makes that determine the basic activity patterns that maintain its existence. She argues that deep structures are highly stable because the trail of choices made by a system (organization) rule out many options-and rule in those that are mutually contingent — ‘early steps in the decision tree are the most fateful’ She also argues that the activity patterns of a system’s deep structure reinforce the system as a whole through mutual feedback loops. Tushman and Romanelli (1985) identify five key domains of organizational activity that might be viewed as representing an organization's deep structure. These are organizational culture, strategy, structure, power distribution and control systems. Romanelli and Tushman (1994) go on to assert that it takes a revolution to alter a system of interrelated organizational parts when it is maintained by mutual dependencies among the parts, and when competitive, regulatory and technological systems outside the organization reinforce the legitimacy of the managerial choices that produced the parts. Greenwood and Hinings (1996) offer a slightly different perspective based on neo-institutional theory, but the core argument is the same; there is a force for inertia that limits the possibility for incremental change, and that this resistance to change will be strongest when the network of mutual dependencies is tightly coupled. Greenwood and Hinings’ (1996: 1023) argument is that a major source of resistance to change stems from the ‘normative embeddedness of an organization within its institutional context. Organizations must accommodate institutional expectations in order to survive. They illustrate this point with reference to the way institutional context has influenced the structure and governance of accounting firms. They were (and most still are) organized as professional partnerships, not because that form of governance facilitated efficient and effective task performance, but because it was defined as the appropriate way of organizing the conduct of accounting work. The parameters offered by such an archetypal template provide the context for convergent change. Greenwood and Hinings (1996: 1025) suggest, for example, that an accounting firm operating as a professional partnership could, as it grows,
PATTERNS OF CHANGE _@ introduce some form of representative democracy in place of the traditional broadly based democratic governance. This kind of incremental change could be achieved because it is perceived to be consistent with prevailing core ideas and values. However, a move towards a more a bureaucratic form of authority and governance might encounter strong resistance because it is perceived to be inconsistent with the prevailing template. Such a radical change would involve the organization moving from one template-in-use to another. These templates work in the same way as Gersick’s deep structures. However, the degree of embeddedness and the strength of these templates may vary between sectors, and this will affect the power of the template to limit the possibility for incremental cumulative change in any particular organization. In the case of the accounting profession, the partnership organizational form, with its commitment to independence, autonomy and responsible conduct, is supported by a strong network of reciprocal exchanges between professional associations, universities, state agen- cies and accounting firms. The outcome is a situation where individual accounting firms are tightly coupled to the prevailing archetypal template. Greenwood and Hinings (1996) argue that radical change in tightly coupled fields will be unusual, but if it does occur, it will be revolutionary. However, in loosely coupled fields, radical change will be more common and will tend to be evolutionary and could unfold over a relatively long period of time. Equilibrium periods Gersick (1991: 16) introduces the analogy of the playing field and the rules of the game to describe an organization's deep structure, and the game in play to describe activity during an equilibrium period. How a game of football is played may change over the course of a match, but there is a consistency that is determined by the nature of the playing field and the rules of the game. The coach and the players can intervene and make changes that will affect team performance, but they cannot intervene to change the nature of the playing field or the rules of the game (the deep structure). In terms of organizational change, during periods of equilibrium, change agents can intervene and make incremental adjustments in response to internal or external perturbations, but these interventions will not fundamentally affect the organization's deep structure. An important question is: “Why do organizations find it hard to change?’ According to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, organizations are resistant to change in equilibrium periods because of forces of inertia that work to maintain the status quo. Gersick argues that so long as the deep structure is intact, it generates a strong inertia to prevent the system from generating alternatives outside its own boundaries. Furthermore, these forces for inertia can pull any deviations that do occur back into line. Gersick (1991) identifies three sources of inertia: cognitive frameworks, motiva- tion and obligations. Organizational members often develop shared cognitive frame- works and mental models that influence the way they interpret reality and learn. Shared mental models can restrict attention to thinking ‘within the frame. With regard to change, attention may be restricted to searching for ways of doing things better. In periods of equilibrium, assumptions about the organization's theory of business (Drucker, 1994) often go unchallenged and organizational members fail to give sufficient attention to the possibility of doing things differently or even doing different things. (See Hodgkinson and Healey, 2008, for details of studies that have considered the role of mental representations in both organizational inertia and strategic adaptation.)
iP oe THE NATURE OF CHANGE Motivational barriers to change are often related to the fear of loss, especially with regard to the sunk costs incurred during periods of equilibrium. Gersick (1991: 18) refers to the fear of losing control over one’s situation if the equilibrium ends and argues that this contributes heavily to the human motivation to avoid significant system change. Thaler and Sunstein (2009) draw on the work of Samu- elson and Zeckhauser to argue that for lots of reasons people prefer to stick with their current situation. Obligations can also limit change. Tushman and Romanelli (1985: 177) note that even if a system can overcome its own cognitive and motivational barriers against realizing a need for change, the networks of interdependent resource relationships and value commitments generated by its structure will often prevent it being able to achieve the required change. This view, at least in part, adds support to Greenwood and Hining’s (1996) proposition that the normative embeddedness of an organiz- ation can limit change. Episodes of discontinuous change occur when inertia, that is, the inability of organizations to change as rapidly as their environment, triggers some form of revo- lutionary transformation. Revolutionary periods Gersick (1991) asserts that the definitive element of the punctuated equilibrium paradigm is that organizations do not shift from one ‘kind of game’ to another through incremental steps. This, according to Romanelli and Tushman (1994), is because resistance to change prevents small changes in organizational units from taking hold and substantially influencing activities in related subunits. Consequently, small changes do not accumulate incrementally to transform the organization. Weick and Quinn (1999) note that punctuated equilibrium theorists posit that episodes of revolutionary change occur during periods of divergence when there is a growing misalignment between an organization's deep structure and perceived envi- ronmental demands. They report that the metaphor of the firm implied by concep- tions of episodic change is an organization that comprises aset of interdependencies that converge and tighten (become more closely aligned) as short run adaptations are pursued in order to achieve higher levels of efficiency. This focus on internal alignment deflects attention away from the need to maintain external alignment and, consequently, the organization is slow to adapt to environmental change. Inertia maintains the state that Lewin (1947) described as stable, quasi-stationary equilib- rium until misalignment reaches the point where major changes are precipitated. The only way forward is for the organization to transform itself. Gersick (1991: 19) argues that the transformation of deep structures can only occur through a process of wholesale upheaval: According to this logic, the deep structures must first be dismantled, leaving the system temporarily disorganized, in order for any fundamental change to be accomplished. Next, a subset of the system's old pieces, along with some new pieces, can be put back together into a new configuration, which operates according to a new set ofrules. This process of revolutionary change and organizational transformation provides the basis for a new state of equilibrium. However, because of forces of resistance that inhibit continuous adaptation, this new equilibrium gives rise to another period of relative stability that is followed by a further period of revolutionary change. This process continues to unfold as a process of punctuated equilibrium.
PATTERNS OF CHANGE @ Those who subscribe to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm argue that revolu- tionary episodes may affect a single organization or a whole sector. Marks & Spencer is an organization that was faced with the need to reinvent itself when, even after a long period of incremental change, it found itself misaligned with its environment and performing less well than other leading retailers. An example of a whole sector that was faced with the need to change its deep structure is the electricity supply sector in the UK. When the Conservative government decided to privatize the industry, this created a new playing field and a new set of rules for all the utility companies in the sector. Support for the punctuated equilibrium paradigm Numerous case histories offer support for the punctuated equilibrium paradigm. Pettigrew (1987) reports a study of change in ICI over the period 1969-86. He found that radical periods of change were interspersed with periods of incremental adjustment and that change in core beliefs preceded changes in structure and business strategy. Tushman et al. (1986) examined the development of AT&T, General Radio, Citibank and Prime Computers and observed periods during which organizational systems, structures and strategies converged to be more aligned with the basic mission of these organizations. They also observed that these equilibrium periods were punctuated bybrief periods of intense and pervasive change that led to the formulation of new missions and then the initiation of new equilibrium periods. The first direct test of the paradigm was Romanelli and Tushman’s (1994) empirical study of microcomputer producers, the key elements of which are summarized in Research report 1.1. Research report 1.1. Study of microcomputer producers Romanelli, E. and Tushman, M.L. (1994) Organizational transformation as punctuated equilibrium: an empirical test, Academy of Management Journal, 37(5): 1141-66 =, f According to the punctuated equilibrium model, radical and discontinuous change of 3 all or most organizational activities is necessary to break the grip of strong inertia. This A provides the basis of Romanelli and Tushman’s first hypothesis: Organizational transformations will most frequently occur in short, discontinuous bursts of change involving most or all key domains of organizational activity. Resistance to change is critical to punctuated equilibrium theory in that it establishes the key condition that supports revolutionary transformation. Resistance prevents small changes in organizational subunits from taking hold or substantially influencing activities in related subunits. This gives rise to their second hypothesis: Small changes in individual domains of organizational activity will not accumulate incrementally to yield a fundamental transformation. Their final set of three hypotheses addressed how organizational transformation is stimulated. Since the punctuated equilibrium model posits strong inertia as the common state of organizational affairs, they hypothesized that this inertia will be broken by a severe crisis in performance, major changes in the organization’s environment, and succession of its chief executive officer (CEO). Method Romanelli and Tushman studied the life histories of 25 minicomputer producers founded in the USA between 1967 and 1969. The firms were selected to maximize organizational similarities on dimensions of organizational age and the environmental characteristics that the organizations faced during founding and later in their lives.
@ oat fo THE NATURE OF CHAN GE Data were collected for all years of the organizations’ lives from a variety of sources, including information required by the Securities and Exchange Commission, annual reports, prospectuses, and industry and business press reports. They found that detailed information about strategies, structures and power distributions was available for all organizations throughout their lives. However, they also found that organizations reported information about cultures and control systems infrequently and inconsistently. Consequently, Romanelli and Tushman dropped the culture and control system domains of activity from further analysis and focused their attention on structure, strategy and power distributions. Fundamental organizational transformations, which could be either revolutionary or non-revolutionary, were identified as occurring whenever substantial changes were observed in the strategy, structure and power distribution domains of organizational activity. Revolutionary transformations were defined as occurring whenever changes in all three strategy, structure, and power distributions occurred within any two-year time period. NB: Two years was selected because some of the data were presented for corporate fiscal years and some for calendar years; however, they found that the majority of the revolutionary transformations actually occurred within a single year. Non-revolutionary transformations were identified in two ways. First, whenever there were substantial changes over a period longer than two years and, second, when small changes accumulated to a 30% change and when all three domains exhibited this level of change. Results The key findings of the study were that: 1 A large majority of organizational transformations were accomplished via rapid and discontinuous change. 2 Small changes in strategies, structure and power distribution did not accumulate to produce fundamental transformations. This finding provides additional evidence that fundamental organizational transformations tend to occur in short, discontinuous bursts. 3 Triggers for transformations were major environmental changes and CEO succession. The gradualist paradigm The gradualist paradigm posits that fundamental change (organizational transforma- tion) can occur through a process of continuous adjustment, and does not require some major discontinuous jolt to the system in order to trigger a short episode of revolutionary change. Change is evolving and cumulative. Brown and Eisenhardt (1997) argue that many firms compete by changing continuously. They cite companies such as Intel, Wal-Mart, 3M, Hewlett-Packard and Gillette and suggest that for them the ability to change rapidly and continuously is not just a core competence but is at the heart of their cultures. They refer to Burgelman (1991) and Chakravarthy (1997), who suggest that continuous change is often played out through product innovation as companies change and sometimes transform through a process of continually altering their products. Hewlett-Packard is identified as a classic case. The company changed from an instruments company to a computer firm through rapid, continuous product innovation, rather than through a sudden punctuated change. Continuous change, when it occurs, involves the continuous updating of work processes and social practices. Weick and Quinn (1999) argue that this leads to new patterns of organizing in the absence of a priori intentions on the part of some change agent. It is emergent in the sense that there is no deliberate orchestration of
PATTERNS OF CHANGE -@ change. It is continuous and is the outcome of the everyday process of management. They cite Orlikowski (1996), who suggests that continuous change involves individ- uals and groups accommodating and experimenting with everyday contingencies, breakdowns, exceptions, opportunities and unintended consequences, and repeating, sharing and amplifying them to produce perceptible and striking changes. Weick and Quinn (1999) observe that the distinctive quality of continuous change is the idea that small continuous adjustments, created simultaneously across units, can cumulate and create substantial change. They identify three related proc- esses associated with continuous change: improvisation, translation and learning: > Improvising facilitates the modification of work practices through mutual adjustments in which the time gap between planning and implementing narrows towards the point where composition (planning) converges with execution (implementation). > Translation refers to the continuous adoption and editing of ideas as they travel through the organization. > Learning involves the continuous revision of shared mental models, which facilitates a change in the organization’s response repertoire. Weick and Quinn (1999: 372) suggest that organisations produce continuous change by means of repeated acts of improvisa- tion involving simultaneous composition and execution, repeated acts of transla- tion that convert ideas into useful artefacts that fit purposes at hand, or repeated acts oflearning that enlarge, strengthen, or shrink the repertoire of responses. . Brown and Eisenhardt (1997) studied product innovation in six firms in the computer industry at a time of rapid product development associated with the Pentium processor, multimedia, internet and the convergence of telephony with consumer electronics. Three of their case studies related to firms with a record of successful product innovation and business performance and three related to firms with a relatively poor record of developing multi-product portfolios. They identified three characteristics of the firms that were able to manage change as a continuous process of adjustment: semi-structures that facilitated improvisation, links in time that facilitated learning, and sequenced steps for managing transitions. While the punctuated equilibrium paradigm stresses the interdependence of organizational ‘subunits and a web of interdependent relationships with buyers, suppliers and others that legally and normatively constrain organizations to estab- lished activities and relationships (Romanelli and Tushman, 1994), the gradualist paradigm emphasizes the relative independence of organizational subunits. This loose coupling facilitates change within subunits. Over time, as unit managers repeatedly alter their goals and relationships to accommodate changes in local environments, the organization as a whole can be transformed. As noted above, Greenwood and Hinings (1996) support the view that tightly coupled relationships are resistant to change and when change does occur, it tends to be revolutionary, but recognize that in loosely coupled fields, radical change can be evolutionary. Weick and Quinn (1999), however, suggest that when interdependencies are loose, continuous adjustments tend to be confined within subunits and remain as pockets of innovation. Continuous adjustment, therefore, may not always lead to fundamental change. Burke (2002) speculates that more that 95% oforganizational changes are, in some way, evolutionary, but he questions Orlikowski’s assumption that this can lead to sufficient modification to achieve fundamental change. He asserts that it is difficult to overcome inertia and equilibrium without a discontinuous ‘jolt’ to the system:
1 bs THE NATURE OF (CHANGE Organisation change does occur with continuous attention and effort, but it is unlikely that fundamental change in the deep structure of the organization would happen. (Burke, 2002: 69) The nature of change confronting most organizations Dunphy (1996) argues that planned change is triggered by the failure of people to ~ create a continuously adaptive organization, the kind of organization that is referred to in Chapter 18 as an effective learning organization. Weick and Quinn (1999) ~ suggest that this holds true whether the focus is episodic or continuous change, and they propose that the ideal organization in both cases would resemble the successful self-organizing and highly adaptive firms that Brown and Eisenhardt found in the computer industry. However, while some organizations might achieve this ideal and become so effective at double loop collective learning (see Chapter 18) that they are never misaligned with their environment, most do not. The majority of organiz- ations, if they survive long enough, experience episodes of discontinuous revolu- tionary as well as continuous incremental change. There are three main categories of organizations that may not experience periods of discontinuous change. These are: 1 The kind of self-organizing and continuously changing learning organizations identified by Brown and Eisenhardt. 2 Companies operating in niche markets or slow-moving sectors where they have not yet encountered the kind of environmental change that requires them to transform their deep structures. 3 Organizations that are able to continue functioning without transforming themselves because they have sufficient ‘fat’ to absorb the inefficiencies associated with misalignment. With these exceptions, most organizations experience change as a pattern of punctu- ated equilibrium. This pattern involves relatively long periods of equilibrium, during which an organization may only engage in incremental change, punctuated with short episodes of discontinuity during which an organization's survival may depend on its ability to transform itself. Incremental change According to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, incremental change is associated with those periods when the industry is in equilibrium and the focus for change is ‘doing things better’ through aprocess of continuous tinkering, adaptation and modifi- cation. Nadler and Tushman (1995) make the point that incremental changes are not necessarily small changes. They can be large in terms of the resources needed and the impact on people. A key feature of this type of change is that it builds on what has already been accomplished and has the flavour of continuous improvement. According to the gradualist paradigm, incremental change can be cumulative and, over time, can lead to an organization transforming its deep structures and reinventing itself. However, according to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, incremental change is incapable of fundamentally transforming the deep structures of an organization. Transformational change According to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, transformational change occurs during periods of disequilibrium. Weick and Quinn (1999) and Gersick (1991)
RATE RNS! OF) CHAN GB t= _ refer to this kind of change as ‘revolutionary’, but most writers, for example Tichy and Devanna (1986), Kotter (1999) and Burke and Litwin (1992), use the term ‘transformational change’ It involves a break with the past, a step function change rather than an extrapolation of past patterns of change and development. It is based on new relationships and dynamics within the industry that may undermine core competencies, and question the very purpose of the enterprise. This kind of change involves doing things differently rather than doing things better. It Itmight.even mean doing different things. The reprographics industry provides a good example of a “sector that was faced with a major discontinuity. Companies found that their core competence in optical reproduction was undermined when digital scanning tech- nology was developed and made available to their customers. The studies undertaken by’ Tushman.and colleagues (summarized iin Nadler and Tushman, |1995) suggest that most companies not only go through periods of “Continuous incremental and discontinuous transformational change, but that: » this pattern of change repeats itself with some degree of regularity > patterns vary across sectors, for example periods of discontinuity may follow a 30-year cycle in cement, but a 5-year cycle in minicomputers » in almost all industries the rate of change is increasing and the time between periods of discontinuity is decreasing (Figure 1.2). This last point is important because it predicts that all managers will be confronted with an ever greater need to manage both incremental and transformational change. Intensity of change ™“ “ ™ “ Organizations Organizations Organizations Organizations that failto adapt _—‘that fail to adapt that fail to adapt _that fail to adapt Time Figure 1.2 Punctuated equilibrium: a recurring pattern of continuous and transformational change Not all organizations are able to successfully negotiate episodes of discontinuity and those that fail to adapt may drop out or be acquired by others. Forester and ,Kaplan (2001) provide chilling evidence of the consequences of failing to adapt. They refer to changes in the Forbes top 100 companies between 1917 and 1987. ~ Out of the original 100 companies, only 18 were stillin the listin 1987 and 61 no longer existed. The possibility of anticipating change Sometimes it is relatively easy to anticipate the need for change. For example, companies operating in the European Union can, if they pay appropriate attention, anticipate the impact of new regulations that are currently being discussed in
@— I> THE NATURE OF CHANGE Brussels. Companies competing in markets where margins are being squeezed can anticipate the need to secure greater efficiencies or generate new income streams. There are, however, occasions when organizations are confronted with changes that are difficult to anticipate, for example the effects of the 9/11 terrorist attacks or the SARS epidemic. Some organizations are much better at anticipating the need for change than others. They are proactive. They search out potential threats and opportunities. They prepare for destabilizing events that might occur or anticipate changes they could initiate to gain competitive advantage. Other organizations are much more reactive and only act when there is a clear and pressing need to respond. Whether the need is for incremental or transformational change, the earlier the need is recognized, the greater the number of options managers will have when deciding how to manage it. Whenever managers are forced to react to an urgent and pressing need to change, they are relatively constrained in what they can do. For example: > There is less time for planning: Careful planning takes time, something that is more likely to be available to those who are proactive and anticipate the need for change. > There is unlikely to be sufficient time to involve many people: Involving people and encouraging participation in the change process can aid diagnosis, reduce resistance and increase commitment, but this also takes time. > There will be little time to experiment: Early movers not only have time to experiment, they may also have the time to try again ifthe first experiment fails. When there is a pressing need for change, it is more difficult to search for creative solutions. > Late movers may have little opportunity to influence shifts in markets and technologies: Early movers may have the opportunity to gain a competitive advantage by not only developing but also protecting, for example through patents, new products or technologies. A typology of organizational change Combining two of the dimensions of change discussed so far, the extent to which change involves incremental adjustment or transformational change and the extent to which the organization's response to change is proactive or reactive, provides a useful typology of organizational change (see Figure 1.3). Incremental Transformational Proactive Tuning at=Xela(=lant-ialelal Reactive Adaptation nite oa =t-)dfe) al Figure 1.3 Types of organizational change Source: Adapted from Nadler et al., 1995: 24 Nadler et al. (1995) identify four types of change: 1 Tuning is change that occurs when there is no immediate requirement to change. It involves seeking better ways of achieving and/or defending the strategic vision,
PATTERNS OF CHANGE — @& for example improving policies, methods, procedures; introducing new technologies; redesigning processes to reduce cost, time to market and so on; or developing people with required competencies. Most organizations engage in a form of fine-tuning much of the time. This approach to change tends to be initiated internally in order to make minor adjustments to maintain alignment between the internal elements of the organization and between the organization's strategy and the external environment. 2 Adaptation is an incremental and adaptive response to a pressing external demand for change. It might involve responding to a successful new marketing strategy adopted by a competitor or to a change in the availability of a key resource. Essentially, it broadly involves doing more of the same but doing it better in order to remain competitive. An example of adaptive change might be what happens when one company, for example Nestlé, is forced to respond to a competitive move by another, for example Mars may have either increased the size or reduced the price of some of its confectionary products. This kind of change is not about doing things in fundamentally different ways or about doing fundamentally different things. While tuning and adaptation can involve minor or major changes, they are types of change that occur within the same frame, they are bounded by the existing para- digm. Reorientation and re-creation, on the other hand, are types of change that, to use Gersick’s analogy, target the playing field and the rules of the game rather than the way a particular game is played. They involve transforming the organization and bending or breaking the frame to do things differently or to do different things. 3 Reorientation involves a redefinition of the enterprise. It is initiated in anticipation of future opportunities or problems. The aim is to ensure that the organization will be aligned and effective in the future. It may be necessary to modify the frame but, because the need for change has been anticipated, this could involve a gradual process of continuous frame bending. Nestlé offered a good example of reorientation in the mid-1980s. At a time when it was doing well, it embarked on a major change programme to ensure that it would remain aligned to its environment over the medium term. It initiated a top-down review to decide which businesses it should be in. Should it, for example, be in the pet foods business, continue to manufacture baked beans at a time when margins on that product were diminishing, or, as a major consumer of tin cans, supply its own or buy them in on a just in time basis? It also embarked on a major project to re-engineer the supply chain across the business and a bottom-up analysis of the added value contributed by each main activity. British Gas provides another example. After it had been privatized as a monopoly supplier of gas, the company was referred to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission. It was obvious to the top team that when the commission delivered its report, the company would be forced to change and might even be broken up. In order to prepare for this, ateam of 10 senior managers was created to explore and test possible scenarios and help the organization to develop the capability to respond to the inevitable, but at that time unspecified, changes it would have to face. In those cases where the need for change is not obvious to all and may not be seen as pressing by many, senior management (as in the British Gas example) may need to work hard in order to create a sense of urgency and gain widespread acceptance of the need to prepare for change. 4 Re-creation is a reactive change that involves transforming the organization through the fast and simultaneous change of all its basic elements. Nadler and Tushman (1995) state that it inevitably involves organizational frame breaking
eo I- THE NATURE OF CHANGE and the destruction of some elements of the system. It can be disorienting. An often cited example of this kind of change is that introduced by Lee Iacocca when he became the new CEO at Chrysler. He embarked on a process of revolutionary change that involved replacing most of the top team, withdrawing the company from the large car market and divesting many foreign operations. The most common type of change is incremental (either fine-tuning or adapta- tion) but it is not unusual for a single organization to be involved in more than one type of change at the same time. Confronted with ever diminishing opportunities to grow the mining business, UK Coal reappraised its assets and considered how it might revise its theory of business. The way forward was to explore the possibility of redefining the company as a land and property management and mining company. This reorientation involved many changes including bringing in new people with competencies in the area of land and property management. However, while this transformational change was being implemented at the highest level, the company was also pursuing incremental continuous improvement programmes to increase the efficiency of individual deep mines. Implications of these different types of change for change management practice Different types of change can affect the focus for change efforts, the sequence of steps in the change process and the locus for change, as discussed below. The focus for change efforts With incremental change, the aim is to improve alignment between existing organi- zational components in order to do things better and improve the efficiency of the organization (see Figure 1.4). With transformational change, the aim is to seek a new configuration of organizational components in order to realign the organization with its changing environment. As noted above, this often leads to doing things differently or doing different things. a =o eae Pall Figure 1.4 /nternal alignment The sequence of activities required to achieve a desired outcome Inertia is often one of the major barriers to change. As an organization moves through a period of equilibrium, interdependencies tighten, ideologies that prescribe the best way of operating become more widely accepted and the fear of losing benefits associ- ated with the status quo strengthens the resistance to change. The first step in the
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up with that old——” “Jinny, please!” “Oh, if you want me to tell falsehoods, my dear, I’ll do my best to oblige you. I’ll call him young to myself until it comes easy. Practice makes perfect, they say. Why, here we are! This horse must have the glanders or something. Perhaps he thought Mr. Germain was after you. There’s a lot of sense in brute beasts.” All this, which shows the rights of elder, was meekly received. Home-coming was nevertheless a sort of triumph. The younger girls—all tidied up—allowed her to kiss them as if she had become an aunt; father and mother made much of her; she must see in their faces a sort of anxious wonder—Can this be our Mary then? Can I have begotten this young lady? Can these breasts have nourished a Mrs. Germain? She was to have tea in her hat, which Jinny refused to do; but elaborately removed it and administered the kettle, the muffins, the slices of bread, the jam-pot. Blushing and successful as she showed, Mary would have put an end to this splendid isolation if she could. It was not possible until tea was over; but then, when her father made her a kind of speech—clearing his throat and frowning at one of the girls, who was speaking the deaf and dumb language to another under the table—then indeed Mary upset all ceremonial, by jumping up, and knocking down her chair, by throwing herself upon her mother’s lap, her arms around her mother’s neck, by hiding her face upon her mother’s breast and anointing that dear cradle with tears. Mr. Middleham’s little speech ended in a choking fit; the girls looked all their misery; and Jinny sniffed and hardened her heart. Mary had unbent, but she was made to see that all her people knew that it was a condescension. The sisters slept together as of old, and Jinny must be wooed. For natural reasons Mary must have Jinny’s approbation, must coax and kiss and strain for it. Jinny was not easily won, but after a passionate while allowed the back of her mind to be seen. She sat up in bed and asked a series of questions. They were answered in low murmurs by a hiding Molly. “Molly, how did you get off from Misperton?” “Quite well.”
“H’m. Glad to hear it. No scenes?” “Mrs. Germain was rather awful. She always hated me. The Rector was sweet to me. And oh! there was Miss de Speyne—I can’t tell you how kind she was. Certainly, we had a friend in common . . . but——” “That’s not what I mean. You can manage them, I should hope. I know that I could. The Rectory, indeed—and you to go out before her! Molly, did you see him before you went?” “Who do you mean?” said a suddenly sobered Molly. “You know quite well who I mean.” “John Rudd, I suppose. There’s nothing between us—now.” “John Rudd! John Germain! There’s not only Johns in the world. There’s an Ambrose—you know.” “Mr. Perivale! Oh, Jinny, that’s ridiculous. Why, he only——” “I know what he only—as you call it. I don’t mean that at all—or him either. I asked you, Did you see him before you went?” There was no answer for a minute or more—and then a defiant answer. “No, I didn’t. He’s away—abroad.” “Ah. Well, you’ll have to, you know. Have you told old—Mr. Germain?” “No—at least—I was going to. But that was when he—kissed me —and so I couldn’t.” “That was when he kissed you? Do you mean to tell me——?” “No, of course not. But he kisses my hand mostly.” “Well, I’m—” Miss Jinny did not say what she considered herself to be. “Gentlemen are like that, Jinny—real gentlemen.” “Gentlemen! Do you mean to tell me that Tr—that he is not a gentleman?” “That was quite different. He meant nothing but—it was all nonsense.” “I advise you to find out whether Mr. Germain thinks it nonsense.” “Of course, I shall tell him everything. I don’t want ever to see Mr. Dup—him again. That was all foolishness.” Mary sat up in bed and clasped her knees. Her eyes, staring at the bright light, were
stored with knowledge—as if the soul within were shining through them at last. “I have a friend—a real, wise friend—who has told me this much—that there is a real thing. I believe that, I do indeed.” Jinny stared, then yawned. “I’m sleepy. That’s real enough for me just now. What do you mean, child?” “I mean that one might give up everything—risk everything—if one were sure, quite sure. But if one isn’t—if one knows that one is a trifle, a plaything, to a—to a person, and that, to another person, one may be much more—then—oh, Jinny, Jinny, please!” Mary’s arms were now about Jinny’s neck, and Jinny allowed herself to be pulled down. Mary snuggled and put up her lips. After an instant she whispered, “Darling old Jinny, will you do something for me?” “What is it?” “Promise.” “What is it?” “If Tr—if he comes here—will you see him for me? Oh, please, please——” “Why can’t you——?” “No, no, I can’t, you know I can’t. Why, he looks at me as if I belonged to him—as if he had a right—! And when he does that, when he frowns and looks through you, and waits—and says nothing —I know what he means; and if he said one word, or moved towards me, or beckoned”—She shivered and hid her face. “I simply mustn’t—I daren’t. Oh, Jinny darling, please!” After a time Jinny promised—but Mary’s peace was broken up. A shadow haunted her outdoors and in. Mr. Germain drove down to Blackheath to greet his bride. Her shy welcome, with gladness behind, to make it real, charmed him altogether. The family, after a respectful interval, left him the parlour, for which he was grateful. It would have, no doubt, to be explained that in marrying Mary he had no intention of taking charge of her people. Admittedly they were impossible, but it is very odd that he loved the girl of his selection the more for being simply and unaffectedly one of them. He respected her for it, but there was more than that. At the bottom of his heart he knew that if she were to lose sight of her origin, his love would suffer. It was absolutely
necessary—he felt it—that she must masquerade for life, be a sweet little bourgeoise playing county lady; but playing it with sincerity, and obediently, doing her best because she was told. The unvoiced conviction lay behind what he now had to say to her. He told her, for instance, that he hoped she would see as much of her family as she pleased, after she was married, though, of course, she would have the duties of her new station to consider and to reconcile with others. He did not suppose, he told her, that it would be reasonable, or even true kindness, to ask them often to Southover. “I esteem your father highly, my dearest. He is in all respects what I should have expected your father to be. Your mother, too, is, I am sure, worthy of your love and gratitude; your sisters seem to me happy and affectionate girls. I doubt, however, if they would be comfortable among our friends at Southover—” Mary here said at once that she was sure they would not. “They are different from you—quite different. We are quite poor people—you would call us middle-class people, wouldn’t you?” “I suppose that I should,” he admitted; “but would that hurt you, my love?” “No, no, not at all. There is no harm in that; and we can’t help it —but——” He leaned, put his arm round her waist and drew her to him. “Well, my darling, well—? Tell me of what you are thinking.” “I was wondering—if you can see that they wouldn’t do at Southover, what made you think that I should do there, either?” He held her closer. “I’ll tell you, my love. It was because I knew what I should feel if you were ever to be there. It was because my heart was full of you, so that I could never look on any scene that I loved without seeing you in it, and loving it the more for your presence there. When I thought of Southover, I saw you its little sovereign lady, and myself waiting upon you, showing you all the things about it which have been so dear to me in spite of—much unhappiness; and my heart beat high. I said to myself, You must be a miserable and lonely man, my friend, unless you can promise yourself this joy of service. Does my Mary understand me?” He stooped his head to hers, and asked
her again, Did she understand? Yes, yes, she said, but she sighed, and turned her face away. Then he must needs kiss her. Then she did try to speak, meaning, if possible, to lead herself up to a confession. She told him that she feared to disappoint him, that he rated her too highly. “I can tell you truthfully that your love has made me very proud and very happy; I must assure you that I shall do everything in my power to prove to you how proud I am. I will do my duty faithfully—you must tell me of the least thing which is not just as you like. I can’t do more than that, can I?” “Nobody in the world could do more than that,” he told her. “But there’s something else. Mrs. Germain at Misperton doesn’t like me at all——” He nodded sadly. “I know, my dear, I know. She is a foolish, arrogant woman, but there are excuses——” “Oh, of course there are!” She sat upon his knee. “I expect that she is right and that you are wrong—in a way.” Then her eyes opened widely upon him: the hour had come. “But she thinks—she says that I am—bad.” He turned grey. “Oh, no, my love, you misjudge her! Good Heavens—bad!” She held her face back from him that she might look at him seriously. “She does, you know—but she makes no allowances. I have always tried to be a good girl—I assure you. Please believe that.” He held her to his heart. “My dearest, my dearest, you distress me. Good! Who is good if you are not? Purest of the pure—my Mary.” But she shook herself free in a hurry. “No, no, indeed, you mustn’t say that. That’s absurd. I am just an ordinary girl, who likes to be happy, and to be admired, and to have fun when I can——” “Of course, of course. Oh, my beloved, do not reproach yourself.” Then she turned in his arms, put her hands on his shoulders, and looked gravely and imploringly into his face. “Promise me one thing,” she said, “one thing only. I will ask you nothing more than that.” She could not have been resisted by the Assessing Angel. “Speak, my adored one.”
“Whatever you hear of me—against me—ask me what I have to say before you condemn me. Promise me that.” “My love and my life,” he said fervently; and she pouted her lips for a kiss. Thus she justified herself in this regard, and by a sophistry of her sex came in time to feel that she had made him a full confession. She told Jinny as much. We were now in late August; the wedding was to be quietly at Blackheath at the end of September, and the exciting business of the trousseau must be undertaken. Mrs. James, it seems, had so far reconciled herself to the inevitable as to have consented to come to town and “see to things” which the child must have. Her own people being out of the question, Mary was to stay with her in Hill-street, which was one day to be her own house, and do her shopping. A liberal sum was in Mrs. James’s hands for the purpose. There was to be no white satin; but Jinny was to be allowed to walk as bridesmaid. There was no way out of this. Her dress was to be chosen for her, and then she must come to London to be fitted; but she was not to be asked to Hill-street.
XIV THE NEWS REACHES THE PYRENEES Pau, in August, being what no man could be expected to stand, Duplessis and his friend Lord Bramleigh went into Spain, and lounged at San Sebastian. Here on a blazing noon of mid-September, as they were breakfasting at leisure, a budget of letters was delivered. Lord Bramleigh, cheerful, wholesome, and round-faced, chirped over his, according to his wont. He read most of them aloud, with comments. “Old Gosperton’s shoot—will I go? I’ll see him damned. Why should I go and see old Gosperton shoot beaters? Not if I know it. Who’s this? Mary St. Chad, by the Lord! Now what does she want? . . . ‘I suppose you know that Bob Longford is . . .’ I’ll be shot if I know anything of the sort. I know he wants to all right; but you can’t marry a chap’s wife—at least I don’t think you can. . . . Oh, sorry! Fellow’s dead. . . . I say, Tristram, do you hear that? Old Bland-Mainways is dead, and Bob Longford’s married his relic— married her in a week, my boy. What do you say to that? You marry a man’s remains almost as soon as he’s remains himself. Pretty manners, what? . . .” Duplessis took no heed; the babbler ran on. . . . “This is my mater—wonder what she’s got to say? I rather funk the Dowager. . . . Hulloa! By Gad, that’s rum. I say, Duplessis, did you know a chap called Senhouse at Cambridge? Pembroke, was he? Or King’s? King’s, I think . . . it was King’s. Did you know him? Jack Senhouse—John Senhouse—rum chap.” “Eh? Senhouse? Oh, yes, I knew him. Used to see him about.” Duplessis resumed his letters; one, especially, made him frown— then stare out of the window. He read others but returned to that. Lord Bramleigh went on. “I want to tell you about this chap Senhouse. Of course, I never knew him at the Varsity—ages before
me, he was. Good footer—player—ran with the beagles—ran like the devil; rowed a bit, painted a bit, sang a damned good song: Jack Senhouse. Well, he’s mad. Rich chap—at least, his father was rich— alderman somewhere, I b’lieve—say, Birmingham . . . one of those sort of places. Well, Jack Senhouse chucked all that—took to painting, scribbling, God knows what. His governor gets cross— sends him round the world on the chance he’ll settle down by’n by. Not he! Gets up to all sorts of unlawful games—cuts the ship and starts off on his own across Morocco; gets hung up at Fez—row with a Shereef about his wife or wives. Foreign Office has to get to work —makes it all right. Senhouse goes? Not he. Stays there all the same —to learn the language, I’ll ask you. Language and plants. He collects plants in the Atlas. So he goes on. Then he gets back home. ‘Hope you’ll settle down to the office, my boy,’ says his governor. ‘No, thank ye,’ says Jack, and doesn’t. He was off again on the tramp somewhere—turns up in Russia—if Warsaw’s in Russia—anyhow he turns up where Warsaw is—talking to the Poles about Revolution. Still collects plants. They put him over the frontier. He goes to Siberia after plants and politics. More rows. Well, anyhow, he came back a year ago, and said he was a tinker. He’d learned tinkerin’ somewhere round, sawderin’ and all that—and I’m damned if he didn’t set up a cart and horse and go about with a tent. He paints, he scribbles, he tinkers, he sawders—just as he dam’ pleases. And he turns England into a garden, and plants his plants. He’s got plants out all over the country. I tell you—the rummiest chap. Up in the Lakes somewhere he’s got a lot—growin’ wild, free and easy— says he don’t want hedges round his things. ‘Let ’em go as they please,’ he says. So he turns the Land’s End into a rockery and stuffs the cracks with things from the Alps. He’s made me promise him things from the Pyrenees, confound him—you’ll have to help me with ’em. And irises on Dartmoor—from the Caucasus! And peonies growin’ wild in South Wales—oh, he’s mad! You never saw such a chap. And so dam’ reasonable about it. I like the chap. He’s all right, you know. He’s been turned out of every village in England pretty well, ’cause he will talk and will camp out, and plant his plants in other men’s land. I met him once bein’ kicked out of Dicky
Clavering’s place—regular procession—and old Jack sittin’ up in his cart talkin’ to the policeman like an old friend. Admirin’ crowd, of course—the gels all love him, he’s so devilish agreeable, is Jack. I tell you, he learnt more than one sort of sawderin’. And as for his flowers—well, you know there’s a language of ’em. Well, now, what do you think? I’ve heard from the Dowager, and I’ll be shot if she hasn’t just turned old Jack out of my place! Found him campin’ in the park, with one of the maids boilin’ his kettle, and another cuttin’ bread and butter for him. Plantin’ peonies he was—in my park! Dam’ funny business; but the end’s funnier still. The Dowager, out driving, comes home—sees Master Jack waiting for his tea. Stops the carriage—sends the footman to order him off. Jack says he’ll go after tea. This won’t suit the Dowager by any means—so there’s a row. Jack comes up to explain; makes himself so infernally agreeable that I’ll be jiggered if the Dowager don’t ask him to dinner, and up he turns in evenin’ togs, just like you or me. After dinner—‘Good-night, my lady,’ says Jack. ‘I must be off early, as I’ve some saucepan bottoms waiting for me—and I’ve promised ’em for to-morrow sharp’—says Jack. Now—I say, I don’t believe you’ve heard a word of all this.” Duplessis, I think, had not. He had been frowning at the glare outside, biting his cheek; in his hand was a crumpled-up letter. “Look here, Bramleigh, I must get out of this,” he said. “I want to go home.” Lord Bramleigh, never to be surprised, emptied his tumbler. Then he asked, “What’s up? No trouble, I hope?” He had a gloomy stare for his first answer, and for second—“No, I don’t say that. I don’t know. That’s why I am off—to see.” A man’s pleasure is a matter of course to your Bramleighs: the moral and social order must accommodate itself to that. “That’s all right,” said Lord Bramleigh, therefore. “When do you go? To-morrow?” “I go this evening.” The effect of this was to raise Lord Bramleigh’s scalp a shade higher. “We swore we’d go to Madame Sop’s to-night, you know.” Madame Sop was a Madame Sopwith, a lady of uncertain age and
Oriental appearance, who gave card-parties. Duplessis said, “You must make my excuses—if she wants ’em. I’m going.” “A woman, of course,” said Bramleigh, tapping a cigarette—but had no answer. Duplessis caught the Sun express, and, travelling straight through, reached Misperton Brand in less than two days. On the afternoon of the third day he was at the door of the little house, Heath View, in Blackheath. The door was open, and within the frame of it stood a tall young woman with hair elaborately puffed over the ears and a complexion heightened by excitement. “Good-afternoon,” says Duplessis. “Miss Middleham at home?” “Yes,” says Jinny, “she is. Will you come in?” He followed her into the parlour and was offered a chair. “Thanks very much,” he said, but did not take it. He stood by the window, and Jinny Middleham stood by the door. Presently Jinny said, “I am Miss Middleham, you know. Or perhaps you didn’t know it.” Duplessis stared, then recovered. “I beg your pardon. No, I didn’t grasp that. But you’re not my Miss Middleham.” “I didn’t know that you had one,” said Jinny. “It’s the first I’ve heard of it.” He laughed. “You’ll think me very rude in a minute; but I’ll explain to you. It was your sister I wanted to see. She is—a friend of mine. My name is Duplessis. She may have told you.” Jinny was as stiff as a poker. “I have heard my sister speak of you, certainly. I understood that you were—an acquaintance.” Duplessis nodded easily. “Put it at that. I suppose I may see her?” “She’s away,” said Jinny. “She’s staying in London—with the Honourable Mrs. Germain.” He began to bite his cheek. “Can you give me Mrs. Germain’s address? It’s not Hill-street, I suppose?” Jinny was very happy just now. “I suppose that a letter to Mrs. Germain at Misperton would find her. You are related to her, I believe?”
“My dear Miss Middleham,” said Duplessis candidly, “let’s keep to the point. It seems to me that you don’t want me to see your sister.” “Oh,” says Jinny, “it don’t matter at all to me.” He knit his brows. “Then you mean——?” “I mean,” said Jinny, “that my sister is going to be married to Mr. Germain. That’s what it comes to.” Duplessis bowed. “I see. Thank you very much. Than I think, if you’ll allow me—” He bowed again and went towards the door. The scene was to be over. Jinny put her hand upon the latch. “Where are you going?” she said, very short of breath. There was a thrill yet to be got out of this. What was sport to her mortified him to death. “Really, I don’t know that I need trouble you any more,” he said. “You will give my kind regards to your sister, I hope.” But Jinny kept the door-handle in possession. “Mr. Duplessis,” she said, “I ought to tell you that my sister would rather be excused from seeing you. At least, she says so. She said so to me. You best know why that may be.” He ill concealed his mortification. “We won’t talk of your sister’s affairs, I think. I am happy to have made your acquaintance——” Jinny tossed her head up. “My acquaintance, as you call it, is for them that want it. My sister’s is her own business. I tell you fairly, Mr. Duplessis, that she may be very unhappy.” He flashed her a savage look. “Good Heavens, I believe that. Why, the thing’s monstrous! You might as well marry her to a nunnery. The fellow’s frozen—stark cold.” Jinny steadfastly regarded him. “You know very well that you never meant to marry her,” she said. He grew cold instantly. “Once for all, I must tell you that I decline to discuss your sister’s affairs with any one but herself. And since you tell me that I am not to see her, I will ask you to let me bid you good-afternoon. I am very sorry to have given you so much trouble.” It was over; there was but one treatment for such a cavalier in Jinny’s code of manners. She opened the door wide. “Good-
afternoon,” she said. He bowed and went out with no more ceremony. He felt spotted, and was furious that such a squalid drama should have engaged him. A fluffed shop-girl—and Tristram Duplessis! Filthy, filthy business! But he went directly to Hill-street—whither a telegram had preceded him, terse and significant according to Jinny’s sense of the theatre. “Look out,” it said. That sent the colour flying from Mary’s lips, and lighted panic in her eyes. She crushed it into a ball and dropped it; then she went directly to Mrs. James and asked leave to go home for a few days. She shook as she spoke. She said she was feeling very tired and unlike herself; she wanted her mother, she said simply, and as her lip quivered at the pathetic sound of that, her eyes also filled. Mrs. James, not an unkind woman by any means, was really sympathetic. “My dear child, I quite understand. Go home, of course, and get strong and well. Although you may hardly believe me, I care very much for your happiness—and John would wish it. If he could have been here I know he would have taken you. You shall have the carriage. Now, when would you like to——?” “At once, please, Mrs. Germain—at once.” Mrs. Germain rang the bell and ordered the carriage. Mary could hardly wait for it; she spent the lagging moments pacing her room, and before it was fairly at the door she was on the doorstep. She took no luggage. Crouched in one corner of the hatefully dawdling thing, she stared quivering out of the window. At the corner of the square by Lansdowne House she gasped and cowered. A cab passed her, in which sat, scowling and great, Tristram Duplessis, his arms folded over the apron. Did he—? No, no, thank God, he had not seen her. She was safe in the ladies’ waiting-room; but the traverse of the platform was full of peril. Not until the train moved did she feel herself safe. She hungered for Jinny’s arms as never in her life before. The brave, the capable, the dauntless Jinny—Mercy of Heaven, to have given her such a sister in whom to confide! But Mrs. James—the sweeping eye having lighted upon the ball of paper—Mrs. James wrote to her brother-in-law that night:—
“My dear John,—In case you may be hurrying back to town, I think I should tell you that Mary has gone to her people for a few days; she will write me the day and hour of her return. There is nothing serious; but she complained of being overtired—not to be wondered at. Even young ladies may find the pleasures of shopping a tax. It is possible, I think, that family matters, of which I know nothing—as I am not in her confidence—may have called her home. She left this telegram here. ‘Blackheath’ is on the stamp, you will notice. Mary spoke of her mother to me when she said that she must go, and seemed unhappy. I put this down to her being overwrought—and no doubt you will hear from her by the post which brings you this. Most of my work is done here, I am happy to say. I hope you will be pleased with Mary’s things. I must say that she looks charming in her wedding gown. But Ninon may be trusted for style. James is getting restive without me. Soames is no doubt at his tricks again. I shall be glad to be at my post. Your affecte. sister, “Constantia Germain.” “P.S.—Tristram is back from San Sebastian. I had a visit from him this afternoon, some three minutes after Mary left. He asked after her. You know that they were old acquaintances. Lord Bramleigh remains in Spain. He seems in no hurry to greet his bride. She is staying with the Gospertons at Brenchmore. They expect him there from day to day.” Next day Mr. Germain presented himself in Hill-street, nothing varied in his deliberate urbanity. He had not heard from Mary, he said, in reply to a question; there had been no time for a letter to reach Southover, and the absence of a telegram was reassuring. He intended to go to Blackheath in the course of the afternoon. No doubt she had overtired herself. He applied himself to other topics and said nothing of Duplessis nor of the Blackheath message until luncheon was over. Then, as Mrs. James went by him through the
door which he held open for her, he said, “I had forgotten: you have Tristram back? If he should happen to call, pray tell him that I should be glad to see him if he could spare me a moment.” Mrs. James stopped in her rustling career. “But I don’t think it at all likely he will call—again,” she said. “No? Very well. Perhaps I shall encounter him somewhere. Or I could write.” “Quite so,” said Mrs. James. “It is easy to write.” Then she shimmered away up the stairs. He went into the library, and, after some pacing of the floor, sat down at his desk, wrote, signed, and sealed a paper. He rang the bell. “I wish you and Gutteridge to witness a paper for me, Jennings,” he said to the man. “Fetch him in here, please.” The two functionaries signed the sheet as he directed them. “Sign there, if you please, Jennings. And Gutteridge below your name. . . . That will do. Thank you.” He put the paper and a crumpled telegram together in a long envelope, sealed it, and wrote shortly on the outside. He locked it in his desk, then resumed his pacing of the room. As he walked his lips moved to frame words—“Impossible! Purity’s self. . . Her eyes ray innocence. . . .” But he knew Tristram, and could not get his leisurely image away. And Tristram had been much at Misperton; and had a way of—his lips moved again—“My darling from the lions! From the power of the dog!” He went back to his desk, took out the envelope he had sealed, and would have torn it across—but did not. Instead, he put it in his breast-pocket, and left the house. In the little parlour of Heath View he stood presently awaiting her. Jinny had seemed relieved to see him when she opened the door. Mary had been lying down, she said, and would come when she was tidy. He smiled and said he would wait. He was noticeably white and lined in the face. She came into the room presently, flushed and very bright-eyed. He thought that she stood there like a mouse sensing the air for alarms, prompt to dart at a pinfall. His heart beat to see the youth and charm of her; his pain was swallowed up in longing for his treasured bliss. He almost sobbed as he held out his arms. “Mary—
my child—my love;—” and when she ran in and clung to him with all her force, he clasped her in a frenzy. Whatever darksome fears his honest mind may have harboured, whatever beasts he may have fought, there were none after such a greeting as this. He poured out his love like water upon her, kissed her wet cheeks and shining eyes, and with, “There, my little lamb, there, my pretty one, be at rest, be at peace with me,” he soothed her, and felt the panic of her heart to die down. Then, sitting, he drew her to his knees and let her lie awhile with her head on his shoulder. She whispered in his ear, “Oh, it was sweet of you to come! I wanted you dreadfully—you don’t know.” “No, my precious one, I don’t indeed. But I am well content that you should have needed me. I pray that you always will, and that I may never fail you.” She lifted her head back to look at him; she smiled like an April day. “You fail me! Oh, no, you’ll never do that.” And of her own accord she kissed him. The good man simply adored her. “Now will you tell me what upset you so much?” he asked her, but she shook her head roguishly and said that she didn’t know. “It was my stupidity—I was frightened—suddenly frightened of all the grandeur—the great rooms, the butler and footmen—the people in carriages who called—” She stopped here, her large eyes full upon his own. She breathed very fast. Then she said, “That’s partly the truth—but there’s more.” He could not bear it. He could not face what she had to say. He knew that he was a coward, but he could not; despised himself, but could not. He clasped her close. “Tell me nothing more, darling child. You will reproach yourself, and I cannot bear it.” She struggled to be free. “Oh, listen, listen to me, please!” He kissed her with passion. “My life is yours; would you rob me of it? I cannot listen to you——” She gave over, and lay with hidden face until she dared to look up again. Then, when both were calmer, she showed her serious face. Playing with his eyeglasses, she did relieve her mind of one of her fears. “Do you know,” she said, “unless you are with me—always
—I am sure that I shall do something mad, or bad. Run away from it all—hide myself.” She nodded her head sadly. “Yes, I’m quite sure.” He could afford to look at the future, not the past. “Why, then, my love, I shall be with you always—night and day. Do you hear me? Night and day! How will you like that?” She hung her head, peered up at him for a second, and hung her head again. He could do nothing but kiss her after that. He stayed to tea, which she prepared with her own quick hands. She and Jinny entertained him, and he had never liked that pronounced young woman so well. It was her birthday, Jinny’s birthday, he was told. “A few days only from mine,” he said, with a fine smile to Mary, which made her understand him, and blush. “Twenty-nine to-day,” said Jinny candidly, cutting cake. “This is my cake, Mr. Germain. I suppose you’ll give Mary a better one.” “I shall give her the best I can, Miss Jinny, you may be sure,” he said heartily, and she nodded to him her confidence in his love. He treated her with grave politeness, which lost all its distance by the evident interest he took in her affairs. She gave herself no airs or graces, was neither pert nor sniffing for offence, nor airy, nor merely odious. Germain’s own manners were so fine, so based upon candour and honesty that one could not fail to respond. Even Jinny Middleham forgot herself; and as for Mary, she sat quietly on the watch, really happy, really at ease about the dread future—and whatever terrors she may have owed to Tristram she had none now. Yet she was to have one more chance. At parting she clung to him again, and begged him not to leave her for long. “I’m safe with you —I feel that. Oh, how did you make me like you?” “By liking you myself, I expect, little witch.” “I’m not a witch. I’m a dunce, and you know that I am. But listen ——” “I listen, dearest.” “I am going to be the best girl in the world. I’m going to do everything that you tell me—always.” “Beloved, I am sure.” “Wait. You haven’t forgotten what you promised me?” “What was that?”
“You have forgotten! Oh, but you must never forget it. It is important—to me.” “Tell me again.” “It was—always to ask me before you believe anything against me. That was it—and you promised.” He took her face between his hands and looked long into her eyes. “My dearest heart,” he said, “I’ll promise you better. Not only shall I never believe anything against you—but I shall never even ask you of the fact. Never, never.” She searched his face—her eyes wandered over it, doubting, judging, considering. “I had rather you asked me,” she told him; but his answer was to kiss her lips. She went with him to the garden gate, seemed most unwilling that he should go. Farewells spoken, her ring-hand kissed, she stood watching him down the terrace, and then, as he never looked back, walked slowly into the house and shut the door. Had she stayed a moment longer she would have seen an encounter he had at the corner where you turn up for the station. Perhaps it was better as it was; I don’t know. He had paused there to hail a fly with his umbrella, and having faced round towards his way, saw Duplessis advancing towards him. He felt himself turn cold and sick. The fly drew up. “Wait for me where you are,” he said, and went to meet the young man. Duplessis saw him on a sudden; his eyes, blue by nature, grew steely and intensely narrow. “Good-evening, Tristram,” said Germain. “Constantia told me of your return.” Duplessis dug the pavement with his stick. “Did she? Well, it is true, you see.” “I do see. You are going to pay Mary a visit, I suppose. She’s not very well, I’m sorry to say—a little overtired. Otherwise, I am sure she would have been delighted.” Duplessis made no reply, and the other continued: “I told Constantia that I hoped to see you—to tell you a small piece of news. I am about to be married again. Mary has been so kind as to confide her future happiness into my hands. Perhaps you won’t misunderstand me if I say that some little fraction of that happiness
depends upon her not seeing you for the moment. When she is rested, we may hope—The wedding will naturally be a very quiet one. Her people wish it, and my taste agrees with theirs. Otherwise we should have liked to have you among our guests. We promise ourselves the pleasure of seeing you at Southover in the near future. I think the place will please you. You must give an account of my pheasants in December.” “That’s very good of you, Germain,” said Duplessis, looking him full in the face. Mr. Germain turned to his waiting fly. “Have you other engagements in Blackheath?” “None,” said Duplessis. “No? Then perhaps I can offer you a seat in my carriage.” “Thanks,” said Duplessis, “I’m walking;” nodded, and went forward, the way of the heath. “The station,” said Mr. Germain. He could thank God, at least, that she had not meant to deceive him; he could thank God, at least, that she had done with the past. But he had received a mortal wound, and after his manner concealed it. His lovely image was soiled; the glass of his life to come dimmed already. He saw nothing more of Mary until the wedding day, though he wrote to her in his usual fashion and on his usual days. “My dear child,” and “Yours with sincere affection.” She did not guess that anything was amiss, could not know what they had cost him to write them twice a week. His brother and sister-in- law noticed his depression. Mrs. James indeed was tempted to believe that, at the eleventh hour—but the Rector knew him better. All his forces were now to put heart in the bridegroom. He spoke much of Mary.
XV A PHILOSOPHER EMBALES That young man with the look of a faun, at once sleepy and arch, the habit of a philosopher and the taste for gardening at large, whom we have seen very much at his ease in society quite various, was by name Senhouse—patronym, Senhouse, in the faith John, to the world of his familiars Jack Senhouse, and to many Mad Jack. But madness is a term of convenience to express relations, and to him, it may well be, the world was mad. He thought, for instance, that Lord Bramleigh was mad, to whom we are now to hear him talking, as much at his length and as much at his ease as of late we saw him in the company of Miss Mary Middleham, or of Miss Hertha de Speyne of the Cantacute stem. Perhaps he was more at his ease. He lay, at any rate, before his tent, full length upon his stomach, his crook’d elbows supported his face, which was wrinkled between his hands. His pipe, grown cold by delay, lay on the sward before him. One leg, from the knee, made frequent excursions towards the sky, and when it did, discovered itself lean and sinewy, bare of sock. His sweater was now blue, and his trousers were grey; it was probably he had no more clothing upon him. Upon a camp-stool near by sat Lord Bramleigh of the round face, corded and gaitered, high-collared and astare. To express bewilderment, he whistled; concerned, he smiled. “Well,” he said presently, “I think you might. We’re short of a gun —I’ve told you so.” “My dear man,” said the other, “I shoot no birds. I’d as soon shoot my sister.” “That’s rot, you know, Jack.” “To me it’s plain sense. God save you, Bramleigh, have you ever seen a bird fly? It’s the most marvellous—no, it’s not, because we’re all marvels together; but I’ll tell you this—boys frisking after a full
meal, girls at knucklebones, a leopard stalking from a bough, horses in a windy pasture—whatever you like of the sort has been done, and well done—but a bird in flight, never! There’s no greater sight— and you’ll flare into it with your filthy explosives and shatter a miracle into blood and feathers. Beastly work, my boy, butchers’ work.” “Rot,” said Bramleigh—“But of course you’re mad. Why are my cartridges filthier than your pots of paint? Hey?” “Well, I make something, you see—or try to, and you blow it to smithereens—However, we won’t wrangle, Bramleigh. You’re a nice little man, after all. Those Ramondias—it was really decent of you.” “Much obliged,” said the young lord; and then—“I say, talking of the Pyrenees, you knew Duplessis? He’s our man short. He’s chucked, you know. He’s awfully sick.” Senhouse was but faintly interested. “Yes, I knew him—Cleverish—conceited ass. What’s he sick about?” “Gel. Gel goin’ to be married—to-day or something—end of September, I know. Tristram’s mad about it. He was at San Sebastian with me when he heard about it—and bolted off like a rabbit—mad rabbit.” Senhouse yawned. “We’re all mad according to you, you know. So I take something off. I can understand his sort of madness, anyhow. Who’s the lady?” “Oh, I don’t know her myself. Gel down at his place—in a poor sort of way, I b’lieve. Companion or something—he played about— and now she’s been picked up by a swell connexion of his—old Germain of Southover. Be shot, if he’s not going to marry her.” The lengthy philosopher smiled to himself, but gave no other sign of recognition until he said, “I know that lady. Brown-eyed, sharp- eyed, quick, sleek, mouse of a girl.” “Dessay,” said Lord Bramleigh. “They know their way about.” The philosopher threw himself upon his back and gazed into the sky. “Yes, and what a way, good Lord! Idol-hunting—panting after idols. Maims herself and expects Heaven as a reward. I don’t suppose that she has been herself since she left her mother’s lap.
And now, with an alternative of being sucked dry and pitched away, she is to be slowly starved to death. I only saw her once—no, twice. She had what struck me as unusual capacities for happiness—zest, curiosity, health—but no chances of it whatsoever. Ignorant—oh, Lord! They make me weep, that sort. So pretty and so foolish. But there, if I once began to cry, I should dissolve in mist.” “Oh, come,” said Lord Bramleigh, “I don’t think she’s doin’ badly for herself. She was nobody, you know, and old Germain—well, he’s a somebody. He’s a connexion of mine, through his sister-in-law— she was Constantia Telfer—so I know he’s all right.” “I’ll do her the justice to say,” Senhouse reflected aloud, “that she didn’t sell herself—she’s not a prostitute. She’s a baby—pure baby. She was dazzled, and misunderstood the sensation. She thought she was touched. She’s positively grateful to the man— didn’t see how she was to refuse. She’s a donkey, no doubt—but she had pretty ways. She could have been inordinately happy—but she’s not going to be. She’s in for troubles, and I’m sorry. I liked her.” “She’d better look out for Tristram, I can tell you,” said Bramleigh. “He’s an ugly customer, if he don’t have his rights. Not that there were any rights, so far as I know—but that makes no difference to Tristram.” “Is she worth his while? I doubt it.” “She will be. Germain’s rich. Besides, Tristram sticks up for his rights—tenacious beggar.” “Should have been kicked young,” quoth the philosopher, and sped Lord Bramleigh on his way. “Mary Middleham, O Mary of the brown eyes and pretty mouth, I should like to see you married!” he thought, as he packed his tent. “There’s a woman inside you, my friend; you weren’t given her form for nothing. You are not going to be married yet awhile, you know. It’ll take more than a going to church to do that. You’ve got to be a woman first—and you’re not yet born!” He lifted a shallow box of earth, and fingered some plants in it. “Ramondias—beauties! One of these springs there’ll be a cloud of your mauve flushing a black cliff over the green water. There’s a palette to have given old England! Mauve, wet black, and sea-green.
I have the very place for you, out of reach of any save God and the sea-mews and me. But even with them you won’t have a bad ‘assistance.’ That’s a clever word, for how is the artist going to make a masterpiece unless the public makes half of it? Black, mauve, and green—all wet together! We’ll make a masterpiece in England yet. . . . “That girl’s great eyes haunt me. Lakes of brown wonder—they were the colour of moorland water—a dainty piece! I could see love in her—she was made for it. A dark hot night in summer, and she in your arms. . . .! Good Lord, when the beast in a man gets informed by the mind of a god—there’s no ecstasy beyond the sun to compare with it. . . . “Two things worth the world—: Power, and Giving. When a girl gives you her soul in her body, and you pour it all back into her lap, you are spending like a king. Why do women mourn Christ on His cross? Where else would He choose to be? A royal giver! To have the thing to give—and to give it all! He was to be envied, not mourned. . . . “Old Germain—what’s he doing but playing the King on the Cross. He feels it—we all feel it—but has he got anything to give? It’s an infernal shame. He’s bought the child. She’ll never forgive him; she’ll harden, she’ll be pitiless—have no mercy when the hour strikes. There’ll be horrors—it ought to be stopped. I’ve half a mind —— “Damn it, no! She must go to school. If there’s woman in her, after travail she’ll be born. . . . “To school? To Duplessis? Is he to school her, poor wretch? What are his ‘rights?’ Squatter’s rights, you may suppose. So she’s to be a doll for Germain to dandle, or an orange for Duplessis to suck, and betwixt the feeding and the draining a woman’s to be born! Wife, who’s no wife, mistress for an hour—and a pretty flower with the fruit unformed. . . . “If I bedeck the bosom of England and star it with flowers, do I do better than Germain with his money, or Duplessis with his rights? And if I were to court her bosom . . . Oh, my brown-eyed venturer in
deep waters, I could serve you well! Go to school, go to school, missy—and when you are tired, there’s Halfway House!” That evening under the hunter’s moon he struck his camp. He had told young Bramleigh that he was soon for the West, where he preferred to winter. “I shall be in Cornwall by November,” he had said, “and that’s time enough;” and this being late September, it is clear that he projected a leisurely progress from Northamptonshire, where he now was, to the Cornish Sea. He had indeed no reason for hurry, but many for delay. That fairest of all seasons to the poet’s mind—that “close bosom-friend of the maturing sun” was to him foster-mother, whether her drowsy splendours fed him or he felt the tonic of her chill after-breath. He worked out, he said, in winter what he had dreamed in the autumn, and he could afford to lose no hours from her lap. Loafer deliberately, incurably a tramp, he was never idle— whether mending kettles or painting masterpieces (for he had a knack of colour which now and then warranted that word), his real interest was in watching life and in establishing a base broad enough or simple enough to uphold it all. He was not too proud to learn from the beasts, nor enough of a prig to ignore his two-legged neighbours: but for the life of him he could not see wherein a Lord Bramleigh differed from a ploughboy, or a Mary Middleham from a hen partridge—and it was a snare laid for him that he was constantly to be tempted to overlook the fact that they differed at least in this, that they had the chance of differing considerably. He would have been greatly shocked to be told that he was a cynic, and yet intellectually he was nothing more. He did himself the honour of believing most people to be donkeys: if they were not, why under the sun did they not do as he was doing? The answer to that was that if they did, he would immediately do something else, and find plenty reasons to support him. He had not worked that out—but it’s true. It was also true—as he had told Mary Middleham—that he lived from hand to mouth. His father, Alderman Senhouse, J.P., of Dingeley, in the Northern Midlands, was proprietor of the famous Dingeley Main Colliery, and extremely rich. His mother had been a
Battersby, well connected, therefore. He had been to Rugby and to Cambridge, just as Duplessis had been, and at the same times; like Duplessis he idled, but unlike him, he cost no man anything. For his needs, which were very simple, he could make enough by his water- colours, a portrait here and there, an essay, a poem. Then—and that was true, too—he had the art and mystery of tinkering at his disposition. He had earned his place in the guild of tinkers—a very real body—by more than one battle. He was accepted as an eccentric whose whim was to be taken seriously—and as such he made his way. He had never asked his father for a sixpence since he left Cambridge and was on very friendly terms with him. His brothers took the world more strenuously; one was partner at the colliery, another in Parliament, a third—the first born—was Recorder of Towcester. So much for his talents—now for his accomplishments. He was an expert woodman, a friend to every furred and feathered thing, could handle adders without fear, and was said to know more about pole-cats, where they could still be found, and when, than any man in England. He had seen more badgers at ease than most people, and was infallible at finding a fox. All herbs he loved, and knew their virtues; a very good gardener in the West said that the gentleman- tinker could make a plant grow. There’s no doubt he had a knack, as the rock-faces between Land’s End and St. Ives could testify—and may yet. He had a garden out there, which he was now on the way to inspect. But he had many gardens—that was his passion. He was but newly come from one in Cumberland. He said of himself that he was a pagan suckled in a creed outworn, and that he was safely weaned. There was a touch of the faun about him; he had no self-consciousness and occasionally more frankness than was convenient. The number of his acquaintance was extraordinary, and, in a sense, so was that of his friends—for he had none at all. Accessible as he was up to a point, beyond that point I know nobody who could say he had ever explored Senhouse. That was where the secretiveness of the wild creature peeped out. Nobody had ever said of him that he had loved, either because nobody knew—or because nobody told. Yet his way with women was
most effective; it was to ignore their sex. “I liked her,” he would say meditatively of a woman—and add, “She was a donkey, of course.” You could make little of a phrase of the sort—yet one would be glad to know the woman’s opinion. We have seen that he could be a sympathetic listener, we know that he could be more, in moments of difficulty—and there we stop. Lastly, I am not aware that he had any shame. He seems always to have done exactly as he pleased—until he was stopped by some guardian of custom or privilege. This frequently happened; but so far as I can learn the only effect upon Senhouse was to set him sauntering elsewhere—to do exactly as he pleased. He never lost his temper, was never out of spirits, drank wine when he could get it, but found water quite palatable. He was perfectly sincere in his professions, and owned nothing in the world but his horse and cart, Bingo, the materials of his trade, and some clothes which had not been renewed for five years. We leave him at present, pushing to the West.
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  • 1. The Theory And Practice Of Change Management 3rd Edition John Hayes download https://ebookbell.com/product/the-theory-and-practice-of-change- management-3rd-edition-john-hayes-46215072 Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com
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  • 5. John Hayes i Ib (mi tal—lelag d Practice r=| atclalel= oTTagiqial LIVERPOOL : UNIVERSITY LIBRARY | - ee eee) §=67 DAY LOAN allge bl =Xelhule) ele 5 ‘ ee EPS ee Mile gree 2 a Di Bone sd ea z RUNS
  • 6. Mn 014354923 Liverroo: univ THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CHANGE MANAGEMENT WITHDRAWN
  • 7. The theory and practice of change management Third edition John Hayes palorave macmillan
  • 8. © John Hayes 2010 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2010 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries ISBN 978—0-230—2 1069-1 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources, Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. LOD OOM Ono 4S 082. nil LIM eons. 14 Sse 12 died Printed in China
  • 9. To Martha, Ruby, Izaac, Isabel and Miranda
  • 11. Part I Part Il List offigures and tables ix List ofcase studies xi List ofresearch reports, examples and change tools xii Preface xiv Acknowledgements ax Abbreviations . Xxii Introduction and overview 7 The nature of change 14 1 Patterns ofchange 16 2 The process of change management 40 Recognizing the need for change and starting the change process 58 3 Recognizing the need for change 60 4 Starting the change process > 72 Part Ill Eleanosi) 84 -§ Open systems models and alignment 87 Parrt IV Part V 6 Other diagnostic models 10S 7 Gathering and interpreting information for diagnosis 122 a — 8 Power, politicsand stake management 143 9 The role of leadership in change management 159 10 Somamicens anes a 174 11 Motivating others tochange 191 12 Managing personal transitions 208 13 Modes of intervening 225 Planning and preparing for change 240 14 Shaping implementation strategies 243 15 Developing a change plan 258
  • 12. oe CONTENTS Part VI Part VII Part VIII 16 17 Types of intervention Selecting interventions Implementing change 18 16) 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Collective learning in organizations Action research Appreciative inquiry Training and development High performance management Business process re-engineering Lean Restructuring for strategic gain: mergers and acquisitions Merging groups: combining people for enhanced performance Reviewing change 27 Reviewing change Sustaining change 28 29 30 Making change stick Spreading change Pulling it all together: a concluding case study Author index Subject index 270 283 300 304 325 337 350 307 370 377 394 407 426 427 436 438 448 456 458 463
  • 13. Figures Pattern of industry evolution Punctuated equilibrium: a recurring pattern of continuous and transformational change Types of organizational change Internal alignment Lewin’s three-step change process Intensity of change A force field Steps in the change process The relationship between Chapters 3-29 and the generic process model of change The trap of success Examples of functional misalignment A causal map of a diagnostic model The organization as an open system Kotter’s integrative model of organizational dynamics Congruence model Strebel’s cycle of competitive behaviour Greiner’s five phases of growth Flamholtz’s pyramid of organizational development The absorptive capacity/tipping point framework for growth firm states The 7S model Weisbord’s six-box model The Burke-Litwin causal model of organizational performance and change The transformational factors CEO’s model of causal relationships affecting performance of SSSE A force field Results of the 1993 BBC staff survey Strategic coupling Organizational coupling Environmental coupling Effectiveness of communication strategies Dynamics giving rise to organizational silence An oversimplified model of the interview The interaction between change agents and organizational members The expectancy model of motivation An expectancy model of the motivation to support or resist change Bridges’ model of transition Transition phases A continuum of intervention strategies The Awakishi diagram Change participants’ perceptions of the appeal and likelihood of the change Clarity of end state and content and structure of the plan A matrix organization structure
  • 14. @ . LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES 15.5 Acritical path analysis 16.1 Developments in types of intervention over the past century 16.2 Cummings and Worley’s typology of interventions based on focal issues 17.1. A three-dimensional model to aid choice of interventions 17.2 Examples of human process interventions 17.3 Examples of technostructural interventions 17.4 Examples of human resource interventions 17.5 Examples of strategic interventions 18.1 Individual learning 18.2 Individual and collective learning in organizations 18.3 A conference method for developing a ‘preferred future’ 18.4 Double loop learning 19.1 The experiential learning model 19.2 The action research process 19.3 The action research process at Freedman House 19.4 The meeting canoe 20.1 The five steps of an appreciative inquiry 23.1 GP referral for a routine X-ray at a local hospital 24.1 Parts being pulled in response to customer requests 24.2 The Toyota Production System house 25.1 The acquisition process 25.2 Acquisition objectives and the required degree of integration 26.1 Acquired firm’s preferred mode of acculturation 26.2 Acquiring firm’s preferred mode of acculturation 26.3 Acculturative model for implementing organizational fit 26.4 Suitable culture 26.5 Transition phases 27.1 Translating the change strategy into a set of operational goals 27.2 The service profit chain 27.3 Factors affecting how people respond to the change 28.1 Classes of sustainability at cell level 28.2 Factory-level improvement model 28.3 A push approach to securing change Tables 2.1 Possible actions 5.1 Examples of the kind of information that might be attended to 5.2 Interdependencies between elements 5.3. An example of a matrix of interdependencies 5.4 Mechanistic and organic organization forms 5.5 Examples of element states that do and do not facilitate system adaptation 7.1. Examples of questions asked in a BBC staff survey 7.2. Asimple SWOT template 7.3. Amore detailed SWOT template 7.4 Using SWOT to develop action plans 8.1 Positive frame 8.2 Negative frame 8.3 Differences between the two trusts 12.1 The social readjustment rating scale 25.1 Post-merger integration tasks 26.1 Suitability of culture matches 29.1 Implementation climate and innovation/values fit: effects on employees’ affective responses and innovation use 265 271 278 286 287 287 288 288 305 306 314 319 326 329 332 333 342 373 383 384 396 401 412 412 413 417 420 432 432 434 439 440 441 41 88 91 91 94 98 124 134 134 135 148 148 150 210 402 416 453
  • 15. 11.1. The BBC 33 11.2 UK Coal 34 11.3 Leicester Royal Infirmary 34 1.1.4 McDonald’s 35 iPoeGNER 36 3.1. The Active Sports Equipment Company 63 8.1 Stakeholder brainstorm 149 8.2 Stakeholder mapping ey 8.3 Managing stakeholder relationships 154 10.1 Galaxy Z 188 14.1. Asda: a winning formula 243 14.2 Direct Banking 256 17.1. Designing an intervention to improve the effectiveness of primary healthcare centres in southwest India 295 17.2 Designing an intervention to increase the motivation and flexibility of the workforce in a large dairy company 295 17.3 Designing an intervention to improve the treatment offered by the trauma orthopaedic care department in a large NHS hospital 296 17.4. Designing an intervention to reduce absenteeism in the elderly care sector of Silkeborg Council, Denmark 297 24.1 Grampian Police 390 30.1 KeyChemicals 456
  • 16. Research reports 1.1. Study of microcomputer producers 2.1 Testing Lewin’s three-step model of change 8.1 Perceptions of fair treatment 9.1 Collective leadership and strategic change 10.1 Communicating bad news 11.1 Effect of group participation on resistance to change 16.1 Sociotechnical systems 21.1 Enterprise-level training in Australia 21.2 Relationship between enterprise-level training and organizational change 26.1 The realistic merger preview 28.1 Two enablers that help to promote stickability Examples 2.1 Car importer case 2.2 Concrete Flags Ltd 4.1 Failure to convince others of the need for change at AT&T 4.2 Leading change at Lyons Confectionery 6.1. The Site Security and Secure Escorts case 7.1 The effect of being observed 13.1 Using a supportive approach 13.2 Using force-field analysis 13.3 Using a challenging approach 13.4 Using an information-gathering approach 14.1. The implementation of an economic strategy at the BBC 14.2 The implementation of an OD strategy at the BBC 15.1 Matrix structures 18.2 Bone density scans 18.3 Google: a good example of a learning organization 19.1 Action research at Xerox 19.2 Action research at Freedman House 20.1 Médecins Sans Frontiéres 20.2 Using collective inquiry for organization development at Médecins Sans Frontiéres 25.1 GNER and MTR 25.2 Brenntag’s history of restructuring for strategic gain 26.1 BT Cellnet’s acquisition of Martin Davies 26.2 United Distillers & Vintners 29.1 Asda’s roll-out of ‘Store Renewal’ Change tools Sal lat (ay Checking alignment between steps in the transformation process The 7S matrix Using a SWOT analysis 130 133
  • 17. LIST OF RESEARCH REPORTS, EXAMPLES AND CHANGE TOOLS +—— xi 7.3 A force-field approach to opportunity development or problem management 136 8.1 Stakeholder grid 1S 11.1 Assessing the availability of valued outcomes 198 15.1. The Awakishi diagram 260 15.2 Critical path analysis 265 18.1 Organizational visits 310 18.2 Priority review 312 18.3 Organization mirror SZ 18.4 A conference method for developing a ‘preferred future’ 313 18.5 The after action review 316 18.6 Beckhard’s process for improving intergroup relations 320 19.1. The Axelrod canoe: a blueprint for getting people involved in meetings 330 20.1 Using appreciative inquiry to clarify values at the Hammersmith Hospital NHS Trust 347 22.1 Diagnosing the alignment of HR practices 364 23.1 The plan, do, study, act (PDSA) cycle 375 24.1 The seven wastes 385 22.1 The 5S methodology 386 22.3 The five whys 386 27.1 The change management indicator 433
  • 18. On many academic programmes, change management is positioned as the inte- grating course because it requires students to reflect on and synthesize the various perspectives on organizational functioning offered by other modules studied, such as finance, operations management, marketing, organizational behaviour and stra- tegic management. Studying change management is important because factors such as the availa- bility of credit, technological advances, increasing competitive pressures, changes in the boundaries of organizations, the development of new organizational forms, regulatory reforms and globalization are creating opportunities and threats that organizations need to address if they are to survive and prosper. Managers, at all levels, have to be competent at identifying the need for change. They also have to be able to act in ways that will secure change. Getting it ‘wrong’ can be costly. It is imperative, therefore, that managers get it ‘right’, but getting it right is not easy. There is no single ‘recipe’ that can be applied to all organizations at all times. This book addresses a broad range of issues that will affect the likelihood that change efforts will be successful. Studying change management will provide you with an opportunity to reflect on what you have learned from other courses and from your work experience about: > sense making — drawing on different perspectives of organizational functioning > ways of knowing - sources of data and evaluating evidence » shaping behaviours — ways of influencing and coordinating behaviour > designing interventions — ways of ‘doing’ that purposely disrupt the status quo in order to move the organization towards a more effective state. The Theory and Practice ofChange Management is designed to help you to: > develop your investigative and diagnostic skills so that you will be more effective in assessing what is going on in organizations > extend your ability to manage issues arising from internally planned and externally imposed organizational changes > improve your awareness of how people can facilitate or resist change and extend your ability to manage human resources in the context of change. Features of the book The book has the following distinctive features, and includes the use of logos: > Underlying model: In Chapter 2, ‘change’ is conceptualized as a process. A conceptual model is presented to help you think about the theory and practice of
  • 19. PREFACE —— ow change management, and to provide a framework that will help you act effectively to bring about change. > Clear signposting: The process model of change, presented at the end of this Preface and again in the Introduction, the Part I opener and at the end of Chapter 2, is elaborated to show how each part of the book and each chapter in each part relates to this model. The model is referred to in the introduction to each part and a smaller version of the model is included at the beginning of each chapter, with the relevant part of the model highlighted to show how that chapter relates to the process model. > Exercises An : These draw on your personal experience of change. Some are presented at the beginning of a chapter and invite you to articulate and critically examine your own implicit theories of change and change management before studying the literature on the topic. Others are presented later and invite you to apply concepts and theories to your own experience of change. > Change tools fu) : Change management is most effective when the use oftools and techniques is guided by theory. Throughout the book, a number of carefully selected change tools are presented alongside theory to provide change managers with some ideas about the kinds of practical tools and techniques that might be useful in specific circumstances. > Research reports Q : Much of the knowledge about the management of change that is available to managers is practice based. There is, however, a growing body of research evidence that can complement, and in some cases challenge, this craft-based expertise. Throughout the book, embedded in the text, there are frequent references to research studies, but from time to time, selected studies are presented in research reports. These give a flavour of some of this research- based knowledge and how research is contributing to our knowledge about change management. They also indicate some of the different approaches that researchers have adopted to the study of change. > Examples : These illustrate a point. They describe an instance or refer to a pattern of behaviour that demonstrates the relevance, or aids the understanding, of a concept or theory. > Case studies cal : These invite you to apply theory to a variety of problematic situations unrelated to your own experience of change. The case studies are all based on actual events, although in some instances, the name of the organization has been changed. Research reports This is not a text on research methods but the research reports do provide material that can be used to stimulate debate about how we can develop a theory of change management. Some ofthe research reports focus on studies that seek to test a theory and explain causal relationships between variables. They adopt a deductive approach. An example is Research report 1.1 on Romanelli and Tushman’s study of organizational transformation as punctuated equilibrium. Starting with a theory, they deduced a set of hypotheses, expressed them in operational terms and conducted an empirical inquiry to test them. Other research reports point to a number ofissues students of change need to be aware of when designing studies. For example, Research report 10.1 on Greenberg's study of communicating bad news provides a good illustration of expressing a hypothesis in a way that facilitates meas- urement, wherein the effect of bad news is measured using pilfering rates and labour
  • 20. ow ——: PREFACE Case studies turnover. Research report 11.1 on Coch and French’s study of resistance to change provides an example of using controls to facilitate hypothesis testing. Inductive studies adopt a different approach. They involve moving from data to theory. Researchers involve themselves in a situation to understand what is going on. They collect data, often using interviews and observation, and use this under- standing to formulate theory. Trist and Bamforth’s study (Research report 16.1) involved them following and maintaining relatively continuous contact with 20 coalface workers over a period of two years in order to gain a deep understanding of why the introduction of the longwall method of coal getting failed to yield improvements in performance. This study led to the formulation of a theory of sociotechnical systems. Some studies combine deductive and inductive approaches. Denis et al’s research on the dynamics of collective leadership (Research report 9.1) involved five case studies over a five-year period. Based on their initial case studies, they developed some theoretical ideas about the collective nature of leadership. In their later studies, they went on to examine how these ideas could be generalized and enriched to aid the understanding of leadership in more complex and pluralistic settings. This book was originally written for MBA students and practising managers and others who have considerable experience of working in organizations. In the second edition, the many exercises designed to help experienced managers apply theory to their own practice of management were supplemented with a range of examples and case studies that could aid understanding for those without much direct experience of managing change. In this third edition, the range of case studies has been extended. The case studies are used in different ways. Sometimes they are presented at the end of a chapter to test your understanding of theory. For example, at the end of Chapter 1, you are invited to use a typology of change presented in the chapter to identify the kind of change confronting the BBC, UK Coal, Leicester Royal Infir- mary, McDonald’s and GNER (Case studies 1.1.1-1.1.5). In some chapters, the case studies are presented at the beginning or early in the chapter to encourage you to think about how you might manage a situation before you are introduced to theory that will help you to diagnose the problem and formulate a course of action. Exam- ples include Case study 3.1 on the Active Sports Equipment Company and Case study 14.1 on Asda. Sometimes a case study is broken down into a series of related mini-cases to help you to discover ways in which theory can improve your practice of change management. An example in Chapter 8 involves the merger of two hospi- tals. First, Case study 8.1 invites you to identify all those who might be affected by and/or could affect the outcome of the change. Later on, Case study 8.2 involves mapping stakeholders in accordance with how much power and influence they have and their attitude towards the change. Lastly, Case study 8.3 involves developing strategies for managing relationships with each group of stakeholders. Sometimes cases relate to a part of the book rather than specific chapters. At the end of Chapter 17, four case studies invite you to imagine that you are a consultant who has been asked to design an intervention that will address the issues raised in Part VI, Implementing change. Case study 17.1 is set in southwest India and involves improving the effectiveness of primary healthcare centres. Case study 17.2 involves designing an intervention to increase the motivation and flexibility of the workforce of a Danish dairy company operating in the UK. Case study 17.3 involves designing an intervention to improve the treatment offered by the trauma orthopaedic care
  • 21. PREFACE a) department of a large UK hospital. Case study 17.4 involves reducing absenteeism in the elderly care sector of Silkeborg Council in Denmark. Chapter 30 introduces a concluding case study designed to provide you with an opportunity to review what you have read and to think about how the many theo- ries, models, techniques and tools can be applied to the management of a single case. You can do this on your own or with others. The case studies relate to public and private sector organizations, operating in a variety of areas such as healthcare, local government, broadcasting, energy, chemi- cals, dairy, fast foods, leisure, manufacturing and security. The case studies also relate to situations in the UK, Denmark, Germany, India and elsewhere, and to multinational companies that operate in several countries. Although not presented as a case study, enterprise-level training in Australia is discussed in some detail in Chapter 21. Changes to the content of the third edition New chapters Reorganization The content of the book is organized into eight parts and 30 chapters. This structure reflects some of the theoretical and practical issues that have been important in my experience consulting with a wide variety of clients on a range of change-related issues. The third edition includes six new chapters, three in Part VI, Implementing change: > Chapter 24 — Lean > Chapter 25 — Restructuring for strategic gain > Chapter 26 —- Merging groups and three in Part VIII, Sustaining change: > Chapter 28 — Making change stick > Chapter 29 - Spreading change >» Chapter 30 — Pulling it all together: the concluding case. The first part of the second edition entitled Core concepts has been reduced from five to two chapters and retitled The nature of change. Two of the remaining orig- inal chapters in Part I have been moved. Open systems models and alignment is now the first chapter in Part III. Collective learning is now the first chapter in Part VI. Material from the chapter on organizational effectiveness has been incorpor- ated into Chapter 3, Recognizing the need for change, at the beginning of Part III. The final part of the second edition has been replaced by a new final part on sustaining change. The chapter Modes of intervening, the penultimate chapter in the second edition, has been moved to Part IV, and has been expanded to included material from the final chapter in the second edition. This revised structure supports the underlying model presented in Chapter 2. The following are changes to other chapters: > Chapter 6 has been extended to include a discussion of life cycle models of organizational growth and development. > Chapter 9 has been extended to include a discussion of leadership styles, situational leadership and ‘new genre’ models including charismatic leadership.
  • 22. @ PREFACE Pathways The ‘essentials’ > Chapter 15 has been extended to include a discussion of the danger of adopting a fragmented approach to leading change. > Chapter 17 includes the addition of trans-organization to the levels included in the three-dimensional model for selecting interventions. In addition there have been minor additions to most other chapters. One of the strengths of this book is its wide scope. Not everybody, however, will want to read all 30 chapters. Some may want a quick overview of the ‘essentials’ of change management and others may want to focus on a particular issue. If you want to use the book to quickly grasp the essentials of change management, you might find it helpful to begin by reading Chapter 2. This chapter presents a process model and briefly describes the key steps in the process of change manage- ment. Each step is covered in much greater detail in Parts II-VII, but you might find it helpful to begin by focusing attention on a few chapters that provide more infor- mation about diagnosis, managing people through change and planning for imple- mentation. An essentials pathway might therefore include: The process model of change management: Chapter 2 Diagnosis: Chapters 5 and 6 Managing people issues: Chapters 8-10 Shaping implementation strategies: Chapter 14 Ways of intervening: Chapters 16 and 17. wrT vwvwevTwv Implementing change Ifyou want to quickly review the theory and practice that relates to implementation, you might find the following pathway helpful: > The process of change management: Chapter 2 > Stakeholder management: Chapter 8 > Planning and preparing for change: Chapters 14-17 > Implementation: Some or all of the nine chapters in Part VI- Chapters 18-20 address interventions that focus on human process problems, Chapters 21 and 22 focus on interventions that address human resource issues, Chapters 23 and 24 focus on technostructural interventions and Chapters 25 and 26 on interventions that address strategic issues. > Reviewing and keeping the change on track: Chapter 27. Other ways to access content relevant to your needs While most readers will find it helpful to begin by reading Chapters 1 and 2, you might want to start by dipping into chapters that relate to an immediate concern. Consulting the Introduction and overview, which follows this Preface, might help you to identify relevant chapters. For example, ifyour concern is sustaining change, Chapters 28 and 29 might provide a relevant start. Ifyour immediate concern relates to mergers or acquisitions, you might want to begin by looking at Chapters 25 and 26. If you want some ideas about who should lead the change process, you might find it helpful to look at Chapters 4, 9 and 15S.
  • 23. PREFACE — @ A tutor’s guide is available for those who adopt this book at www.palgrave.com/ business/hayes3. It includes a set of PowerPoint slides and a full debrief of many of the case studies, including Case study 14.1 and Case studies 17.1-17.4. JOHN Hayes Ext 3 Recognizing the need for change ste 4 Starting the change process change Problems and opportunities 5 Open systems models 6 Other diagnostic models 7 Gathering and interpreting information 8 Stakeholder management 11 Motivating others to change 9 Leadership 12 Managing personal transitions 10 Communicating change 13 Modes of intervening 14 Shaping implementation strategies 15 Developing a change plan - 16 Types of intervention < 17 Selecting interventions m = 18 Organizational learning 23 Business process re-engineering 19 Action research 24 Lean 20 Appreciative inquiry 25 Restructuring for strategic gain 21 Training and development 26 Merging groups 22 High performance management 27 Reviewing change 28 Making change stick 29 Spreading change The relationship between Chapters 3-29 and the generic process model of change
  • 24. The author and publishers wish to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: Harvard Business Review for Figure 6.2 ‘Greiner’s five phases of growth, Greiner, L.E. (1972) Evolution and revolution as organisations grow, Harvard Business Review, 50(4): 41. Sage Publications for Figure 6.6 “Weisbord’s six-box model’, Weisbord, M.R. (1976) Organization diagnosis: six places to look for trouble with or without a theory, Group and Organization Management, 1(4): 432; Figures 6.7 and 6.8 “The Burke- Litwin causal model of organizational performance and change’ and “The transfor- mational factors, Burke, W.W. and Litwin, G.H. (1992) A causal model of organizational performance and change, Journal ofManagement, 18(3): 528. The Academy of Management for Figure 10.1 ‘Effectiveness of communication strat- egies, Clampitt, P.G., DeKoch, R.J. and Cashman, T. (2000) A strategy for commu- nicating about uncertainty, Academy of Management Executive, 14(4): 48; Figure 10.2 ‘Dynamics giving rise to organisational silence’, adapted from Morrison, E.W. and Milliken, F. J. (2000) Organizational silence: a barrier to change and develop- ment in apluralistic world, Academy ofManagement Review, 25(4): 709; Figure 24.2 ‘The Toyota Production System house’, Liker, J.K. and Morgan, J.M. (2006) The Toyota way in services: the case of lean product development, Academy ofManage- ment Perspectives, 20(2): 7; Figures 26.1 and 26.2 ‘Acquired firm’s preferred mode of acculturation’ and ‘Acquiring firm’s preferred mode of acculturation’, Nahavandi, A. and Malekzadeh, A.R. (1988) Acculturation in mergers and acquisitions, Academy ofManagement Review, 13(1): 83-4; Table 29.1 ‘Implementation climate and innov- ation/values fit, Klein, K.L. and Sorra, J.S. (1996) The challenge of innovation implementation, Academy ofManagement Review, 21(4): 1066. Elsevier Publishers for Table 12.1 “The social readjustment rating scale’, adapted from Holmes, T. and Rahe, R. (1967) The social readjustment rating scale, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11: 215. Cengage Publishers for Figure 16.2 ‘Cummings and Worley’s typology of interven- tions based on focal issues, adapted from Cummings, T.G. and Worley, C.G. (2001) Organizational Development and Change, 7th edn. Emerald Group Publishing for Table 25.1 “Post-merger integration tasks’, Shrivas- tava, P. (1986) ‘Postmerger integration’ Journal ofBusiness Strategy, 7(1): 67; Figures
  • 25. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - 28.1 and 28.2 ‘Classes of sustainability at cell level’ and ‘Factory-level improvement model, Bateman, N. and David, A. (2002) Process improvement programmes: a model for assessing sustainability, International Journal ofOperations and Production Management, 22(5/6): 520. Wiley for Figure 1.3 “Types of organizational change’, adapted from Nadler, D. and Shaw, R. (1995) Change leadership, in Nadler, D., Shaw, R. and Walton, A.E. (eds) Discontinuous Change, Jossey-Bass; Figure 3.1 “The trap of success, Nadler, D. and Shaw, R. (1995) Change leadership, in Nadler, D., Shaw, R. and Walton, A.E. (eds) Discontinuous Change, Jossey-Bass; Exercise 5.1 ‘Raising awareness of your implicit model of organizational functioning’, described in Tichy, N.M. and Hornstein, H.A. (1980) Collaborative model building, in Lawler, E.E., Nadler, D.A. and Cammann, C. (eds) Organizational Assessment, Wiley; Figure 5.3 ‘Kotter’s integ- rative model of organizational dynamics’, Nadler, D. and Tushman, M. (1980) Congruence model for organizational assessment, in Lawler, E.E., Nadler, D.A. and Cammann, C. (eds) Organizational Assessment, Wiley; Table 5.5 ‘Examples of element states that do and do not facilitate system adaptation, adapted from Nadler, D. and Tushman, M. (1980) Congruence model for organizational assess- ment, in Lawler, E.E., Nadler, D.A. and Cammann, C. (eds) Organizational Assess- ment, Wiley; Figure 5.4 ‘Congruence model’, Nadler, D and Tushman, M. (1980) Congruence model for organizational assessment, in Lawler, E.E., Nadler, D.A. and Cammann, C. (eds) Organizational Assessment, Wiley; Figure 6.3 ‘Flamholtz’s pyramid of organizational development’, Flamholtz, E. (1995) Managing organiz- ational transition: implications for corporate and human resource management, European Management Journal, 13(1): 44; Figure 6.4 “The absorptive capacity/ tipping point framework for growth firm states’, Phelps, R., Adams, R. and Bessant, J. (2007) Life cycles of growing organizations: a review with implications for know- ledge and learning, International Journal ofManagement Reviews, 9(1): 13; Figure 16.1 ‘Developments in types of intervention over the past century’, Weisbord, M. (1987) Productive Workplaces: Organising and Managing forDignity, Meaning and Community, Jossey-Bass. Simon & Schuster for Figure 6.5 “The 7S model; Pascale, R. and Athos, A. (1981) The Art ofJapanese Management. Every effort has been made to trace rights holders, but ifany have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers would be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
  • 26. after action review accident and emergency business process re-engineering chief executive chief executive officer enterprise resource planning human resources human resource management information technology just in time National Health Service organization development plan, do, study, act political, economic, social, technological severe acute respiratory syndrome strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats total quality management
  • 27. The Theory and Practice ofChange Management is designed to help you: > develop your investigative and diagnostic skills so that you will be more effective in assessing what is going on in organizations » extend your ability to manage issues arising from internally planned and externally imposed organizational changes > improve your awareness of how people can facilitate or resist change and extend your ability to manage the human resource in the context of change. The book is divided into eight parts. The first examines the nature of change and in Chapter 2 presents a model of change as a process. The following seven parts of the book address each stage of this process in turn. Part II focuses on recognizing the need for change and starting the change process. Part III looks at diagnosis and how change managers identify what it is that needs to be changed. Part IV explores the many people issues that have to be attended to. Part V is concerned with planning and preparing to implement a change. Part VI focuses on implementation. Part VII looks at how change managers can monitor and review how well the change is progressing and how feedback can draw attention to unanticipated consequences and the need for corrective action. Part VIII is about sustaining change, hanging on to gains and spreading good practice. Part! The nature of change The first part of this book reviews some important theoretical perspectives on the nature of change and a range of the issues and choices that need to be considered when developing an approach to managing change. Patterns of change The first chapter examines the nature of change, reviews theories relating to patterns of change, considers some of the factors that facilitate or limit change and explores some of the implications of different types of change for change management practice. Until recently almost all received models of change were incremental and cumu- lative. The gradualist paradigm posits that organizations can adapt and transform themselves, as required, through aprocess of continuous adjustment. This is in stark contrast to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, which posits that systems (organizations) evolve through the alternation of periods of equilibrium, in which persistent ‘deep structures’ only permit limited incremental change, and periods of revolution, in which these deep structures are fundamentally altered. It is argued
  • 28. eo — INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW that, with a few exceptions, most organizations experience change as a pattern of punctuated equilibrium. After reading this chapter, you will be invited to assess your understanding of some of the issues discussed by identifying the nature of change involved in Case studies 1.1-1.5. You will also be invited to reflect on the nature of the changes confronting the organization you work for, or another organization you know well. Chapter 2 The process of change This chapter opens with an activity designed to explore the issues and choices involved in developing an approach to managing organizational change. It then moves on to consider change from a process perspective and presents a generic model that provides the structure for Chapters 3-29 of this book. The way in which chapters relate to the generic model is illustrated below. w Recognizing the need for change External 4 Starting the change process change Problems and opportunities 5 Open systems models 6 Other diagnostic models 7 Gathering and interpreting information 8 Stakeholder management 11 Motivating others to change 9 Leadership 12 Managing personal transitions 10 Communicating change 13 Modes of intervening > 14 Shaping implementation strategies 15 Developing a change plan = 4 > 16 Types of intervention < 17 Selecting interventions m = 18 Organizational learning 23 Business process re-engineering 19 Action research 24 Lean 20 Appreciative inquiry 25 Restructuring for strategic gain 21 Training and development 26 Merging groups 22 High performance management 27 Reviewing change 28 Making change stick 29 Spreading change The relationship between Chapters 3-29 and the generic process model of change
  • 29. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ~~ Part Il Recognizing the need for change and starting the change process Part Ill 3 Recognizing the need for change 4 Starting the change process dosd Bulbeueyw le implement a Sustain a> Chapter 3 Recognizing the need for change The focus of this chapter is recognizing the need for change. Particular attention is given to how internal factors can affect this. These include strong organizational ideologies that inhibit learning, the composition of the top team, the way the agenda for change is formulated and the extent to which organizational members are encouraged or allowed to contribute to the change agenda. Chapter 4 Starting the change process Diagnosis This chapter examines some of the issues associated with starting the change process. Most important is translating the need for change into a desire for change. Organizational members may be reluctant to pursue change because they lack confi- dence in their own and others’ ability to make a difference. This chapter (and book) adopts a ‘voluntaristic’ perspective and argues that organizational members are not powerless pawns, unable to affect change, but are independent actors able to inter- vene in ways that can make an important difference. To do this they need concepts and theories that will help them to understand the process of changing and ways of intervening, but they also need to believe in their own ability to affect outcomes. Attention is given to who should lead the change and how they can build effective change relationships. Organizational diagnosis is concerned with identifying what it is that needs to be changed. Organizational behaviour, at all its different levels, is a complex phenom- enon and it is impossible for managers to pay attention to every aspect of organiza- tional functioning. Diagnostic models help change managers to cope with this complexity.
  • 30. 4 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW extemal change ol Open systems models Other diagnostic models Gathering and interpreting information a ~N Chapter 5 Opensystems models and alignment This chapter opens with an examination of the role of models in organizational diagnosis and introduces an exercise designed to help raise your awareness of the implicit models you use when thinking about organizations and assessing the need for change. Often our implicit models provide a good basis for understanding what is going on and predicting what kinds of actions or interventions will produce desired change. Sometimes, however, they are subjective and biased; they overemphasize some aspects of organizational functioning and completely neglect others. The aim of the model-building exercise is to help you to develop a greater awareness of your own model of organizational functioning, assess whether it is consistent with or relevant to the problems or opportunities you may need to address, and consider ways in which you can improve the efficacy of your approach to diagnosing and identifying what needs to be changed. The second part of Chapter S considers the attributes of holistic models of organ- izational functioning, summarizes the main features of open systems models and discusses the utility of the concept of alignment. Chapter 6 Other diagnostic models This chapter presents a range of other models that can be used to aid diagnosis. It is argued that ‘good’ diagnostic models are those that are relevant to the issues under consideration, help to identify critical cause-and-effect relationships and focus attention on elements that change managers can affect. Chapter 7 Gathering and interpreting information for diagnosis This chapter examines the process of gathering and interpreting information for the purpose of diagnosis. Attention is focused on five main steps: 1 selection of an appropriate conceptual model for diagnosis 2 clarification of information requirements 3 information gathering 4 analysis 5 interpretation.
  • 31. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW @ Attention is also drawn to the political issues associated with data collection that can frustrate attempts to gain an accurate impression of organizational functioning. At the end of this chapter, you are invited to think about a recent occasion when you, or somebody working close to you attempted to introduce and manage a change, and reflect on the extent to which this change initiative was based on an accurate diag- nosis of the need for change, as well as consider the extent to which the accuracy of the diagnosis was related to the appropriateness of the diagnostic model used, the nature of the information collected and the way in which it was interpreted. Part IV Managing the people issues 8 Stakeholder management | External | | change // Recognize 9 Leadership f | ee rn ae i | 10 Communicating change t ied | 11 Motivating others to change > Diagnosis rs 12 Managing personal eee ee 3 transitions gee | a 13 Modes of intervening ” Plan © ° Sea | =) oO 4> o 0) c oO o 4> People issues need to be attended to throughout the whole change process. Just because ‘managing people issues’ is presented as Part IV does not mean that they are unimportant prior to implementation. A common mistake is to treat the early stages of starting the change and diagnosis and goal setting as purely technical activities. Too often, too little attention is given to political and motivational issues early on. It is not unusual for ‘expert’ change agents to decide when and where change is required and to define change objectives without taking into account the concerns of stakeholders or recognizing the ways in which they can contribute to or sabotage the change process. The six chapters in Part I[V examine some of the people issues that change managers need to address. Chapter 8 Power, politics and stakeholder management This chapter explores the politics of organizational change and the need to enlist the support of key stakeholders. An instrumental theory of stakeholder management is elaborated with reference to resource dependence theory, prospect theory and life cycle models. It provides a conceptual framework for identifying which stakeholders are likely to be most important at various stages ofachange project and for selecting appropriate ways of managing relationships with them. After completing an exercise designed to help you to explore some of the issues involved in stakeholder manage- ment, you will be invited to think about a recent change in your organization or else- where and, with the advantage of hindsight: > identify the stakeholders involved in the change
  • 32. @ Chapter 11 — INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW > classify them according to their power to influence and their attitude towards the change > assess the extent to which the change manager was aware of these stakeholders and took proper account of them when managing the change. Chapter 9 The role of leadership in change management This chapter examines the role of leadership in change management. Special atten- tion is given to the leader’s role in terms of creating a vision, aligning relationships around the vision and inspiring others to achieve the vision. Leadership is also considered as a. collective process and some of the issues associated with maintaining coherence in the leadership group and between the leadership group and internal and external stakeholders are reviewed. The chapter closes with a review of Kotter's _ eight-point checklist of what leaders can do to promote change. : Chapter 10 Communicating change This chapter considers the role of communication in the management of change. Often the focus is exclusively on the ‘what, when, who and how’ of communicating from the perspective of the change manager communicating to others. In this chapter, attention is also given to issues associated with change managers perceiving, interpreting and using information communicated to them by others. After studying this chapter, you will be invited to consider how the quality of communication has helped or hindered change in your organization, or some other situation with which you are familiar. Motivating others to change This chapter considers how the general level of commitment in an organization can affect the level of support for change and identifies some of the most common sources of resistance to change. The utility of expectancy theory for assessing and managing resistance to change is explored. The second half of the chapter involves an exercise designed to help you to use expectancy and equity theory to motivate others to change. Chapter 12 Managing personal transitions This chapter addresses the way organizational members experience change. It exam- ines the response to change, irrespective of whether the change is viewed as an opportunity or a threat, as a progression through a number of stages of psychological reaction. It also considers how an understanding of the way individuals react to change can help managers to plan and implement organizational change in ways that will maximize benefit and minimize cost for the organization and those affected by the change. In this chapter, you will be invited to reflect on how you reacted to a change that was lasting in its effects, took place over a relatively short period of time and affected a number of key assumptions you made about how you related to the world around you. The information generated by this exercise will be used to validate a generic stage model of transition.
  • 33. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW —@ Chapter 13 Modes of intervening This chapter argues that the most effective way of facilitating change is to intervene in a way that helps others to help themselves. Usually this involves adopting acollab- orative approach but sometimes there may be special circumstances that call for a more prescriptive approach. Five different modes of intervening are discussed. One of these, advising, is prescriptive and the other four — supporting, theorizing, chal- lenging and information gathering — are collaborative. Part V Planning and preparing for implementation BE eee i Baten Banu y a ee Recognize 4> 14 Shaping implementation strategies 15 Developing a change plan 16 Types of intervention 17 Selecting interventions 4 implement a ee ) 4> The four chapters in Part V examine some of the issues that change managers need to attend to, after they have diagnosed what needs to be changed, in order to decide how to achieve the required change. Chapter 14 Shaping the implementation strategy This chapter looks at the broad picture and considers the strengths and weaknesses of three approaches to managing change, explores some of the situational variables that need to be considered when shaping an implementation strategy and considers how and why a change strategy may need to change over time. The chapter concludes with a brief review of some alternative start points for change. After reading this chapter, you will be invited to critically assess the strategy used to manage a recent change within your organization or some other situation with which you are familiar. Chapter 15 Developing a change plan It is not unusual for change to disrupt normal work and undermine existing manage- ment systems. This chapter considers some of the steps that need to be considered when developing a change plan. These are: > appoint a transition manager identify what needs to be done produce an implementation plan, with clear targets and goals, which can indicate progress and signal a need for any remedial action > use multiple and consistent leverage points for change
  • 34. eo -—. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW schedule activities ensure that adequate resources are allocated to the change and that an appropriate balance is maintained between keeping the organization running and implementing the changes necessary to move towards the desired future state > implement reward systems that encourage experimentation and change > develop feedback mechanisms that provide the information required to ensure that the change programme moves forward in a coordinated manner, especially where the plan calls for change in a number of related areas. After reading this chapter, you will be invited to reflect on an occasion when you were involved in the management of a change, at work or elsewhere, and consider what you or others might have done differently to develop an effective implementa- tion plan. Chapter 16 Types of intervention Interventions are intentional acts designed to disrupt the status quo and move the organization towards a more effective state. Change efforts can be less successful than they might be because those responsible for managing the change are unaware of the full range of interventions available to them. This chapter reviews interven- tions using two contrasting typologies. The first focuses attention on who does the intervening and what it is they do to bring about change. Four classes of intervention are discussed: > experts applying scientific principles to solve specific problems > groups working collaboratively to solve their own problems > experts working to solve system-wide problems > everybody working to improve the capability of the whole system for future performance. The second classifies interventions in terms of the issues they address. Again, four main types of intervention are identified, which focus on: » human process issues > technology/structural issues > human resource issues > strategic issues. Chapter 17 Selecting interventions This chapter reviews some of the factors that need to be considered when selecting which kind of intervention to use. They include the nature of the diagnosed problem, the level of change target — individual, group, organization and so on — and the required depth of intervention. These factors are combined to provide a three- dimensional model to aid choice. Attention is also given to the factors that can affect the sequencing of interven- tions. These include the intent or purpose of the change, organizational politics and how they can affect the support for different interventions, the need for an early success to maintain motivation, the stakes involved, and causal links that affect the dynamics of change.
  • 35. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW & Part VI Implementing change External oe | change Organizational learning Action research Appreciative inquiry Training and development High performance management Business process re-engineering Lean Restructuring for strategic gain Merging groups Implementation is the step in the change process that involves taking action to bring about change. Part VI reviews the theory that underpins nine types of inter- vention and considers how each can be used to secure change. The first three inter- ventions (chapters) address human process problems, the next two focus on human resource issues, the following two on technostructural problems and the final two on strategic issues. /’ Chapter 18 Collective learning in organizations This chapter reviews how collective learning can contribute to organizational effec- tiveness and presents examples of interventions that promote learning in different situations. Different kinds of collective learning are discussed. Single loop learning is concerned with continuous improvement through doing things better. Double loop learning involves challenging current thinking and exploring the possibility of doing things differently or doing different things. Attention is also given to the role of knowledge transfer within and between organizations. Chapter 19 Action research Action research is the basic model underpinning most organizational change inter- ventions. It involves the application of scientific methods (fact finding and experi- mentation) to organizational problems and underpins the generic process model of change presented in Chapter 2. Action research is based on the premise that people learn best and are more willing to apply what they have learned when they manage the problem-solving process for themselves. The learning process involves: > observing what is going on > developing hypotheses that specify cause-and-effect relationships and point to actions that could help organizational members to manage their problem more effectively > taking action > collecting data to evaluate the effect of the action and test the hypothesis.
  • 36. @e INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW Chapter 20 Appreciative inquiry Appreciative inquiry is a process that involves exploring the best of what is and amplifying this best practice. It seeks to accentuate the positive rather than eliminate the negative; it focuses attention on what is good and working rather than on what is wrong and not working. Whereas action research promotes learning through attending to dysfunctional aspects of organizational functioning (problems), appreciative inquiry is concerned with embracing possibilities. This involves: » Discovering the best of whatever is the focus of the inquiry, for example team working, leadership > Understanding what creates the best of ... > Amplifying the people or processes that create the best of ... . This chapter examines appreciative inquiry from three perspectives: a philosophy of knowledge, an intervention theory, and a methodology for intervening in organiz- ations to improve performance and the quality of life. Chapter 21. Training and development This chapter considers how training can contribute to the change process. Attention is directed towards the main elements of an effective approach to training. These are: 1 A training needs analysis, which involves three steps: « a system-level review to determine which parts of the organization will be affected by the change » amore focused task analysis to determine how the pattern of task demands and required competencies will change * a person analysis to identify the extent to which existing organizational members possess the required competencies. 2 The design and delivery of training. 3 The evaluation of the training. The final section reviews the development of training practice in Australia over a 10-year period and highlights a number of trends in training provision. Chapter 22 High performance management This chapter considers how people management practices can affect performance by: 1 improving employees’ knowledge and skills 2 motivating them to engage in discretionary behaviours that draw on their knowledge and skill 3 modifying organizational structures in ways that enable employees to improve the way they perform their jobs. Rather than focusing on separate people management practices, high perform- ance management involves developing and implementing a ‘bundle’ or system of practices that are internally consistent, aligned with other business processes, and aligned with the organization's business strategy. Alignment is the defining feature of high performance management interventions.
  • 37. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW AB Chapter 23 Business process re-engineering This chapter examines the nature of business process re-engineering (BPR). While it is often regarded as a fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business proc- esses to achieve dramatic change, the benefits of less ambitious approaches that adopt BPR principles to improve existing processes are also considered. The seven stages of BPR are discussed. These are: process mapping identifying processes for re-engineering understanding the selected process defining key performance objectives designing new processes testing implementation. NAO fd wWN Chapter 24 Lean This chapter traces the development of lean thinking and presents Womark and Jones's five lean principles: > specifying value for each product or product family > identifying value streams for each product to expose waste > making value flow without interruption > letting customers pull value from the producer > pursuing perfection by searching out and eliminating further waste. A number of lean tools and techniques are reviewed along with issues to be considered when implementing lean. The chapter ends with an exploration of how lean has been applied in manufacturing and non-manufacturing settings. Chapter 25 Restructuring for strategic gain: mergers and acquisitions Acquisition success depends on both strategic and organization fit. This chapter adopts a process perspective and considers some of the conditions and critical junctures that can affect the quality of strategic fit and the integration process. Some of the issues that those leading the acquisition need to recognize and address are identified. Many of the problems that undermine the acquisition process can be avoided, or at least minimized, if careful attention is given to: > specifying acquisition objectives > developing an acquisition overview that provides the bridge between the acquisition objectives and what needs to happen ifthey are to be achieved > elaborating this overview to develop an implementation plan > taking care to avoid managing the actual implementation in a heavy-handed way. Chapter 26 Merging groups: combining people for effective performance This chapter draws on social identity and acculturation theories to provide a concep- tual framework for thinking about how managers can intervene to promote people synergy and achieve merger success. Attention is focused on three types of intervention: > culture profiling — to pre-screen potential merger partners and, later in the merger process, guide the integration process
  • 38. @e — INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW Part Vil > change communication — to provide organizational members with clear and unambiguous information about what is going to change as aresult of the merger socioemotional support — to care for those affected by the change, minimize alienation and promote post-merger organizational identity. Reviewing change External change MA3AlAAY 4> «> Recognize Sustain Chapter 27 Reviewing change Part VIII Buribeueyp eidood 27 Reviewing change This chapter focuses special attention on how the process of reviewing progress can provide change managers with feedback they can use to assess whether interven- tions are being implemented as intended, whether the chosen interventions are having the desired effect and whether the change plan continues to be valid. | External change Sustaining change 4) ee a — Sen i Recognize On ere Diagnosis Plan eee implement 28 Making change stick 29 Spreading change Lewin (1951) argued that all too often change is short-lived. After a ‘shot in the arm, life returns to the way it was before. In his view, it is not enough to think of change in terms of simply reaching a new state. The first two chapters look at what managers
  • 39. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW -.@ can do to sustain change. The final chapter presents a case study that provides an opportunity to reflect on and pull together all the concepts and ideas discussed in the book. Chapter 28 Making change stick This chapter looks at ‘stickability’ and what managers can do to consolidate a change and hold on to gains. Attention is focused on two key issues: 1 The way the change process is managed from the beginning. It is argued that tough top-down (push) strategies are more likely to foster compliance than commitment and ownership. Compliance often evaporates when the pressure to maintain the change is eased. 2 How change managers can act to sustain change after the initial change goals have been achieved. Chapter 29 Spreading change This chapter looks at ‘spreadability’, the extent to which new methods and processes that have delivered gains in one location are applied, or adapted and then applied elsewhere across the organization. Attention is given to what managers can do to promote the spread of change. Chapter 30 Pulling it all together: a concluding case study This book covers a lot of ground. Chapter 30 introduces a concluding case study designed to provide you with an opportunity to review what you have read and think about how the many theories, models, techniques and tools can be applied to the management of a single case. You can do this on your own or with others.
  • 40. Part THE NATURE OF CHANGE The first part of this book reviews some important theoretical perspectives on the nature of change and a range of the issues and choices that need to be considered when developing an approach to managing change. The way in which chapters relate to the generic model is illustrated below. 3 Recognizing the need for change 4 Starting the change process External change Problems and opportunities =, Diagnosis 5 Open systems models 6 Other diagnostic models 7 Gathering and interpreting information 8 Stakeholder management 11 Motivating others to change 9 Leadership 12 Managing personal transitions 10 Communicating change 13 Modes of intervening 14 Shaping implementation strategies 15 Developing a change plan os 4 > 16 Types of intervention < 17 Selecting interventions m = 18 Organizational learning 23 Business process re-engineering 19 Action research 24 Lean 20 Appreciative inquiry 25 Restructuring for strategic gain q » 21 Training and development 26 Merging groups 22 High performance management 27 Reviewing change 28 Making change stick 29 Spreading change The relationship between Chapters 3-29 and the generic process model of change
  • 41. Chapter 1 I- THE NATURE OF CHANGE — @ Patterns of change The first chapter examines the nature of change, reviews theories relating to patterns of change, considers some of the factors that facilitate or limit change and explores some of the implications of different types of change for change manage- ment practice. Until recent times almost all received models of change were incremental and cumulative. The gradualist paradigm posits that organizations can adapt and trans- form themselves, as required, through a process of continuous adjustment. This is in stark contrast to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, which posits that systems (organizations) evolve through the alternation of periods of equilibrium, in which persistent deep structures only permit limited incremental change, and periods of revolution, in which these deep structures are fundamentally altered. It is argued that, with a few exceptions, most organizations experience change as a pattern of punctuated equilibrium. After reading this chapter, you will be invited to assess your understanding of some of the issues discussed by identifying the nature of change involved in Case studies 1.1.1-1.1.5. You will also be invited to reflect on the nature of the changes confronting the organization you work for, or another organization that you know well. Chapter 2 The process of change This chapter opens with an activity designed to explore the issues and choices involved in developing an approach to managing organizational change. It then moves on to consider change from a process perspective and presents a generic model that provides the structure for Chapters 3-29 of this book.
  • 42. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary offers several definitions of change, ranging from the ‘substitution or succession of one thing in place of another’ to the ‘alteration in the state or quality of anything. Changes can be large or small, evolutionary or revolu- tionary, sought after or resisted. This chapter examines the nature of change, reviews theories relating to patterns of change, considers some of the factors that facilitate or limit change and explores some of the implications of different types of change for change management practice. Attention is also given to the effects of change on individuals. The chapter ends with two exercises. The first invites you to analyse the nature of the change involved in four case studies. The second invites you to reflect on the nature of the changes confronting the organization you work for, or another organiz- ation that you know well, and classify these changes using the conceptual frame- works presented in this chapter. Until recently almost all received models of change were incremental and cumu- lative. This theoretical consensus had implications for change management practice. The aim of planned change efforts tended to be continuous improvement (what the Japanese refer to as ‘kaizen’) and most attention was focused on changing subsys- tems or parts of the organization in turn, rather than attempting to change the whole organization at once. Over the past 30 years, however, many traditional assumptions about the incremental nature of change have been revised. The rate of change is not constant Starting in the late 1970s, Tushman and his colleagues at Columbia University studied hundreds of companies in several industries over time (see Tushman and Romanelli, 1985; Tushman et al., 1986). They found evidence to support what many already knew. The rate of change, as an industry evolves, is not constant. It follows a sigmoidal (s-shaped) curve, with a slow beginning (lag phase) associated with experimentation and slow market penetration, a middle period of rapid growth (log phase) as the product gains acceptance and as dominant designs emerge, and finally a tapering off as more advanced or completely different products attract consumers’ attention (Figure 1.1). The pattern then starts all over again. Similar variations in the rate of change were identified much earlier by Ryan and Gross (1943), when they studied how 259 farmers in Iowa responded to the intro- duction of a new superior hybrid seed corn. The new seed was available in 1928 but it was 1932 before the first farmers began planting. In 1934, 16 farmers adopted the new seed, followed by slightly higher numbers in the following two years. But it was nine years after the seeds were first available before there was widespread accept- ance. The breakthrough came in 1937. The first users were innovators who
  • 43. PATTERNS OF CHANGE 17 ‘infected’ the early adopters, a group who carefully monitored the success of the initial trials before deciding what to do. This group was followed by a mass of movers, the early and the late majority. The last group to adopt the seeds were the laggards and it was 1942 before all but two of the 259 farmers were planting the new seeds. é Decline of old and emergence of new r t Level of Bae activity in 4q— Mature product, slow an industr J or little growth q—_ Product acceptance and dominance: rapid growth New product/service: <—— experimentation and slow growth Time Figure 1.1. Pattern of industry evolution Gladwell (2000), in his book The Tipping Point, cites some more dramatic exam- ples — including the sudden and dramatic decline in crime in New York in 1990 and the takeoff of fax machines in the USA, when, only three years after they were first introduced, over a million machines were sold — to support his assertion that many social changes do not occur gradually. They spread like viral epidemics and change, when it happens, is sudden. The ‘tipping point’ is the name he gives to the dramatic moment in an epidemic when everything changes at once. The proposition that some changes happen quickly, over relatively short periods of time, whereas others gradually evolve suggests that the tempo of change might provide a useful basis for thinking about the nature of change and the implications of different types of change for change management practice. The punctuated equilibrium paradigm Gould (1978) challenges the notion of incremental, cumulative change. He is a natural historian with an interest in Darwin’s theory of evolution. Traditionalists assert that evolution involves a slow stream of small changes (mutations) that are continuously being shaped over time by environmental selection. While Gould accepts the principle of natural selection, he rejects the proposition that change is gradual and continuous. Gould (1978: 15) asserts that the evidence points to ‘a world punctuated with periods of mass extinction and rapid origination among long stretches of relative tranquillity: Some of his essays focus on the two greatest ‘punc- tuations. After four billion years of almost no change, there was the Cambrian explo- sion of life (about 600 million years ago) and, after another longish period of very slow change, the Permian extinction that wiped out half the families of marine inver- tebrates (225 million years ago). Gersick (1991) has studied models of change in six domains — individual change, group development, organization development, history of science, biological evolu- tion and physical science — and found support for the punctuated equilibrium para- digm in every domain. According to Gersick (1991: 12), the paradigm has the
  • 44. . ee I+ THE NATURE OF CHANGE Deep structure following components: ‘relatively long periods of stability (equilibrium), punctuated by compact periods of qualitative, metamorphic change (revolution). She goes on to assert that in all the models she studied across the six domains: the relationship of these two modes is explained through the construct of a highly durable underlying order or deep structure. This deep structure is what persists and limits change during equilibrium periods and is what disassembles, reconfig- ures, and enforces wholesale transformation during revolutionary periods. (Gersick, 1991: 12) The essence of the punctuated equilibrium paradigm is that systems (organizations) evolve through the alternation of periods of equilibrium, in which persistent ‘deep structures’ only permit limited incremental change, and periods of revolution, in which these deep structures are fundamentally altered. This is in stark contrast to the traditional gradualist paradigm, which suggests that: > an organization (or an organizational subsystem) can accommodate any change at any time so long as it is a relatively small change > astream of incremental changes can, over a period of time, fundamentally transform the organization’s deep structure. Gersick (1991: 16) refers to deep structure as the fundamental choices an organiz- ation makes that determine the basic activity patterns that maintain its existence. She argues that deep structures are highly stable because the trail of choices made by a system (organization) rule out many options-and rule in those that are mutually contingent — ‘early steps in the decision tree are the most fateful’ She also argues that the activity patterns of a system’s deep structure reinforce the system as a whole through mutual feedback loops. Tushman and Romanelli (1985) identify five key domains of organizational activity that might be viewed as representing an organization's deep structure. These are organizational culture, strategy, structure, power distribution and control systems. Romanelli and Tushman (1994) go on to assert that it takes a revolution to alter a system of interrelated organizational parts when it is maintained by mutual dependencies among the parts, and when competitive, regulatory and technological systems outside the organization reinforce the legitimacy of the managerial choices that produced the parts. Greenwood and Hinings (1996) offer a slightly different perspective based on neo-institutional theory, but the core argument is the same; there is a force for inertia that limits the possibility for incremental change, and that this resistance to change will be strongest when the network of mutual dependencies is tightly coupled. Greenwood and Hinings’ (1996: 1023) argument is that a major source of resistance to change stems from the ‘normative embeddedness of an organization within its institutional context. Organizations must accommodate institutional expectations in order to survive. They illustrate this point with reference to the way institutional context has influenced the structure and governance of accounting firms. They were (and most still are) organized as professional partnerships, not because that form of governance facilitated efficient and effective task performance, but because it was defined as the appropriate way of organizing the conduct of accounting work. The parameters offered by such an archetypal template provide the context for convergent change. Greenwood and Hinings (1996: 1025) suggest, for example, that an accounting firm operating as a professional partnership could, as it grows,
  • 45. PATTERNS OF CHANGE _@ introduce some form of representative democracy in place of the traditional broadly based democratic governance. This kind of incremental change could be achieved because it is perceived to be consistent with prevailing core ideas and values. However, a move towards a more a bureaucratic form of authority and governance might encounter strong resistance because it is perceived to be inconsistent with the prevailing template. Such a radical change would involve the organization moving from one template-in-use to another. These templates work in the same way as Gersick’s deep structures. However, the degree of embeddedness and the strength of these templates may vary between sectors, and this will affect the power of the template to limit the possibility for incremental cumulative change in any particular organization. In the case of the accounting profession, the partnership organizational form, with its commitment to independence, autonomy and responsible conduct, is supported by a strong network of reciprocal exchanges between professional associations, universities, state agen- cies and accounting firms. The outcome is a situation where individual accounting firms are tightly coupled to the prevailing archetypal template. Greenwood and Hinings (1996) argue that radical change in tightly coupled fields will be unusual, but if it does occur, it will be revolutionary. However, in loosely coupled fields, radical change will be more common and will tend to be evolutionary and could unfold over a relatively long period of time. Equilibrium periods Gersick (1991: 16) introduces the analogy of the playing field and the rules of the game to describe an organization's deep structure, and the game in play to describe activity during an equilibrium period. How a game of football is played may change over the course of a match, but there is a consistency that is determined by the nature of the playing field and the rules of the game. The coach and the players can intervene and make changes that will affect team performance, but they cannot intervene to change the nature of the playing field or the rules of the game (the deep structure). In terms of organizational change, during periods of equilibrium, change agents can intervene and make incremental adjustments in response to internal or external perturbations, but these interventions will not fundamentally affect the organization's deep structure. An important question is: “Why do organizations find it hard to change?’ According to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, organizations are resistant to change in equilibrium periods because of forces of inertia that work to maintain the status quo. Gersick argues that so long as the deep structure is intact, it generates a strong inertia to prevent the system from generating alternatives outside its own boundaries. Furthermore, these forces for inertia can pull any deviations that do occur back into line. Gersick (1991) identifies three sources of inertia: cognitive frameworks, motiva- tion and obligations. Organizational members often develop shared cognitive frame- works and mental models that influence the way they interpret reality and learn. Shared mental models can restrict attention to thinking ‘within the frame. With regard to change, attention may be restricted to searching for ways of doing things better. In periods of equilibrium, assumptions about the organization's theory of business (Drucker, 1994) often go unchallenged and organizational members fail to give sufficient attention to the possibility of doing things differently or even doing different things. (See Hodgkinson and Healey, 2008, for details of studies that have considered the role of mental representations in both organizational inertia and strategic adaptation.)
  • 46. iP oe THE NATURE OF CHANGE Motivational barriers to change are often related to the fear of loss, especially with regard to the sunk costs incurred during periods of equilibrium. Gersick (1991: 18) refers to the fear of losing control over one’s situation if the equilibrium ends and argues that this contributes heavily to the human motivation to avoid significant system change. Thaler and Sunstein (2009) draw on the work of Samu- elson and Zeckhauser to argue that for lots of reasons people prefer to stick with their current situation. Obligations can also limit change. Tushman and Romanelli (1985: 177) note that even if a system can overcome its own cognitive and motivational barriers against realizing a need for change, the networks of interdependent resource relationships and value commitments generated by its structure will often prevent it being able to achieve the required change. This view, at least in part, adds support to Greenwood and Hining’s (1996) proposition that the normative embeddedness of an organiz- ation can limit change. Episodes of discontinuous change occur when inertia, that is, the inability of organizations to change as rapidly as their environment, triggers some form of revo- lutionary transformation. Revolutionary periods Gersick (1991) asserts that the definitive element of the punctuated equilibrium paradigm is that organizations do not shift from one ‘kind of game’ to another through incremental steps. This, according to Romanelli and Tushman (1994), is because resistance to change prevents small changes in organizational units from taking hold and substantially influencing activities in related subunits. Consequently, small changes do not accumulate incrementally to transform the organization. Weick and Quinn (1999) note that punctuated equilibrium theorists posit that episodes of revolutionary change occur during periods of divergence when there is a growing misalignment between an organization's deep structure and perceived envi- ronmental demands. They report that the metaphor of the firm implied by concep- tions of episodic change is an organization that comprises aset of interdependencies that converge and tighten (become more closely aligned) as short run adaptations are pursued in order to achieve higher levels of efficiency. This focus on internal alignment deflects attention away from the need to maintain external alignment and, consequently, the organization is slow to adapt to environmental change. Inertia maintains the state that Lewin (1947) described as stable, quasi-stationary equilib- rium until misalignment reaches the point where major changes are precipitated. The only way forward is for the organization to transform itself. Gersick (1991: 19) argues that the transformation of deep structures can only occur through a process of wholesale upheaval: According to this logic, the deep structures must first be dismantled, leaving the system temporarily disorganized, in order for any fundamental change to be accomplished. Next, a subset of the system's old pieces, along with some new pieces, can be put back together into a new configuration, which operates according to a new set ofrules. This process of revolutionary change and organizational transformation provides the basis for a new state of equilibrium. However, because of forces of resistance that inhibit continuous adaptation, this new equilibrium gives rise to another period of relative stability that is followed by a further period of revolutionary change. This process continues to unfold as a process of punctuated equilibrium.
  • 47. PATTERNS OF CHANGE @ Those who subscribe to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm argue that revolu- tionary episodes may affect a single organization or a whole sector. Marks & Spencer is an organization that was faced with the need to reinvent itself when, even after a long period of incremental change, it found itself misaligned with its environment and performing less well than other leading retailers. An example of a whole sector that was faced with the need to change its deep structure is the electricity supply sector in the UK. When the Conservative government decided to privatize the industry, this created a new playing field and a new set of rules for all the utility companies in the sector. Support for the punctuated equilibrium paradigm Numerous case histories offer support for the punctuated equilibrium paradigm. Pettigrew (1987) reports a study of change in ICI over the period 1969-86. He found that radical periods of change were interspersed with periods of incremental adjustment and that change in core beliefs preceded changes in structure and business strategy. Tushman et al. (1986) examined the development of AT&T, General Radio, Citibank and Prime Computers and observed periods during which organizational systems, structures and strategies converged to be more aligned with the basic mission of these organizations. They also observed that these equilibrium periods were punctuated bybrief periods of intense and pervasive change that led to the formulation of new missions and then the initiation of new equilibrium periods. The first direct test of the paradigm was Romanelli and Tushman’s (1994) empirical study of microcomputer producers, the key elements of which are summarized in Research report 1.1. Research report 1.1. Study of microcomputer producers Romanelli, E. and Tushman, M.L. (1994) Organizational transformation as punctuated equilibrium: an empirical test, Academy of Management Journal, 37(5): 1141-66 =, f According to the punctuated equilibrium model, radical and discontinuous change of 3 all or most organizational activities is necessary to break the grip of strong inertia. This A provides the basis of Romanelli and Tushman’s first hypothesis: Organizational transformations will most frequently occur in short, discontinuous bursts of change involving most or all key domains of organizational activity. Resistance to change is critical to punctuated equilibrium theory in that it establishes the key condition that supports revolutionary transformation. Resistance prevents small changes in organizational subunits from taking hold or substantially influencing activities in related subunits. This gives rise to their second hypothesis: Small changes in individual domains of organizational activity will not accumulate incrementally to yield a fundamental transformation. Their final set of three hypotheses addressed how organizational transformation is stimulated. Since the punctuated equilibrium model posits strong inertia as the common state of organizational affairs, they hypothesized that this inertia will be broken by a severe crisis in performance, major changes in the organization’s environment, and succession of its chief executive officer (CEO). Method Romanelli and Tushman studied the life histories of 25 minicomputer producers founded in the USA between 1967 and 1969. The firms were selected to maximize organizational similarities on dimensions of organizational age and the environmental characteristics that the organizations faced during founding and later in their lives.
  • 48. @ oat fo THE NATURE OF CHAN GE Data were collected for all years of the organizations’ lives from a variety of sources, including information required by the Securities and Exchange Commission, annual reports, prospectuses, and industry and business press reports. They found that detailed information about strategies, structures and power distributions was available for all organizations throughout their lives. However, they also found that organizations reported information about cultures and control systems infrequently and inconsistently. Consequently, Romanelli and Tushman dropped the culture and control system domains of activity from further analysis and focused their attention on structure, strategy and power distributions. Fundamental organizational transformations, which could be either revolutionary or non-revolutionary, were identified as occurring whenever substantial changes were observed in the strategy, structure and power distribution domains of organizational activity. Revolutionary transformations were defined as occurring whenever changes in all three strategy, structure, and power distributions occurred within any two-year time period. NB: Two years was selected because some of the data were presented for corporate fiscal years and some for calendar years; however, they found that the majority of the revolutionary transformations actually occurred within a single year. Non-revolutionary transformations were identified in two ways. First, whenever there were substantial changes over a period longer than two years and, second, when small changes accumulated to a 30% change and when all three domains exhibited this level of change. Results The key findings of the study were that: 1 A large majority of organizational transformations were accomplished via rapid and discontinuous change. 2 Small changes in strategies, structure and power distribution did not accumulate to produce fundamental transformations. This finding provides additional evidence that fundamental organizational transformations tend to occur in short, discontinuous bursts. 3 Triggers for transformations were major environmental changes and CEO succession. The gradualist paradigm The gradualist paradigm posits that fundamental change (organizational transforma- tion) can occur through a process of continuous adjustment, and does not require some major discontinuous jolt to the system in order to trigger a short episode of revolutionary change. Change is evolving and cumulative. Brown and Eisenhardt (1997) argue that many firms compete by changing continuously. They cite companies such as Intel, Wal-Mart, 3M, Hewlett-Packard and Gillette and suggest that for them the ability to change rapidly and continuously is not just a core competence but is at the heart of their cultures. They refer to Burgelman (1991) and Chakravarthy (1997), who suggest that continuous change is often played out through product innovation as companies change and sometimes transform through a process of continually altering their products. Hewlett-Packard is identified as a classic case. The company changed from an instruments company to a computer firm through rapid, continuous product innovation, rather than through a sudden punctuated change. Continuous change, when it occurs, involves the continuous updating of work processes and social practices. Weick and Quinn (1999) argue that this leads to new patterns of organizing in the absence of a priori intentions on the part of some change agent. It is emergent in the sense that there is no deliberate orchestration of
  • 49. PATTERNS OF CHANGE -@ change. It is continuous and is the outcome of the everyday process of management. They cite Orlikowski (1996), who suggests that continuous change involves individ- uals and groups accommodating and experimenting with everyday contingencies, breakdowns, exceptions, opportunities and unintended consequences, and repeating, sharing and amplifying them to produce perceptible and striking changes. Weick and Quinn (1999) observe that the distinctive quality of continuous change is the idea that small continuous adjustments, created simultaneously across units, can cumulate and create substantial change. They identify three related proc- esses associated with continuous change: improvisation, translation and learning: > Improvising facilitates the modification of work practices through mutual adjustments in which the time gap between planning and implementing narrows towards the point where composition (planning) converges with execution (implementation). > Translation refers to the continuous adoption and editing of ideas as they travel through the organization. > Learning involves the continuous revision of shared mental models, which facilitates a change in the organization’s response repertoire. Weick and Quinn (1999: 372) suggest that organisations produce continuous change by means of repeated acts of improvisa- tion involving simultaneous composition and execution, repeated acts of transla- tion that convert ideas into useful artefacts that fit purposes at hand, or repeated acts oflearning that enlarge, strengthen, or shrink the repertoire of responses. . Brown and Eisenhardt (1997) studied product innovation in six firms in the computer industry at a time of rapid product development associated with the Pentium processor, multimedia, internet and the convergence of telephony with consumer electronics. Three of their case studies related to firms with a record of successful product innovation and business performance and three related to firms with a relatively poor record of developing multi-product portfolios. They identified three characteristics of the firms that were able to manage change as a continuous process of adjustment: semi-structures that facilitated improvisation, links in time that facilitated learning, and sequenced steps for managing transitions. While the punctuated equilibrium paradigm stresses the interdependence of organizational ‘subunits and a web of interdependent relationships with buyers, suppliers and others that legally and normatively constrain organizations to estab- lished activities and relationships (Romanelli and Tushman, 1994), the gradualist paradigm emphasizes the relative independence of organizational subunits. This loose coupling facilitates change within subunits. Over time, as unit managers repeatedly alter their goals and relationships to accommodate changes in local environments, the organization as a whole can be transformed. As noted above, Greenwood and Hinings (1996) support the view that tightly coupled relationships are resistant to change and when change does occur, it tends to be revolutionary, but recognize that in loosely coupled fields, radical change can be evolutionary. Weick and Quinn (1999), however, suggest that when interdependencies are loose, continuous adjustments tend to be confined within subunits and remain as pockets of innovation. Continuous adjustment, therefore, may not always lead to fundamental change. Burke (2002) speculates that more that 95% oforganizational changes are, in some way, evolutionary, but he questions Orlikowski’s assumption that this can lead to sufficient modification to achieve fundamental change. He asserts that it is difficult to overcome inertia and equilibrium without a discontinuous ‘jolt’ to the system:
  • 50. 1 bs THE NATURE OF (CHANGE Organisation change does occur with continuous attention and effort, but it is unlikely that fundamental change in the deep structure of the organization would happen. (Burke, 2002: 69) The nature of change confronting most organizations Dunphy (1996) argues that planned change is triggered by the failure of people to ~ create a continuously adaptive organization, the kind of organization that is referred to in Chapter 18 as an effective learning organization. Weick and Quinn (1999) ~ suggest that this holds true whether the focus is episodic or continuous change, and they propose that the ideal organization in both cases would resemble the successful self-organizing and highly adaptive firms that Brown and Eisenhardt found in the computer industry. However, while some organizations might achieve this ideal and become so effective at double loop collective learning (see Chapter 18) that they are never misaligned with their environment, most do not. The majority of organiz- ations, if they survive long enough, experience episodes of discontinuous revolu- tionary as well as continuous incremental change. There are three main categories of organizations that may not experience periods of discontinuous change. These are: 1 The kind of self-organizing and continuously changing learning organizations identified by Brown and Eisenhardt. 2 Companies operating in niche markets or slow-moving sectors where they have not yet encountered the kind of environmental change that requires them to transform their deep structures. 3 Organizations that are able to continue functioning without transforming themselves because they have sufficient ‘fat’ to absorb the inefficiencies associated with misalignment. With these exceptions, most organizations experience change as a pattern of punctu- ated equilibrium. This pattern involves relatively long periods of equilibrium, during which an organization may only engage in incremental change, punctuated with short episodes of discontinuity during which an organization's survival may depend on its ability to transform itself. Incremental change According to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, incremental change is associated with those periods when the industry is in equilibrium and the focus for change is ‘doing things better’ through aprocess of continuous tinkering, adaptation and modifi- cation. Nadler and Tushman (1995) make the point that incremental changes are not necessarily small changes. They can be large in terms of the resources needed and the impact on people. A key feature of this type of change is that it builds on what has already been accomplished and has the flavour of continuous improvement. According to the gradualist paradigm, incremental change can be cumulative and, over time, can lead to an organization transforming its deep structures and reinventing itself. However, according to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, incremental change is incapable of fundamentally transforming the deep structures of an organization. Transformational change According to the punctuated equilibrium paradigm, transformational change occurs during periods of disequilibrium. Weick and Quinn (1999) and Gersick (1991)
  • 51. RATE RNS! OF) CHAN GB t= _ refer to this kind of change as ‘revolutionary’, but most writers, for example Tichy and Devanna (1986), Kotter (1999) and Burke and Litwin (1992), use the term ‘transformational change’ It involves a break with the past, a step function change rather than an extrapolation of past patterns of change and development. It is based on new relationships and dynamics within the industry that may undermine core competencies, and question the very purpose of the enterprise. This kind of change involves doing things differently rather than doing things better. It Itmight.even mean doing different things. The reprographics industry provides a good example of a “sector that was faced with a major discontinuity. Companies found that their core competence in optical reproduction was undermined when digital scanning tech- nology was developed and made available to their customers. The studies undertaken by’ Tushman.and colleagues (summarized iin Nadler and Tushman, |1995) suggest that most companies not only go through periods of “Continuous incremental and discontinuous transformational change, but that: » this pattern of change repeats itself with some degree of regularity > patterns vary across sectors, for example periods of discontinuity may follow a 30-year cycle in cement, but a 5-year cycle in minicomputers » in almost all industries the rate of change is increasing and the time between periods of discontinuity is decreasing (Figure 1.2). This last point is important because it predicts that all managers will be confronted with an ever greater need to manage both incremental and transformational change. Intensity of change ™“ “ ™ “ Organizations Organizations Organizations Organizations that failto adapt _—‘that fail to adapt that fail to adapt _that fail to adapt Time Figure 1.2 Punctuated equilibrium: a recurring pattern of continuous and transformational change Not all organizations are able to successfully negotiate episodes of discontinuity and those that fail to adapt may drop out or be acquired by others. Forester and ,Kaplan (2001) provide chilling evidence of the consequences of failing to adapt. They refer to changes in the Forbes top 100 companies between 1917 and 1987. ~ Out of the original 100 companies, only 18 were stillin the listin 1987 and 61 no longer existed. The possibility of anticipating change Sometimes it is relatively easy to anticipate the need for change. For example, companies operating in the European Union can, if they pay appropriate attention, anticipate the impact of new regulations that are currently being discussed in
  • 52. @— I> THE NATURE OF CHANGE Brussels. Companies competing in markets where margins are being squeezed can anticipate the need to secure greater efficiencies or generate new income streams. There are, however, occasions when organizations are confronted with changes that are difficult to anticipate, for example the effects of the 9/11 terrorist attacks or the SARS epidemic. Some organizations are much better at anticipating the need for change than others. They are proactive. They search out potential threats and opportunities. They prepare for destabilizing events that might occur or anticipate changes they could initiate to gain competitive advantage. Other organizations are much more reactive and only act when there is a clear and pressing need to respond. Whether the need is for incremental or transformational change, the earlier the need is recognized, the greater the number of options managers will have when deciding how to manage it. Whenever managers are forced to react to an urgent and pressing need to change, they are relatively constrained in what they can do. For example: > There is less time for planning: Careful planning takes time, something that is more likely to be available to those who are proactive and anticipate the need for change. > There is unlikely to be sufficient time to involve many people: Involving people and encouraging participation in the change process can aid diagnosis, reduce resistance and increase commitment, but this also takes time. > There will be little time to experiment: Early movers not only have time to experiment, they may also have the time to try again ifthe first experiment fails. When there is a pressing need for change, it is more difficult to search for creative solutions. > Late movers may have little opportunity to influence shifts in markets and technologies: Early movers may have the opportunity to gain a competitive advantage by not only developing but also protecting, for example through patents, new products or technologies. A typology of organizational change Combining two of the dimensions of change discussed so far, the extent to which change involves incremental adjustment or transformational change and the extent to which the organization's response to change is proactive or reactive, provides a useful typology of organizational change (see Figure 1.3). Incremental Transformational Proactive Tuning at=Xela(=lant-ialelal Reactive Adaptation nite oa =t-)dfe) al Figure 1.3 Types of organizational change Source: Adapted from Nadler et al., 1995: 24 Nadler et al. (1995) identify four types of change: 1 Tuning is change that occurs when there is no immediate requirement to change. It involves seeking better ways of achieving and/or defending the strategic vision,
  • 53. PATTERNS OF CHANGE — @& for example improving policies, methods, procedures; introducing new technologies; redesigning processes to reduce cost, time to market and so on; or developing people with required competencies. Most organizations engage in a form of fine-tuning much of the time. This approach to change tends to be initiated internally in order to make minor adjustments to maintain alignment between the internal elements of the organization and between the organization's strategy and the external environment. 2 Adaptation is an incremental and adaptive response to a pressing external demand for change. It might involve responding to a successful new marketing strategy adopted by a competitor or to a change in the availability of a key resource. Essentially, it broadly involves doing more of the same but doing it better in order to remain competitive. An example of adaptive change might be what happens when one company, for example Nestlé, is forced to respond to a competitive move by another, for example Mars may have either increased the size or reduced the price of some of its confectionary products. This kind of change is not about doing things in fundamentally different ways or about doing fundamentally different things. While tuning and adaptation can involve minor or major changes, they are types of change that occur within the same frame, they are bounded by the existing para- digm. Reorientation and re-creation, on the other hand, are types of change that, to use Gersick’s analogy, target the playing field and the rules of the game rather than the way a particular game is played. They involve transforming the organization and bending or breaking the frame to do things differently or to do different things. 3 Reorientation involves a redefinition of the enterprise. It is initiated in anticipation of future opportunities or problems. The aim is to ensure that the organization will be aligned and effective in the future. It may be necessary to modify the frame but, because the need for change has been anticipated, this could involve a gradual process of continuous frame bending. Nestlé offered a good example of reorientation in the mid-1980s. At a time when it was doing well, it embarked on a major change programme to ensure that it would remain aligned to its environment over the medium term. It initiated a top-down review to decide which businesses it should be in. Should it, for example, be in the pet foods business, continue to manufacture baked beans at a time when margins on that product were diminishing, or, as a major consumer of tin cans, supply its own or buy them in on a just in time basis? It also embarked on a major project to re-engineer the supply chain across the business and a bottom-up analysis of the added value contributed by each main activity. British Gas provides another example. After it had been privatized as a monopoly supplier of gas, the company was referred to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission. It was obvious to the top team that when the commission delivered its report, the company would be forced to change and might even be broken up. In order to prepare for this, ateam of 10 senior managers was created to explore and test possible scenarios and help the organization to develop the capability to respond to the inevitable, but at that time unspecified, changes it would have to face. In those cases where the need for change is not obvious to all and may not be seen as pressing by many, senior management (as in the British Gas example) may need to work hard in order to create a sense of urgency and gain widespread acceptance of the need to prepare for change. 4 Re-creation is a reactive change that involves transforming the organization through the fast and simultaneous change of all its basic elements. Nadler and Tushman (1995) state that it inevitably involves organizational frame breaking
  • 54. eo I- THE NATURE OF CHANGE and the destruction of some elements of the system. It can be disorienting. An often cited example of this kind of change is that introduced by Lee Iacocca when he became the new CEO at Chrysler. He embarked on a process of revolutionary change that involved replacing most of the top team, withdrawing the company from the large car market and divesting many foreign operations. The most common type of change is incremental (either fine-tuning or adapta- tion) but it is not unusual for a single organization to be involved in more than one type of change at the same time. Confronted with ever diminishing opportunities to grow the mining business, UK Coal reappraised its assets and considered how it might revise its theory of business. The way forward was to explore the possibility of redefining the company as a land and property management and mining company. This reorientation involved many changes including bringing in new people with competencies in the area of land and property management. However, while this transformational change was being implemented at the highest level, the company was also pursuing incremental continuous improvement programmes to increase the efficiency of individual deep mines. Implications of these different types of change for change management practice Different types of change can affect the focus for change efforts, the sequence of steps in the change process and the locus for change, as discussed below. The focus for change efforts With incremental change, the aim is to improve alignment between existing organi- zational components in order to do things better and improve the efficiency of the organization (see Figure 1.4). With transformational change, the aim is to seek a new configuration of organizational components in order to realign the organization with its changing environment. As noted above, this often leads to doing things differently or doing different things. a =o eae Pall Figure 1.4 /nternal alignment The sequence of activities required to achieve a desired outcome Inertia is often one of the major barriers to change. As an organization moves through a period of equilibrium, interdependencies tighten, ideologies that prescribe the best way of operating become more widely accepted and the fear of losing benefits associ- ated with the status quo strengthens the resistance to change. The first step in the
  • 55. Random documents with unrelated content Scribd suggests to you:
  • 56. up with that old——” “Jinny, please!” “Oh, if you want me to tell falsehoods, my dear, I’ll do my best to oblige you. I’ll call him young to myself until it comes easy. Practice makes perfect, they say. Why, here we are! This horse must have the glanders or something. Perhaps he thought Mr. Germain was after you. There’s a lot of sense in brute beasts.” All this, which shows the rights of elder, was meekly received. Home-coming was nevertheless a sort of triumph. The younger girls—all tidied up—allowed her to kiss them as if she had become an aunt; father and mother made much of her; she must see in their faces a sort of anxious wonder—Can this be our Mary then? Can I have begotten this young lady? Can these breasts have nourished a Mrs. Germain? She was to have tea in her hat, which Jinny refused to do; but elaborately removed it and administered the kettle, the muffins, the slices of bread, the jam-pot. Blushing and successful as she showed, Mary would have put an end to this splendid isolation if she could. It was not possible until tea was over; but then, when her father made her a kind of speech—clearing his throat and frowning at one of the girls, who was speaking the deaf and dumb language to another under the table—then indeed Mary upset all ceremonial, by jumping up, and knocking down her chair, by throwing herself upon her mother’s lap, her arms around her mother’s neck, by hiding her face upon her mother’s breast and anointing that dear cradle with tears. Mr. Middleham’s little speech ended in a choking fit; the girls looked all their misery; and Jinny sniffed and hardened her heart. Mary had unbent, but she was made to see that all her people knew that it was a condescension. The sisters slept together as of old, and Jinny must be wooed. For natural reasons Mary must have Jinny’s approbation, must coax and kiss and strain for it. Jinny was not easily won, but after a passionate while allowed the back of her mind to be seen. She sat up in bed and asked a series of questions. They were answered in low murmurs by a hiding Molly. “Molly, how did you get off from Misperton?” “Quite well.”
  • 57. “H’m. Glad to hear it. No scenes?” “Mrs. Germain was rather awful. She always hated me. The Rector was sweet to me. And oh! there was Miss de Speyne—I can’t tell you how kind she was. Certainly, we had a friend in common . . . but——” “That’s not what I mean. You can manage them, I should hope. I know that I could. The Rectory, indeed—and you to go out before her! Molly, did you see him before you went?” “Who do you mean?” said a suddenly sobered Molly. “You know quite well who I mean.” “John Rudd, I suppose. There’s nothing between us—now.” “John Rudd! John Germain! There’s not only Johns in the world. There’s an Ambrose—you know.” “Mr. Perivale! Oh, Jinny, that’s ridiculous. Why, he only——” “I know what he only—as you call it. I don’t mean that at all—or him either. I asked you, Did you see him before you went?” There was no answer for a minute or more—and then a defiant answer. “No, I didn’t. He’s away—abroad.” “Ah. Well, you’ll have to, you know. Have you told old—Mr. Germain?” “No—at least—I was going to. But that was when he—kissed me —and so I couldn’t.” “That was when he kissed you? Do you mean to tell me——?” “No, of course not. But he kisses my hand mostly.” “Well, I’m—” Miss Jinny did not say what she considered herself to be. “Gentlemen are like that, Jinny—real gentlemen.” “Gentlemen! Do you mean to tell me that Tr—that he is not a gentleman?” “That was quite different. He meant nothing but—it was all nonsense.” “I advise you to find out whether Mr. Germain thinks it nonsense.” “Of course, I shall tell him everything. I don’t want ever to see Mr. Dup—him again. That was all foolishness.” Mary sat up in bed and clasped her knees. Her eyes, staring at the bright light, were
  • 58. stored with knowledge—as if the soul within were shining through them at last. “I have a friend—a real, wise friend—who has told me this much—that there is a real thing. I believe that, I do indeed.” Jinny stared, then yawned. “I’m sleepy. That’s real enough for me just now. What do you mean, child?” “I mean that one might give up everything—risk everything—if one were sure, quite sure. But if one isn’t—if one knows that one is a trifle, a plaything, to a—to a person, and that, to another person, one may be much more—then—oh, Jinny, Jinny, please!” Mary’s arms were now about Jinny’s neck, and Jinny allowed herself to be pulled down. Mary snuggled and put up her lips. After an instant she whispered, “Darling old Jinny, will you do something for me?” “What is it?” “Promise.” “What is it?” “If Tr—if he comes here—will you see him for me? Oh, please, please——” “Why can’t you——?” “No, no, I can’t, you know I can’t. Why, he looks at me as if I belonged to him—as if he had a right—! And when he does that, when he frowns and looks through you, and waits—and says nothing —I know what he means; and if he said one word, or moved towards me, or beckoned”—She shivered and hid her face. “I simply mustn’t—I daren’t. Oh, Jinny darling, please!” After a time Jinny promised—but Mary’s peace was broken up. A shadow haunted her outdoors and in. Mr. Germain drove down to Blackheath to greet his bride. Her shy welcome, with gladness behind, to make it real, charmed him altogether. The family, after a respectful interval, left him the parlour, for which he was grateful. It would have, no doubt, to be explained that in marrying Mary he had no intention of taking charge of her people. Admittedly they were impossible, but it is very odd that he loved the girl of his selection the more for being simply and unaffectedly one of them. He respected her for it, but there was more than that. At the bottom of his heart he knew that if she were to lose sight of her origin, his love would suffer. It was absolutely
  • 59. necessary—he felt it—that she must masquerade for life, be a sweet little bourgeoise playing county lady; but playing it with sincerity, and obediently, doing her best because she was told. The unvoiced conviction lay behind what he now had to say to her. He told her, for instance, that he hoped she would see as much of her family as she pleased, after she was married, though, of course, she would have the duties of her new station to consider and to reconcile with others. He did not suppose, he told her, that it would be reasonable, or even true kindness, to ask them often to Southover. “I esteem your father highly, my dearest. He is in all respects what I should have expected your father to be. Your mother, too, is, I am sure, worthy of your love and gratitude; your sisters seem to me happy and affectionate girls. I doubt, however, if they would be comfortable among our friends at Southover—” Mary here said at once that she was sure they would not. “They are different from you—quite different. We are quite poor people—you would call us middle-class people, wouldn’t you?” “I suppose that I should,” he admitted; “but would that hurt you, my love?” “No, no, not at all. There is no harm in that; and we can’t help it —but——” He leaned, put his arm round her waist and drew her to him. “Well, my darling, well—? Tell me of what you are thinking.” “I was wondering—if you can see that they wouldn’t do at Southover, what made you think that I should do there, either?” He held her closer. “I’ll tell you, my love. It was because I knew what I should feel if you were ever to be there. It was because my heart was full of you, so that I could never look on any scene that I loved without seeing you in it, and loving it the more for your presence there. When I thought of Southover, I saw you its little sovereign lady, and myself waiting upon you, showing you all the things about it which have been so dear to me in spite of—much unhappiness; and my heart beat high. I said to myself, You must be a miserable and lonely man, my friend, unless you can promise yourself this joy of service. Does my Mary understand me?” He stooped his head to hers, and asked
  • 60. her again, Did she understand? Yes, yes, she said, but she sighed, and turned her face away. Then he must needs kiss her. Then she did try to speak, meaning, if possible, to lead herself up to a confession. She told him that she feared to disappoint him, that he rated her too highly. “I can tell you truthfully that your love has made me very proud and very happy; I must assure you that I shall do everything in my power to prove to you how proud I am. I will do my duty faithfully—you must tell me of the least thing which is not just as you like. I can’t do more than that, can I?” “Nobody in the world could do more than that,” he told her. “But there’s something else. Mrs. Germain at Misperton doesn’t like me at all——” He nodded sadly. “I know, my dear, I know. She is a foolish, arrogant woman, but there are excuses——” “Oh, of course there are!” She sat upon his knee. “I expect that she is right and that you are wrong—in a way.” Then her eyes opened widely upon him: the hour had come. “But she thinks—she says that I am—bad.” He turned grey. “Oh, no, my love, you misjudge her! Good Heavens—bad!” She held her face back from him that she might look at him seriously. “She does, you know—but she makes no allowances. I have always tried to be a good girl—I assure you. Please believe that.” He held her to his heart. “My dearest, my dearest, you distress me. Good! Who is good if you are not? Purest of the pure—my Mary.” But she shook herself free in a hurry. “No, no, indeed, you mustn’t say that. That’s absurd. I am just an ordinary girl, who likes to be happy, and to be admired, and to have fun when I can——” “Of course, of course. Oh, my beloved, do not reproach yourself.” Then she turned in his arms, put her hands on his shoulders, and looked gravely and imploringly into his face. “Promise me one thing,” she said, “one thing only. I will ask you nothing more than that.” She could not have been resisted by the Assessing Angel. “Speak, my adored one.”
  • 61. “Whatever you hear of me—against me—ask me what I have to say before you condemn me. Promise me that.” “My love and my life,” he said fervently; and she pouted her lips for a kiss. Thus she justified herself in this regard, and by a sophistry of her sex came in time to feel that she had made him a full confession. She told Jinny as much. We were now in late August; the wedding was to be quietly at Blackheath at the end of September, and the exciting business of the trousseau must be undertaken. Mrs. James, it seems, had so far reconciled herself to the inevitable as to have consented to come to town and “see to things” which the child must have. Her own people being out of the question, Mary was to stay with her in Hill-street, which was one day to be her own house, and do her shopping. A liberal sum was in Mrs. James’s hands for the purpose. There was to be no white satin; but Jinny was to be allowed to walk as bridesmaid. There was no way out of this. Her dress was to be chosen for her, and then she must come to London to be fitted; but she was not to be asked to Hill-street.
  • 62. XIV THE NEWS REACHES THE PYRENEES Pau, in August, being what no man could be expected to stand, Duplessis and his friend Lord Bramleigh went into Spain, and lounged at San Sebastian. Here on a blazing noon of mid-September, as they were breakfasting at leisure, a budget of letters was delivered. Lord Bramleigh, cheerful, wholesome, and round-faced, chirped over his, according to his wont. He read most of them aloud, with comments. “Old Gosperton’s shoot—will I go? I’ll see him damned. Why should I go and see old Gosperton shoot beaters? Not if I know it. Who’s this? Mary St. Chad, by the Lord! Now what does she want? . . . ‘I suppose you know that Bob Longford is . . .’ I’ll be shot if I know anything of the sort. I know he wants to all right; but you can’t marry a chap’s wife—at least I don’t think you can. . . . Oh, sorry! Fellow’s dead. . . . I say, Tristram, do you hear that? Old Bland-Mainways is dead, and Bob Longford’s married his relic— married her in a week, my boy. What do you say to that? You marry a man’s remains almost as soon as he’s remains himself. Pretty manners, what? . . .” Duplessis took no heed; the babbler ran on. . . . “This is my mater—wonder what she’s got to say? I rather funk the Dowager. . . . Hulloa! By Gad, that’s rum. I say, Duplessis, did you know a chap called Senhouse at Cambridge? Pembroke, was he? Or King’s? King’s, I think . . . it was King’s. Did you know him? Jack Senhouse—John Senhouse—rum chap.” “Eh? Senhouse? Oh, yes, I knew him. Used to see him about.” Duplessis resumed his letters; one, especially, made him frown— then stare out of the window. He read others but returned to that. Lord Bramleigh went on. “I want to tell you about this chap Senhouse. Of course, I never knew him at the Varsity—ages before
  • 63. me, he was. Good footer—player—ran with the beagles—ran like the devil; rowed a bit, painted a bit, sang a damned good song: Jack Senhouse. Well, he’s mad. Rich chap—at least, his father was rich— alderman somewhere, I b’lieve—say, Birmingham . . . one of those sort of places. Well, Jack Senhouse chucked all that—took to painting, scribbling, God knows what. His governor gets cross— sends him round the world on the chance he’ll settle down by’n by. Not he! Gets up to all sorts of unlawful games—cuts the ship and starts off on his own across Morocco; gets hung up at Fez—row with a Shereef about his wife or wives. Foreign Office has to get to work —makes it all right. Senhouse goes? Not he. Stays there all the same —to learn the language, I’ll ask you. Language and plants. He collects plants in the Atlas. So he goes on. Then he gets back home. ‘Hope you’ll settle down to the office, my boy,’ says his governor. ‘No, thank ye,’ says Jack, and doesn’t. He was off again on the tramp somewhere—turns up in Russia—if Warsaw’s in Russia—anyhow he turns up where Warsaw is—talking to the Poles about Revolution. Still collects plants. They put him over the frontier. He goes to Siberia after plants and politics. More rows. Well, anyhow, he came back a year ago, and said he was a tinker. He’d learned tinkerin’ somewhere round, sawderin’ and all that—and I’m damned if he didn’t set up a cart and horse and go about with a tent. He paints, he scribbles, he tinkers, he sawders—just as he dam’ pleases. And he turns England into a garden, and plants his plants. He’s got plants out all over the country. I tell you—the rummiest chap. Up in the Lakes somewhere he’s got a lot—growin’ wild, free and easy— says he don’t want hedges round his things. ‘Let ’em go as they please,’ he says. So he turns the Land’s End into a rockery and stuffs the cracks with things from the Alps. He’s made me promise him things from the Pyrenees, confound him—you’ll have to help me with ’em. And irises on Dartmoor—from the Caucasus! And peonies growin’ wild in South Wales—oh, he’s mad! You never saw such a chap. And so dam’ reasonable about it. I like the chap. He’s all right, you know. He’s been turned out of every village in England pretty well, ’cause he will talk and will camp out, and plant his plants in other men’s land. I met him once bein’ kicked out of Dicky
  • 64. Clavering’s place—regular procession—and old Jack sittin’ up in his cart talkin’ to the policeman like an old friend. Admirin’ crowd, of course—the gels all love him, he’s so devilish agreeable, is Jack. I tell you, he learnt more than one sort of sawderin’. And as for his flowers—well, you know there’s a language of ’em. Well, now, what do you think? I’ve heard from the Dowager, and I’ll be shot if she hasn’t just turned old Jack out of my place! Found him campin’ in the park, with one of the maids boilin’ his kettle, and another cuttin’ bread and butter for him. Plantin’ peonies he was—in my park! Dam’ funny business; but the end’s funnier still. The Dowager, out driving, comes home—sees Master Jack waiting for his tea. Stops the carriage—sends the footman to order him off. Jack says he’ll go after tea. This won’t suit the Dowager by any means—so there’s a row. Jack comes up to explain; makes himself so infernally agreeable that I’ll be jiggered if the Dowager don’t ask him to dinner, and up he turns in evenin’ togs, just like you or me. After dinner—‘Good-night, my lady,’ says Jack. ‘I must be off early, as I’ve some saucepan bottoms waiting for me—and I’ve promised ’em for to-morrow sharp’—says Jack. Now—I say, I don’t believe you’ve heard a word of all this.” Duplessis, I think, had not. He had been frowning at the glare outside, biting his cheek; in his hand was a crumpled-up letter. “Look here, Bramleigh, I must get out of this,” he said. “I want to go home.” Lord Bramleigh, never to be surprised, emptied his tumbler. Then he asked, “What’s up? No trouble, I hope?” He had a gloomy stare for his first answer, and for second—“No, I don’t say that. I don’t know. That’s why I am off—to see.” A man’s pleasure is a matter of course to your Bramleighs: the moral and social order must accommodate itself to that. “That’s all right,” said Lord Bramleigh, therefore. “When do you go? To-morrow?” “I go this evening.” The effect of this was to raise Lord Bramleigh’s scalp a shade higher. “We swore we’d go to Madame Sop’s to-night, you know.” Madame Sop was a Madame Sopwith, a lady of uncertain age and
  • 65. Oriental appearance, who gave card-parties. Duplessis said, “You must make my excuses—if she wants ’em. I’m going.” “A woman, of course,” said Bramleigh, tapping a cigarette—but had no answer. Duplessis caught the Sun express, and, travelling straight through, reached Misperton Brand in less than two days. On the afternoon of the third day he was at the door of the little house, Heath View, in Blackheath. The door was open, and within the frame of it stood a tall young woman with hair elaborately puffed over the ears and a complexion heightened by excitement. “Good-afternoon,” says Duplessis. “Miss Middleham at home?” “Yes,” says Jinny, “she is. Will you come in?” He followed her into the parlour and was offered a chair. “Thanks very much,” he said, but did not take it. He stood by the window, and Jinny Middleham stood by the door. Presently Jinny said, “I am Miss Middleham, you know. Or perhaps you didn’t know it.” Duplessis stared, then recovered. “I beg your pardon. No, I didn’t grasp that. But you’re not my Miss Middleham.” “I didn’t know that you had one,” said Jinny. “It’s the first I’ve heard of it.” He laughed. “You’ll think me very rude in a minute; but I’ll explain to you. It was your sister I wanted to see. She is—a friend of mine. My name is Duplessis. She may have told you.” Jinny was as stiff as a poker. “I have heard my sister speak of you, certainly. I understood that you were—an acquaintance.” Duplessis nodded easily. “Put it at that. I suppose I may see her?” “She’s away,” said Jinny. “She’s staying in London—with the Honourable Mrs. Germain.” He began to bite his cheek. “Can you give me Mrs. Germain’s address? It’s not Hill-street, I suppose?” Jinny was very happy just now. “I suppose that a letter to Mrs. Germain at Misperton would find her. You are related to her, I believe?”
  • 66. “My dear Miss Middleham,” said Duplessis candidly, “let’s keep to the point. It seems to me that you don’t want me to see your sister.” “Oh,” says Jinny, “it don’t matter at all to me.” He knit his brows. “Then you mean——?” “I mean,” said Jinny, “that my sister is going to be married to Mr. Germain. That’s what it comes to.” Duplessis bowed. “I see. Thank you very much. Than I think, if you’ll allow me—” He bowed again and went towards the door. The scene was to be over. Jinny put her hand upon the latch. “Where are you going?” she said, very short of breath. There was a thrill yet to be got out of this. What was sport to her mortified him to death. “Really, I don’t know that I need trouble you any more,” he said. “You will give my kind regards to your sister, I hope.” But Jinny kept the door-handle in possession. “Mr. Duplessis,” she said, “I ought to tell you that my sister would rather be excused from seeing you. At least, she says so. She said so to me. You best know why that may be.” He ill concealed his mortification. “We won’t talk of your sister’s affairs, I think. I am happy to have made your acquaintance——” Jinny tossed her head up. “My acquaintance, as you call it, is for them that want it. My sister’s is her own business. I tell you fairly, Mr. Duplessis, that she may be very unhappy.” He flashed her a savage look. “Good Heavens, I believe that. Why, the thing’s monstrous! You might as well marry her to a nunnery. The fellow’s frozen—stark cold.” Jinny steadfastly regarded him. “You know very well that you never meant to marry her,” she said. He grew cold instantly. “Once for all, I must tell you that I decline to discuss your sister’s affairs with any one but herself. And since you tell me that I am not to see her, I will ask you to let me bid you good-afternoon. I am very sorry to have given you so much trouble.” It was over; there was but one treatment for such a cavalier in Jinny’s code of manners. She opened the door wide. “Good-
  • 67. afternoon,” she said. He bowed and went out with no more ceremony. He felt spotted, and was furious that such a squalid drama should have engaged him. A fluffed shop-girl—and Tristram Duplessis! Filthy, filthy business! But he went directly to Hill-street—whither a telegram had preceded him, terse and significant according to Jinny’s sense of the theatre. “Look out,” it said. That sent the colour flying from Mary’s lips, and lighted panic in her eyes. She crushed it into a ball and dropped it; then she went directly to Mrs. James and asked leave to go home for a few days. She shook as she spoke. She said she was feeling very tired and unlike herself; she wanted her mother, she said simply, and as her lip quivered at the pathetic sound of that, her eyes also filled. Mrs. James, not an unkind woman by any means, was really sympathetic. “My dear child, I quite understand. Go home, of course, and get strong and well. Although you may hardly believe me, I care very much for your happiness—and John would wish it. If he could have been here I know he would have taken you. You shall have the carriage. Now, when would you like to——?” “At once, please, Mrs. Germain—at once.” Mrs. Germain rang the bell and ordered the carriage. Mary could hardly wait for it; she spent the lagging moments pacing her room, and before it was fairly at the door she was on the doorstep. She took no luggage. Crouched in one corner of the hatefully dawdling thing, she stared quivering out of the window. At the corner of the square by Lansdowne House she gasped and cowered. A cab passed her, in which sat, scowling and great, Tristram Duplessis, his arms folded over the apron. Did he—? No, no, thank God, he had not seen her. She was safe in the ladies’ waiting-room; but the traverse of the platform was full of peril. Not until the train moved did she feel herself safe. She hungered for Jinny’s arms as never in her life before. The brave, the capable, the dauntless Jinny—Mercy of Heaven, to have given her such a sister in whom to confide! But Mrs. James—the sweeping eye having lighted upon the ball of paper—Mrs. James wrote to her brother-in-law that night:—
  • 68. “My dear John,—In case you may be hurrying back to town, I think I should tell you that Mary has gone to her people for a few days; she will write me the day and hour of her return. There is nothing serious; but she complained of being overtired—not to be wondered at. Even young ladies may find the pleasures of shopping a tax. It is possible, I think, that family matters, of which I know nothing—as I am not in her confidence—may have called her home. She left this telegram here. ‘Blackheath’ is on the stamp, you will notice. Mary spoke of her mother to me when she said that she must go, and seemed unhappy. I put this down to her being overwrought—and no doubt you will hear from her by the post which brings you this. Most of my work is done here, I am happy to say. I hope you will be pleased with Mary’s things. I must say that she looks charming in her wedding gown. But Ninon may be trusted for style. James is getting restive without me. Soames is no doubt at his tricks again. I shall be glad to be at my post. Your affecte. sister, “Constantia Germain.” “P.S.—Tristram is back from San Sebastian. I had a visit from him this afternoon, some three minutes after Mary left. He asked after her. You know that they were old acquaintances. Lord Bramleigh remains in Spain. He seems in no hurry to greet his bride. She is staying with the Gospertons at Brenchmore. They expect him there from day to day.” Next day Mr. Germain presented himself in Hill-street, nothing varied in his deliberate urbanity. He had not heard from Mary, he said, in reply to a question; there had been no time for a letter to reach Southover, and the absence of a telegram was reassuring. He intended to go to Blackheath in the course of the afternoon. No doubt she had overtired herself. He applied himself to other topics and said nothing of Duplessis nor of the Blackheath message until luncheon was over. Then, as Mrs. James went by him through the
  • 69. door which he held open for her, he said, “I had forgotten: you have Tristram back? If he should happen to call, pray tell him that I should be glad to see him if he could spare me a moment.” Mrs. James stopped in her rustling career. “But I don’t think it at all likely he will call—again,” she said. “No? Very well. Perhaps I shall encounter him somewhere. Or I could write.” “Quite so,” said Mrs. James. “It is easy to write.” Then she shimmered away up the stairs. He went into the library, and, after some pacing of the floor, sat down at his desk, wrote, signed, and sealed a paper. He rang the bell. “I wish you and Gutteridge to witness a paper for me, Jennings,” he said to the man. “Fetch him in here, please.” The two functionaries signed the sheet as he directed them. “Sign there, if you please, Jennings. And Gutteridge below your name. . . . That will do. Thank you.” He put the paper and a crumpled telegram together in a long envelope, sealed it, and wrote shortly on the outside. He locked it in his desk, then resumed his pacing of the room. As he walked his lips moved to frame words—“Impossible! Purity’s self. . . Her eyes ray innocence. . . .” But he knew Tristram, and could not get his leisurely image away. And Tristram had been much at Misperton; and had a way of—his lips moved again—“My darling from the lions! From the power of the dog!” He went back to his desk, took out the envelope he had sealed, and would have torn it across—but did not. Instead, he put it in his breast-pocket, and left the house. In the little parlour of Heath View he stood presently awaiting her. Jinny had seemed relieved to see him when she opened the door. Mary had been lying down, she said, and would come when she was tidy. He smiled and said he would wait. He was noticeably white and lined in the face. She came into the room presently, flushed and very bright-eyed. He thought that she stood there like a mouse sensing the air for alarms, prompt to dart at a pinfall. His heart beat to see the youth and charm of her; his pain was swallowed up in longing for his treasured bliss. He almost sobbed as he held out his arms. “Mary—
  • 70. my child—my love;—” and when she ran in and clung to him with all her force, he clasped her in a frenzy. Whatever darksome fears his honest mind may have harboured, whatever beasts he may have fought, there were none after such a greeting as this. He poured out his love like water upon her, kissed her wet cheeks and shining eyes, and with, “There, my little lamb, there, my pretty one, be at rest, be at peace with me,” he soothed her, and felt the panic of her heart to die down. Then, sitting, he drew her to his knees and let her lie awhile with her head on his shoulder. She whispered in his ear, “Oh, it was sweet of you to come! I wanted you dreadfully—you don’t know.” “No, my precious one, I don’t indeed. But I am well content that you should have needed me. I pray that you always will, and that I may never fail you.” She lifted her head back to look at him; she smiled like an April day. “You fail me! Oh, no, you’ll never do that.” And of her own accord she kissed him. The good man simply adored her. “Now will you tell me what upset you so much?” he asked her, but she shook her head roguishly and said that she didn’t know. “It was my stupidity—I was frightened—suddenly frightened of all the grandeur—the great rooms, the butler and footmen—the people in carriages who called—” She stopped here, her large eyes full upon his own. She breathed very fast. Then she said, “That’s partly the truth—but there’s more.” He could not bear it. He could not face what she had to say. He knew that he was a coward, but he could not; despised himself, but could not. He clasped her close. “Tell me nothing more, darling child. You will reproach yourself, and I cannot bear it.” She struggled to be free. “Oh, listen, listen to me, please!” He kissed her with passion. “My life is yours; would you rob me of it? I cannot listen to you——” She gave over, and lay with hidden face until she dared to look up again. Then, when both were calmer, she showed her serious face. Playing with his eyeglasses, she did relieve her mind of one of her fears. “Do you know,” she said, “unless you are with me—always
  • 71. —I am sure that I shall do something mad, or bad. Run away from it all—hide myself.” She nodded her head sadly. “Yes, I’m quite sure.” He could afford to look at the future, not the past. “Why, then, my love, I shall be with you always—night and day. Do you hear me? Night and day! How will you like that?” She hung her head, peered up at him for a second, and hung her head again. He could do nothing but kiss her after that. He stayed to tea, which she prepared with her own quick hands. She and Jinny entertained him, and he had never liked that pronounced young woman so well. It was her birthday, Jinny’s birthday, he was told. “A few days only from mine,” he said, with a fine smile to Mary, which made her understand him, and blush. “Twenty-nine to-day,” said Jinny candidly, cutting cake. “This is my cake, Mr. Germain. I suppose you’ll give Mary a better one.” “I shall give her the best I can, Miss Jinny, you may be sure,” he said heartily, and she nodded to him her confidence in his love. He treated her with grave politeness, which lost all its distance by the evident interest he took in her affairs. She gave herself no airs or graces, was neither pert nor sniffing for offence, nor airy, nor merely odious. Germain’s own manners were so fine, so based upon candour and honesty that one could not fail to respond. Even Jinny Middleham forgot herself; and as for Mary, she sat quietly on the watch, really happy, really at ease about the dread future—and whatever terrors she may have owed to Tristram she had none now. Yet she was to have one more chance. At parting she clung to him again, and begged him not to leave her for long. “I’m safe with you —I feel that. Oh, how did you make me like you?” “By liking you myself, I expect, little witch.” “I’m not a witch. I’m a dunce, and you know that I am. But listen ——” “I listen, dearest.” “I am going to be the best girl in the world. I’m going to do everything that you tell me—always.” “Beloved, I am sure.” “Wait. You haven’t forgotten what you promised me?” “What was that?”
  • 72. “You have forgotten! Oh, but you must never forget it. It is important—to me.” “Tell me again.” “It was—always to ask me before you believe anything against me. That was it—and you promised.” He took her face between his hands and looked long into her eyes. “My dearest heart,” he said, “I’ll promise you better. Not only shall I never believe anything against you—but I shall never even ask you of the fact. Never, never.” She searched his face—her eyes wandered over it, doubting, judging, considering. “I had rather you asked me,” she told him; but his answer was to kiss her lips. She went with him to the garden gate, seemed most unwilling that he should go. Farewells spoken, her ring-hand kissed, she stood watching him down the terrace, and then, as he never looked back, walked slowly into the house and shut the door. Had she stayed a moment longer she would have seen an encounter he had at the corner where you turn up for the station. Perhaps it was better as it was; I don’t know. He had paused there to hail a fly with his umbrella, and having faced round towards his way, saw Duplessis advancing towards him. He felt himself turn cold and sick. The fly drew up. “Wait for me where you are,” he said, and went to meet the young man. Duplessis saw him on a sudden; his eyes, blue by nature, grew steely and intensely narrow. “Good-evening, Tristram,” said Germain. “Constantia told me of your return.” Duplessis dug the pavement with his stick. “Did she? Well, it is true, you see.” “I do see. You are going to pay Mary a visit, I suppose. She’s not very well, I’m sorry to say—a little overtired. Otherwise, I am sure she would have been delighted.” Duplessis made no reply, and the other continued: “I told Constantia that I hoped to see you—to tell you a small piece of news. I am about to be married again. Mary has been so kind as to confide her future happiness into my hands. Perhaps you won’t misunderstand me if I say that some little fraction of that happiness
  • 73. depends upon her not seeing you for the moment. When she is rested, we may hope—The wedding will naturally be a very quiet one. Her people wish it, and my taste agrees with theirs. Otherwise we should have liked to have you among our guests. We promise ourselves the pleasure of seeing you at Southover in the near future. I think the place will please you. You must give an account of my pheasants in December.” “That’s very good of you, Germain,” said Duplessis, looking him full in the face. Mr. Germain turned to his waiting fly. “Have you other engagements in Blackheath?” “None,” said Duplessis. “No? Then perhaps I can offer you a seat in my carriage.” “Thanks,” said Duplessis, “I’m walking;” nodded, and went forward, the way of the heath. “The station,” said Mr. Germain. He could thank God, at least, that she had not meant to deceive him; he could thank God, at least, that she had done with the past. But he had received a mortal wound, and after his manner concealed it. His lovely image was soiled; the glass of his life to come dimmed already. He saw nothing more of Mary until the wedding day, though he wrote to her in his usual fashion and on his usual days. “My dear child,” and “Yours with sincere affection.” She did not guess that anything was amiss, could not know what they had cost him to write them twice a week. His brother and sister-in- law noticed his depression. Mrs. James indeed was tempted to believe that, at the eleventh hour—but the Rector knew him better. All his forces were now to put heart in the bridegroom. He spoke much of Mary.
  • 74. XV A PHILOSOPHER EMBALES That young man with the look of a faun, at once sleepy and arch, the habit of a philosopher and the taste for gardening at large, whom we have seen very much at his ease in society quite various, was by name Senhouse—patronym, Senhouse, in the faith John, to the world of his familiars Jack Senhouse, and to many Mad Jack. But madness is a term of convenience to express relations, and to him, it may well be, the world was mad. He thought, for instance, that Lord Bramleigh was mad, to whom we are now to hear him talking, as much at his length and as much at his ease as of late we saw him in the company of Miss Mary Middleham, or of Miss Hertha de Speyne of the Cantacute stem. Perhaps he was more at his ease. He lay, at any rate, before his tent, full length upon his stomach, his crook’d elbows supported his face, which was wrinkled between his hands. His pipe, grown cold by delay, lay on the sward before him. One leg, from the knee, made frequent excursions towards the sky, and when it did, discovered itself lean and sinewy, bare of sock. His sweater was now blue, and his trousers were grey; it was probably he had no more clothing upon him. Upon a camp-stool near by sat Lord Bramleigh of the round face, corded and gaitered, high-collared and astare. To express bewilderment, he whistled; concerned, he smiled. “Well,” he said presently, “I think you might. We’re short of a gun —I’ve told you so.” “My dear man,” said the other, “I shoot no birds. I’d as soon shoot my sister.” “That’s rot, you know, Jack.” “To me it’s plain sense. God save you, Bramleigh, have you ever seen a bird fly? It’s the most marvellous—no, it’s not, because we’re all marvels together; but I’ll tell you this—boys frisking after a full
  • 75. meal, girls at knucklebones, a leopard stalking from a bough, horses in a windy pasture—whatever you like of the sort has been done, and well done—but a bird in flight, never! There’s no greater sight— and you’ll flare into it with your filthy explosives and shatter a miracle into blood and feathers. Beastly work, my boy, butchers’ work.” “Rot,” said Bramleigh—“But of course you’re mad. Why are my cartridges filthier than your pots of paint? Hey?” “Well, I make something, you see—or try to, and you blow it to smithereens—However, we won’t wrangle, Bramleigh. You’re a nice little man, after all. Those Ramondias—it was really decent of you.” “Much obliged,” said the young lord; and then—“I say, talking of the Pyrenees, you knew Duplessis? He’s our man short. He’s chucked, you know. He’s awfully sick.” Senhouse was but faintly interested. “Yes, I knew him—Cleverish—conceited ass. What’s he sick about?” “Gel. Gel goin’ to be married—to-day or something—end of September, I know. Tristram’s mad about it. He was at San Sebastian with me when he heard about it—and bolted off like a rabbit—mad rabbit.” Senhouse yawned. “We’re all mad according to you, you know. So I take something off. I can understand his sort of madness, anyhow. Who’s the lady?” “Oh, I don’t know her myself. Gel down at his place—in a poor sort of way, I b’lieve. Companion or something—he played about— and now she’s been picked up by a swell connexion of his—old Germain of Southover. Be shot, if he’s not going to marry her.” The lengthy philosopher smiled to himself, but gave no other sign of recognition until he said, “I know that lady. Brown-eyed, sharp- eyed, quick, sleek, mouse of a girl.” “Dessay,” said Lord Bramleigh. “They know their way about.” The philosopher threw himself upon his back and gazed into the sky. “Yes, and what a way, good Lord! Idol-hunting—panting after idols. Maims herself and expects Heaven as a reward. I don’t suppose that she has been herself since she left her mother’s lap.
  • 76. And now, with an alternative of being sucked dry and pitched away, she is to be slowly starved to death. I only saw her once—no, twice. She had what struck me as unusual capacities for happiness—zest, curiosity, health—but no chances of it whatsoever. Ignorant—oh, Lord! They make me weep, that sort. So pretty and so foolish. But there, if I once began to cry, I should dissolve in mist.” “Oh, come,” said Lord Bramleigh, “I don’t think she’s doin’ badly for herself. She was nobody, you know, and old Germain—well, he’s a somebody. He’s a connexion of mine, through his sister-in-law— she was Constantia Telfer—so I know he’s all right.” “I’ll do her the justice to say,” Senhouse reflected aloud, “that she didn’t sell herself—she’s not a prostitute. She’s a baby—pure baby. She was dazzled, and misunderstood the sensation. She thought she was touched. She’s positively grateful to the man— didn’t see how she was to refuse. She’s a donkey, no doubt—but she had pretty ways. She could have been inordinately happy—but she’s not going to be. She’s in for troubles, and I’m sorry. I liked her.” “She’d better look out for Tristram, I can tell you,” said Bramleigh. “He’s an ugly customer, if he don’t have his rights. Not that there were any rights, so far as I know—but that makes no difference to Tristram.” “Is she worth his while? I doubt it.” “She will be. Germain’s rich. Besides, Tristram sticks up for his rights—tenacious beggar.” “Should have been kicked young,” quoth the philosopher, and sped Lord Bramleigh on his way. “Mary Middleham, O Mary of the brown eyes and pretty mouth, I should like to see you married!” he thought, as he packed his tent. “There’s a woman inside you, my friend; you weren’t given her form for nothing. You are not going to be married yet awhile, you know. It’ll take more than a going to church to do that. You’ve got to be a woman first—and you’re not yet born!” He lifted a shallow box of earth, and fingered some plants in it. “Ramondias—beauties! One of these springs there’ll be a cloud of your mauve flushing a black cliff over the green water. There’s a palette to have given old England! Mauve, wet black, and sea-green.
  • 77. I have the very place for you, out of reach of any save God and the sea-mews and me. But even with them you won’t have a bad ‘assistance.’ That’s a clever word, for how is the artist going to make a masterpiece unless the public makes half of it? Black, mauve, and green—all wet together! We’ll make a masterpiece in England yet. . . . “That girl’s great eyes haunt me. Lakes of brown wonder—they were the colour of moorland water—a dainty piece! I could see love in her—she was made for it. A dark hot night in summer, and she in your arms. . . .! Good Lord, when the beast in a man gets informed by the mind of a god—there’s no ecstasy beyond the sun to compare with it. . . . “Two things worth the world—: Power, and Giving. When a girl gives you her soul in her body, and you pour it all back into her lap, you are spending like a king. Why do women mourn Christ on His cross? Where else would He choose to be? A royal giver! To have the thing to give—and to give it all! He was to be envied, not mourned. . . . “Old Germain—what’s he doing but playing the King on the Cross. He feels it—we all feel it—but has he got anything to give? It’s an infernal shame. He’s bought the child. She’ll never forgive him; she’ll harden, she’ll be pitiless—have no mercy when the hour strikes. There’ll be horrors—it ought to be stopped. I’ve half a mind —— “Damn it, no! She must go to school. If there’s woman in her, after travail she’ll be born. . . . “To school? To Duplessis? Is he to school her, poor wretch? What are his ‘rights?’ Squatter’s rights, you may suppose. So she’s to be a doll for Germain to dandle, or an orange for Duplessis to suck, and betwixt the feeding and the draining a woman’s to be born! Wife, who’s no wife, mistress for an hour—and a pretty flower with the fruit unformed. . . . “If I bedeck the bosom of England and star it with flowers, do I do better than Germain with his money, or Duplessis with his rights? And if I were to court her bosom . . . Oh, my brown-eyed venturer in
  • 78. deep waters, I could serve you well! Go to school, go to school, missy—and when you are tired, there’s Halfway House!” That evening under the hunter’s moon he struck his camp. He had told young Bramleigh that he was soon for the West, where he preferred to winter. “I shall be in Cornwall by November,” he had said, “and that’s time enough;” and this being late September, it is clear that he projected a leisurely progress from Northamptonshire, where he now was, to the Cornish Sea. He had indeed no reason for hurry, but many for delay. That fairest of all seasons to the poet’s mind—that “close bosom-friend of the maturing sun” was to him foster-mother, whether her drowsy splendours fed him or he felt the tonic of her chill after-breath. He worked out, he said, in winter what he had dreamed in the autumn, and he could afford to lose no hours from her lap. Loafer deliberately, incurably a tramp, he was never idle— whether mending kettles or painting masterpieces (for he had a knack of colour which now and then warranted that word), his real interest was in watching life and in establishing a base broad enough or simple enough to uphold it all. He was not too proud to learn from the beasts, nor enough of a prig to ignore his two-legged neighbours: but for the life of him he could not see wherein a Lord Bramleigh differed from a ploughboy, or a Mary Middleham from a hen partridge—and it was a snare laid for him that he was constantly to be tempted to overlook the fact that they differed at least in this, that they had the chance of differing considerably. He would have been greatly shocked to be told that he was a cynic, and yet intellectually he was nothing more. He did himself the honour of believing most people to be donkeys: if they were not, why under the sun did they not do as he was doing? The answer to that was that if they did, he would immediately do something else, and find plenty reasons to support him. He had not worked that out—but it’s true. It was also true—as he had told Mary Middleham—that he lived from hand to mouth. His father, Alderman Senhouse, J.P., of Dingeley, in the Northern Midlands, was proprietor of the famous Dingeley Main Colliery, and extremely rich. His mother had been a
  • 79. Battersby, well connected, therefore. He had been to Rugby and to Cambridge, just as Duplessis had been, and at the same times; like Duplessis he idled, but unlike him, he cost no man anything. For his needs, which were very simple, he could make enough by his water- colours, a portrait here and there, an essay, a poem. Then—and that was true, too—he had the art and mystery of tinkering at his disposition. He had earned his place in the guild of tinkers—a very real body—by more than one battle. He was accepted as an eccentric whose whim was to be taken seriously—and as such he made his way. He had never asked his father for a sixpence since he left Cambridge and was on very friendly terms with him. His brothers took the world more strenuously; one was partner at the colliery, another in Parliament, a third—the first born—was Recorder of Towcester. So much for his talents—now for his accomplishments. He was an expert woodman, a friend to every furred and feathered thing, could handle adders without fear, and was said to know more about pole-cats, where they could still be found, and when, than any man in England. He had seen more badgers at ease than most people, and was infallible at finding a fox. All herbs he loved, and knew their virtues; a very good gardener in the West said that the gentleman- tinker could make a plant grow. There’s no doubt he had a knack, as the rock-faces between Land’s End and St. Ives could testify—and may yet. He had a garden out there, which he was now on the way to inspect. But he had many gardens—that was his passion. He was but newly come from one in Cumberland. He said of himself that he was a pagan suckled in a creed outworn, and that he was safely weaned. There was a touch of the faun about him; he had no self-consciousness and occasionally more frankness than was convenient. The number of his acquaintance was extraordinary, and, in a sense, so was that of his friends—for he had none at all. Accessible as he was up to a point, beyond that point I know nobody who could say he had ever explored Senhouse. That was where the secretiveness of the wild creature peeped out. Nobody had ever said of him that he had loved, either because nobody knew—or because nobody told. Yet his way with women was
  • 80. most effective; it was to ignore their sex. “I liked her,” he would say meditatively of a woman—and add, “She was a donkey, of course.” You could make little of a phrase of the sort—yet one would be glad to know the woman’s opinion. We have seen that he could be a sympathetic listener, we know that he could be more, in moments of difficulty—and there we stop. Lastly, I am not aware that he had any shame. He seems always to have done exactly as he pleased—until he was stopped by some guardian of custom or privilege. This frequently happened; but so far as I can learn the only effect upon Senhouse was to set him sauntering elsewhere—to do exactly as he pleased. He never lost his temper, was never out of spirits, drank wine when he could get it, but found water quite palatable. He was perfectly sincere in his professions, and owned nothing in the world but his horse and cart, Bingo, the materials of his trade, and some clothes which had not been renewed for five years. We leave him at present, pushing to the West.
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