Theories of Consumption in macroecnomics.ppt
- 1. Chapter Seventeen 1 Chapter: Theories of Consumption
- 2. Chapter Seventeen 2 The consumption function was central to Keynes’ theory of economic fluctuations presented in The General Theory in 1936. • Keynes conjectured that the marginal propensity to consume— the amount consumed out of an additional dollar of income is between zero and one. He claimed that the fundamental law is that out of every dollar of earned income, people will consume part of it and save the rest. • Keynes also proposed the average propensity to consume, the ratio of consumption to income falls as income rises. • Keynes also held that income is the primary determinant of consumption and that the interest rate does not have an important role.
- 3. Chapter Seventeen 3 Consumption spending by households depends on autonomous consumption marginal propensity to consume (MPC) disposable income C = C + c Y, C > 0, 0 < c <1 C Y C C determines the intercept on the vertical axis. The slope of the consumption function is lower case c, the MPC. C = C + c C = C + c Y Y
- 4. Chapter Seventeen 4 C Y C APC = C/Y = C/Y + c 1 1 APC1 APC2 This consumption function exhibits three properties that Keynes conjectured. First, the marginal propensity to consume c is between zero and one. Second, the average propensity to consume falls as income rises. Third, consumption is determined by current income Y. As Y rises, C/Y falls, and so the average propensity to consume C/Y falls. Notice that the interest rate is not included in this equation as a determinant of consumption.
- 5. Chapter Seventeen 5 To understand the marginal propensity to consume (MPC), consider a shopping scenario. A person who loves to shop probably has a large MPC, let’s say (.99). This means that for every extra dollar he or she earns after tax deductions, he or she spends $.99 of it. The MPC measures the sensitivity of the change in one variable, consumption, with respect to a change in the other variable, income.
- 6. Chapter Seventeen 6 During World War II, on the basis of Keynes’s consumption function, economists predicted that the economy would experience what they called secular stagnation—a long depression of infinite duration— unless the government used fiscal policy to stimulate aggregate demand. It turned out that the end of the war did not throw the United States into an depression, but it did suggest that Keynes’s conjecture that the average propensity to consume would fall as income rose appeared not to hold. Simon Kuznets constructed new aggregate data on consumption and investment dating back to 1869. His work would later earn him a Nobel Prize. Kuznets discovered that the ratio of consumption to income w stable over time, despite large increases in income; again, Keynes’s conjecture was called into question. This brings us to the puzzle…
- 7. Chapter Seventeen 7 The failure of the secular-stagnation hypothesis and the findings of Kuznets both indicated that the average propensity to consume is fairly constant over time. This presented a puzzle: Why did Keynes’s conjectures hold up well in the studies of household data and in the studies of short time-series, but fail when long-time series were examined? C Y Short-run consumption function (falling APC) Long-run consumption function (constant APC) Studies of household data and short time-series found a relationship between consumption and income similar to the one Keynes conjectured — this is called the short-run consumption function. But, studies using long time-series found that the APC did not vary systematically with income—this relationship is called the long-run consumption function.
- 8. Chapter Seventeen 8 The economist Irving Fisher developed the model with which economists analyze how rational, forward-looking consumers make intertemporal choices—that is, choices involving different periods of time. The model illuminates the constraints consumers face, the preferences they have, and how these constraints and preferences together determine their choices about consumption and saving. When consumers are deciding how much to consume today versus how much to consume in the future, they face an intertemporal budget constraint, which measures the total resources available for consumption today and in the future.
- 9. Chapter Seventeen 9 Here is an interpretation of the consumer’s budget constraint: The consumer’s budget constraint implies that if the interest rate is zero, the budget constraint shows that total consumption in the two periods equals total income in the two periods. In the usual case in which the interest rate is greater than zero, future consumption and future income are discounted by a factor of 1 + r. This discounting arises from the interest earned on savings. Because the consumer earns interest on current income that is saved, future income is worth less than current income. Also, because future consumption is paid for out of savings that have earned interest, future consumption costs less than current consumption. The factor 1/(1+r) is the price of second-period consumption measured in terms of first-period consumption; it is the amount of first-period consumption that the consumer must forgo to obtain 1 unit of second-period consumption.
- 10. Chapter Seventeen 10 Here are the combinations of first-period and second-period consumption the consumer can choose. If he chooses a point between A and B, he consumes less than his income in the first period and saves the rest for the second period. If he chooses between A and C, he consumes more that his income in the first period and borrows to make up the difference. First-period consumption Second-pe riod consumpti on Consumer’s budget constraint Saving Borrowing A C B Horizontal intercept is Y1 + Y2/(1+r) Vertical intercept is (1+r)Y1 + Y2 Y1 Y2
- 11. Chapter Seventeen 11 The consumer’s preferences regarding consumption in the two periods can be represented by indifference curves. An indifference curve shows the combination of first-period and second-period consumption that makes the consumer equally happy. The slope at any point on the indifference curve shows how much second-period consumption the consumer requires in order to be compensated for a 1-unit reduction in first-period consumption. This slope is the marginal rate of substitution between first-period consumption and second- period consumption. It tells us the rate at which the consumer is willing to substitute second-period consumption for first-period consumption.
- 12. Chapter Seventeen 12 First-period consumption Second- period consumpti on W Z X Y IC1 IC2 Indifference curves represent the consumer’s preferences over first- period and second-period consumption. An indifference curve gives the combinations of consumption in the two periods that make the consumer equally happy. Higher indifferences curves such as IC2 are preferred to lower ones such as IC1. The consumer is equally happy at points W, X, and Y, but prefers point Z to all the others. Point Z is on a higher indifference curve and is therefore not equally preferred to W, X, and Y.
- 13. Chapter Seventeen 13 First-period consumption Second- period consumpti on O IC1 IC2 The consumer achieves his highest (or optimal) level of satisfaction by choosing the point on the budget constraint that is on the highest indifference curve. Here the slope of the indifference curve equals the slope of the budget line. At the optimum, the indifference curve is tangent to the budget constraint. The slope of the indifference curve is the marginal rate of substitution MRS, and the slope of the budget line is 1 + the real interest rate. At point O, MRS = 1 + r. IC3
- 14. Chapter Seventeen 14 First-period consumption Second- period consumpti on O IC1 IC2 An increase in either first-period income or second-period income shifts the budget constraint outward. If consumption in period one and consumption in period two are both normal goods—those that are demanded more as income rises, this increase in income raises consumption in both periods.
- 15. Chapter Seventeen 15 Economists decompose the impact of an increase in the real interest rate on consumption into two effects: an income effect and a substitution effect. The income effect is the change in consumption that results from the movement to a higher indifference curve. The substitution effect is the change in consumption that results from the change in the relative price of consumption in the two periods. First-period consumption Second-pe riod consumpti on B IC1 IC2 A C An increase in the interest rate rotates the budget constraint around the point C, where C is (Y1, Y2). The higher interest rate reduces first period consumption (move to point A) and raises second-period consumption (move to point B). New budget constraint Old budget constraint Y1 Y2
- 16. Chapter Seventeen 16 The inability to borrow prevents current consumption from exceeding current income. A constraint on borrowing can therefore be expressed as C1 < Y1. This inequality states that consumption in period one must be less than or equal to income in period one. This additional constraint on the consumer is called a borrowing constraint, or sometimes, a liquidity constraint. The analysis of borrowing leads us to conclude that there are two consumption functions. For some consumers, the borrowing constraint is not binding, and consumption in both periods depends on the present value of lifetime income. For other consumers, the borrowing constraint binds. Hence, for those consumers who would like to borrow but cannot, consumption depends only on current income.
- 17. Chapter Seventeen 17 In the 1950s, Franco Modigliani, Ando, and Brumberg used Fisher’s model of consumer behavior to study the consumption function. One of their goals was to study the consumption puzzle. According to Fisher’s model, consumption depends on a person’s lifetime income. Modigliani emphasized that income varies systematically over people’s lives and that saving allows consumers to move income from those times in life when income is high to those times when income is low. This interpretation of consumer behavior formed the basis of his life-cycle hypothesis.
- 18. Chapter Seventeen 18 In 1957, Milton Friedman proposed the permanent-income hypothesis to explain consumer behavior. Its essence is that current consumption is proportional to permanent income. Friedman’s permanent-income hypothesis complements Modigliani’s life-cycle hypothesis: both use Fisher’s theory of the consumer to argue that consumption should not depend on current income alone. But unlike the life-cycle hypothesis, which emphasizes that income follows a regular pattern over a person’s lifetime, the permanent-income hypothesis emphasizes that people experience random and temporary changes in their incomes from year to year. Friedman suggested that we view current income Y as the sum of two components, permanent income YP and transitory income YT .
- 19. Chapter Seventeen 19 Robert Hall was first to derive the implications of rational expectations for consumption. He showed that if the permanent-income hypothesis is correct, and if consumers have rational expectations, then changes in consumption over time should be unpredictable. When changes in a variable are unpredictable, the variable is said to follow a random walk. According to Hall, the combination of the permanent-income hypothesis and rational expectations implies that consumption follows a random walk.
- 20. Chapter Seventeen 20 Recently, economists have turned to psychology for further explanations of consumer behavior. They have suggested that consumption decisions are not made completely rationally. This new subfield infusing psychology into economics is called behavior economics. Harvard’s David Laibson notes that many consumers judge themselves to be Imperfect decisionmakers. Consumers’ preferences may be time- inconsistent: they may alter their decisions simply because time passes. Pull of Instant Gratification