TRAINING SOURCEBOOKweb2

Training Sourcebook
Capacity building for local groups and associations
By Judith van Eijnatten
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)
Noumea, New Caledonia
February 2010

©Copyright Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) 2010
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Original text: English
Secretariat of the Pacific Community Cataloguing-in-publication data
Van Eijnatten, Judith
Training Sourcebook: capacity building for local groups and associations / By Judith van Eijnatten
1. Social groups – Management – Training of
I. Title II. Secretariat of the Pacific Community
658.048 AACR2
ISBN: 978-982-00-0358-3

Table of contents
Introduction to this sourcebook 7
Module 1: Civil society, capacity building and empowerment 9
Session 1.1: Make-up of society 10
Session 1.2: Social capital 13
Session 1.3: Capacity building and empowerment 17
Module 2: Good governance 23
Session 2.1: Principles of good governance 24
Session 2.2: Structure of an association 26
Session 2.3: Staff 30
Session 2.4: Values and policies 34
Session 2.5: Financial management 40
Session 2.6: Board meetings 47
Session 2.7: Teamwork 50
Session 2.8: Completing the evaluation wheel 56
Module 3: Identifying priorities through a problem tree analysis 58
Module 4: Strategic planning 63
Module 5: Preparing a logical framework 70
Module 6: Preparing a capacity building plan 77
Module 7: Conflict resolution 81
Module 8: Participation 85
Module 9: Self-help, dependency and volunteerism 90
Session 9.1: Self-help and dependency 91
Session 9.2: Volunteerism 97
Module 10: Gender awareness 99
Module 11: Communication and presentation 106
Session 11.1: Communication 107
Session 11.2: Presentation 118
Module 12: Preparing, holding and following up meetings 122
Module 13: Management and leadership 137
Session 13.1: Defining management 138
Session 13.2: Planning 140
Session 13.3: Organising 143
Session 13.4: Staffing 144
Session 13.5: Directing and leading 149
Session 13.6: Controlling 155
Session 13.7: Preparing a responsibility chart 160
Annex 1: Evaluating training 162
Annex 2: List of exercises 164
Annex 3: List of handouts 167

7
Introduction to this sourcebook
Since time immemorial, in the Pacific region like elsewhere in the world, people, groups and communities
have come together and organised to take care of themselves. By organising themselves into formal or
informal groups, people manage to pursue common goals. For example farmers get together to prepare
their land or they associate to undertake collective marketing, fishers get together to better manage their
marine resources, youth get organised to promote sports and women form networks to ensure that traditional
knowledge is kept alive.
In many instances local groups face the problem that the goals they have set themselves do not match the
available skills and experience of their members. Because of this, groups often find it difficult to achieve their
full potential and to effectively tackle development issues that confront them and for which they would like to
find satisfactory answers.
This training sourcebook is about acquiring the skills, knowledge, structures and resources needed by local
groups and associations to function more effectively. It is about strengthening and developing human
resource skills to build capacity and become empowered.
This sourcebook owes its existence to a series of participatory workshops held for producers’associations
from New Caledonia, French Polynesia and Wallis and Futuna during the period 2006–2009. It is based on
field-tested activities and the lessons learnt from that process. It also draws on the wealth of knowledge and
experiences available elsewhere in the world.
Objectives and target audiences of the sourcebook
This sourcebook is designed for people aiming to develop the human resource skills of local groups so as to
make them organisationally and institutionally stronger. The sourcebook is based upon and advocates the use
of participatory approaches. While it is assumed that the users of the sourcebook will have some exposure
to participatory approaches, it is still useful to those with no prior experience. The primary target audience is
representatives of local groups, non-governmental organisation (NGO) workers, extension agents, community
workers and other individuals committed to strengthening the civil society sector.
How to use this sourcebook
This sourcebook consists of a set of 13 independent modules. The subjects of the modules were identified
as a result of needs and interests expressed by formal and informal producers associations, and assessments
conducted with them. Each module has been practically implemented, evaluated and adapted to the present
format.
Throughout this sourcebook a participatory approach is used. It is required of the trainer to adopt a
participatory attitude, which means being a facilitator rather than a teacher and encouraging a process
whereby participants are actively involved, contribute and have ownership of the learning process. Neither
the individual modules nor the set of modules are claimed to be exhaustive. When using this resource book
trainers are encouraged to pick and choose modules according to the identified needs of their groups. They
are also encouraged to adapt the modules to fit the needs of their groups. The time required to complete the
modules varies; some are relatively short, others may take up to two days.

8
The modules and session plans have a standard layout as follows:
• Background
• Key issues
• Training objective
• Learning objectives
• Training content
• Teaching aids and materials required
• Input
• Exercises
• Experiences
• Conclusions to the session
• Handouts
To clarify and liven up the content and exercises given in the session plans, the text has been enriched with
practical experiences drawn from many different training sessions and workshops during the period
2006–2009.
I would like to thank the participants and their associations for their whole-hearted participation in the
training and workshops. They are a continual source of inspiration and without them this sourcebook would
never have been possible. I hope it proves to be a source of encouragement for other producer associations
and a useful tool that contributes to the growth of the civil society sector in the Pacific.
Judith van Eijnatten
February 2010

9
Module 1: Civil society, capacity building and empowerment
Background
Civil society is comprised of all associations, NGOs, movements, networks and other formal and informal
groups which operate independently from government and the private sector and which, in principle, are
not profit-making. They have a defined and important role to play within society: they aim to promote social,
cultural, economic and/or environmental interests. Many civil society organisations recognise the need for
strengthening or capacity building so that they can play more meaningful roles and defend the interests
of their members more effectively. Capacity building leads to empowerment and groups become able to
lead their own development and that of other groups. They thus grow to become worthy and indispensable
partners in the development arena.
Training objective
To enable participants to gain a clear understanding of the place of civil society in society at large and, in
relation to this, the importance of capacity building and empowerment.
Learning objectives
At the end of this module the participants will be able to:
• explain the place of civil society in society at large; and
• explain the concepts of capacity building and empowerment and discuss their relevance to their own
associations.
Training content
Session 1.1 – Make-up of society
Session 1.2 – Social capital
Session 1.3 – Capacity building and empowerment

10
Session 1.1: Make-up of society
While members of associations can explain why they are members of their particular association, they often
have difficulty explaining the larger picture: why does civil society exist, what is its specific role and what is its
importance?
Key issues
• Comprehending the make-up of society
• What does civil society look like in our own context?
• What are our roles in relation to other sectors of society?
Teaching aids and materials required
Flip chart, board, markers and copies of handout.
Input1
Civil society is one of three sectors that make up society. Civil society is comprised of all associations, NGOs,
movements, networks and other formal and informal groups that operate independently from government
and the private sector and which, in principle, are not profit-making. They have a defined and important role
to play within society: they aim to promote social, cultural, economic and/or environmental interests.
Societies are comprised of three main sectors: the public sector (or government), whose primary role is to
draft and enforce laws and defend borders; the private sector (or business), whose primary role is to deliver
goods; and the civil society sector, whose primary role is to deliver services that business and government are
unwilling or unable to provide. The role of each sector is complementary, not competitive. The concept can be
depicted as follows:
1 An NGO Training Guide for Peace Corps Volunteers. Module 1: The role of NGOs in a civil society. http://www.peacecorps.gov/multi-
media/pdf/library/M0070_mod1.pdf

11
Depending on the relative strength of each sector in a given society the circles may be larger or smaller. For
example, if in a particular society the government is strong and civil society weak, the brown circle would
be larger and the purple circle smaller than depicted in the diagram above. Whatever the case may be, for a
society to achieve its full potential all three sectors need to cooperate and be in balance, as shown by the dark
grey arrows.
Experience
In one workshop participants likened the
relationshipbetweengovernmentandcivilsociety
to an outrigger canoe where the government is
represented by the main canoe and civil society by
the outrigger. One does not function well without
the other; both are needed for the canoe to be
balanced and function well.
Civil society organisations can be found everywhere in the world. In some societies there might be many of
them, in others only a few. Some societies may have a large, powerful and influential civil society, while in
others civil society may be comprised of only a few small formal or informal groups. Civil society organisations
may be local, national or international. Almost all civil society organisations start small and learn as they go
along.
Exercise: What does our own society look like?
Provide the participants with Handout 1.1.1. Ask them to think about their own society and how they would
depict the relative sizes of the three sectors in their own context. Ask them to discuss this and then prepare a
diagram like the one in Handout 1.1.1. What are the roles of the sectors and how do they cooperate? Is there
an overlap in roles?
Concluding the session
• Society is made up of three main sectors: government, business and civil society.
• Civil society consists of all groups that are neither government nor business.
• Civil society organisations do not make a profit; they aim to promote member interests.
• The roles of the three sectors making up society are complementary; only if the sectors work together can
a society advance.

12
Handout 1.1.1: Main sectors in society

13
Session 1.2: Social capital
The government and business sectors are driven by financial capital. The civil society sector is driven by social
capital. Some civil society organisations may have salaried personnel, but all civil society organisations depend
on volunteers and non-remunerated efforts. Without social capital civil society organisations cannot continue
to exist.
Key issues
• Comprehending the concept of social capital
• How strong is our social capital?
Flip chart, board, markers and copies of handout.
Input
Social capital is the term used to describe bonds between people like trust, understanding, shared values and
norms. It is about behaviour that binds people together in groups, networks and communities and it is what
makes collaboration and cooperation possible. At both the micro and macro level social capital can be seen
as the glue that holds society together. Civil society organisations operate with voluntary inputs from their
members and they are therefore hugely dependent on social capital. Where social capital is weak, civil society
organisations function poorly.
Growing social capital
Face-to-face relationships between people encourage social capital to grow. In fact, the more social capital is
used, the more it grows. Hierarchical structures and corruption undermine social capital while participatory
structures, transparency and accountability reinforce social capital. Social capital is necessary to ensure
sustainable development and to build sustainable societies that are secure and at peace.
The diagram below summarises how social capital is created through face-to-face interaction and shows
that it grows to produce trust and shared norms and values, including those of inclusion, participation,
transparency and accountability. It shows that with increasing social capital there is increasing motivation
and willingness to invest time and energy without being remunerated. Increasing social capital goes hand in
hand with increasing cohesion both at the level of individual organisations and in society at large. Civil society
organisations have a very important role to play in promoting sustainable societies that are secure and at
peace.

14
Exercise: Our social capital
Ask the participants to think about the following question: What is my motivation in working for my
association? Give them a few minutes and then ask each one in turn to share their response.
Experience
Some of the answers participants in one group came up with were the following:
• to make myself useful by serving my people
• to contribute
• for mutual assistance
• in order to assist people who find themselves in difficult situations
• to give an example to others
• to be with other women
• to exercise my passion for music and sports
• in order to promote local agricultural products
• in order to share
• in order to discover
• in order to build my personality
• in search of justice
• in order to give renewed value to my traditional culture
• in order to transmit indigenous and traditional knowledge to others
• to ensure that Pacific countries and territories engage with the rest of the world
• to ensure that our voices are heard
• in order to find solutions through dialogue
• in order to contribute to making sense of and channel the existing motivation and goodwill of my people
• because of the contacts and the opportunities to meet with people and the possibilities this offers for
sharing
• because I like, I enjoy, I love what I am doing, and that is my motivation
Social capital
Inclusion
Participation
Transparency
Accountability
Sustainable
Development
Sustainable
Societies
Shared set of values,
virtues, expectations
- Organisations
- Society
TrustFace-to-face
interaction
Increasing motivation to invest time and energy, for the greater good,
without financial remuneration
Increasing cohesion and unifying force
Civil society organisations are the glue that holds a society together; they are the key to sustainable development
and sustainable societies

15
After they have shared their responses facilitate a discussion with the participants on the strength of the social
capital in their own association. Provide the participants with Handout 1.2.1 and ask them if they can construct
a diagram like the one above that reflects their own situation. What are weak and strong points? How could
social capital be increased?
• Social capital is the ability of people to trust each other and work together toward agreed-on goals.
• Social capital evolves from trust to become a shared set of values, virtues, and expectations within an
association and within society as a whole.
• Social capital fosters greater inclusion, cohesion, participation, transparency and accountability, and hence
sustainable development.

16
Handout 1.2.1: Social capital
Social capital
Inclusion
Participation
Transparency
Accountability
Sustainable
Development
Sustainable
Societies
Shared set of values,
virtues, expectations
- Organisations
- Society
TrustFace-to-face
interaction
Increasing motivation to invest time and energy, for the greater good,
without financial remuneration
Increasing cohesion and unifying force
Civil society organisations are the glue that holds a society together; they are the key to sustainable development
and sustainable societies

17
Session 1.3: Capacity building and empowerment
With increasing capacity, civil society organisations become increasingly empowered and increasingly able
to take the lead in controlling their own destinies. Building capacity is about strengthening and developing
human resource skills, both at a managerial level and a technical level.
Key issues
• Comprehending the concept of capacity building
• Comprehending the concept of empowerment
• What is our own capacity?
Flip chart, board, markers and copies of handouts.
Input2
In the sections below, capacity building and empowerment are discussed.
Capacity building
Capacity building is the process of developing the skills, knowledge, processes, structures and resources
needed by civil society organisations to help their members and communities survive, adapt, and thrive in
an ever changing world. However, capacity building is not just training, it is more than that. Capacity building
includes:
• Human resource development — the process of equipping individuals with the understanding, skills and
access to information, knowledge and training that enables them to perform effectively;
• Organisational development — the elaboration of management structures, processes and procedures,
within organisations as well as the management of relationships between different organisations and
sectors (public, private and community); and
• The creation of an enabling environment with appropriate policy and legal frameworks.3
For associations, capacity building may relate to almost any aspect of their work:
• governance
• planning
• mission and strategy
• programme development and implementation
• evaluation
• leadership
• partnerships and collaboration
• advocacy and policy change
• positioning
• administration (including human resources, financial management, and legal matters)
• fundraising and income generation
• diversity
• marketing, etc.
2 Adapted from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity_building. Ann Philbin, Capacity Building in Social Justice Organizations Ford
Foundation, 1996.
3 http://www.gdrc.org/uem/capacity-define.html

18
At an individual level, capacity building may relate to the development of skills like:
• leadership
• advocacy
• training
• presentation and public speaking
• organising
• specific technical skills 4
Capacity building is what gives flexibility and functionality to an organisation to adapt to the changing needs
of its membership — the population it serves.
Exercise: What capacity means for our own association
Ask the participants to consider their own association and to define what capacity building means to them.
Experience
One group defined the capacity of their association at two levels:
• The ability to execute programmes efficiently, using time and resources in the best way. It is about ‘What we
do’. Donors judge us on what we do.
• The ability to function sustainably as a strong and independent entity with its own values and ‘trademark’.
It is about ‘Who we are’. Our members, leaders and other associations judge us on who we are.
Empowerment
The World Bank defines empowerment as‘the process of increasing the capacity of individuals, groups or
communities to make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes’. Central
to the concept of the idea of empowerment is being in control of one’s own life5
. By building capacity, civil
society groups become empowered and increasingly able to influence the actions they wish to undertake.
Exercise: What can an empowered community achieve?
Divide the group into small groups of 3 or 4 persons. Provide the small groups with Handouts 1.3.1 and 1.3.2.
Ask the groups to consider the two situations (before and after) depicted on the handouts and to identify
which skills the community must have had to overcome the seemingly disastrous situation they were in.
Handout 1.3.1: Situation before Handout 1.3.2: Situation after
4 Linnell, D. 2003. Evaluation of Capacity Building: Lessons from the Field, Washington, DC: Alliance for Nonprofit Management
5 http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTEMPOWERMENT/0,,contentMDK:20272299~pagePK:210058~p
iPK:210062~theSitePK:486411~isCURL:Y~isCURL:Y~isCURL:Y~isCURL:Y~isCURL:Y,00.html

19
After having discussed this question in small groups ask the groups to present their results to the full group.
Summarise the discussion by saying that the community in the pictures is an empowered community: it has
been able to make choices and transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes. It has managed
to improve its conditions. The community has shown that it has the skills needed for empowerment, skills like
the following:
• leadership
• problem solving
• planning
• communication and networking
• community cooperation
All of these skills can be gained through capacity building and we shall be looking at them during the course
of the current training.
Exercise: Capacity, empowerment and our own association
Provide the participants with Handout 1.3.36
showing a list of skills relating to capacity building and
empowerment. Using this list as a basis, ask participants to consider their own association or group and
discuss their own capacity. Ask them to discuss the concept of empowerment. How empowered do they feel
their association is? Which are weak and strong areas? In which areas would they like to see their association
build capacity and become empowered?
• Capacity building is the process of developing the skills, knowledge, processes, structures and resources
needed to survive, adapt, and thrive in an ever changing world.
• Empowerment is the process of increasing the ability of an individual, organisation, or community to make
choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes.
6 Secretariat of the Pacific Community and German agency for International cooperation (GTZ), 2003. The lost paradise.

20
Handout 1.3.1: Situation before

21
Handout 1.3.2: Situation after

22
Handout 1.3.3: What capacity building and empowerment are all about
For associations, capacity building may relate to almost any aspect of their work:
• Governance
• Planning
• Mission and strategy
• Programme development and implementation
• Evaluation
• Leadership
• Partnerships and collaboration
• Advocacy and policy change
• Positioning
• Administration (including human resources, financial management, and legal matters)
• Fundraising and income generation
• Diversity
• Marketing, etc.
At an individual level, capacity building may relate to the development of skills like:
• Leadership
• Advocacy
• Training
• Presentation and public speaking
• Organising
• Specific technical skills
Empowerment means having skills like the following:
• Leadership
• Problem solving
• Planning
• Communication and networking
• Community cooperation

23
Module 2: Good governance
Background
This module is about good governance. In a democratic society it is important that not only government but
also business and civil society organisations incorporate democratic processes and systems into their ways
of operation. Democratic processes and systems are also known as good governance. This module presents
good governance principles and helps participants identify how the principles can be applied to their own
associations.
Training objective
To enable participants to gain a clear understanding of good governance principles and how to apply them to
their own association.
Learning objectives
• list and explain good governance principles;
• explain the specific roles and responsibilities of the board, board members and staff, and appreciate the
difference between the roles;
• demonstrate gaps in governance structures and functioning within their own association; and
• list ways and means to improve the governance and thereby the functioning of their own association.
Training outputs
• Training plan for the coming year
• Action plan for the board
Training content
Session 2.1 – Principles of good governance
Session 2.2– Structure of an association
Session 2.3 – Staff
Session 2.4 – Values and policies
Session 2.5 – Financial management
Session 2.6 – Board meetings
Session 2.7 – Teamwork

24
Session 2.1: Principles of good governance
The international community has formulated good governance principles to guide the operation of all
institutions, organisations and associations that are part of a democratic society. These principles are
applicable to government, business and civil society institutions.
Key issues
• Comprehending what is meant by governance
• Comprehending what is meant by good governance
Materials required
Flip chart, board and markers.
Note for trainer
Prepare a flipchart with the table‘Five principles of good governance’and hang it on the wall so you can refer to it
throughout the sessions of this module.
Input7
Governance can be defined as the process whereby societies or organisations make their important decisions
and determine who has a voice, who participates and how account is rendered. Good governance concerns
not only the government, public administration, and governing models and structures but also ways to
continually engage all sectors of society. Governance is about democracy and the important role that citizens
need to play to make it work. In the case of civil society organisations, governance is about ensuring that the
membership takes an active role in the operation of the group.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) put forward a set of principles that are based on such
international conventions as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These principles are often taken as a
reference.8
A simplified version of the good governance principles is given below.
Five principles of good
governance
UNDP principles and related UNDP text on which they are based
Legitimacy and voice Participation – all men and women have a voice in decision-making
Consensus orientation – mediation of differing interests to reach a broad consensus on
what is in the best interests of the group
Direction Strategic vision – there is a perspective on human development which is grounded in a
historical, cultural and social context
Performance Responsiveness – an effort is made to serve all stakeholders
Effectiveness and efficiency – producing results while making the best use of resources
Accountability Accountability – decision-makers are accountable to their membership, the public and to
institutional stakeholders
Transparency – sufficient information is accessible to those concerned in order for them
to understand and be able to monitor progress
Fairness Equity – all men and women have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being
Rule of law – law is fair and enforced impartially
These principles focus on the results of power, and about how well power is exercised. It is important that
organisations should strive to meet all principles, not just a few, and to find a balance between principles
where there may inherently be contradictions.
7 Edgar, L., C. Marshall and M. Bassett, 2006. Partnerships: Putting good governance principles in practice. Institute on Governance,
Canada. http://www.iog.ca/publications/2006_partnerships.pdf
8 UNDP Governance and Sustainable Human Development, 1997.

25
Good governance exists where:
• Those in power have acquired their power legitimately.
• Those whose interests are affected by decisions have a voice.
• Exercise of power is guided by a direction or guide to action.
• Governance is responsive to the interests of the people.
• Those in power are accountable to those whose interests they serve.
• Accountability is made possible by transparency and openness in the conduct of the work.
• Governance is fair and conforms to the rule of law and the principle of equity.
Exercise: Examples of good governance in our environment
Divide the participants into five small groups. Give one of the five principles of good governance to each
group. Ask each group to discuss the meaning of the principle and to find examples of the principle in their
association.
Experience
Principle 1 — Legitimacy and voice: In our tribe the council of elders makes decisions by consensus.
Principle 2 — Direction: We believe that our traditions and culture should guide our development activities.
Principle 3 — Performance: Our women’s association does not have a building so we hold our meetings in the
school canteen. In that way we make good use of available resources.
Principle 4 — Accountability: At the end of every month our association hangs up an information sheet on the
notice board to inform our members of the amount of fish caught and our income and expenditures.
Principle 5 — Fairness: The law of our country does not make a distinction between men and women.
Exercise: Good governance in our association
Ask the participants to go back into their small groups and tell them that they should now focus on their own
association. Ask the participants to discuss the concept of good governance and identify both strong and
weak areas in relation to their own association.
While the groups are talking prepare two sheets of flipchart paper. Mark one ’Board action plan’and the other
‘Training plan’. Hang them on the wall for the duration of this module.
Bring the group together and ask participants to present the results of their discussions. Identify relevant
points for the‘Board action plan’(things the participants would like to change in the association) and ’Training
plan’(areas in which board, staff or members need training).
• Governance refers to the rules of how a group is organised, how decisions are made and how resources
are used to manage the groups’affairs.
• Good governance means governing in a truly democratic fashion where citizens (or members) are actively
engaged in the affairs of the group (or association).

26
Session 2.2: Structure of an association
Like other organisations, civil society groups have an internal organisation or structure which forms the basis
for the group’s operation. Some civil society groups have a clear governing structure. In other cases, groups
may not have defined a structure or may have a structure that has not yet been formalised, or one with which
the members are not so familiar, or one that is unlike the structure defined in their constitution. It is important
for civil society organisations to have a clear structure and for their members to know what the structure
is. If there is a constitution, then the actual structure should correspond to the structure defined in the
constitution. Finally, it is important that the structure reflect good governance principles.
Key issues
• Identifying the governing structure of the association
• Understanding that it is important that members be familiar with the structure and that it correspond to
the constitution
• Determining whether the structure of the association is in accordance with good governance principles
Flip chart, board, cards, thumb pins, masking tape, markers and copies of questionnaire.
Exercise: Structure questionnaire
On a sheet of flipchart paper prepare an evaluation wheel as shown below:
Then ask the participants to fill in the following questionnaire9
(Handout 2.2.1) and return the slips to the
trainer. Explain that this is one of a series of small questionnaires the participants will be asked to complete
during the course of the current module.
9 Wyatt, M. 2004. A handbook of NGO governance. European Center for Not-for-Profit Law, Hungary. http://www.icnl.org/knowledge/
pubs/Governance_Handbook.pdf

27
Questionnaire : Structure
No. Question Yes No Don’t know
1 Our organisation has a formally established governing structure.
2 Our board makes decisions collectively.
3 Our board has a designated leader or chair.
4 Our chief executive has a written job description outlining performance expectations
and goals.

Analyse the results (or ask one of the participants to assist you) by determining the number of‘yes’answers
and then the proportion of‘yes’answers in relation to the total number of respondents. Present the results
on the‘structure’axis of the evaluation wheel by placing an X on the appropriate place on the axis, which is
determined as follows: the distance from the centre of the circle to the edge represents the total number of
participants and the distance from the centre of the circle to the X represents the number of‘yes’answers.
Leave the evaluation wheel on the wall; it will be completed step by step during the course of the remaining
sessions of this module.
Exercise: Defining the governing structure of our association
Ask the group to identify the board members sitting amongst them. Then ask the board members to stand up
in front of the group so it is clear to everyone who they are.
Ask each board member to write out a card with his or her name and the position he or she holds on
the board. Ask the board members to position the cards on the board so as to represent the structure of
their association (they will be preparing an organisation chart). Add the regular members and staff to the
organisation chart. Invite the group to respond and reach a consensus on the structure. Check whether the
structure is in accordance with the constitution.
Ask the group to discuss whether the structure of their association is in accordance with good governance
principles. If not, how could the structure be adapted? Try to get a consensus from the group on what the
structure of the association should look like.
Picture 1
Experience
During one workshop the participants produced a top-down structure
with the chairman making the decisions and handing these down
to other board members. Salaried staff had positions on the board as
Secretary and Vice-Secretary (see Picture 1 below). A consensus was
reachedthatthestructureshouldbechanged(seePicture2below)toone
showingthatthemembersmadethemajordecisionsduringtheGeneral
Assembly and the elected board, representative of the membership, was
responsible for daily decision-making. The structure further showed that
the board operated on the basis of consensus decision-making and that
responsibilities were delegated to the staff, who were responsible for
execution.

Picture 2

28
Input
The board is the governing structure of an association. Some of the key roles of the board are:
• Governing — The board puts in place an internal set of rules by which the association operates. This set of
rules is called the governance system.
• Accountability — The governance system ensures accountability.
• Oversight — The board ensures that it has the‘big picture’.
Collective decision-making
The board makes decisions on topics such as policies and strategies, allocation of resources, the annual plan,
evaluating staff and membership. Good governance demands that decisions be made collectively for the
following reasons:
• to ensure all stakeholders are implicated
• to ensure no one has a special (personal) agenda
• to combine everyone’s skills, ideas and knowledge resulting in the best possible decision
Collective decision-making is not easy. This is why associations decide on rules governing decision-making, for
example regarding voting and quorums.
Exercise: Decision-making in our association
Ask the group how decisions are made in their association. Ask them to discuss whether the decision-making
system ensures that the needs of all stakeholders are considered. What rules exist regarding voting and
quorums? Can the decision-making procedures be improved in view of these points?
Board members are volunteers
Board members are volunteers. By working together they create social capital, which motivates them to
continue working for the association. If board members lose their motivation it puts the sustainability of the
association at risk. Board members need to nurture and increase social capital, thereby keeping motivation
levels up.
Exercise: What motivates me to be on the board?
Distribute cards and ask participants to give reasons why they are motivated (or why they think others are
motivated) to serve on the board. Sort the cards and put them up on the board. Discuss what these ideas
show about voluntary work. Bring out the point that board members are always volunteers and that this is a
positive quality because it:
• shows commitment;
• promotes shared values;
• facilitates positive change; and
• allows a person to give to the community he or she cares for.
Ask participants how they could encourage motivation levels to remain high within their own association.
What changes in operation would they have to make?
Before concluding the session, add any relevant points coming out of the discussions to the two sheets of
paper labeled‘Board action plan’and‘Training plan’.
• In an association the board and the staff are separate entities.
• The board is the governing structure.
• The board makes decisions collectively.
• The board’s members are volunteers.
• The board makes decisions and delegates responsibility to staff who then execute the decisions.
• The staff are accountable to the board.

29
Handout 2.2.1: Structure questionnaire
1 Our organisation has a formally established governing structure.
2 Our board makes decisions collectively.
3 Our board has a designated leader or chair.
4 Our chief executive has a written job description outlining performance expectations
and goals.

30
Session 2.3: Staff
Sometimes associations recruit staff to take care of the daily management and implementation of activities. Such
staff are remunerated. The highest ranking staff member is known as the manager. The manager is responsible
for running the daily operations and is the person responsible to the board for the organisation’s successes.
Staff and the board have distinct roles and duties. It is important that there is no confusion here and that good
governance principles are upheld. Furthermore it is also important to understand the relationship between
staff and the board.
Key issues
• Comprehending the need to separate the functions of governance and management
• Understanding that the board delegates responsibility to the manager
• Defining the relationship between the manager and the board
• Listing the main tasks of a manager
Flip chart, board, markers and copies of questionnaire.
Exercise: Staff questionnaire
Ask each of the participants to fill up the questionnaire below (Handout 2.3.1) and return the forms to you.
5 Our staff have written job descriptions outlining performance expectations and goals.
6 The board evaluates the manager annually.
7 Staff are not voting members of the board.
8 The manager is not the board chair.

Analyse the result and record it on the‘staff’axis of the evaluation wheel.
Exercise: Why do I need a board?
Tell the participants that you frequently hear managers asking themselves‘Why do I need a board?’Ask the
participants why they think managers would say this. Ask them if they think their own manager would say it.
Why or why not? Discuss reasons.
Input
Unlike staff, many board members have no previous experience. Not many board members receive training
to guide them in the exercise of their roles and functions as board members. It is therefore not uncommon
in young associations, and even occasionally in more mature associations, for boards to be in need of
strengthening. Where attention is not given to strengthening board members managers may end up saying
‘Why do I need a board?’An association with a board that does not function is an association that does not
operate according to good governance principles.
Separation of governance and management
In order to ensure good governance, notably to prevent conflicts of interest, it is important that the roles
of governance and management be separated. The board is responsible for governance while staff, and in
particular the manager, are responsible for the daily management of the association.
Suppose that in a particular association the manager habitually chairs the board meetings. On one occasion
the manager has an item on the agenda regarding his or her own contract and level of remuneration. In this
instance there is a conflict of interest. It is the board which should make decisions about contracts and levels
of remuneration. This should be done in the absence of the concerned person. In summary:

31
• If the board and staff are not considered separate entities, there can be a conflict of interest.
• Staff cannot vote on the board.
• Staff cannot chair board meetings.
• However, staff CAN be non-voting board members.
The relationship between the board and the staff
The board delegates responsibilities to the manager. Usually this is done through the chair after adequate
deliberation with all board members. The manager is responsible for the execution of board decisions but he
or she does not make decisions about tasks and activities unilaterally. In summary:
• The board delegates to the staff (usually the manager).
• The manager executes the decisions of the board; he or she is accountable to the board.
The most important relationship in an association is that between the chair (as main representative of the
board) and the manager. Together they form a bridge between the board and the staff (between governance
and management; between decision-making and execution). The relationship between the chair and the
manager ensures two-way communication regarding decisions made, progress, performance, budget etc. The
chair communicates information from the board and gives clear guidance to the manager. The manager gives
information to the chair and asks for guidance. These roles are summarised below:
Roles of the manager Roles of the board
Gives information to the board Gives clear information, instruction, guidance and feedback to the manager
Asks for guidance from the board Monitors and evaluates the manager (on the basis of a job description); evaluation
results are the basis for remuneration, contract extension and dismissal
Mentors the manager
Probes, inquires, criticises and praises the manager so he or she is clear about
expectations and is motivated to do his or her work
Job description of a manager
Below is an example of the main points in a job description of a manager:
• hire and fire staff
• manage and evaluate programmes
• identify and manage resources
• prepare the annual budget
• propose policies and strategies
• communicate with stakeholders
• promote the association
• support the board
Exercise: Our manager needs the board
In small groups and on the basis of the content of this session ask the participants to consider their own
association and to identify changes that would avoid a situation in which their manager would say‘Why do I
need a board?’How could weak areas be improved?
If useful, points from the list below can be used to stimulate the discussion (put the list up on a flipchart).
Complaints of a manager toward the board
• Board members don’t support me.
• Board members don’t attend meetings regularly.
• Some of them have been on the board for too long.
• Family or friendship links compromise objectivity of board members (conflict of interest).
• Board members do not read the reports.
• They don’t respond to me.
• They don’t help me mobilise financial resources.
• They are not really interested in the work of the association.
• They want to be in control of the finances of the association.

32
Before concluding the session, add any relevant points coming out of the discussions during this session to
the two sheets of paper marked‘Board action plan’and‘Training plan’.
• In an association the functions of governance and management need to be separated.
• Governance is the role of the board, management that of the staff.
• Conflict of interest needs to be avoided at all costs.
• The board delegates responsibilities to the manager.
• The manager executes decisions made by the board.
• The chair and manager form a bridge between the board and staff.
• The board gives clear instruction and guidance to the manager.
• The manager provides information to the board.

33
Handout 2.3.1: Staff questionnaire
5 Our staff have written job descriptions outlining performance expectations and goals.
6 The board evaluates the manager annually.
7 Staff are not voting members of the board.
8 The manager is not the board chair.

34
Session 2.4: Values and policies
When people work together, as they do in an association, they develop a set of common values, ethical
standards, norms and principles defining the way they operate together and orienting what it is they want
to achieve. In the beginning, these values are implicit — they are‘understood’. However as an association
grows and develops it becomes important to make these values‘explicit’by drafting policies and deciding
on positions. For civil society organisations, values, policies and positions are a way to incorporate good
governance principles and establish a reputation of integrity and quality service.
Key issues
• Comprehending the importance of values and ethical standards
• Enshrining values in policies to ensure integrity and quality service
• Integrating values with the roles and activities of the board
Exercise: Values and policies questionnaire
Ask each of the participants to fill up the questionnaire below (Handout 2.4.1) and return it to you.
9 Our board sets a high professional and ethical standard.
10 Our board has prepared rules of operation according to which it functions.
11 Our board has established and enforces a conflict of interest policy.
12 Our organisation has a mission statement which is known throughout the
organisation.
13 Our board focuses on strategic leadership and the‘big picture’.
14 Our board makes sure that regular evaluations of programmes and operations are
performed and acted upon.
Analyse the result and record it on the evaluation wheel’s‘policies, strategies and values’axis.
Input
Values, norms, codes of conduct and policies are discussed in the sections below.
Values
The motor of a civil society organisation is its volunteers and the social capital generated by them. While
working together, civil society workers develop values to guide their work. In young associations these
values are often implicit or understood. Sometimes members may even find it difficult to put a name to their
common values. In order to reinforce values it is wise to make them explicit.
Exercise: The values of our association
Ask the participants to call out the values of their association. Note them on a large sheet of paper and in
order to reinforce the values keep the list up on the wall during the whole of this module. Add to the list if
new values are identified.

35
Experience
The following values were identified by one group:
• Punctuality
• Good communication
• Collective decision-making
• Loyalty
• Honesty
• Seriousness
• Effectiveness
• Availability
• Pursuit of credibility
As an association grows and develops, its values are translated into norms and principles and they become
the basis for the way it functions. Values, norms and principles, incorporated into policies, find a place in such
documents as the constitution or rules of operation. It is very important that civil society organisations actively
uphold what they stand for. This will help them maintain a good reputation.
Board members are elected representatives of the members of an association. The members put their trust
in their representatives to defend their interests. Board members should therefore be‘models’who exhibit
values through exemplary behaviour: adhering to the association’s values, showing commitment and being
willing to invest time without personal gain. Furthermore, it is the role of the board to set and reinforce values,
to decide on norms and principles and to draft policies. All of these help orient and guide the activities of
the association. For example an association, even if it is really in need of funds, may decide not to accept
funds from a certain source because the source upholds values that are not in accordance with those of the
organisation.
Code of conduct
In many countries, as well as internationally, civil society organisations have come together to enshrine values
in a joint‘Code of conduct’, of which there are many examples to be found.10
Such a code of conduct aims to
enhance the performance and reputation of the organisations subscribing to it.
Establishing policies
Policies are a way to formalise values. The constitution defines values, policies and governance systems.
Especially if there is no constitution it is important that the board draft policies. An example of a policy is
one on reimbursement of expenses. While all board members work voluntarily, i.e. without remuneration,
this does not mean that they cannot get reimbursement of expenditures they make in the exercise of their
function. It is useful for an association to establish a policy on reimbursement of expenses so as to avoid any
misunderstandings and uphold the reputation of the persons concerned and that of the association.
Another area that requires a policy is that of conflict of interest. A conflict of interest policy defines rules such
as the following:
• The manager can never be a regular voting board member.
• The manager should preferably have have no family connections with a board member. Where there is a
family linkage between a manager and board member, both persons should be excluded from discussions
concerning the other.
10 The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Code of Conduct: http://www.ifrc.org/publicat/conduct/code.
asp
Code of Conduct for NGOs engaged in Humanitarian Action, Reconstruction, and Development in Afghanistan: http://www.reliefweb.int/
rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/EVIU-6D5EBR?OpenDocument
The Palestinian NGOs Code of Conduct, 2008. Code of conduct coalition: http://www.pngo.net/data/files/codeofconducteng/code_of_
conduct_eng.pdf

37
Experience
The picture shows the head quarters of an association called ‘Farmers for a bright future’. The building appears
to be in good condition, and they have a vehicle. In one room we can see that a board meeting is taking place
but there are only men and they are drinking. It does not look like an effective meeting. In the next room we see
a man at the association’s safe. It looks like he is helping himself to the contents. The shop is in chaos, with only a
few items for sale. The association’s vehicle is being driven off loaded with someone’s family, a picnic lunch and
a boat. Women farmers are sitting outside with their documents; they may be waiting for assistance. It looks like
this association does not have the following:
• Values: honesty, integrity, discipline, being service-oriented, being available for members, commitment,
exhibiting model behaviour, upholding the reputation of the association.
• Policies: a policy for vehicle use, a policy for handling cash, a gender policy for ensuring female board
members, a code of conduct.
What about the participant’s own association? Are there weak areas when it comes to values, principles and
policies? How can their association be improved? Are there points to be added to the‘Board action plan’and
‘Training plan’?
• Values are created by a group of people working together, for example in an association.
• In the beginning values are implicit; they need to be made explicit by formulating principles and policies.
• Thus values define how an association operates; they orient the activities of an association and are the
basis for policies.
• The board is responsible for drafting and enforcing policies and upholding the reputation of an association.

38
Handout 2.4.1: Values and policies questionnaire
9 Our board sets a high professional and ethical standard.
10 Our board has prepared rules of operation according to which it functions.
11 Our board has established and enforces a conflict of interest policy.
12 Our organisation has a mission statement which is known throughout the
organisation.
13 Our board focuses on strategic leadership and the‘big picture’.
14 Our board makes sure that regular evaluations of programmes and operations are
performed and acted upon.

40
Session 2.5: Financial management
Strong financial management is key to an effective organisation and a way to incorporate good governance
principles. Sometimes civil society workers find financial management a difficult area to deal with and it is not
given due priority. Sometimes financial responsibility lies with just one person, which can be risky. Capacity
building in this area can provide a way to improve the situation.
Key issues
• Comprehending the importance of financial management
• Comprehending what financial management is
• Understanding who plays which role in financial management
Flip chart, board, markers, copies of questionnaire and handouts.
Exercise: Financial management questionnaire
15 Our board takes part in financial resource development.
16 Our board understands the organisation’s finances and monitors its financial
condition regularly.
17 Our board ensures that the organisation’s accounts are regularly audited.
18 Our board ensures that internal financial controls are in place and working.
19 Our board ensures that an annual report is produced and distributed.
Analyse the result and record it on the evaluation wheel’s‘financial management’axis.
Input11
Civil society organisations are commonly in need of capacity building in financial management.
Why financial management is important
Accountability, transparency and credibility are principles of good governance that are directly linked to
financial management. These qualities are considered high priority by donors when funding programmes.
They are a key way of achieving a more effective organisation. A strong financial management capacity allows
an organisation to better control its own affairs. Without it, the future is often uncertain: it may be impossible
to predict when money will be short and crucially, it may become impossible to find funding for activities.
What is financial management?
Financial management is making sure that an organisation manages its resources soundly. To have strong
financial management, the following tasks need to be performed well:
• planning and budgeting: fitting a budget to the annual objectives and monitoring progress during the
year;
• keeping accurate and up-to-date accounts;
• financial reporting: annual accounting statements and reports; and
• ensuring that financial controls are in place and functioning in order to minimise error and theft.
These four tasks are evaluated annually through an external audit. The audit should be performed by an
independent and reputed financial expert.
11 Cammack, J. 2007. Building Capacity through Financial Management, a practical guide. Oxfam.

41
A number of organisational conditions help assure strong financial management. These conditions are:
• Board members with appropriate skills. Financial issues should be on the agenda of each meeting and
board members need to be competent to understand and ask appropriate questions about financial
information presented to them.
• Finance staff with appropriate financial skills.
• Financial information that is accurate and up-to-date and is provided in a format that suits the need of the
audience, e.g. board members do not need all details to be able to make the right decisions.
• The right organisational culture — priority should be given to financial issues.
• Open and transparent communication about financial matters with stakeholders, including members,
donors and the government.
The above information is summarised in the following diagram (see also Handout 2.5.2).
Who is responsible for financial management?
The board is responsible for overseeing the finances of an association. This includes raising funds, budgeting
in line with the objectives for the year, carrying out ongoing monitoring of the financial situation, ensuring
financial controls are established and in operation, arranging for an audit and producing an annual financial
report (with information on the source and amount of income, expenditures made on activities and
administration, and an audit statement).
The manager, or specialised finance staff, has the tasks of:
• keeping the accounts;
• producing accounting statements and reports for the board, donors and members; and
• putting in place financial controls.
In order for civil society workers to understand and perform their financial tasks effectively they need to be
equipped with the necessary skills. It is not uncommon for board members and managers to undergo training
in specific financial management areas.
ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
EXTERNA
LRELATIONSHIPS
EXTERNAL AUDIT
FINANCIALINFORMATION
FINANCE STAFF
MANAGEM
E
NTCOMMITTEE
The leadership team
promote and prioritise
the financial side of the
organisation
Financially aware
programme and
non-finance staff
Strong
relationships
eg. with donors,
beneficiaries
Awareness of what
could go wrong
Suitably
experienced
finance person
Members are able to
understand basic
financial information
Trained and
competent
finance staff
Finance staff able to
communicate with
non-finance staff
Pla
nningandbudgeting Financial reporting
Up-to-date
financial
management
information
User-friendly
financial systems
A
ccounts record-keeping Financial controls
Strong financial
management
capacity
Specific tasks
Organisational
aspects

42
Exercise: Assessing our association’s financial management capacity
Ask the participants to use Handout 2.5.3 and the information given during this session to try to assess their
organisation’s financial management capacity and the need for training. What are the weak areas? Are there
points to be added to the‘Board action plan’and‘Training plan’?
• Many civil society organisations need capacity building in financial management.
• Strong financial management goes hand in hand with good governance.
• Strong financial management helps an organisation increase effectiveness and gain a good reputation
among internal and external stakeholders alike.
• Financial management not only comprises financial skills but also includes organisational conditions.

43
Handout 2.5.1: Financial management questionnaire
15 Our board takes part in financial resource development.
16 Our board understands the organisation’s finances and monitors its financial condition
regularly.
17 Our board ensures that the organisation’s accounts are regularly audited.
18 Our board ensures that internal financial controls are in place and working.
19 Our board ensures that an annual report is produced and distributed.

44
Handout 2.5.2: Ingredients of strong financial management capacity12
ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
EXTERNA
LRELATIONSHIPS
EXTERNAL AUDIT
FINANCIALINFORMATION
FINANCE STAFF
MANAGEM
E
NTCOMMITTEE
The leadership team
promote and prioritise
the financial side of the
organisation
Financially aware
programme and
non-finance staff
Strong
relationships
eg. with donors,
beneficiaries
Awareness of what
could go wrong
Suitably
experienced
finance person
Members are able to
understand basic
financial information
Trained and
competent
finance staff
Finance staff able to
communicate with
non-finance staff
Pla
nningandbudgeting Financial reporting
Up-to-date
financial
management
information
User-friendly
financial systems
A
ccounts record-keeping Financial controls
Strong financial
management
capacity
Specific tasks
Organisational
aspects

45
Handout 2.5.3: Assessing financial management capacity13
Assess your association’s financial management capacity by discussing and answering with a‘yes’or a‘no’the
sets of questions in each of the 10 areas below.
Planning and budgeting
• Are organisational objectives the starting point for the planning and budgeting process?
• Do the manager and board regularly compare budgeted income and expenditures with actual income
and expenditures and take action where necessary, especially when donor funding is affected?
• Is there always enough money to pay for salaries, goods and services?
Accounts record keeping
• Is the record of money coming in and going out (sometimes called the‘cash/bank book’) up to date and
accurate?
• Is there a separate register to record loans or other money given to staff?
• Are there documents (for example invoices and receipts) for every transaction?
Financial reporting
• Is it possible to identify funds that have been given for a particular purpose?
• Are financial reports submitted on time to donors?
• Are annual accounting statements produced?
Financial controls
• Are at least two people involved in transactions, for example authorising payments and signing the
cheques?
• Are the association’s bank figures matched with the bank statements at least monthly (bank
reconciliation)?
• Does someone, other than the person responsible for the cash, count it regularly?
External audit
• Is there an audit/independent examination of the finances each year?
• Does the auditor make written recommendations?
• Are the auditor’s recommendations prioritised and implemented?
The board
• Is there a member who is responsible for financial issues?
• Can other members understand the financial information and ask appropriate questions about it?
• Does the management committee approve the annual budget?
Staff with financial responsibilities
• Are all finance staff competent in their work?
• Are there enough finance staff?
• Can finance people (at least one person) communicate technical issues in a straightforward way to non-
finance people?
Financial information
• Do the board and the manager receive up-to-date information?
• Does the information provided contain the appropriate level of detail?
• Is the information easy to understand?

46
Organisational culture
• Do the board and manager give positive messages about finance?
• Does the manager set an example in his or her personal accounting?
• Do the other staff have a working knowledge of finance?
Communication with stakeholders
• Is your relationship with stakeholders (members, donors) open and transparent?
• Are your members given financial information in appropriate detail and format?
• Does the planning process consider what could go wrong (e.g. what to do if a donor withdraws funding)?
Having looked at your association critically by answering the questions in this assessment, you are now ready
for the next step. When you answered‘no’it may be a sign that your association needs capacity building in that
particular financial management area. Try to prioritise the areas and prepare a capacity building plan.

47
Session 2.6: Board meetings
Regularity of board meetings is an indicator of the dynamism of an association. Board meetings are a way
to apply good governance principles. This session deals with the reasons why it is important to hold good
board meetings. Module 12 of this manual deals with the practical steps in preparing, holding and evaluating
meetings.
Key issues
• Recognising the importance of holding regular board meetings
• Recognising that board meetings are events where good governance principles are discussed, developed
and applied
• Understanding the conditions for holding effective meetings
Exercise: Board meetings questionnaire
20 Our board meets regularly, with dates set in advance.
21 All board members arrive at meetings punctually and prepared to take part in
proceedings.
22 Board meetings focus on policy, oversight, and strategic direction.
23 Board meetings involve active discussion and decision-making rather than rubber-
stamping and listening to staff reports.
24 Our chair knows how to lead discussions, maintain discipline, and include all board
members in accomplishing the necessary work.
25 Board meetings keep to the preset agenda.
26 Our board keeps minutes of all of its meetings.

Analyse the result and record it on the evaluation wheel’s‘board meetings’axis.
Input
Well-functioning associations hold regular board meetings to discuss activities, progress, financial affairs and
other important matters. It is during meetings that board members have the opportunity to share knowledge,
experience and insights and it is here that collective decision-making can occur. Meetings are also the
occasion to develop strategic vision, apply transparency principles and set policies for accountability and
fairness. Board meetings are key to applying good governance principles. They are also an important place for
building social capital, including values and trust. More practical reasons for holding meetings are:
• to give information;
• to get information;
• to develop options; and
• to make decisions.
It is important that boards have the discipline to hold regular meetings.
Experience
One association having trouble getting board members together and therefore unable to function effectively
decided to fix a meeting schedule by meeting every first Sunday of the month just after Sunday mass. This helped
as all board members could plan ahead and make themselves available.

48
Holding effective meetings
Because board members are volunteers it is important not to waste time. Meetings should be effective.
Following are some tips for holding effective meetings:
• Purpose — make sure there is a reason for the meeting, i.e. there are decisions to be made or issues to be
discussed regarding policy, oversight, and strategic direction.
• Prepare the meeting — this is the task of the chair. Send the board members information prior to the
meeting and expect them to come prepared.
• Set an agenda — this indicates the objectives of the meeting.
• Time management — emphasise punctuality, start and end on time and use the agenda to move ahead.
Do not wait for late arrivals.
• Define meeting norms — define how the group works together (e.g. not interrupting, not taking the floor
for longer than a certain period) and ensure discipline in keeping to the agenda.
• Discuss and decide — encourage participation and be sure to make decisions.
• Action – follow up on tasks assigned during the meeting.
Meetings and policies
In addition to meeting norms certain policies may affect the conduct of meetings, for example:
• rules relating to decision-making and quorum;
• rules relating to renewal of the board; and
• rules relating to non-attendance.
Exercise: How good are our board meetings?
Ask the participants to discuss the regularity and way of holding meetings in their own association. Is there
room for improvement?
Experience
One association was struggling to get its board members together at meetings and get them to participate
actively as leaders of their community. Time and again meetings had to be deferred because the quorum was
not attained and decisions could not be made. It was decided during a general assembly that if a board member
missed more than 3 meetings in a row, he or she would be automatically expulsed. This measure helped sweep
out the board and renew it with active, motivated members able and willing to invest time. Board meetings
became regular as a result.
Are there points to be added to the‘Board action plan’and‘Training plan’?
• Regular board meetings with good attendance are an indication of the dynamism of an association and
the motivation of its leaders.
• Board meetings are events where good governance principles are discussed, developed and applied.
• There are ways to ensure that meetings are effective.

49
Handout 2.6.1: Board meetings questionnaire
20 Our board meets regularly, with dates set in advance.
21 All board members arrive at meetings punctually and prepared to take part in
proceedings.
22 Board meetings focus on policy, oversight, and strategic direction.
23 Board meetings involve active discussion and decision-making rather than rubber-
stamping and listening to staff reports.
24 Our chair knows how to lead discussions, maintain discipline, and include all board
members in accomplishing the necessary work.
25 Board meetings keep to the preset agenda.
26 Our board keeps minutes of all of its meetings.

50
Session 2.7: Teamwork
In order to be effective a board needs to work as a team rather than leaving most of the work to the chair or
the manager. It helps to orient board members and to develop position descriptions so they know what is
expected from them. A well-functioning board shares the responsibilities and the workload.
Key issues
• Comprehending that a team is not just a group of people
• Comprehending that teamwork means working through interaction
• Tasks, duties and roles of board members
Flip chart, board, markers, copies of questionnaire and handouts.
Exercise: Teamwork questionnaire
26 Our board works well as a team.
27 All board members have written guidelines outlining expectations of their board
service.
28 Our board sets annual goals for itself.
29 Our board assesses its own performance regularly.
30 Individual board members serve set terms within a system of regular rotation.
31 Our board recruits new members strategically.
32 New board members are thoroughly oriented into the organisation and board service.
33 Our board members serve enthusiastically as ambassadors for the organisation.

Analyse the result and record it on the evaluation wheel’s‘teamwork’axis.
Input14
This section deals with the various aspects of teams and teamwork.
What is a team?
A team is a group of people who are united to achieve a common goal that cannot be achieved by an
individual. What makes a group a team is the common task. Without a task a group is not a team.
What is teamwork?
Teamwork is action. It is something people do and it requires a common focus, mission or goal.
Exercise: Identifying actions that constitute teamwork
Ask the participants to come up with actions that can be labeled as teamwork. Here are some ideas:
• working together to accomplish a task
• assisting others
• trusting each other
• sharing ideas
• sharing expertise
• listening to others’ideas in a non-judgmental fashion
• offering constructive feedback with the goal of improving outcomes
• listening to feedback and acting upon it when it can improve things
14 Boller, S. 2005. Teamwork training. ASTD Trainer’s Workshop Series. http://books.google.com/books?id=80mj8ENdimkC&pg=PA47
&lpg=PA47&dq=teamwork+training+boller&source=bl&ots=lGpm65d4uR&sig=cbTsb99pPJEWJoRs2L7cb5bjX1E&hl=en&ei=H2kL
Sr3_MIrGtAPt3N2IAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1

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Teamwork means working together in an interdependent way. In most cases teams have defined different
roles for each member. For example, on a football team the players have different roles. If all players play
quarterback, the team will perform very poorly. If team members play on their own, without consideration of
the other team members, the team will perform equally poorly. In order to perform well, the members of a
football team have different roles to play.
The board is a team
An effective board is one that is a team: the members have a common goal (the mission of their association)
and they demonstrate teamwork. When a board works as a team it generates social capital. If a board does not
work as a team, there may be three reasons:
• there is no common goal;
• the members do not want to work together as a team; or
• the members are not competent in teamwork — they need to learn to work as a team.
Exercise: Is our board a team?
Ask the participants to discuss their own board. Is it a team? Does it demonstrate teamwork?
Experience
One group compared their association to a traditional Melanesian hut. They said the central pillar represents the
board’s chair; the pillars around the circumference of the hut represent the other board members. The roof totem
represents the vision, mission, objectives and results of the association. The totems at the entrance represent the
manager and other staff, and the structure of the roof represents the members. The group considered everyone’s
role to be dependent on everyone else’s role. If one structure failed to support another the hut would collapse.
They also considered their hut to still be open to the elements. Training and experience would ensure adequate
‘roofing material’ to make the hut a safe and happy place to be.

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Teamwork is powerful
When a group starts to be a team and demonstrate teamwork many positive changes can result. Improved
teamwork can lead to any of the following outcomes:
• better communication;
• better outcomes;
• more creativity and innovations;
• fewer complaints; and
• happier board members and happier members.
Renewing the board
Upon renewal of the board it is important to orient new members, making it clear to them what teamwork
is and what their tasks and roles are. Strategic recruitment aims at acquiring specific skills, acquiring prestige
(people with a certain status) or enhancing diversity and representativity. Associations often have a policy
governing the recruitment process, the length of terms and the number of terms a board member can serve.
Exercise: Tasks, duties and roles of board members
Divide the participants into groups and ask them to come up with a goal for their board that reflects being a
team. Then ask each group to develop a list of tasks, duties and/or a position description for board members.
Are the tasks and duties of different board members interdependent? Once the groups have developed lists
ask them to compare their lists with Handout 2.7.2. Do they want to adopt the lists and formalise them?
Exercise: Questions a board member should be able to answer
Pass around copies of Handout 2.7.3. Ask participants to get into groups of two and test themselves by finding
responses to the questions in the handout. How did the participants assess themselves? Did they find the
questions easy or difficult? Which were the most difficult questions? This may indicate areas needing more
attention.
Before concluding the session, are there any points to be added to the‘Board action plan’and‘Training plan’?
• A team requires a common goal.
• A board is a team working toward the goal of a well-run and effective association.
• In a team, members have interdependent roles.
• Teamwork means working together on a basis of trust, sharing, and giving and accepting feedback.

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Handout 2.7.1: Teamwork questionnaire
26 Our board works well as a team.
27 All board members have written guidelines outlining expectations of their board
service.
28 Our board sets annual goals for itself.
29 Our board assesses its own performance regularly.
30 Individual board members serve set terms within a system of regular rotation.
31 Our board recruits new members strategically.
32 New board members are thoroughly oriented into the organisation and board service.
33 Our board members serve enthusiastically as ambassadors for the organisation.

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Handout 2.7.2: Tasks, duties and position description of board members
Tasks of board members
• Safeguard the mission
• Set values and standards
• Make policy
• Provide oversight
• Provide strategic guidance
• Ensure resources (e.g. recruiting staff, monitoring finances)
• Promote the association in the community
Duties of individual board members
• Meet regularly
• Contribute to discussions
• Participate in collective decision-making
• Place association’s interest above personal interest
Example of a position description for board members
• Know and support the mission of the association
• Attend board meetings regularly
• Prepare for meetings in advance
• Maintain confidentiality
• Offer informed and impartial guidance
• Avoid conflict of interest
• Participate in sub-committees and special events
• Support the staff
• Take part in fund raising
• Promote the organisation in the community
• Other specific responsibilities according to expertise/experience
Specific tasks of the chair
• Coordinate the work of the board
• Liaise with the staff
• Convene and lead meetings:
• Schedule meetings
• Set the agenda
• Lead discussions
• Has no special decision-making powers
• Lead the hiring and assessment of staff
• Ensure that the board functions properly
• Represent the association in public

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Handout 2.7.3: Questions a board member should be able to answer15
1. What is a board?
2. Why should I be a board member?
3. Is the manager a board member?
4. Are the staff board members?
5. How can I stay motivated to give my best?
6. What is the relationship between the board’s chair and the manager?
7. Does a good manager need to have a board?
8. What are the responsibilities of the manager toward the board?
9. What are the responsibilities of the board toward the manager?
10. Does the manager only communicate with the board during meetings?
11. What are the responsibilities of the board?
12. Where can I find the rules of operation of the board?
13. How does the board evaluate the manager?
14. How can board members avoid conflict of interest?
15. What can I expect during a board meeting?
16. How does the board recruit new members?
15 Dyblaylo, V., Ivkovic D., Malych, B., Panov, L., Stalis, E., Wyatt M. and Zajazi, K. Questions every board member should ask.
http://ngoboards.org/sites/ngoboards.org/files/questionsrev3.pdf

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Session 2.8: Completing the evaluation wheel
In the different sessions of this module participants have been assessing the commitment of their association
to good governance principles. They have done this by responding to short questionnaires covering the areas
of structure, staff, values and policies, financial management, board meetings and teamwork. This session
will first summarise the content of the sessions on good governance and then create a visual image of the
results of the questionnaires to show the participants in what measure their association is committed to good
governance principles.
Key issues
• Understanding how to apply good governance principles to one’s association
• Evaluating the current performance of the association
Flip chart, board, markers and evaluation wheel used in previous sessions.
Exercise: Summarising the sessions on good governance
Draw two circles, one inside the other. The two circles together represent the association. The outer circle
represents the function of governance, the inner one the function of management. There are inputs feeding
into the associations, and outputs which are the results of the work of the association. Ask the participants to
help you identify the various activities or tasks making up each of these elements.
Experience
One group prepared the following summary of their association.
Key points of the diagram:
• Associations have inputs (donor budget, membership fees, unprocessed raw materials, training, knowledge,
skills and experiences of volunteers and staff) and outputs (audit report, events and finished products).
• Governance and management are separate functions.
• The board governs, the staff manages.
• The board’s role is to put in place a system of measures to ensure that good governance principles are
upheld (e.g. collective interest, collective decision-making, participation, representation, transparency,
accountability).
• The manager is in charge of day-to-day management (staff, budget, communication, etc).
• Values and reputation are of utmost importance for a well-functioning association.
• Members and the community judge the association by the way it governs and manages.
• The local and national government judge the association by whether it has a clean audit.

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Exercise: Completing the evaluation wheel
The evaluation wheel should now have crosses (X’s) on each of the six axes, reflecting the number of‘yes’
answers in relation to the total number of answers. Now connect the X’s on adjacent axes to form what looks
like a spider web. Colour the area within the boundaries of the spider web. The coloured area represents the
groups’assessment of the commitment of their association to good governance principles. The area that is
not coloured represents the work that still needs to be done for the association to function fully according to
good governance principles.
Discuss the results with the group. Do participants feel the image is an accurate reflection of the actual
situation? Can they look at the image and identify those areas that are stronger and weaker (the further from
the center an X is placed along an axis, the stronger the commitment of the association to good governance
principles in that particular area).
Now ask the group to compare the evaluation wheel with the points on the‘Board action plan’and‘Training
plan’. Do the results reinforce each other i.e. have training sessions and other actions been identified to
strengthen weak areas indicated in the evaluation wheel?
Experience
The photo on the right shows the result of
an assessment conducted by one particular
group. The assessment clearly shows that the
association is stronger in the area of structure
than it is in the area of board meetings. On
the whole, the association needs to work on
integrating good governance principles.
The questionnaires can be administered at regular intervals, for example once a year, and new evaluation
wheels prepared. Over time this can show trends in the development of the association. If good governance
principles are gradually adopted the coloured area should gradually increase in size.
• An evaluation wheel is based on the views of members of an association, gathered through a
questionnaire and subsequently analysed and recorded.
• An evaluation wheel is a visual representation of the current state of functioning of an association,
including strong and weak areas.
• If the exercise is repeated at intervals the results show trends over time. A trend shows whether or not the
functioning of an association is improving in line with good governance principles.

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Module 3: Identifying priorities through a problem tree analysis
The problem tree analysis is a participatory exercise often used to determine the focus of the work of
associations. It can also be used to ascertain whether an ongoing programme of activities is in line with the
priorities and expectations of the association’s members.
Key issues
• Identifying member priorities through a participatory exercise
• Translating member priorities into work objectives and strategies
Training objective
To work with participants to establish the focus of the work of their association based on perceived problems
and needs.
Learning objectives
• explain the relationship between problems, causes and root causes in their own environment; and
• explain how they arrived at their list of work objectives and strategies.
Flip chart, board, cards, thumb pins, masking tape, markers and copies of handout.
Input16
The objective of this module is to work with members to identify the priority areas that members wish their
association to address. It is a participatory exercise and requires inputs from all member subgroups.
Problems, causes and root causes
In this session the focus is on mapping problems faced by members, along with their underlying causes.
Consider the problem‘farmers cannot access markets’. This problem may have several different underlying
causes: the distance to the market may be too large; the farmers may have products that the market does
not demand; or all the farmers may be producing the same products, resulting in the market being saturated.
These underlying causes may in their turn be caused by other causes. For example the problem‘the distance
to the market is too large’may have the following causes: farmers do not have vehicles to transport their
produce, the cost of transport is too high, farmers are unable to organise themselves for collective transport
or there simply is no road or ship to transport the produce. By asking the question‘why?’it is possible to
identify causes of problems at several underlying levels. It is always very important to identify the root causes
and find solutions to them in order to improve an unsatisfactory situation. It is like treating a sick person – the
most effective treatment is the one that takes away the cause rather than the one that relieves the symptoms.
Problems and causes and their interrelationships can be presented in a‘Problem tree’. An example of a
problem tree is given in Handout 3.1.
Exercise: Brainstorming problems
Ask the group to brainstorm issues and problems they face in a particular context relevant to their association.
The context may be agriculture if the association is a farmers’association, or fisheries if the association focuses
on fisheries. Hand out metacards and markers. Ask the participants to write their responses on cards, with one
idea per card. Collect the cards as they are produced and hang them on the wall or on a board.
Identifying core problems
Once the group is satisfied that their problems have been identified exhaustively, ask them to identify‘core
problems’— ones to which many of the other statements seem to be linked. Now remove all the other cards,
leaving the core problems on the board.
16 AusGuide - A Guide to Program Management, AusGuideline 3.3: The Logical Framework Approach, Annex A: Steps in conducting
problem tree analysis. http://www.ausaid.gov.au/ausguide/pdf/ausguideline3.3.pdf

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Identifying causes and effects
Start to identify cause and effect by taking each of the removed cards one by one and asking the group
whether the card is a cause or an effect of the core problem. If it is an effect then place the card above the
core problem. If it is a cause, place it below the core problem. Carry on the exercise until all cards have been
sorted either above or below the core problem to which they relate. Make sure that statements that are
unclear are rewritten with the consensus of the group. Statements that are very general and apply to any
development situation can be identified as‘overall constraints’and moved to the side of the problem tree.
Examples of overall constraints are: lack of government policy, great distance, climatic problems, etc.
The guiding question now becomes‘What leads to this (a particular card)?’Choose any card within the
‘cause’area and ask the participants‘What leads to this?’Choose from the other cards (or add cards if not yet
identified) and place the card below your chosen card. If there are two or more causes for a problem, place
the cards side by side. After placing the cards for each relationship ask the group to review and see if there are
more causes leading to the problem. If so, add more cards. Similarly, ask if there are more effects resulting from
the problem. Multiple effects are placed side by side.
Double-check the problem tree to ascertain that the logic is correct i.e. that one card is the cause of the card
next in the hierarchy. Finally, join the cards by putting in vertical lines to indicate cause–effect relationships
and horizontal lines to indicate joint causes and combined effects.
Turning the problem tree into an objective tree
While maintaining the structure of the problem tree, on the back side of each card write a statement that turns
the negative problem statement into a positive objective statement. For example:‘impoverished soil’becomes
‘soil enriched’. While the problem tree shows the cause–effect relationship, the objective tree shows the
means–end relationship. Double check to make sure that the links between cards are logical and reasonable:
does one objective statement reasonably and logically lead to the one above? It might be necessary to add
cards.
Experience
In one setting a group of farmers produced the following problem tree in response to the question ‘What
problems do we face as farmers?’

60
Environmentnegativelyaffectedbyirrigationpractices,certainfishing
practicesanduseofchemicalinputs
Youthnotinterestedin
becomingfarmers
Surplus
Difficultyto
clearproduce
fromthefarm
Lackofdialoguewithall
stakeholderstoinstitute
sustainablemanagement
Lackofregulations
Discouragedyouth
Lackoftechnical
supportand
advisoryservices
Lackofwarehouse
tostockproduce
Lackofa
marketoutlet
atNoumea
Quantityand
qualitynotin
balance
Toomuch
productionin
seasonandtoo
littleoff-season
Lackofpricecontrol
atthefarmgate
Farmersnot
eligibleforpension
Lackofmeans
oftransport
Lackof
training
RemotenessLackoftrainersLackofappropriate
training/irregularity/
drop-outfortrainingin
agriculturaltechniques
(composting,pestand
diseasecontroletc.)
Everyonegrows
everything,lackof
specialisation
Insufficient
contact
betweenfarmers
Problemtreepreparedbyagroupoffarmers

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Identifying strategies
Look at the objective tree and identify distinct areas that would need to be handled through different
strategies. Depending on the objective tree, examples of strategies could be a soil improvement strategy, a
marketing strategy etc.
Experience
In the previous example the group identified the following strategies:
• awareness raising, training and extension
• market development and new products
• post-harvest technologies
• youth and agriculture strategy
Identifying actors
Ask the participants to consider their objective tree and identify appropriate actors to help achieve the
objectives. The actors may be: the association itself, other local organisations, government departments, the
private sector, projects, regional service providers etc.
Next steps
The results of this exercise, i.e. the list of strategies and list of actors, can now be used to develop a new
strategic plan for an association, or assess the appropriateness of an existing one.
• The problem tree analysis is a participatory exercise requiring representatives from all member subgroups.
• It is often used to identify priority needs of association members.
• The results of a problem tree analysis feed well into a strategic planning exercise (Module 4).
• The results can also be used to check that an association’s current objectives and activities are aligned with
the priority needs of its members.

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Handout3.1:Problemtreepreparedbyagroupoffarmers
NomechanisationLabourtoo
expensive
Composttoo
expensive
Climate—
rain/drought
Government
policies
FixednonopriceLotsoffarmers
Compostnotused
Lossofsoilfertility
DiseaseRot
Contaminationof
thesoil
Cropresistance
Useofpesticides
andfertilisers
Farmersdon’t
understand
dosage
Overdosageof
chemicalinputs
Highcostsof
chemicalinputs
Lossesdueto
inferiorquality
Cannotcover
expenditures
Fewerfarmers
Decreasein
productionlevelsMarketing
difficulties
Diseaseand
decreasinghealth
status
Overproduction
MiddlemenSmalldemand
Lossesdueto
overproduction
Pollutionoflagoon
andland
Fewerfish

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Module 4: Strategic planning
Associations are often asked whether they have a strategic plan. However, it is often not clear to them what a
strategic plan is, why it should be necessary to have one and especially how to prepare one.
Key issues
• Comprehending what a strategic plan is
• Comprehending why a strategic plan is important
• Understanding that a participatory planning process ensures ownership of and commitment to the
strategic plan
• Preparing a vision statement; a mission statement; sets of values, objectives, strategies, and activities; an
action plan and monitoring indicators
Training objective
To work with participants to prepare a strategic plan.
Learning objectives
• explain the vision, mission, values, objectives and strategies of their association;
• list the association’s activities and the indicators for measuring progress of the work; and
• explain how all these are related to each other.
Metacards,17
tape, markers, board, large sheets of flipchart paper and copies of handout.
Input
Consider the following quotation from Lewis Carroll’s The Adventures of Alice in Wonderland:
If you don’t know where you are going, any road will get you there.
In the context of an association, this means that if your association has no vision, goal or objectives to guide
it, any result will be OK. Without these things the association is not clear about what it wants to achieve and
even less about how to achieve it. Strategic planning is about imagining your association in 5, 10 or 15 years
and mapping out a path to get there.
Strategic planning is a systematic planning process involving well-defined steps. These steps include such
elements as defining a vision, a mission, and objectives; deciding on values; prioritising activities; and
preparing action plans and plans for monitoring and evaluating the work of the association. In this module we
shall be looking at needs, visions, missions, values, objectives, strategies, activities, action plans and indicators.
Role of members in deciding the content of a strategic plan
An association belongs to its members; it is therefore the members who decide on the contents of the
strategic plan. Sometimes members may leave the strategic planning process to their elected representatives,
the board members, with final approval for the strategic plan being given by the members for example during
a general assembly. It is important for members to participate in deciding what they want the association to
achieve and the way they want to achieve it. This ensures ownership and commitment, which in turn results
in greater willingness by members to invest time and effort. In order for an association to flourish everyone
needs to contribute: the ordinary members, the board and the staff. Everyone needs to work collectively as a
team (see Module 2, Session 7 on teamwork) to achieve the best possible result.
17 Metacards are cards cut from stiff paper and measuring about 20 x 10 cm. They are useful during brainstorming exercises, applying the
rule‘one idea, one card’.

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Exercise: Why? Who? What? How?
This exercise aims to help participants reflect upon the reasons why an association exists. The objective is for
the group to find common ground. Write the following questions on flipchart paper and hang them up for all
to see:
• Why do we exist?
• Who do we serve?
• What needs are we addressing?
• How do we address the needs?
Hand out metacards and markers then ask the participants to come up with ideas, first in response to the
question‘Why do we exist?’If participants have more than one response, ask them to use one card for each
response. Collect the cards and proceed to the next question (‘Who do we serve?’) and so on down to the last
question —‘How do we address the needs?‘ Now prepare four columns on the board and label them‘Why’,
‘Who’,‘What’and‘How’. Ask the participants to sort the responses and attach them in the appropriate columns
using tape. Where the same response has been given attach the cards next to each other horizontally.
Differing responses should be attached vertically.
Discuss the results and come to a consensus regarding the responses to the four questions. The group should
now have reached a common understanding of why their association exists and what it aims to do.
Experience
Below are the results of an exercise conducted with the members of one association in New Caledonia.
Why do we exist?
• to promote economic activities on our island
• to give our population the means to exist
• to allow us to live in good circumstances
• to help us with all our needs
Who do we serve?
• the fishers of our island
• all the inhabitants of our island / village
• we not only serve those that have received financial assistance, we serve everyone
What needs are we addressing?
• the need to create economic opportunities for people who do not have a job
• the need to create livelihoods so we can support our children at school as well as provide for our personal
needs
• the need to help people access (financial) assistance
How do we do this?
• by selling our products
• by increasing our production to generate more income and ensure that our association sustains itself into
the future
• by making sure that our association functions properly
• by ensuring that there is a good understanding between our stakeholders and ourselves
• through good management of our association
• through everyone’s goodwill and contribution for the success of our association
• by providing services and giving access to material means
Elements of a strategic plan
A vision statement, mission statement and objectives are ways to express what an association wishes
to achieve and how it wishes to get there. They help make the purpose and ambitions of an association

65
clear. This not only benefits the membership but also creates clarity for external stakeholders. In practice,
associations often have trouble distinguishing vision and mission and seeing how these fit in with objectives.
Indicators are tools that enable an association to measure whether it is achieving its objectives. We will look at
each of these in turn.
Input
A vision statement outlines what an association wishes its future to look like. It describes what will be achieved
if the association is successful in 10 or 20 years. The vision is a future state to which an association contributes
together with other stakeholders; it is not a future it accomplishes on its own. The vision is a source of
inspiration. When written down, the vision should leave the reader a little breathless, but inspired and
energised by the possibility of a society that, albeit with significant stretching, is within reach.
Some ingredients of a vision statement:
• describes a bright future
• focuses on people and quality of life
• presents a clear and vivid picture
• uses positive and engaging wording
• uses present tense language
• aligns with the association’s values and culture
Exercise: Identify a vision
Ask each participant to think of one very positive experience he or she has had with the association —
one that makes them think‘Yes! — this is why I am part of this association!’Ask them to explain why they
remember this experience and why they feel it is positive. Write the results on flipchart paper.
Now ask the participants to imagine it is the year 2020. They are standing at the top of a nearby hill and have
the power to see the entire area and everything that is happening. At this time, in 2020, three wishes for the
area’s future have come true. Ask the participants what these wishes might be and how they could have come
true. Record the results on flipchart paper. Another way of developing a vision is to ask participants to make a
drawing of their area in 2020.
Use the results of the exercise to formulate a vision statement. Make sure there is consensus regarding the
statement. Record the vision statement on flipchart paper and hang it on the wall as a reminder.
Experience
In one workshop participants contributed the following wishes that had come true:
• A big green building has been established; it is the association’s headquarters.
• Lots of people are engaged in economic activities, generating cash for their families.
• Farmers produce large quantities of a diverse range of products.
• Farmers’ products are of high quality and find an easy market.
• Several markets for local produce are established in the area.
• Trucks of local produce are leaving the area for other markets, even export markets.
• The population is working together in harmony and unity.
• There are tourists in the area making use of local lodging and camping.
• Tourists go on treks to discover the nature of the area, they participate in cultural events, they undertake
trips on the sea; there are guides, signposted walks and facilities like riding on horseback.
• There are many happy people with cash in their pockets and satisfied with the initiatives they have
undertaken.
A vision was formulated as follows:
‘A united and prosperous population living in harmony with the natural resources of the area, managing them
in a sustainable way and proudly sharing them with others’

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It may be worthwhile to compare the vision statement prepared during this exercise with the vision as defined
at the creation of the association and often incorporated into the constitution. Has there been a change in the
perception of the aim of the association? Do any adaptations need to be made?
Mission statement
The mission statement serves to differentiate the function and core expertise of an association from those of
other organisations working to achieve the same vision. A mission statement gives the fundamental purpose
of an association and defines the target group. A mission statement provides a path to realise the vision and is
in line with an association’s values.
Some ingredients of a mission statement:
• gives the purpose of the association
• identifies the primary stakeholders
• describes the responsibilities of the association toward these stakeholders
• gives the products and services offered
Exercise: Define the mission statement
On the basis of the vision statement and the elements provided above ask the group to brainstorm and reach
a consensus on a mission statement.
Experience
From the above example a corresponding mission was formulated as follows:
‘In the spirit of working together we help the population of the area
to improve their social and economic conditions’
Another association formulated its mission as follows:
‘Through a well-functioning association we help the population of our island
to sustainably improve livelihoods for a better living standard’
Values
Values determine the‘culture’of an association. They are like a behavioural code or reference and they are
created and strengthened as social capital grows (see Module 1). Values define the way members of an
association work together and they are reflected in objectives and the way activities are implemented.
Experience
The mission below shows an important value:
‘In a spirit of working together we help the population of the area
to improve their social and economic conditions’
It is the value of working together. This association decided that they need consensus and collaboration at every
stepoftheway.Itmeansthattheyneedtoundertakemuchconsultation,workinaparticipatoryandtransparent
manner and communicate effectively with their membership and stakeholders.
Exercise: Define values
Break the group into subgroups and ask each subgroup to state which value they think is the most important
value in their association. What are the implications of this value in the way the association operates and in the
way it should operate? Present the results to the full group and reach a consensus about the core values of the
association.
Objectives
Objectives outline how a vision is to be achieved. They are like the stepping stones leading to the vision. When
setting objectives it is important to focus on a result, not on an activity. It is important to formulate objectives

67
clearly. One way of doing so is to use the‘SMART’method, which employs five criteria that need to be fulfilled
to ensure good formulation. The criteria are the following:
S = Specific (is the objective specific?)
M = Measurable (can the objective be measured?)
A = Achievable (is the objective achievable?)
R = Relevant (is the objective relevant?)
T = Time-bound (is the objective time-bound?)
Exercise: Formulate objectives
Keeping vision and mission in mind, ask the group to formulate objectives. Test whether the objectives are
formulated SMART-ly.
Experience
One farmers’ association had formulated their mission as follows:
‘To service our membership by advocating, promoting and supporting
sustainable agricultural production practices and consumption of healthy local foods,
and by facilitating marketing’
In line with this mission the following objectives were formulated for the coming four years:
• The image of five local foods improved and their production and consumption promoted
• Five appropriate sustainable production practices promoted and supported
• Access and training in three post-harvest technologies facilitated
• Marketing of three agricultural products facilitated
Strategies
A strategy is a plan, or an approach, by which an objective is to be achieved. In the above example the
following would be possible strategies:
• communication and awareness raising strategy using the media
• training and extension strategy
• marketing strategy
Exercise: Identify strategies
On the basis of the objectives identified for their association, ask the participants to now identify suitable
strategies.
Activities
From the objectives and corresponding strategies, a list of activities usually follows quite logically. Taking for
example the objective:
‘The image of five local foods improved and their production and consumption promoted’
a communications and extension strategy would be appropriate. The following list of activities could be
prepared:
• Identify the list of five local foods to be promoted.
• For each local food prepare a brochure and poster with information on nutritional benefits, cultivation
techniques and recipes.
• Promote incorporation of local foods in the menu of the school canteen.
• Incorporate production techniques, nutritional benefits and cooking of local foods into the school
curriculum.
Depending on the available resources of the association it may be necessary to prioritise activities.

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Exercise: Identify activities
Divide the group into subgroups and give each subgroup one of the strategies formulated in the previous
exercise. Ask the participants to discuss and come up with a list of activities to be implemented in order
to reach the objectives defined earlier. Make sure the list of activities is in line with the vision and mission
statements. Also make sure that the list of activities can realistically be implemented by the association.
Present the list to the full group and reach a consensus.
Action plans
Activities are often presented in a table called an action plan. There are different ways to present an action
plan, including the following:
• The activities to be implemented can be shown on the vertical axis and the time scale on the horizontal
axis.
• The table may have a number of columns such as: activity, when it is to be implemented, and
responsibility.
• The table may contain more detail such as: objectives, strategies, activities, timing, and responsibility.
Exercise: Prepare an action plan
Prepare an action plan for the activities identified during the previous exercise. Make sure the action plan
is feasible in terms of resources and timing. Discuss whether the action plan needs approval from the
associations’members. How? When?
Indicators
Indicators are the tools that will indicate how far the association is from achieving its objectives and whether it
is going in the right direction.
Taking the first objective from the example given in the paragraph on objectives and the activities developed
in the section on activities, the following could be a possible list of indicators.
Objective: The image of five local foods improved and their production and consumption promoted
Indicators:
• list of five local foods to be promoted
• leaflets for each local food
• school canteen menu featuring local foods
• evidence of lessons given at local school
Exercise: Identifying indicators
Ask the participants to go back into their previous subgroups and to come up with indicators for the
objectives and activities they produced earlier. Make sure the indicators measure achievement of the
objectives.
• Without strategic planning, an association will never know where it is going, much less if it ever got there.
• Planning is critical to the success of an association.
• Some important steps in strategic planning include formulating a vision, a mission, values, objectives,
strategies, activities, action plans and indicators (Handout 4.1 gives a summary of the session).

69
Handout 4.1: Strategic planning summary18
Vision
Is the image that members of the organisation have about an ideal future to which the organisations’work
contributes.
Mission
Is the overall purpose that guides the operation of the organisation.
Values
Are the standards that determine how the organisation should carry out its activities. They are the personality
or culture of the organisation.
Objectives
Are the short-term targets that the organisation works toward to achieve the mission.
Strategies
Are the approaches used by organisations to achieve their objectives.
Activities
Are the individual actions that fit in a strategy and contribute to achieving the objectives.
Action plan
Is a matrix showing all the activities to be implemented with corresponding time scale and responsibilities.
Indicators
These are the tools that help determine whether the organisation is achieving its objectives. Indicators can be
measured.
18 Adaped from: Chechetto-Salles, M. and Y. Geyer, 2006. Community-based organization management. Handbook series for community-
based organizations. Institute for Democracy in South Africa (IDASA). www.idasa.org.za/gbOutputFiles.asp?WriteContent=Y&RID=1701
Vision
Mission
Values
Objectives
Strategies
Activities
Action Plans
Indicators

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Module 5: Preparing a logical framework
A logical framework (or logframe) is a summary, or overview, of a project in the form of a table. It is a handy
tool for communication purposes. When associations solicit funds from donors, they are often asked to supply
a logframe with their funding proposal. This module covers preparing a logframe.
Key issue
• Preparing a logframe
Training objective
To work with participants to prepare a logframe.
Learning objectives
• explain the logframe of their association or programme; and
• explain why the logframe is a useful planning, monitoring and evaluation tool for their work.
Flip chart sheets, pencil, eraser, Post-it notes or cards and copies of handouts.
Input19, 20
A logframe is a further step in the strategic planning process. It is a tool that allows for systematic planning,
managing, monitoring and reporting of a project. It also allows the project to be summarised in one table,
which facilitates better communication among stakeholders. Key words in the logframe approach are:
objective oriented, target group oriented and participatory.
Exercise: Problem tree analysis
This exercise is presented in Module 3. If the exercise has already been done, use the results to develop the logframe.
Exercise: Strategic planning
This process has been described in Module 4. If a strategic planning process has already been undertaken by
the association, use the results to develop a logframe.
While the previous two exercises are done with a wide group of stakeholders, it is probably easier to complete
the logframe with a smaller group and get feedback from the others once a draft logframe (or summary table
of the project) has been developed.
Give the participants copies of the logframe matrix below (Handout 5.1). This matrix will be used as a reference
while the exercise is conducted.
Structure and content of a
logframe matrix
Measurable indicators Means of verification Important assumptions
IMPACT: Wider problem the
project will contribute to
resolving
Quantitative ways of
measuring or qualitative ways
of judging timed achievement
of goal
Cost-effective methods and
sources to quantify or assess
indicators
External factors necessary
to sustain objectives in
the long run
OBJECTIVE: The immediate
impact on the project area
or target group i.e. the
change or benefit to be
achieved by the
project
ofjudging timed achievement
of purpose
indicators
External conditions
necessary if achieved
project purpose is to
contribute to reaching
project impact
19 NORAD, 1999. The Logical Framework Approach (LFA), Handbook for objectives-oriented planning, fourth edition. http://www.norad.
no/items/1069/38/5751098277/Logical%20Framework%20Approach%20LFA%20-%20handbook%20for%20objectives-oriented%20
planning.pdf
20 BOND, Networking for International Development, 2003. Guidance Notes no. 4: Logical Framework Analysis.
http://www.gdrc.org/ngo/logical-fa.pdf

71
OUTPUTS: The specifically
deliverable results expected
from the project to attain
the purpose
of judging timed production
of outputs
indicators
Factors out of project
control which, if
present, could restrict
progress from outputs
to achieving project
objectives
ACTIVITIES: The tasks to
be done to produce the
outputs
INPUTS: A summary of the
project budget
Financial report as agreed in
grant agreement
control which, if present,
could restrict progress
from activities to
achieving outputs
NOTE: The two boxes in the centre of the activities row are not used for measurable indicators and means of
verification as the progress and success of the activities are measured at the outputs level. Remember, the
activities are carried out to achieve the outputs. These‘spare’boxes can therefore be used to provide any useful
additional information such as inputs and budgeting requirements.
In the sections below, the logframe exercise is described in three consecutive steps:
• Step 1: What is the project going to achieve?
• Step 2: How can the achievements be measured?
• Step 3: What factors could restrict the progress of the project?
Hand out the Post-it notes or cards to each participant in the group and ask them to provide ideas as you
facilitate the process of filling up the logframe matrix with them. One Post-it or card should not feature more
than one idea.
Step 1: What is the project going to achieve?
In this step the group will be working down the first column of the matrix and looking in turn at the impact,
objective, outputs and activities of the project. The box called‘inputs’at the bottom of the second column will
also be looked at.
• Impact: Using the information from the objective tree of the problem tree analysis, ask the participants to
consider the question‘What ultimate issue or problem is the project going to contribute to?’Also consider
the vision and mission of your association in answering this question; make sure all elements are aligned.
The impact should be formulated as a brief statement or summary. Ask the participants to write their ideas
on the Post-its or cards and to reach a consensus before proceeding in the same manner to the other parts
of the matrix.
Example: To promote sustainable agricultural practices in
villages A, B and C
• Objective: What final results are you trying to achieve? This is the objective of the project. The objective
should be formulated clearly and briefly.
Example: Five sustainable agricultural techniques
identified and promoted in the villages A, B and C.
• Outputs: What are the particular outputs needed to achieve the impact of the project? There may be
several outputs.
Example:
• Agricultural extension agent recruited and trained
• Five appropriate sustainable agricultural techniques
identified
• Extension materials prepared
• Extension and training sessions held in each

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• Activities: List the activities that are needed to achieve these outputs. There may be several for each
output. Statements should be brief and emphasise action words.
Example 1: For the output‘Agricultural extension agent
recruited and trained,’the following activities may be
identified:
• Advertise the vacancy by (date).
• Hold interviews by (date).
• Recruit a candidate.
• Train the candidate on the aims and context of the
project.
Example 2: For the output‘Five appropriate
sustainable agricultural techniques identified,’the
following activities may be identified:
• Hold meetings with farmers to identify farmer
problems and possible solutions.
• Network with partner organisations and other
stakeholders to identify technical solutions.
• Study feasibility of the solutions/techniques.
• Decide on five solutions/techniques to be
promoted.
• Inputs: In this cell there is room to provide additional information, such as the inputs that are needed to
carry out the activities. Again, there may be several for each activity and it will help to run through each
activity individually, listing required inputs (resources, equipment, tools, and people). The cell next to the
inputs may include a summary of the project budget.
Example: For the activity‘Hold meetings with farmers
to identify farmer problems and possible solutions,’
the following inputs may be required: training room,
workshop materials (paper, markers).
Step 2: How can the achievements be measured?
This section is about how the objectives of the project can be measured; it is about identifying indicators and
means of verification (columns 2 and 3 of the matrix).
• Indicators: Identify a way of measuring each activity and output, as well as each objective and impact. By
finding ways of measuring, you are identifying indicators. Formulate the indicators as‘QQT,’which is an
acronym for‘quality, quantity and timing’where:
ŬŬ Quality indicates the kind of change.
ŬŬ Quantity indicates the extent of the change.
ŬŬ Timing indicates by when the change should have taken place.
There are different kinds of indicators you may wish to consider (Handout 5.2):
Type of indicator What it measures Example
Process indicator Measures the extent to which you have
achieved what you set out to do
Number of farmers who have completed training
on (specified) sustainable agricultural techniques by
(specified) time
Impact indicator Measures the impact of your work Number of farmers applying (specified) sustainable
agricultural technique by (specified) time

73
Direct indicator Measures an activity directly Number of compost bins in use in farmers’fields
Indirect indicator Measures a‘proxy’ Number of compost bins sold at the local agricultural
inputs shop
• Means of verification: Try and work out what information sources you need and how you can gather the
information. This is the means of verification. Examples are: training records, farm visit reports, monitoring
forms and anecdotal evidence like views expressed by project beneficiaries. Consider the cost implications
of gathering the information and build this into the project budget.
Step 3: What factors could restrict the progress of the project?
In this step reflect on which external factors (outside your control) could prevent work from progressing.
These factors may be climatic, political, economic or otherwise. They should be real risks rather than a list of
everything that could go wrong.
• Refer to the fourth column of the matrix and identify assumptions for each level.
Examples of assumptions:
• An agricultural extension agent with knowledge
of sustainable agricultural techniques shall be
recruited.
• Government policies will continue to promote
sustainable agricultural techniques.
• Sustainable solutions to farmers’most pressing
problems exist and are appropriate and feasible.
• By reflecting up from the bottom of your logframe (column 4), consider how, if each assumption holds, it
will be possible to move to the next higher level in your logframe.
• Double check your logframe by going over it, from bottom to top, to check that it is truly logical:
ŬŬ Will the inputs and activities clearly lead to the outputs required to achieve the objective and
contribute to the impact?
ŬŬ Will the indicators and means of verification effectively measure the progress of the project?
ŬŬ Are the assumptions reasonable or do they indicate a level of risk that suggests that the project is
unlikely to get off the ground or be completed? A‘killer assumption’is one that is very likely to occur,
with the consequence that it would be best to change the project radically or abandon it altogether.
ŬŬ Type the logframe up onto A4 sheets.
ŬŬ Get consensus by giving a copy of the logframe to all stakeholders and asking them for feedback.
Reach a consensus on the final logframe.
ŬŬ Monitor and revise the logframe over time. The logframe is a flexible tool. As the project progresses
situations and contexts are bound to change. In such instances, return to the logframe and revise it.
Get a consensus for these changes from the stakeholders and keep everyone informed so that they
are able to keep up to date with current progress of the project and its future direction.

74
Experience
Below is an example of a completed logframe.
logframe matrix
IMPACT:
Increased sustainable
agricultural production
At least 20% increase in
productivity during next 5
years and continuing in the
long term
• National statistics
• Survey
• Agricultural policy in
harmony with project
aims
OBJECTIVE:
Increased soil fertility
At least 40% of the farmers
adopt one or more
sustainable technologies
before the end of the project
Survey • Socio-economic situation
allows farmers to
participate
• Farmers’ problems
and priorities remain
unchanged
OUTPUTS:
• Farmers’ problems
identified
• Appropriate sustainable
technologies identified
• Appropriate technologies
promoted
• Meetings with farmers
held in every village and
problems documented
• At least 3 sustainable
technologies developed
and tested by farmers
• At least 5 promotional
materials developed and
disseminated
• Project reports
• Interviews with farmers
• Survey
• Partner organisations’
aims in harmony with
project
• Support from partners
provided
• Technician continues in
the post
ACTIVITIES:
• Work with farmers to
identify their problems
and potential solutions
to them
• Test potential solutions
in farmers’ fields
• Promote successful
techniques using
communication
strategies and aids
INPUTS:
Project budget in figures.
Financial report • Farmers participate.
• Qualified technician
available to lead the
fieldwork
• Logframes are produced through a participatory process.
• The logframe is a tool allowing for systematic planning, managing, monitoring and reporting of a project.
• A logframe summarises the project in one table.
• Donors often ask for logframes.
• Over time logframes are adjusted in accordance with changing contexts.

75
Handout 5.1: Summary of the content of a logframe
logframe matrix
IMPACT:
Wider problem the project
will contribute to resolving
measuring or qualitative
ways of judging timed
achievement of goal
indicators
External factors necessary
to sustain objectives in the
long run
OBJECTIVE:
The immediate impact on
the project area or target
group, i.e. the change or
benefit to be achieved by
the project
achievement of purpose
indicators
External conditions
necessary if achieved
project purpose is to
contribute to reaching
project impact
OUTPUTS:
The specifically deliverable
results expected from
the project to attain the
purpose
production of outputs
indicators
could restrict progress from
outputs to achieving project
objectives
ACTIVITIES:
The tasks to be done to
produce the outputs
INPUTS:
A summary of the project
budget
Financial report as agreed in
grant agreement
could restrict progress
from activities to achieving
outputs
NOTE: The two boxes in the centre of the activities row are not used for measurable indicators and means of
verification as the progress and success of the activities are measured at the outputs level. Remember, the
activities are carried out to achieve the outputs. These‘spare’boxes can therefore be used to provide any useful
additional information such as inputs and budgeting requirements.

76
Handout 5.2: Types of indicators
Type of indicator What it measures Example
Process indicator Measures the extent to which you
have achieved what you set out to do
Number of farmers who have
completed training on (specified)
sustainable agricultural techniques by
(specified) time
Impact indicator Measures the impact of your work Number of farmers applying
(specified) sustainable agricultural
technique by (specified) time
Direct indicator Measures an activity directly Number of compost bins in use in
farmers fields
Indirect indicator Measures a‘proxy‘ Number of compost bins sold at the
local agricultural inputs shop

77
Module 6: Preparing a capacity building plan
Few people are well-prepared for the task ahead of them when they become board members. In most cases
people learn from other people, through practice or through skill development and training. Giving people
the skills they need to run an association effectively is called human resource development. A capacity
building plan is a document that outlines how an association would like to develop its human resources. It is
based on an inventory of the current level of human resources of the association and aims at improving the
association’s overall effectiveness.
Key issues
• Determining the strong and weak points of an association
• Preparing a capacity building plan
Training objective
To work with participants to prepare a capacity building plan.
Learning objectives
• explain the capacity building plan for the association; and
• explain how the capacity building plan was developed through identification of weak and strong areas of
organisational performance.
Materials required
Metacards,21
tape, markers, board, large sheets of flipchart paper.
Exercise: Why? Who? What? How?
This exercise is described under Module 4. If the exercise has already been conducted with the group
reference can be made to the results.
Exercise: Assessing the performance of the association
Ask the participants to remind you of the main development goal of their association. Get a consensus on this.
Copy the H-frame shown below onto large paper, leaving enough room on the sides to allow for developing a
list of points. Explain to the participants that the horizontal line is a scale showing worst (0%) and best (100%)
case scenarios with respect to the performance of the association in reaching its overall development goal.
Now ask each participant in turn to place an x on the horizontal line such that it reflects their assessment of
the association’s current performance. This exercise can be done anonymously (turn the flipchart to face away
from the group), in plenary or in sub-groups. Once everyone has rated the performance of the association
discuss the results. Is the performance good or bad? Is there a lot of variation in the way people rated the
performance of the association? Help the group come up with reasons for the current performance. Mark
positive points (strengths) to the right and weak points to the left.
21 Metacards are cards cut from stiff paper and measuring about 20 x 10 cm. They are useful during brainstorming exercises, applying the
rule‘one idea, one card’.
Weak points Strong points
0 100%

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Experience
Below are two examples of the results of H-frame exercises conducted with different groups.
Once the group has discussed the results exhaustively and come up with a complete list of strengths and
weaknesses, it may be useful to ask the participants to reach a consensus by indicating one point on the scale
that represents the actual performance of the association. This should involve negotiation on the basis of the
reasons recorded on the left and right of the H-frame.
Summarise the exercise by explaining that the points on the right side of the H-frame indicate the progress made
to date while those on the left indicate obstacles to further development. Ask the group to prioritise the obstacles.
Input
Obstacles hinder the achievement of objectives and goals and hence of the mission and vision of an
association. Depending on the obstacle, the solutions may be sought in different areas. Sometimes there is
a need for changes in values, behaviour, and relationships, and sometimes the association needs a different
set of skills than it currently has. These changes can be either changes in process (how things are done) or in
outcome. Often the required change is a combination and it is necessary to find the right mix of the two.
Changes imply learning, adaptation and attitudinal change at an individual, group, organisational and even
societal level. Change means assuming new responsibilities and finding new collective solutions to common
problems. Change involves breaking with habits and routines and it involves taking risks. Risk taking is often
difficult for people. Where social capital is abundant associations might find it easier to change and improve
their performance than in cases where social capital is low.
Exercise: SWOT analysis
This exercise can be done in addition to the above exercise‘Assessing the performance of the association,’with
the results feeding into this exercise, or instead of it.
SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. On a large sheet of paper draw the matrix
shown below and label the boxes as indicated.
HELPFUL
To achieving the goal
HARMFUL
To achieving the goal
INTERNAL Attributes
of the association
Strengths Weaknesses
EXTERNAL Attributes
of the environment
Opportunities Threats

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Explain the meaning of the boxes:
• Strengths: are attributes of the organisation that are helpful to achieving the objective.
• Weaknesses: are attributes of the organisation that are harmful to achieving the objective.
• Opportunities: are external conditions that are helpful to achieving the objective.
• Threats: are external conditions which could do damage to the business’s performance.
Ask the group to think of factors internal to their association that are strengths. Then look at internal
factors that are weaknesses. Continue by asking the group to now consider external factors representing
opportunities and those representing threats. Record all the points raised in the relevant boxes of the table.
Summarise the exercise by explaining that while internal factors are mostly under our own control, external
factors are not. Therefore when looking for solutions, it is wise to be strategic and look for solutions which are
within the reach of the association.
Exercise: From obstacles and weaknesses to a capacity building plan
On a large piece of paper, prepare a matrix like the one below.
Obstacle/
weakness
expressed as a
capacity
Whose capacity? Existing capacity How to change? When? Capacity
indicator
Use the results of the previous two exercises and concentrate on the obstacles and weaknesses, for it is
these the association would like to change. Take each obstacle/weakness and express it as a relevant (lack
of) capacity. Record each obstacle/weakness in a separate box in the first column of the matrix. Make sure
the way obstacles/weaknesses are recorded ensures a common understanding. For example an association
may have identified as a weakness a lack of meetings. Depending on the situation this could mean a lack
of capacity to hold meetings (not knowing how to hold a meeting), or a lack of capacity to physically meet
(people are not able to be present at the same time in the same place because they may live to far apart), or
the lack of capacity to motivate people to come together (people are not interested in getting together to
meet).
Ask the group to in turn discuss each item in the first column and identify and record the answers to the
following questions:
• Whose capacity needs to be addressed?
• What is the existing capacity?
• How can a change be brought about?
• When is the best time to address this?
• What is a good indicator for measuring whether the capacity has improved?
Record the results in the appropriate columns.

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Experience
Whose capacity? Capacity to do
what?
Existing capacity How to change? When? Capacity
indicator
Treasurer Do the accounts Not adequate Training Within 6 months Accounts kept up
to date
Committee Mobilise members Not so good Visit members,
hold meetings,
promotional
activities
Immediate % increase of
membership
• Most associations need to build capacity on an ongoing basis.
• Capacity building is about human resource development aiming at improving the performance of an
association.
• Capacity building often involves change: change in values, behaviour, or relationships, or improved
organisational or technical skills.
• The starting point for a capacity building plan is the current performance of an association.
• Preparing a capacity building plan is a participatory activity.
• A capacity building plan is a document outlining how an association wants to develop its human
resources.

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Module 7: Conflict resolution
Sometimes associations get stuck in a conflict which damages their performance and from which they find
it very difficult to emerge. Often the reasons for such conflict are viewed differently by different members or
get lost in time. Sometimes the members of an association belong to the same village and to the same social
network, making it difficult for them to talk openly about the conflict. Sometimes it can be very helpful to
receive neutral outside assistance in resolving conflicts.
Key issues
• Identifying and reaching a consensus on problems causing the conflict
• Identifying and reaching a consensus on solutions to the conflict
• Preparing an action plan
Training objective
To work with participants to resolve a conflict.
Learning objectives
• explain the problems causing the conflict and the solutions to it; and
• explain how the action plan will help resolve the conflict.
Materials required
Tape, markers, board, large sheets of flipchart paper.
Input
As a first step participants need to identify the reasons for the existing conflict and reach a consensus
regarding it. Below are three exercises that will help in initiating discussions and identifying reasons. Hang up a
large sheet on the wall to note reasons for the conflict as they come up.
Exercise: Time line
This exercise is useful to gain deeper insight into the history of an association and how its history has shaped its
present form. It is also useful to generate discussion among participants around problematic or sensitive issues.
Draw a horizontal line across the board and explain that the line represents the life of the association. At the
left of the line write the date of creation of the association and at the right today’s date. Invite the participants
to mark major events and milestones in the association’s life. These may be positive or negative.
Allow the group to work on this together. Note points of discussion and dissent and where appropriate solicit
more information or more discussion between the participants. Elicit the reasons the association is currently
not functioning optimally. Note these as‘problems’on the large sheet of paper.
Experience
On the right is an example of a timeline
prepared by one group.
This timeline helped to generate a
discussionamongstassociation’smembers
on the perceived reasons for changes in
levels of fish production over consecutive
years.

82
Exercise: Venn diagram
This exercise can be used to map the network of an association. Draw a circle in the centre of a large sheet
of paper and give it the name of the association. Now invite the participants to draw similar circles on the
paper denoting existing links with other groups, organisations or individuals. The size of any circle denotes
the importance of the other institution or individual to the association. The distance of any circle denotes
the intensity of contact existing. Ask the participants whether they find the situation indicated in their map a
satisfactory one. Why? If the situation is unsatisfactory, what are reasons? Note the reasons as problems on the
large sheet of paper.
Experience
One association mapped their network as shown in the
photograph on the right.
This exercise helped make it clear to the participants that if
their association ceased to exist, the members would not be
able to continue meaningful relationships with any of the
stakeholders on whom they depended for their livelihoods.
It made it clear that the existing conflictual situation needed
to be resolved.
Exercise: Assessing the performance of the association
This exercise is described in Module 6. The participatory evaluation done in this exercise is a useful basis for
initiating a discussion amongst participants on the strong and weak points of the association and hence the
reasons for a less than satisfactory performance. Note reasons as problems on the large sheet of paper.
Exercise: Reaching a consensus
Upon completion of the exercise go through the list of problems recorded on the large sheet of paper. Read
out each problem separately and ask the group whether everyone agrees with it. Reach a consensus on all the
problems listed on the paper.
Input
It is likely that many of the problems listed on the large sheet of paper are in fact caused by other underlying
problems. These underlying problems are often called root problems. This part of the module aims to analyse
the existing situation more closely and to identify root problems.
Exercise: Fish bone
Hang up two or more large sheets of paper next to each other and draw a horizontal line across the middle of
the pages. Ask one of the participants to draw a fish head at one end of the horizontal line and a fishtail at the
other end. Now draw several lines at angles from the horizontal line, thus creating a‘fishbone’.
At the fish head write down the overriding problem faced by the members of the association. For example:
‘Our association is not functioning properly’. Explain that the problems identified earlier (refer to the list on the
large sheet of paper) contribute to this overall problem. Along each slanting bone write one of the problems
from the large sheet of paper. Explain that these problems are causing the overall problem, which is that
the association is not functioning properly. Now explain that there may be yet other problems, so far not
expressed, contributing to each of the problems. Tell the group that the aim is to uncover these underlying or
root problems.

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Start with one bone and its corresponding problem and ask the group to think, analyse, discuss and identify
root problems. Make sure there is a causal relationship between the root problem and the higher order
problem. Also make sure to identify real root problems by asking the question‘Why does this problem exist?’
repeatedly until the question can no longer be answered. Record each root problem along lines coming off
each slanting bone. Emphasise that each root problem causes the next level problem and eventually the
overall problem.
Experience
The photo above shows the result of a fishbone exercise conducted with one association.
Divide the group into subgroups and give each subgroup one or more problems with the corresponding
root problems. Ask each group to identify a solution corresponding to each root problem. Ask them to do
so by discussion and negotiation so as to find the most appropriate solution for their context. Questions like
the following may help in finding the most appropriate solution: Is the solution feasible? Is it acceptable? Is it
practical? What are the consequences?
When finished, ask the subgroups to present their work to the full group. Invite the other participants to ask
questions, ask for clarification and/or further discuss the solutions presented. Ask the participants to reach a
consensus on a list of appropriate solutions for the problems. List the solutions on a large sheet of paper.
Input
In order to progress out of the conflict situation and ensure that the results of the workshop are turned into
positive action, the next step is to prepare an action plan. The action plan lists each of the proposed solutions
and identifies how each solution is to be implemented, by whom and when. Make sure there is enough time
for this as the exercise often generates a lot of further discussion.
Exercise: Preparing an action plan
Hang up a number of large sheets of paper. Write the title‘Action plan’on them. Below the title draw four
columns and label them‘solution’,‘how’,‘who’and‘when’. List the solutions identified in the previous exercise
in the first column. Take each solution separately and invite the group to decide how it believes the solution
would best be implemented. List the action steps in the second column. Ask the group to identify for each
step in turn when they wish to implement it and who is responsible for ensuring that it is implemented.
It is often practical to list names of individuals rather than‘the board’or‘the staff’. This will ensure that
responsibilities are clear. Get a consensus on the action plan. Make sure that participants receive a copy of the
action plan after the workshop so they can monitor its implementation.

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Experience
Below is an example of the first part of an action plan prepared by one association.
Action Plan
Action/solution How Who When
Invite women and youth to
join the association
Make a decision on this at
the next board meeting
Board chair to initiate First Sunday of November
Spread the message
informally
All members Immediately
Hold a village meeting with
women and youth
Board chair Second Sunday of
November
Use the next general
assembly to renew the
board and integrate women
and youth
Board and members December
Regularity of board
meetings
Prepare a calendar of
monthly meetings
Board chair/secretary Hold meetings every first
Sunday of the month
Prepare agenda in advance Board chair with manager One week before every
meeting
Send invitations to all
board members including
information on place, time
and agenda
Board secretary One week before every
meeting
Hold a meeting to prepare
well for the next board
meeting
Board chair, secretary,
treasurer and extension
agent
In the last week of the
current month
• It is not uncommon for associations to undergo conflict situations.
• Sometimes conflicts can drag on and do much damage.
• Often the reasons for a conflict are not clear to board members and general members alike.
• A neutral person, often an outsider, can be useful in facilitating a resolution to a conflict.
• Resolution involves the members of an association identifying and reaching a consensus on the problems
and their solutions.
• To ensure that solutions are clearly spelled out and can be monitored, it is useful to prepare an action plan.

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Module 8: Participation
One key area of a well-functioning association is that of participation. Often leaders of an association may have
a general idea of what is meant by participation but the potential benefits may remain unclear to them and
they often lack detailed knowledge on how to apply the concept.
Key issues
• Understanding the levels of participation
• Analysing participation in one’s own association
• Planning for improved participation
Training objective
To enable participants to gain a clear understanding of what participation is, its benefits and how participatory
approaches can be applied in their own association.
Learning objectives
• explain the different levels of participation; and
• explain the current level of participation in their association and how participation can be improved.
Materials required
Tape, markers, board, large sheets, flipchart paper and copies of handout.
Exercise: What does participation mean to me?
Write the word‘Participation’on the board. Then ask the group’s participants what the word means to them.
Invite participants to write their ideas on cards, one idea per card. Collect the cards, discuss them one by one
and group them, distinguishing for example between attitudes, actions and procedures.
Experience
Below are the results of this exercise in one group.
Participation means…
Attitudes Actions Procedures
Inclusiveness Expressing opinions Decision-making in the general assembly
Democracy Being a volunteer Representation of community groups on the
board
Sharing responsibilities and a
teamwork approach
Encouraging feedback from members Strategic planning
Engagement Involvement Obtaining approval from members
Empowerment Information and transparency Assisting farmers to prepare project proposals
Input 22
Present the group with handout 8.1. Go through it with the participants.
Level 1 Information Telling people what is planned
Level 2 Consultation Offering a number of options and listening to the feedback received
Level 3 Deciding together Encouraging others to provide additional ideas and options, and deciding together
what is the best way forward
Level 4 Acting together Different interests deciding together what is best and forming a partnership to
carry it out
Level 5 Supporting independent
community initiatives
Helping others achieve what they want to achieve
22 Wilcox, D. 1994. The guide to effective participation. Supported by Joseph Rowntree Foundation. http://www.partnerships.org.uk/
guide/frame.htm

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The handout presents five levels of participation:
• At Level 1 people are informed about plans, budgets, results and other matters. At this level there is no
interaction influencing the outcome. Everything is controlled by the individual or individuals in charge, for
example the board.
• At level 2 there is consultation with stakeholders. A number of options are provided and there is room for
feedback. The feedback influences the result but the decision-making rests with those in charge.
• At level 3 others are encouraged to contribute their own ideas and suggestions. They are discussed in the
group and the result is a decision made by the group.
• At level 4 there is a discussion between individuals or groups with differing interests to determine the best
way forward. A partnership is formed to carry out the work.
• At level 5 independent community initiatives are supported, for example within a framework of grants,
advice and support.
It is clear that as one proceeds from level 1 to higher levels there is increasing participation from stakeholders.
Depending on the situation, different levels of participation may be appropriate.
The figure below (Handout 8.1) provides a summary of the previous paragraphs.
Control by an individual/the board Information
Consultation
Deciding together
Acting together
Supporting independent
Increasing participation
Top-down management
In some cases associations have a top-down management system. This is a system that relies on level 1:
members are informed, they are not consulted and they never take part in decision-making. In such a
management system it is difficult to take into account members’long-term interests. In associations with such
a system of management, members become discontented quite quickly, resulting in withdrawal from the
association.
Exercise: Participation in our association
Ask the participants to think of their own association and to identify examples, processes and practices that
illustrate the five different levels of participation. Facilitate a discussion around some examples put forward
by the group by asking if they think that the levels are appropriate for the purpose or if a lower or higher level
would be more appropriate.
Control by members

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Experience
Following are some examples put forward by a group.
Level Example Appropriateness
Level 1: Information Our manager informs the members of our association of the logistics
regarding participation at a farmers’ market (the delivery date for
produce, departure time, and cost of participation).
Appropriate
Level 2: Consultation A new manager was recruited for our association. CVs were shortlisted
and interviews held by board members. Heads of the commissions were
consulted but the final decision was made by the board.
Appropriate
Level 3: Deciding together Some of our members asked our association to invest in a fish processing
plant. This was discussed during our last general assembly. The assembly
decided to go ahead with the project in line with the discussions held at
the general assembly.
Could have been
more appropriate
at level 5
Level 4: Acting together Before the creation of our association there were people who were for
and against agricultural development. Many meetings were held with
and between the population and local development agencies. It was
decided that creating an association was the best way to access funding
and services ensuring agricultural development. We now have many
members and work in partnership with different agencies.
Appropriate
Level 5: Supporting initiatives A group of members from a fishers’ association asked their association to
assist them to establish a plant for converting fish waste to fertiliser and
animal feed. The association plans to assist in a participatory process
bringing together stakeholders, including community groups, resource
providers and the market and transport sectors, to realise the project.
Appropriate
Characteristics of participation
Some characteristics of good participation in an association are the following:
• representation of all sub-groups
• free exchange of information
• member contributions (ideas, time, materials, funds)
• procedures providing for participation by members (in decision-making, planning, implementation and
evaluation)
• procedures promoting transparency (accountability, public auditing)
Advantages of participation
Consider the quote below:
Nobody knows everything — everybody knows something
In the context of participation in an association it means that everyone has something to contribute and that
when knowledge and resources are pooled and shared, the results are better than when the association is
dependent on just one person or a select group. Participation helps increase the knowledge base.
Another important advantage of participation is that it helps create group cohesion. In the context of an
association, involving members increases ownership (‘our’association), commitment and sustainability of the
organisation. Participation also helps empower weaker social groups by giving them a voice and showing that
they can influence results.
Constraints of participation
Participation is not something that happens by itself. In many cases people are used to hierarchical
relationships where decision-making is done by others. Often considerable and sustained effort needs to be
put into preparing people for a participatory mode of operation.
Once people are prepared, implementing a participatory approach costs time and effort as it involves calling
people together, explaining, soliciting ideas, discussing, comparing alternatives, convincing and agreeing

88
on matters. Often a number of meetings need to be called before decision-making can take place. Because
of the time and effort involved it often seems easier to just inform people. A balance needs to be sought
between providing for genuine participation of members in decision-making and planning and making timely
decisions. In general, details of operations can be left to a management group, while major decisions and
plans that affect all members of the association need to be discussed and agreed by all members. There are
instances when there are no short-cuts and a full participatory process needs to be applied.
Another commonly occurring constraint to participation is that of vested power. Sometimes local political
or power structures may inhibit true member participation by influencing decision-making to their own
advantage. Solutions need to be sought on a case-by-case basis.
Exercise: Increasing participation in our association
Divide the group into small groups of four participants. Refer to the earlier exercise of this module and ask the
groups to discuss if they see room for improving participation in their association. How would they like to do
this? When the groups are finished, ask them to present their conclusions to the full group and discuss. It may
be useful to prepare an action plan to implement the ideas.
• Participation can occur at different levels — at a basic level it involves simple sharing of information; at a
higher level it means consulting, deciding and acting together.
• Each level of participation is appropriate for specific activities in a specific context.
• The board and members of an association should decide how they apply participation in their own
association.
• Advantages of quality participation include an increased knowledge base and operating according to
good governance principles (representation, accountability, information and transparency), leading to
increased ownership.
• A disadvantage of participation is that it is time consuming.

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Handout 8.1: Levels of participation23
Level Level of participation Characteristics
1 Information Telling people what is planned
2 Consultation Offering a number of options and listening to the feedback received
3 Deciding together Encouraging others to provide additional ideas and options, and
deciding together what is the best way forward
4 Acting together Different interests deciding together what is best and forming a
partnership to carry it out
5 Supporting independent
Helping others achieve what they want to achieve
Control by an individual/the board Information
Consultation
Deciding together
Acting together
Supporting independent
Increasing participation
23 Wilcox, D. 1994. The guide to effective participation. Supported by Joseph Rowntree Foundation. http://www.partnerships.org.uk/
guide/frame.htm

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Module 9: Self-help, dependency and volunteerism
Background
This module deals with attitudes and beliefs affecting the readiness of people, associations and communities
to take initiatives to improve their conditions. A self-help attitude is one where internal initiatives are taken
to mobilise internal resources in quest of a solution to an internal problem. Dependency is a sense of
helplessness and waiting for an external agency to take control of an internal situation. Volunteerism is an
expression of self-help; it is something associations depend upon.
Training objective
To enable participants to gain a clear understanding of the concepts of self-help, dependency and
volunteerism so they can be recognised and judged on their true value.
Learning objectives
• explain the concept of self-help;
• explain the concept of dependency;
• explain the concept of volunteerism; and
• relate all three concepts to the reality of their own association
Training content
Session 9.1 – Self-help and dependency
Session 9.2 – Volunteerism

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Session 9.1: Self-help and dependency
Sometimes an association or a community may come to a standstill through an overwhelming sense that it
cannot act for its own good but that it needs outside help to progress. This is an attitude and belief rather than
a reality.
Key issues
• Understanding the concept of self-help
• Understanding the concept of dependency and recognising its symptoms
• Analysing one’s own association with regard to these concepts
Tape, markers, board, large sheets of flipchart paper and copies of handouts.
Exercise: Case study‘Chernobyl 20 years on’
Give the participants copies of Hand out 9.1.1. Ask participants to read and identify the main message of the
article. When the article has been read by all, ask the group for feedback. Discuss and summarise by making
the point that the article is about breaking the dependency syndrome through an attitude of self-help.
Input24
What are dependency and self-help?
The dependency syndrome is an attitude and belief that a group cannot solve its own problems without
outside help. Self-help is a belief and attitude that a group can and must take effective initiatives to improve its
conditions. Self help leads to self-reliance. Self-reliance is a characteristic of empowerment (see Session 1.3).
Characteristics of dependency
The attitude of dependency is often reinforced by external agencies, including governments, which tend to
want to give to communities and community groups rather than cultivating attitudes of self-help leading to
self-reliance. The list of symptoms of the dependency syndrome is long and includes the following:
Lack of initiative Sense of deprivation
Passivity Apathy
Lack of creativity Lack of entrepreneurial spirit
Lack of confidence Lack of motivation
Lack of hope for the future Ignorance
Lack of accountability Dishonesty
Lack of sustainability Lack of community spirit
Divided communities Unstable society
Exercise: Examples of dependency in my association
Ask the group to discuss the concept of dependency and identify examples in their association or in their
community.
24 Bartle, P., 1998. Handbook for mobilisers. http://www.scn.org/cmp/hbmob.htm

92
Experience
One group came up with the following results:
• Not regularly attending board meetings; it means we are not fully in control of our own development.
• We don’t ask for a financial overview of our association.
• Most members don’t attend the general assembly.
• We don’t invest enough time in mobilising our members.
• We are timid and lack the confidence to engage with external partners.
• We have incidents of theft of materials.
Fighting the dependency syndrome
History shows us that people have the physical and mental capacity to overcome negative situations — to
take initiative and to look for solutions. If people did not have this capacity the human race would not be
where it is today.
People and communities, no matter how poor, have internal resources both human and material. It is the
mobilisation of these resources that demonstrates an attitude of self-help. Due to the dependency syndrome
internal resources often remain unrecognised and consequently are not utilised. Strong, resistant and
sustainable communities are those communities that utilise internal resources to the largest possible extent in
order to solve community problems and progress.
To build strong communities and facilitate strong associations it is important to promote a sense of self-help in
people. Government resources are always in short supply. Therefore communities and associations need to be
self-reliant and empowered in order to progress.
Exercise: Farmers First association
Ask the participants to consider the following case study (Handout 9.1.2).
Case study
An association called Farmers First was created with the aim of channeling government funds to
individual farmers to improve their livelihoods. The association operated for four years; many farmers
received funds and were able to improve their farms and earn extra income by selling produce through
the association. However, the management of the association remained largely in hands of a manager
funded by the government. After four years the government funds ran out. The association continued to
operate for a few more months but then ceased to exist. Most farmers reverted back to the conditions
they were in before the creation of the association.
Ask the participants for feedback on this case study. Would it have been better if the association had
continued to exist? Can one speak of self-help and self-reliance in this case study? What could have been done
differently to ensure sustainability of the association and hence the services to the farmers?
Conclude the exercise by making the point that when outside agencies implement projects without adequate
community involvement, those projects are often not successful in the long term. Once the outside agency
has run out of funds or left the area, the facility or service deteriorates. Because in the above case study the
project was an externally led initiative, the community or association had little motivation to use and maintain
the facility effectively or to sustain the service. There could have been a different outcome if the association or
community members had had a greater role in decision-making, planning, and management, and if they had
contributed to the costs of the project.
Advantages of being self-reliant
Being the initiator of one’s own projects and activities allows an association or community to be in control
and to enjoy greater participation, appropriateness, responsibility, ownership and sustainability of its efforts
in the long run. Often governments and donors are more likely to provide complementary external resources

93
if community groups and associations show that they have already mobilised their internal resources to the
largest possible extent.
Exercise: Internal resources and our development project
Ask the group to identify a development project their association or community would like to undertake. In
relation to the chosen project ask the group to prepare an inventory of the internal resources existing in their
association or community that they could use to realise their project. To what extent are external resources
required and how could these be obtained?
Experience
One group decided they would like to design and implement a project aimed at transferring knowledge about
traditional agricultural practices to youth. They prepared the following inventory of internal resources.
Internal resource How to use it
Youth Awareness raising and mobilisation of youth
Youth club Talk to the leaders and ask for their support
Farmers Ask farmers to create opportunities for youth to work with them on their farms for 3–6 months;
provide meals in return
Community hall Can be used to lodge youth who come from further away
Common land Ask the chief to provide land to youth wishing to farm as a group
Local market Give youth a place in the market to sell their produce
• Dependency and self-help are attitudes and beliefs rather than realities.
• There is a long list of negative conditions associated with dependency.
• The solution to dependency is self-help, leading to self-reliance and empowerment.
• Self-help and self-reliance promote ownership, control and sustainability of community activities.

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Handout 9.1.1: Article‘Volunteers drive recovery of Chernobyl-affected
communities’25
Left to right: Olga Kolosyuk, Vyacheslav Bortnik and Yugesh Pradhanang visit a water pump in Kirdany, Ukraine.
(Photo by UNV.) 26 April 2006.
Kiev, Ukraine: For Olga Kolosyuk, clean water represents progress in a post-Chernobyl Ukraine. The fact that
her village of 1,000 has safe drinking water demonstrates what the community has accomplished—most
notably the refurbishment of a local water supply—since taking the lead in improving their situation.
Olga is a leader of a community organization called Dryzhba, a collective of residents from Kirdany. She is
one of numerous volunteers who, with the help of the United Nations Volunteers (UNV) programme, set up
a community organization in the village. More than 200 community-led organizations exist in 139 villages
throughout the Chernobyl-affected area. They are addressing the economic, environmental and social
problems stemming from the Chernobyl nuclear disaster, which occurred 20 years ago today.
The organizations were established between 2002 and 2005 as part of the Chernobyl Recovery and
Development Programme (CRDP), a joint initiative of the Government of Ukraine, UNDP, UNV and the UN
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), with funding from Japan, Canada and Switzerland.
The CRDP uses mixed teams of Ukrainian and international UN Volunteers, together with technical assistance
from UNDP Ukraine, to work alongside the communities. Collectively, they identify and develop rehabilitation
projects, from renovating schools to improving community health centres to better cope with the illnesses
associated with the Chernobyl fallout. During 2004 and 2005, 94 community projects were implemented,
including 21school improvement initiatives, 21 health centre refurbishments and 22 water supply system
improvements.
To build the capacity of the communities, the UN Volunteers provided training in planning, communications,
leadership, fundraising and other skills to bring about effective project management. In 2005, nearly 4,000
people, including representatives of local government, participated in various trainings.
‘They’re not only working to improve the community, but also themselves,’says Yugesh Pradhanang, a UN
Volunteer from Nepal, charged with overseeing the UNV component of the CRDP.‘Before [the CRDP], there
was a dependency syndrome – people expected the government to take care of everything. Volunteering
has given them a“magic stick”. They’re building partnerships and working together with local governments to
improve their lives.’
Promotion of volunteerism is an important component of the CRDP. The UN Volunteers have worked
extensively on sensitising the communities on the benefits of volunteering and its role in steering community
development forward.
25 UN volunteers website, 2006. http://www.unv.org/en/news-resources/news/doc/volunteers-drive-recovery-of.html

95
Much work has been equally carried out with Ukraine’s existing network of community organizations and
other civil society groups to raise awareness of volunteerism in Ukraine and reposition it beyond preconceived
notions under the former Soviet Union. Schools, for instance, have benefited from the new take on
volunteerism. Previously seen as institutions under the government’s responsibility, today several schools part
of the CRDP are hubs of community engagement with parents and those unaffiliated with the school active in
education.
‘There has been a big change in people’s minds,’says Vyacheslav Bortnik, a national UN Volunteer at the CRDP
Regional Office in Ovruch.‘When we first came here, people had no hope for the future and they wouldn’t
believe that they could change anything. Now they’re saying“We did this and we are planning this”. There has
been a big change.’
Mobilizing youth has also been a focus of the CRDP. Several community organizations have made youth issues
a priority and invested heavily to create opportunities to improve their lives in the affected communities. As
a result, youth centres were opened in 19 villages during 2004–2005, providing youth with a gathering place
where resources are available on educational and social opportunities.
Beyond tangible results, the CRDP, and its focus on volunteerism, has boosted the affected communities’sense
of spirit, hope and direction.‘I have positive feelings towards the CRDP,’says Valentina Radkevich, a leader of
an association of community organizations in Listvin, where a youth centre and health post were established.
‘I have [had] the chance to teach other people… I am almost 60, but I still have possibilities for development
and it’s great when you can help someone.’
Iryna Nevmerzhytska, a youth leader in Kirdany, says volunteerism has helped realize a common goal.‘The
[programme’s] most valuable success is the cooperation among people and joining forces together, all
directed towards the achievement of one aim… the well-being of the community,’she says.

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Handout 9.1.2: Case-study of Farmers First association
Case-study
An association called Farmers First was created with the aim of channeling government funds to
individual farmers to improve their livelihoods. The association operated for four years; many farmers
received funds and were able to improve their farms and earn extra income by selling produce through
the association. However the management of the association remained largely in hands of a manager
funded by the government. After four years the government funds ran out. The association continued to
operate for a few more months but then ceased to exist. Most farmers reverted back to the conditions
they were in before the creation of the association.

97
Session 9.2: Volunteerism
Some associations are in a position to employ staff. However the vast majority of associations are entirely led
and run by volunteers. A good understanding of volunteerism is important for associations.
Key issues
• Comprehending the concept of volunteerism
• Understanding what drives members to be volunteers in one’s own association
Exercise: Case study on volunteerism
Refer back to Handout 9.1.1. Ask the participants what the article shows about volunteerism. How has the
community in the article benefited from the spirit of volunteerism?
Materials required
Tape, markers, board, large sheets of flipchart paper.
Input26
In the context of an association volunteerism is the practice of people working for the common good without
being motivated by financial or material gain. Volunteers work to improve their association or communities
but also to improve their own skills and competencies and/or to satisfy personal ambitions. Volunteerism, self-
help and social capital are closely related concepts.
Nature and benefits of volunteerism
Volunteerism draws on a vast and powerful resource of human energy and initiative that is readily available;
anyone can become involved in a cause at any time and every individual can make a difference. Volunteerism
has great social benefits because it helps to build social relationships and thereby cohesive and stable
communities fostering trust, solidarity and reciprocity. Volunteerism also has economic benefits because
volunteers fulfill important tasks at little or no cost.
Although volunteerism is essential to the welfare of societies and a source of great social contributions,
it tends to remain largely invisible; for example it is often overlooked in national statistics. Sometimes
it is considered to be of lesser importance than remunerated work. To highlight the important place of
volunteerism, the United Nations, in 1985, adopted 5 December as the International Volunteer Day for
Economic and Social Development (IVD) through Resolution A/RES/40/212 .
Volunteerism and the dependency syndrome
Volunteerism has many benefits and can be very powerful; at the same time it is often unjustly used to explain
why plans or activities of associations do not progress. For example statements like the following are often
heard:
• It is difficult for us to hold regular meetings because we depend on volunteers.
• We would like to participate in training but as we are all volunteers we cannot make commitments.
• It is important to discern the real reasons for not progressing; is it the dependency syndrome at work
rather than the spirit of volunteerism?
Exercise: What is my motivation to work for my association?
Ask the group to reflect on this question, discuss it with those sitting next to them and come up with their
own personal reasons for being involved with their association. Ask everyone to present their motives and
make an inventory. Summarise by saying that volunteers are a very important resource of associations and
that there are many reasons for which volunteers commit themselves to work for an association. See Session
1.2 on social capital for an example of what one group came up with when they conducted this exercise.
26 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volunteerism

98
• Volunteerism is a willingness and commitment to work for the common good without expecting financial
or material gain.
• Volunteerism is a powerful tool; a vast resource is potentially available.
• Volunteerism makes vast contributions to societies and promotes cohesive, stable communities.
• Volunteerism is a sign of social involvement rather than stagnation.

99
Module 10: Gender awareness
In society women and men have differing roles. These roles vary from one society to another. Because the
roles affect the realities, the needs and the participation of men and women in development activities, it is
useful for members of associations to have a deeper understanding of the subject.
Key issues
• Differentiating between sex and gender
• Recognising gender roles
• Comprehending that gender roles are changeable
• Understanding gender equality
• Understanding what it means to look with a gender lens
• Identifying needs for change in our own association
Training objectives
To enable participants to gain a clear understanding of what the concept of gender is and how the association
can be changed to ensure that it is gender sensitive.
Learning objectives
• explain the difference between gender and sex;
• explain the concepts of gender equality, gender lens and gender change; and
• explain in what measure their association is gender-sensitive and how the situation can be improved.
Sheets of A4 paper, pencils, metacards, tape, markers, board, large sheets of flipchart paper and copies of
handouts.
Exercise: Drawing farmers/fishers27
Give each of the participants a sheet of paper and pencil. Tell them that they will be making drawings but
they are not allowed to work together, discuss or ask questions. Hand them the following instruction sheet
(Handout 10.1).
Instructions: Draw a farmer or fisher
Think of your own farming (or fishing) community. Now imagine a farmer working on a farm or in a field
(or a fisher engaged in fishing). Draw that farmer (or fisher) with the background scenery as you like. Try to
be as realistic as you can in illustrating clothing, hats, farming (or fishing) implements, activities, etc. After
finishing the picture write down the farmer’s (or fisher’s) name as well as your own name.
Note: In this exercise it is important that the facilitator always makes sure to refer to the person to be drawn as
‘the farmer’or‘the fisher’. Never should there be an indication that the farmer or fisher is either male or female.
When everyone has completed their drawing ask the participants to hang them on the wall and to view the
drawings of the other participants. Once everyone has done the round, count and announce the number of
male and female farmers. It is likely that there will be more male than female farmers.
27 Adapted from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001091/109112eo.pdf

100
Experience
Below are two of the drawings prepared by one group. They show that in both cases, participants automatically
considered ‘farmers’ to be men.
Conclude by saying that the drawings represent what we carry in the back of our minds. They show the
traditional gender role whereby farmers and fishers are considered to be men. The drawings are examples of
gender bias. Gender roles are ingrained over generations and we usually act based on them. This is the reason
that changing gender roles is not a simple affair.
Input28
This section will discuss some of the key concepts about gender.
Distinction between sex and gender
Sex refers to the universal, biological differences between men and women. Sex cannot change.
Gender refers to the characteristics and qualities that societies associate with being a man or a woman. It is
about the social roles and relationships between men and women. These roles and relationships are context
specific and can change from one group of people to another and from generation to generation. Gender is
influenced by culture, race, wealth, class, age, education, religion and ideology. What is considered a woman’s
role in one society might be considered a man’s role in another. Since society is constantly changing, the
gender roles and status of women and men are also changing.
When discussing gender, it should always be remembered that women are people with the same potential
and limitations as men.
Exercise: Describing men and women
Prepare a two-column table on a large sheet of paper and write at the top of one column‘women’, at the top of
the other‘men’. Ask the participants to call out words or symbols that describe men and women. List the results.
28 Training Package 1: Interpersonal growth and gender in groups. Module 1: Gender awareness. Canada Nepal Gender in Organisations
Project with support of the Canadian International Development Agency. http://www.cngo.org.np/pdf/genderawareness.PDF
Ahmad N., G. Aqil and I. Nyborg 2002. Training manual for gender awareness/sensitization, workshop for community representatives. NLH/
AKRSP High Altitude integrated natural resource management program. http://www.umb.no/statisk/akrsp/06_publications_and_pres-
entations/08_training_materials/2_gender_awareness.pdf
Saeed, F. 2005. A manual for gender sensitivity training for the Pacific. Noumea, New Caledonia: Secretariat of the Pacific Community.

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Experience
One group produced the following table.
Women Men
Bear children Strength
Breast feed Earns family income
Care for children Rational
Household chores Handle big machines
Cooking pot Yam
Taro Go fishing by boat
Emotional Decision-maker
Pass on traditions Head of the household
Not so strong Can become a chief
Can never become a chief Brave
Once the list has been prepared exhaustively, prepare a table with two columns labeled‘sex’and‘gender’. Use
the results of the previous table to indicate whether the descriptors of men and women are related to sex
(biological) or gender (social).
Experience
The following table was produced to show the distinction between sex and gender.
Sex (biological, cannot change) Gender (social, can change)
Bearing children Caring for children
Breast feeding Doing household chores
Strength Being emotional/rational
Earning family income
Taking decisions
Passing on traditions
Position in the household
Handling big machines
Becoming a chief
Fishing by boat
Being brave
Values, status, roles and activities
Conclude the exercise by saying that beyond women’s role of bearing children and the fact that women have
less physical strength than men, the only differences between men and women are those that society has
bestowed on them. In practical terms, sex should not be a determining factor of a person’s ability to function
well in a job or in an association because there are few tasks that require especially hard physical labour. For
example there is no proven physical reason why women cannot be good engineers.
Stereotypes
Stereotypes are fixed ideas or assumptions about a group of people. Individuals belonging to that group are
assumed to have the characteristics of the stereotype. Stereotypes can lead to false or unrealistic expectations
about individuals who belong to a particular group of people. We have seen in the previous exercise that there
are many stereotypes about men and women that are based on traditional gender roles.

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Gender equality
We have seen above that gender is about the roles given to men and women by society. Gender relations
in many societies are unequal and hierarchical. This is shown by factors such as access to and control over
resources. Institutions, ideologies, values, ideas and practices all play roles in shaping attitudes about gender.
Gender equality is about valuing women and men equally. Equality means recognising how women and men
have traditionally been treated differently and making changes so that things like the work that women and
men do is recognised as valuable and worthy. For example, unpaid work in the home can be as valued as or
more valued than work done in an office. It is just a matter of how you look at things.
Gender lens
Gender lens is a name given to trying to look at the community and society around us in a different way. It
is like putting on a pair of spectacles and seeing everything differently. A gender lens helps us see things
without interference from traditional gender roles.
Imagine that with one lens you see women’s participation, needs and realities and with the other you see
men’s participation, needs and realities (Handout 10.2). Your sight or vision is the combination of what both
eyes see together. By being aware of the situations of both men and women we can work to achieve more
equal and just societies. Equal, respectful partnerships between men and women are necessary in order to
have happy, healthy families and communities and strong associations.
A gender lens can be applied by associations to the composition of their board, the management of their staff,
the design of programmes, the planning of meetings or workshops and so on. A gender lens helps promote
equal partnerships between men and women.
Change
Societies and gender roles change over time. In an effort to build a more balanced and just society we can
facilitate the evolution of gender roles ourselves.
Exercise: Gender change
Ask the participants to sit in one large circle. Give each participant one metacard and ask them to write
down one aspect of gender that has changed over time. This could be an activity, an idea, an invention, an
experience, a policy, etc. Each participant then reads his or her idea and places it inside the circle. After all of
the ideas are read out ask the group to cluster the ideas (clusters could be education, politics, family etc).

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Experience
One group came up with the following ideas.
Cluster
Education Politics Employment Family
Nowadays both boys and
girls go to school.
Women can become
president of the country.
More and more women earn
an income.
Men care for children when
the mother goes to work.
Women have trained to
become seafarers.
Our national assembly has an
increasing number of women.
In the nickel mines some
women drive heavy vehicles.
My sons help in the
housework.
Facilitate a discussion along the following lines:
• How did the changes come about for each cluster?
• Are the changes perceived to be positive or negative, and why?
• Were the changes difficult to achieve?
• What other gender changes does the society need?
Exercise 4: Gender and community institutions/associations
Prepare a table like the one below. Ask the participants to consider their own environment and local
institutional landscape. Fill the table up with the assistance of the participants.
Name of local
institution/
association
Functions Women’s involvement
As beneficiaries Leading activities Management and
decision-making
Facilitate a discussion based on the results:
• Which institutions/associations involve women and at which level?
• What does the group think of the results?
• Where is change needed and why?
• How could change be brought about?
Experience
A fishermen’s association became aware that their gender bias had made them believe that fishing is a man’s
role. During the training they ‘discovered’ that in their village women are also fishers. They may not own a boat
and go to sea but they do fish on foot. In addition, women’s associations in the community were observed
to be well-organised and dynamic. The men proposed making changes to their association so that it would
also represent women. They decided to invite women to join and contribute their skills and resources for the
good of their community. An action plan was formulated, resulting in nomination of women to the board. The
association also decided to open up the fish processing unit to female workers.
• Sex refers to biological roles of men and women. They are roles that cannot be changed.
• Gender refers to socially constructed roles of men and women. Gender roles can and do change.
• Women are people with the same potential and limitations as men. In many societies they do not get the
same opportunities because of the gender roles assigned to them by those societies.
• Gender equality means recognising that women and men have traditionally been treated differently
and making changes so that women and men and the roles and work they do are recognised as equally
valuable and worthy.
• Associations can take the initiative to build a fairer society by becoming gender aware and acting in
consequence.

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Handout 10.1: Instruction sheet — Drawing a farmer or fisher
Instructions: Draw a farmer or fisher
Think of your own farming (or fishing) community. Now imagine a farmer working on a farm or in a field
(or a fisher engaged in fishing). Draw that farmer (or fisher) with the background scenery as you like. Try to
be as realistic as you can in illustrating clothing, hats, farming (or fishing) implements, activities, etc. After
finishing the picture write down the farmer’s (or fisher’s) name as well as your own name.

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Module 11: Communication and presentation
Background
This module is about communication and presentation. Good communication skills are important in every
aspect of people’s lives. Communication refers to the way we behave with another person; it encompasses
such things as the way we respond, the use of our voice and our body language. Presentation is about the
skills needed to communicate with a group. Good communication and presentation skills are amongst
the most important competencies that board members and staff of associations should have. Good
communicators are often able to achieve many more things than those who are less skilled at communication.
Training objective
To enable participants to gain a clear understanding of skills needed for effective communication and
presentation.
Learning objectives
• explain the meaning of communication;
• explain which human skills are involved in effective communication with individuals and groups;
• explain which factors influence communication; and
• explain why nervousness occurs when presenting in front of groups and how it can be dealt with.
Training content
Session 11.1 – Communication
Session 11.2 – Presentation

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Session 11.1: Communication
Communication is needed in every aspect of the work of an association; it is key to an effective association.
Good communication promotes good governance principles like sharing information and transparency. It
is important that board members and staff have a good understanding of what communication is, how it is
affected and how it can be improved.
Key issues
• Comprehending what communication is
• Understanding of the skills used during communication
• Understanding of the factors affecting communication
Flip chart, board, thumb pins, masking tape, markers and copies of handouts.
Exercise: What is communication?
Ask the group to imagine two people sitting with their backs to each other in a closed, otherwise empty room.
They are not allowed to use their voice, look at each other or get up from their chairs. Ask the group to reflect
on whether they think these people can communicate with each other in this situation. Alternatively this
exercise could be conducted as a role play where the two players are asked to find ways to communicate with
each other and the rest of the group are observers.
Experience
In a role play the players shuffled their feet, tapped their fingers and sniffed their noses, eliciting responses from
each other. In another situation one player had a pen and a little piece of paper in her pocket. She wrote the
message ‘can you read this?’, then crumpled the paper into a ball and threw it backward over her head to the
other participant. The other participant was able to pick it up from the floor, read the message and acknowledge
it by clapping her hands.
Conclude the exercise by saying that communication is not just a verbal act; there are many ways to communicate
and we make use of them all the time in our daily lives. The exercise also shows that communication can be
hampered by certain conditions, making it much more difficult for people to interact effectively.
Input29
Communication is a means of exchanging messages or an act of giving information and receiving a response.
There has to be:
• a sender
• a receiver
• a message
• a response
• a channel through which the message and response are passed.
This idea is presented in the diagram below (Handout 11.1):
29 Singh, H., D. Hitchcock, G. Paudel and S. Rana, 2002. Training of Trainers, a training manual in eleven modules, module 2 —Problem
identification and analysis, Nepal Australia Community Resource Management Project. http://www.nacrmlp.org.np/publications/
training_manuals.php
Receiver
Sender
Message
Response
ChannelChannel

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Exercise: Whisper line
Write down a message on the back of a flipchart but don’t show it to the group. Now line up all the
participants in the room. Whisper the message to the first person in line. Ask that person to whisper the
message to the next in line and so on down the line. Make sure that the whispered message is not audible to
those around. When the message has reached the end of the line, ask the last person to write the message on
the front of the flipchart. Compare the two messages. Are they the same?
In almost all cases when conducting this exercise, you will find that the original message has been
considerably distorted. Ask the participants how this happens and what it shows.
Sum up the exercise by noting that in almost all cases receivers interpret messages differently from what
the sender had in mind. This is due to many factors, both external (noise, volume, accent etc) and internal
(reference structure of the receiver, how the receiver perceives the sender etc).
Human skills used during communication
For communicating we have a number of human skills at our disposition which we can use individually or in
combination. These skills include vocal, listening, visual, observational and reading skills as well as physical
contact (touching, hitting, etc). Some people are said to be good communicators, others are said to be bad
communicators.
Exercise: Good and bad communicators
Ask the group for characteristics of good and bad communicators; list them and discuss.
Experience
This is the list of characteristics prepared by one group.
Good communicators Bad communicators
Succeed in getting the message across Are unable to send the message across correctly
Are at ease communicating Are nervous
Use the right mix of skills Do not use skills optimally
Adapt to the audience Communicate in the same way no matter who is the audience
Interact with the audience Are detached from the audience
Get things done Have difficulty achieving things
Now ask the participants whether they think people can be taught to be good communicators. Discuss
whether some people are born with the gift of being good communicators while others will remain bad
communicators throughout their life.
Summarise the exercise by saying that being a good communicator is probably partly a gift and partly learnt.
The characteristics of good and bad communicators have their roots in personal attitudes and the extent to
which individuals have learnt communication skills.
One-way and two-way communication
One-way communication is about sending a message; it is not about responding to the sender. In two-way
communication there is an interaction in which the receiver responds to the message from the sender. One-
way and two-way communication are appropriate in different contexts. For example during a meeting both
one- and two-way communication may occur.
Exercise: One-way and two-way communication
Ask the group to identify examples of one- and two-way communication.

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Experience
Below is a list of examples of one- and two-way communication produced by one group.
One-way communication Two-way communication
Billboard Telephone conversation
Advertisement on TV Debate
Presentation Discussion
Article in the newspaper Question and answer session
An order from your superior Chatting on the Internet
Letter Meeting
Film Interview
Radio talk Quarrel
Rules and regulations Participatory training
Exercise: Talking, listening and observing
Divide the big group into small groups of three persons each. In the small groups assign roles for each
member: a communicator, a listener and an observer. Tell the groups that they will be performing a role
play involving a conversation between the communicators and the listeners. Give the groups a topic of
conversation that is easy to talk about, e.g.‘gender balance in our board’,‘how climate change is affecting us’or
‘expectations regarding the next yam harvest’. Now give the groups Handout 11.1.1, telling them that further
instructions are given therein.
Note that while the instructions for the communicators and observers are the same, there are different
instructions for the listeners of each group. Allow the groups to discuss their assignments for about 10 minutes
and then ask each of the groups to present their role play to the rest of the group. After each role play ask the
observer to share his or her observations and discuss in the larger group before moving on to the next role play.
When all the role plays have been performed and discussed, summarise the exercise by emphasising that
interest and attitude of the listener affects a conversation. Highlight the verbal and non-verbal skills used by
the players to demonstrate their interest and attitude to the communicator.
Factors affecting communication
Listed below are a number of factors affecting communication.
• Attitude and interest of the listener. If a listener is not interested, this attitude will act as a mental screen
whereby information from the communicator is rejected out of hand and in some cases may not even be
heard. This is called selective perception and it is based on motivation as well as cultural and emotional
factors in the listener. In order to be effective in communicating it is important to know the audience and
use this information to shape the message in such a way that it attracts their attention.
• Language used by the communicator. It is important to speak in a language the target audience
understands. If the words are too complex, the audience will soon lose interest.
• Terminology. Some words do not mean the same thing to everyone or may create different images
in people’s minds. Consider, for example, such words as‘education’,‘house’and‘frequently’. When
communicating it is important to make sure that everyone has the same understanding of a word or
definition.
• Appropriateness of the message. Different people have different information and motivation
requirements. Messages must be adapted to the target audience rather than given in a form satisfying the
needs of the communicator.
• Methods used to present the message. Many methods of message delivery can be used to share ideas
and information. The attitude and interest of the target audience are important factors in determining the
best method.
• Degree of complexity of the message. Simple messages are best. If ideas are too difficult then there will
be little comprehension and therefore little effect.

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• Communication involves a sender, a receiver, a message, a response and a channel.
• There is one-way communication and two-way communication. Each kind of communication is suitable
for different contexts.
• Communication is about vocal, visual, observational, listening, and reading skills as well as physical contact.
The way these skills are used makes us good or bad communicators.
• Many factors affect communication; we need to adapt our way of communicating to ensure maximum
effectiveness.

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Handout 11.1.1: Communication
Receiver
Sender
Message
Response
ChannelChannel

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Handout 11.1.2: Instruction sheets for communication exercise
COMMUNICATOR INSTRUCTION SHEET
YOU ARE THE COMMUNICATOR
Your job is to hold a conversation with the Listener
DO NOT INVOLVE THE OBSERVER IN THE CONVERSATION
It is your responsibility to keep the conversation going,
no matter how the Listener reacts to you.
DO NOT DISCUSS OR SHARE THIS INSTRUCTION WITH OTHER GROUPS

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OBSERVER INSTRUCTION SHEET
YOU ARE THE OBSERVER
Your job is to observe the conversation between the Communicator and the Listener
and to note what you observe
DO NOT COMMENT OR PARTICIPATE IN THE CONVERSATION
BETWEEN THE LISTENER AND THE COMMUNICATOR
It is your responsibility to remain quiet and passive. Do not concern yourself with the content of their
conversation, but observe their facial expressions, use of hands, body movements and posture, and the
volume of their voices.
Write down your observations. Describe as accurately as possible what you observed without judging it. You
will be asked to give your observations to the Communicator and Listener at the end of the exercise.

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LISTENER INSTRUCTION SHEET (Group 1)
YOU ARE THE LISTENER
Your job is to continue the conversation with the Communicator
Your responsibility is to appear attentive and to listen carefully to the Communicator. But you are to challenge
everything he or she says. You must play the role of a critic by interrupting while he or she is talking, saying
ahead of time what is going to be said, disagreeing or presenting your own views forcefully, and making
appropriate gestures whilst talking to emphasise your points.
However, after you have finished criticising, allow the Communicator to continue the conversation. Your
attitude is to show the Communicator that you are superior to him or her.

115
Your responsibility is to listen carefully to what the Communciator has to say, but indicate that you are bored,
by yawning, looking away from the Communicator, cleaning your fingernails, closing your eyes.
If the Communicator accuses you of not being interested or of being inattentive, insist that you are interested,
by summarising what was said. But continue to show him/her that you are still bored. Your attitude is to show
that you do not care what is being discussed.

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Your responsibility is to appear attentive, to listen carefully to the Communicator, and to agree with everything
he or she says, regardless of your opinion on the subject. Even when your opinion is the opposite of what he
or she is saying, smile or nod your head to show agreement. You may make comments like,‘That is a good way
of putting it’or‘I agree absolutely’, and so on. If you are asked for your opinion, ideas, criticism or evaluation of
what’s just been said, just agree with the Communicator.

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Your responsibility is to listen carefully to the Communicator and be involved in the conversation. If you
disagree, say it calmly and logically and ask for clarification if necessary. Do not try to lead the conversation.
You are to play an active part, making the communication process as clear as possible with the involvement of
both the Communicator and yourself.

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Session 11.2: Presentation
Board members of associations regularly find themselves in a position of having to make a presentation, for
example during board meetings or general assemblies or in meetings with external stakeholders. Holding a
presentation is about communicating with a group. It requires certain skills. Knowing more about these skills
can help improve self-confidence and improve the effectiveness of presentations.
Key issues
• Understanding that presentations need preparation
• Understanding which skills can be used to improve presentations
• Understanding why people get nervous when presenting in front of a group
Materials required
Flip chart, board, thumb pins, masking tape and markers.
Input30
Presenting is communicating with a group of people. While communicating we make use of verbal and non-
verbal skills influencing the effectiveness of our presentations. Factors determining the effectiveness of our
presentations include:
• what we do;
• how we look;
• what we say; and
• how we say it.
Research has shown that the total impact of a message depends less on what we say than on how we say it
and the body language we employ while we say it. Skills used in presentations are discussed below.
Verbal and vocal skills
Verbal skills are about the choice of words used. Words conjure up images; certain words impact more strongly
than others and some words may or may not belong to the vocabulary of the target group. It is important to
choose a mix of words appropriate to the message and the target group.
Your voice shows your internal state; it shows for example whether you are composed or stressed. Vocal
skills are about how the voice is used. Having a calm and composed voice with well-articulated words tends
to make people listen. If you talk too fast and don’t take the time to breathe, you pass on your stress to the
audience, making them feel uncomfortable.
Exercise: Using vocal skills
The first column in the table below lists a number of vocal skills. Demonstrate to the group how these skills
can be applied using the ideas presented in the second column. For example for the skill‘volume’, first whisper
to the group and then talk excessively loudly. After each demonstration ask the group to give you feedback
on how they experienced the way you applied the skill. What had a positive effect and what had a negative
effect?
30 Carnegie, D. 1991. How to develop self-confidence and Influence people by public speaking.
Adapted from: http://wwwedu.ge.ch/cptic/f3mitic/scenarios/0203/follmi/www45/F_oral/outil.htm
Singh, H., D. Hitchcock, G. Paudel and S. Rana, 2002. Training of Trainers, a training manual in eleven modules, module 10 Conducting train-
ing, Nepal Australia Community Resource Management Project. http://www.nacrmlp.org.np/publications/training_manuals.php

119
Skill Demonstrating the skill to the group Questions a presenter should ask him/herself
Volume Whisper and then talk excessively loudly to the
group and ask them how they feel about it.
Do I whisper or talk too loud?
Intonation Say something in a monotonous tone and then
say something in a sing-song voice.
Is the tone of my voice flat or melodious?
Expression Say with and without emotion:‘I was very
happy,’or‘I was very angry’.
Do I bring emotion into my voice at the right
moments?
Pronunciation Say something in a thick accent, and then say it
again with an overly‘correct’pronunciation.
Can people understand my accent?
Articulation Say something while slurring or swallowing
your syllables.
Do I speak clearly, slur or swallow my syllables?
Tempo Say something slowly and then very fast. Do I talk too slow or too fast?
Pauses Try saying the following:
• What is is what is not is not that is it is it not
• What is, is; what is not, is not. That is it. Is it
not?
Do I stop and take a breath between commas
and full stops?
Quantity Consider the following directions:
• The shop is round the corner.
• Follow this road till you see the big tree on
the right hand side of the road. Take the
next street on the right and the shop is the
third building on the left hand side.
Am I using too many or too few words and
sentences?
Type of message Ask the group how they respond to each of the
following:
• Could you bring me the pen?
• Bring me the pen.
• Yes, I’ll be very happy if you could bring me
the pen.
• Did you not bring me the pen?
Do I package my message as a question, order,
affirmation or negation?
Non-verbal skills
The first column of the table below presents a list of non-verbal skills. The second column presents ways of
applying the skill, while the third column gives some remarks on effects these may have on the audience.
Skill Applying the skill Remarks
Posture How do you stand, sit or walk? By holding yourself upright with your
shoulders straight you give the impression
of being self-confident and open to your
audience. Stooped shoulders give the
impression of being unsure and afraid.
Facial expression Do you smile or do you look uninviting? The audience will be trying to read your face,
forming an opinion of you and influencing
how they respond to your message.
Looks Have you taken the right amount of care about
your looks?
Think about such things as cleanliness and
being neat and tidy.
Dress Are you dressed appropriately? If in doubt it is advisable to dress
conservatively.
Eye contact To what extent do you maintain eye contact? During conversation it is normal to have eye
contact about 50 per cent of the time. During
presentations 100 per cent is necessary; it
makes people feel included and that the
message is directed at them. Looking away
communicates shyness and reading notes
without looking at your audience is sure to
make them bored. So is turning your back to
the audience (a common mistake when using
PowerPoint).

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Hands Are you fidgeting, do you wring your hands,
are they in your pockets or are you waving your
hands about a great deal?
These could indicate nervousness or lack
of interest. Neither helps to reinforce your
message.
Gestures Do you use gestures to reinforce what you are
saying?
Gestures can help to make a presentation
more interesting. For example if you are talking
about a‘big’tree, indicate this by holding your
hands and arms wide.
Distance Are you too near or too far from your audience? Being very close to your audience can
increase involvement and control but it can
also intimidate. Be certain that you engage
your audience by having the right amount
of distance. Be careful not to invade anyone’s
personal space.
When presenting it is important to try to radiate confidence, belief, commitment, credibility, preparedness,
knowledge, understanding and caring for the problems and concerns of the audience. To do this, presenters
need to put their verbal and non-verbal skills to best use and make sure their verbal communication matches
their non-verbal communication.
Knowledge retention
To further increase the effectiveness of presentations it is useful to know how people remember. Research
shows that people remember:
• 10% of what they hear;
• 16% of what they read;
• 20% of what they hear and see;
• 70% of what they hear, see and respond to; and
• 90% of what they hear, see, respond to and process (or do something with).
The most memorable presentations therefore are those in which people hear, see, are invited to respond,
and have the opportunity to discuss. Handouts, flipcharts, photos, PowerPoint presentations and films may
be used, where appropriate, to increase the visual inputs of a presentation. Allowing time for questions and
answers and giving the opportunity for discussion or debate further increases people’s knowledge retention.
Nervousness at talking in front of a group
Research has shown that everyone suffers, or has suffered, from nervousness at presenting in front of a group.
People have a natural fear of speaking to a large group.
Exercise: Nervousness at presenting in front of a group
Ask participants if they have ever presented in front of a group. Ask them when and in what context. Ask them
how they felt. Did they suffer from nervousness?
Experience
The results of this exercise with one group are given in the table below.
Context How I felt
I was asked to make a presentation of our association’s
progress at the last donor meeting.
I felt shaky and ill at ease but thankfully I had prepared myself
well.
I was asked to give my views at the last general assembly. I couldn’t find the right words and did a bad job.
At the last village meeting I wanted to make an important
point.
I plucked up all my courage and managed to put my point
across.
I am chairperson of another association and I regularly make
presentations.
Nowadays I have learnt to deal with making presentations but
it has not always been so. It is important to prepare well.
Last week I went for a job interview; there was a committee of
three persons.
My hands were sweating; I felt very nervous and was glad
when it was over!

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In order to overcome the fear of speaking in front of a group it is useful to understand why it occurs. When we
get up to address a group we put ourselves in a situation of exposure and vulnerability. This causes stress and
the body responds by secreting adrenaline into the bloodstream, causing physical reactions like an increase in
heart rate and general readiness to deal with danger. The reaction of the body to the situation may cause the
following symptoms:
• dry throat
• trembling hands
• difficulty expressing oneself
• the need to look away from the group
• loss of self-confidence
In the context of a presentation in front of a group, this fear is irrational as there is no real physical danger. The
reaction of the body normally subsides once the presentation gets underway.
Dealing with nervousness
Dealing with nervousness is something everyone needs to learn. One way to deal with it is to take advantage
of the adrenaline flow. It allows for increased blood flow to the brain and therefore increased acuity. However,
sometimes the reaction of the body is so strong that it can cause a complete block. To prevent this from
happening here are some useful tips:
• Accept that you are nervous and know that everyone suffers from it.
• Breathe (especially out).
• Concentrate on the task at hand; believe that you can do it.
• Give yourself time just before your presentation to flex and relax your muscles.
• Talk to individuals in the audience and try to forget about the crowd.
• Prepare yourself mentally.
• Know and use your strong qualities.
• Practice, practice, practice.
• Don’t wait for your turn but get it over with as soon as possible, the earlier the anxiety passes the more
comfortable you will be.
• Board members are regularly called upon to present in front of a group.
• When presenting we make use of verbal and non-verbal skills.
• Non-verbal skills have a particularly large effect on how presentations are perceived by the audience and
hence the effectiveness of presentations.
• People remember best when they hear, see, are invited to respond and have the opportunity to discuss.
• Presentations require preparation in order to be effective.
• Everyone suffers from nervousness at presenting in front of a group; there are ways to overcome this
nervousness

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Module 12: Preparing, holding and following up meetings
One of the most important activities of board members is holding meetings. Meetings allow people to come
together, present and share their ideas and opinions, discuss options and make decisions. In many instances
new board members feel unsure about their roles at meetings. They are also uncertain about what is entailed
in planning for and holding effective meetings.
Key issues
• Understanding why meetings are important
• Understanding the steps in holding effective meetings
• Planning a meeting for one’s own association
Training objectives
To enable participants to gain a clear understanding of the steps and responsibilities in preparing for, holding
and following up meetings.
Learning objectives
• list the steps in preparing for, holding and following up meetings; and
• explain how they have planned the next meeting for their association.
Flip chart, board, thumb pins, masking tape, meta cards, markers and copies of handouts.
Exercise: Perceptions about meetings
Ask participants what their perceptions are about meetings in general. Ask them to give examples of good
and bad meetings they have had in the past and why those meetings were good or bad. Try to elicit positive
and negative points.
Experience
Below are lists of positive and negative points elaborated by a group of trainees.
Positive points Negative points
Information flow Boring
Two-way communication Waste of time
Exchange of ideas People don’t attend in spite of being invited
Holding discussions Meeting not structured
Making decisions Some people talk too much
Allows for consensus decision-making Some people talk too little
Allows people to be involved Conflicts
Strengthens relationships Meetings are dominated by one person
Input
In the sections below different aspects of meetings are presented.
What influences the way a meeting unfolds?
The way a meeting unfolds depends on many factors, for example:
• the type of meeting
• the topics on the agenda
• the time allocation

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• personalities of people in the meeting (the chair can particularly influence the way a meeting goes)
• the number of people participating
When preparing meetings it is useful to keep these factors in mind.
Types of meetings
Looking at meeting objectives, meetings can be classified as follows:
• Meetings to give information (top-down) — the chair knows more than the group.
• Meetings to gather information (bottom-up) — the chair knows less than the group.
• Meetings to resolve a problem.
• Meetings to discuss and exchange views — the objective is to bring points of view closer together or to
reach a common position.
Exercise: Current meeting practice
Ask the group to think of their current meeting practice and to call out strong and weak points. List them in
two columns on the board.
Experience
One group came up with the following lists of strong and weak points:
Strong points Weak points
Regularity: we hold meetings every month Absenteeism: apologies are rarely sent
Information: everyone receives the minutes Lateness: participants are not punctual
Learning: we learn much during meetings and from minutes Timidity: uncertain about taking the floor, nervousness and
afraid to change routines
Training: access to capacity building training Respect: appearing in meetings upon taking alcohol and/or
drugs
Transport: we have a vehicle to pick us up Attitude: not sufficiently committed, available, lack
volunteerism spirit
Access: allows us to have access to external financial resources Discipline: insufficient following through of plans made and
decisions made during meetings
Keep the results of this exercise as they provide indicators for improving current meeting practice. For example
they can be used to evaluate the next board meeting.

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Exercise: Steps in holding a meeting
This exercise makes use of the table in Handout 12.1. The first column of the table gives the steps in holding
a meeting. Prepare the exercise by using a pair of scissors to cut out all the boxes so that every step is on a
separate piece of paper. Mix the pieces and place them in an envelope. Prepare as many envelopes as you
plan to have sub-groups; each envelope should contain all the steps.
Divide the group into small groups of two or three participants and give each group an envelope. Ask the
groups to open the envelope and take out the pieces of paper, then work together to place the pieces in the
right chronological order for the preparation, holding and following up of meetings. Upon finishing give the
groups Handout 12.1 so they can check their own work. Groups that finish early can be asked to assist other
groups.
Experience
The photographs above show a group in the process of completing the exercise.
Conclude the exercise with a discussion looking at points like:
• Were participants aware that holding a meeting involves so many steps?
• Did they realise how important it is to plan a meeting?
• How does current practice compare with this exercise?
• Are there steps that could be deleted or need to be added?
Exercise: Purpose of an agenda
Ask the participants to brainstorm why a meeting needs an agenda. Jot down the ideas on the flipchart.
Experience
One group came up with the following list.
We need an agenda to:
• know the date and time of the meeting;
• know the structure of the meeting;
• know what will be discussed during the meeting;
• prepare ourselves for the meeting; and
• have a checklist during the meeting.
Summarise the exercise by highlighting the following points:
• The agenda communicates information on the topics to be discussed, who presents and how much time
is allotted.
• It provides a focus for the meeting.
• It provides the outline for the meeting.
• If the agenda is prepared in advance it allows participants to prepare themselves before the meeting.

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Preparing an agenda
Below are the steps in drawing up an agenda.
• Inform participants that there will be a meeting; give the overall objective of the meeting, the timing and
the place.
• Ask those who want to include an agenda item to inform you at least one week in advance, giving the
topic and how long they will need to present the item.
• Prepare the agenda in table format (item, presenter, time). Keep it realistic by keeping to the objective of
the meeting and keeping within the total time allocation.
• Send the provisional agenda to all participants, thereby inviting them to the meeting. Ask participants to
respond by accepting or declining the invitation.
Handout 12.2 gives an example of an agenda prepared in table format.
Roles of the chair
Exercise: Roles of a chair
Ask the participants to brainstorm the roles of a chair. Use cards, ask the participants to express one idea per
card. Collect the cards as they are written, sort them and display them.
Experience
One training group identified the following roles for a chair:
• prepares the meeting
• invites the participants
• gives information
• is the principle decision-maker
The exercise allowed for a discussion to take place on the roles of a chair in relation to the roles of other meeting
members. It was agreed that a chair should encourage participation and transparency, share responsibilities
and the work load and ensure consensus decision-making. The participants then reviewed their list by saying
that the chair:
• prepares the meeting with the secretary;
• delegates presentations to other board members;
• ensures the meeting runs smoothly (avoiding conflict, keeping to time);
• ensures consensus decision-making.
Summarise the exercise by highlighting that the chair plays an important role in preparing meetings and a key
role in leading meetings by ensuring that:
• discussions are to the point;
• discussions take place in an atmosphere of mutual respect and objectivity;
• everyone participates;
• the agenda is adhered to; and
• the time schedule is respected.
It is not the chair’s role to take decisions unilaterally. Handout 12.3 lists the roles, tasks and qualities of a good chair.
Roles of the secretary
Major roles of the secretary in a meeting are the following:
• taking care of the logistics of the meeting
• assisting the chair in preparing the agenda
• writing and sending letters of invitation including the agenda and relevant papers
• taking the minutes and writing them out after the meeting
• circulating and archiving the minutes
Handout 12.4 gives the roles, tasks and qualities of a good secretary.

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Exercise: Writing an invitation letter
Divide the group into sub-groups and ask each group to take on the role of secretary and write an invitation
letter for other board members for the forthcoming monthly board meeting.
Hang up the letters around the room and ask the participants to circulate and read the letters. Discuss the
results and summarise by listing the important elements of an invitation letter:
• Use a letterhead or logo of the association.
• Address letters personally to each board member.
• Mention the subject of the letter.
• Mention the purpose of the meeting.
• Clearly indicate the place, date and time of the meeting.
• Include the agenda and relevant documents.
Experience
Handout 12.5 contains an invitation letter prepared by one group.
Roles of a good participant in a meeting
A good participant takes an active part in the meeting. He or she does this by:
• coming prepared;
• being engaged and committed.
• participating in the discussions — not remaining silent;
• not being afraid to disagree; and
• remaining respectful and constructive and keeping to the point.
Handout 12.6 gives the roles, tasks and qualities of a good participant at a meeting.
Encouraging participation during meetings
Good participation at meetings is rewarding, both at the group and individual level. However, at times
meetings can be downright frustrating because poor communication causes participants to feel left in the
dark, confused, misunderstood and uncomfortable. Effective communication is very important to ensure
everyone is at ease and motivated to participate.
Comfort
Comfort creates a supportive context for participation. Comfort is created through encouraging an open, non-
judgmental environment, thereby reducing relationship tension. Comfort plays a large role in determining
how much participation can be achieved; increased comfort leads to greater participation.
Verbal and non-verbal communication
While the chair has an important leadership role during meetings, other participants can help to encourage
participation. The following table presents some verbal and non-verbal communication techniques to
encourage and discourage participation.
How to encourage participation How to discourage participation
‘Thanks for sharing that.’ ‘I don’t think that topic is within the scope of this meeting.’
‘That is a good example.’ ‘Let’s hear from someone who hasn’t spoken for a while.’
Nodding your head. ‘Thank you for your input but let’s move to the next point.’
Moving physically closer to the person. Stepping back physically.
Holding eye contact. Breaking eye contact.
It is important to ensure your verbal and non-verbal communication match. If your verbal message, for
example saying:‘That is a good example’, is not matched by your non-verbal message (for example you break
eye contact by looking out of the window), your audience will not be convinced and this will not encourage
participation.

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Exercise: Preparing your own meeting
Ask the group to prepare their next board meeting, working together as a team. Give the following
instructions (Handout 12.7).
Instructions for preparing the next board meeting:
• Decide who will do what and how (who will determine the agenda, how will the position of chair
will be assigned, who will be secretary, who will write invitation letters etc).
• Make use of the knowledge gained during the training, the information in the handouts and the
various resources at the office (e.g. minutes of previous meetings).
• Think about how presence and participation at the meeting will be encouraged.
• Decide how the meeting will be evaluated after it has been held and what will be done with the
results.
Assist and encourage the group where necessary. At the end of the exercise ask the group to present their
work. Get a consensus from everyone and a commitment to hold the meeting as planned.
Experience
One group prepared the following agenda for a meeting on the 5 November from 8 to 10 o’clock at their
association’s premises.
No. Agenda item Presenter Time
1 Opening Chair 1 minute
2 Outline of the meeting
• Purpose
• Introduction of participants
• Procedures
• Changes and adoption of the
agenda
Chair 15 minutes
3 Discussion point 1
Presentation
Questions
Discussion to clarify issues and
determine options
Presenter 1 10 minutes — report
15 minutes — questions and
discussion
• Presentation
• Questions
• Discussion to clarify issues and
determine options
discussion
5 Seek a motion to resolve the issue Chair 10 minutes
6 Take a vote and explain what will
be done
Chair 15 minutes
7 Close the meeting Chair 1 minute
This exercise elicited a discussion about priority items for the meeting. For many board members it was the first
time they had had influence over the agenda. Agenda points 3 and 4 were considered to require a discussion.
Theywerepreparedinsub-groupsandsubsequentlypresentedinplenaryforcomments,additionsandapproval
by the group. Time was allocated for each agenda point.
The participants decided that the chair would be rotated so that everyone would have a chance being
chairperson. They also decided to appoint a vice-chair to replace the chair if required.
The secretary was chosen and invitation letters were prepared. The participants decided to dispatch the
invitations two weeks before the date of the meeting, together with the agenda. A list of 15 participants was
prepared. The secretary was tasked with preparing the minutes and action plan.
With the help of the results of the ‘Current meeting practice’ exercise the participants prepared a list of indicators
to evaluate their meeting as follows:
• Number of participants present.
• Number of participants absent without apologies.

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• Number of participants on time.
• Number of participants taking the floor.
• Number of participants ‘under the influence of…’
• Number of actions/decisions left without follow-up without reason.
• Number of routines changed.
• Not all meetings are productive but there are ways to make meetings more effective.
• Good communication (open, non-judgmental and participatory) is essential for good meetings.
• Preparing, holding and following up a meeting involves multiple steps.
• The agenda gives the structure of the meeting and is prepared in advance.
• Participants at a meeting have roles to play.
• It is everyone’s task to encourage participation at meetings, thereby increasing quality and commitment.

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Handout 12.1: Steps in holding a meeting
Before the meeting
Step Remarks
Decide whether holding the meeting is really necessary. Are there other ways of solving the problems and issues?
Only hold a meeting if absolutely necessary and if it is the
only possible way to move ahead.
Decide who needs to participate.
Decide on the length of the meeting Normally meetings shouldn’t last longer than two hours.
Prepare the agenda. Invite a neutral facilitator to sensitive meetings. The agenda
must include the topics for discussion, allocate roles and
tasks for the meeting (e.g. chair, minute taker, time keeper),
and indicate a presenter for each topic as well as the time
allocated for each topic.
Arrange a suitable time and place to hold the meeting.
Prepare materials for the meeting.
Notify participants. In your notification include meeting objectives, agenda,
place, date, time, background information and assigned
items for preparation.
Have the minutes of the previous meeting. If appropriate.
During the meeting
Step Remarks
Arrival of meeting participants. Participants should arrive on time, come prepared, keep to
the point and participate constructively.
Ensure the participants are at ease. For example by serving coffee, tea, water.
Start the meeting precisely on time. Don’t punish those who are punctual.
Explain the meeting purpose.
Allow the participants to introduce themselves. Unless they already know each other.
Explain the procedures for the meeting.
Designate a minute-taker.
Send around a registration list/presence list. Include name, designation, institution and contact details
and keep it as a record.
Outline the agenda and get agreement. If necessary add extra agenda points.
Summarise the decisions of the previous meeting. If necessary get agreement on the minutes of the previous
meeting.
Hear the reports by the participants.
Allow for questions and discussions to improve
understanding.
Make sure that during discussions everyone has a say.
Keep discussions focused and adhere to the schedule.
Use‘problem solving’: facts, issues, options, action.
Make decisions. Encourage consensus decision-making.
Ensure everyone understands what is being decided.
Take notes/minutes. Ensure decisions are documented, preferably with an
assigned responsibility and time schedule.
At the end of the meeting
Step Remarks
Summarise the meeting.
Decide on tasks to be done if you have not already. These are‘actions’for the action list.
Delegate responsibility for tasks if you have not already;
decide how the tasks should be accomplished and by
when.
These are the‘who’,‘what’and‘when’of the action list.

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Set time, date and place for next meeting.
Evaluate the meeting and suggest adaptations for next
time.
Use the indicators developed in the exercise‘Current
meeting practice’.
After the meeting
Step Remarks
Make sure notes/minutes are written up, including an
action list.
The action list is basically a table with four columns: action,
who, what, when.
Send the minutes and action list to all participants.
Make sure the minutes are archived.
Encourage follow-up on the action list.

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Handout 12.2: Outline for an agenda
This is a suggested structure for an agenda that combines some informal discussion with formal decision-
making.
Venue: Meeting room
Date: dd/mm/yy
Time: 8:30 to 10:00
No. Agenda item Presenter Time
1 Opening Chair 1 minute
2 Outline of the meeting
• Purpose
• Introduction of participants
• Procedures
• Changes and adoption of the
agenda
Chair 15 minutes
• Presentation
• Questions
determine options
discussion
• Presentation
• Questions
determine options
discussion
5 Seek a motion to resolve the issue Chair 10 minutes
6 Take a vote and explain what will
be done
Chair 15 minutes
7 Close the meeting Chair 1 minute

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Handout 12.3: Roles, tasks and qualities of a good chair
The chair is the person who leads the meeting and who has the role of ensuring that it is effective, open and
allows for everyone to be heard. To achieve this, he or she:
• Prepares the agenda (this is often done together with the Secretary).
• Allows people to introduce themselves at the beginning of the meeting.
• Presents the agenda, purpose and schedule of the meeting.
• Starts at the first point of the agenda and gradually works through to the last point.
• Follows established rules for conducting meetings; if there are no established rules, he or she proposes
working procedures.
• Focuses on the content of the meeting but gives as much attention to social interaction.
• Keeps a clear view of the big picture so that the meeting does not get bogged down in minor details.
• Does not waste people’s time but keeps the discussion focused and on track.
• Provides an open and comfortable environment:
ŬŬ Ensures that everyone is treated respectfully and equally.
ŬŬ Ensures that everyone listens to each other carefully and is not judgmental.
ŬŬ Ensures that the topics under discussion are dealt with objectively.
• Ensures that everyone understands the topic under discussion.
• Notes who wishes to speak and indicates when a person may speak. Ensures that only one person speaks
at a time.
• Assists the flow of ideas.
• Interferes and assists actively to avoid unnecessary detours, friction or conflict.
• Encourages people to participate, especially the quieter persons. Amicably tries to restrict those who tend
to talk too much.
• Only gets involved in the discussions if his or her opinion is sought, otherwise keeps to the role of
controlling the meeting.
• From time to time summarises the issue under discussion to facilitate decision-making.
• Comes to the meeting informed; reads minutes, papers and relevant documents in advance.
• Has a sense of pace. Knows when to close a subject and move on to the next.
• Keeps to the schedule.
• At the end of the meeting gives a summary of the achievements, decisions and pending issues.
• With the participants decides on the action plan and allocates responsibility to individuals.

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Handout 12.4: Roles, tasks and qualities of a good secretary
A good secretary does the following:
• Prepares the agenda together with the chair.
• Makes arrangements for the meeting place (room, chairs, coffee…).
• Prepares the invitations and sends them with adequate time for participants to prepare themselves.
• Takes notes during the meeting.
• Prepares the minutes as soon as possible after the meeting, according to the following guidelines:
ŬŬ Begin with a list of those present and those having sent apologies.
ŬŬ Follow the order of the agenda.
ŬŬ State the main issues, points of view put forward and decisions made.
ŬŬ Close with an action list including:
.. What (action)
.. Who (is responsible)
.. How (the action will be implemented)
.. When (is the deadline)
• Circulates the minutes and action list as soon as possible to all the participants.
• Confirms all important arrangements in writing.
• Archives one copy of the minutes and action list.

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Handout 12.5: Sample invitation letter for a board meeting
Mr/Mrs ………………………...
Address
Place, date
Subject : Monthly board meeting of ….Name of your association….
Dear board member,
Herewith I would like to extend an invitation for you to attend our coming monthly board meeting.
The meeting will be held at our premises, …..address…., …..date…. from ….time…. to ….time…..
The purpose of this meeting is to discuss………………. / The following subjects will be discussed during the
meeting:………………………. For your information please find included the agenda and related documents.
I look forward to seeing you and appreciate your continued service to our association.
Yours sincerely,
Mr/Mrs …………..
Secretary
Attached: Agenda and documents
Letterhead or logo of
your association

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Handout 12.6: Roles, tasks and qualities of a good participant at a meeting
A good participant:
• Is committed to his or her task.
• Is involved and shares suggestions, ideas, solutions and proposals.
• Participates actively by:
ŬŬ engaging actively in discussion but keeping to the point;
ŬŬ not remaining silent;
ŬŬ listening actively to other participants;
ŬŬ not allowing one or two people to dominate the discussions; and
ŬŬ helping the chair to bring a discussion back on track quickly when it strays.
• Is not afraid to disagree, but rather reveals his or her position during the meeting.
• Communicates rather than‘bottling up’.
• Maintains an atmosphere of teamwork:
ŬŬ Shows positive recognition and respect to other participants.
ŬŬ Does not show off.
ŬŬ Does not attempt to outdo others.
ŬŬ Does not engage in a power struggle.
ŬŬ Refrains from personal attack and blame, whether open or veiled.
• Has a constructive attitude:
ŬŬ Focuses on issues rather than persons.
ŬŬ Focuses on overcoming obstacles.
ŬŬ Focuses on continual improvement of weaknesses.

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Handout 12.7: Instruction sheet for preparing the next board meeting
Instructions for preparing the next board meeting:
• Decide who will do what and how (who will determine the agenda, how the chair will be assigned, who
will be secretary, who will write invitation letters etc).
• Make use of the knowledge gained during the training, the information in the handouts and the various
resources at the office (e.g. minutes of previous meetings).
• Think about how presence and participation at the meeting will be encouraged.
• Decide how will the meeting be evaluated after it has been held and what will be done with the results.

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Module 13: Management and leadership
Background
In associations management and leadership are provided by the board and the manager. Some roles are
played by the board, others by the manager, and some are performed together. For an association to be
effective it is important that management and leadership roles be clearly defined.
Training objective
To enable participants to gain a clear understanding of the roles and tasks associated with management and
leadership in an association.
Learning objectives
• explain the concepts of management and leadership;
• list the management roles related to running an association; and
• explain the responsibilities for different management roles with respect to their own association.
Training content
Session 13.1 — Defining management
Session 13.2 — Planning
Session 13.3 — Organising
Session 13.4 — Staffing
Session 13.5 — Directing and leading
Session 13.6 — Controlling
Session 13.7 — Preparing a responsibility chart

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Session 13.1: Defining management
Management is an abstract term. Generally management is taken to be about organising, coordinating and
leading a group of people and activities. However, depending on the context it may mean different things
to different people. It is important to have clearly identified management roles, tasks and responsibilities to
ensure an association runs smoothly.
Key issues
• Understanding that management is a broad concept
• Understanding what management is in the context of an association
Materials required
Flip chart, board, markers, tape, thumb pins and metacards.
Exercise: Everyone is a manager
Introduce the subject of management by saying that everyone is a manager, in many different ways. Ask the
participants to think about their own daily lives and activities and how they are managers themselves. Ask
them to give examples.
Experience
Below are some of the responses from one group:
• In order to come to today’s training I have had to manage the following: arrange that my child is brought
to school and picked up, that someone replaces me at the guesthouse where I work and that I got a lift to
come to the training venue.
• Running my household is management: cooking, cleaning, shopping, washing, caring for the children,
visiting and receiving guests are all tasks that need to be undertaken.
• I am a farmer and therefore I am a manager. I need to prepare my field, plant, weed, water, regularly inspect
and harvest my crop. I need to plan according to the seasons and sometimes I need to manage things I
could not foresee like excessive rain. I also have to look for markets in order to sell my crop. There are many
tasks I need to plan and manage to be a good farmer.
• I am a fisherman. I too need to manage my work: ensure that my boat is seaworthy, that I have fuel; I need to
know my fishing grounds, respect the time of day, the tides and the weather. I need to sell my catch as soon
as I get back and I need to manage my finances. All this requires that I plan carefully to sustain my livelihood.
• Being a board member of my association means that I assist in the management of my association.
Exercise: Identifying our association’s management roles and tasks
Ask the group to think of their association and to brainstorm on the management roles and tasks within their
association. Use metacards, asking the participants to record one idea per card. Collect the cards, sort them
and display them.
Experience
One association came up with the following
management roles and tasks:
• Planning
• Budget management
• Calculating our profits by knowing our income and expenditures
• Taking stock of our assets
• Managing our fixed assets and consumables
• Time management
• Identifying and monitoring our values: respecting the
environment, respecting our health and being motors of change
• Evaluating our performance so we know how to improve our
services

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Now ask the participants which roles are those of the board and which are those of the manager. Facilitate a
discussion along the following lines:
• Which of the identified roles are they, as individual board members, concerned with?
• Do they participate in all or some of the roles?
• Do they fulfill other management roles, so far not identified?
• Is it clear to the participants whose responsibility it is to fulfill specific management roles or is the situation
not that clear?
Exercise: Management definitions
Give the group the following management definitions (Handout 12.1).
• Management, in the context of an association, is a social process including five general functions: planning,
organising, staffing, directing/leading and controlling.
• Management can be explained as follows:
Ask the participants to discuss in pairs and comment on the definitions. Ask for feedback from the group and
discuss. Ask the group if the concept of management is becoming any clearer.
• In their daily lives everyone performs management roles and tasks.
• In an association management roles and tasks are mainly performed by the board and the manager.
• It is important that management roles, tasks and responsibilities be clearly identified.
INPUTS
Staff
Volunteers
Capital
Buildings
Equipment
Materials
THROUGHPUTS
Mission
Policies
Organisational culture
Values
Strategies
Practices
OUTPUTS
Achievements
Satisfaction of members
Absenteeism of board members
Size of membership
Quality and quantity of services
MANAGEMENT

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Session 13.2: Planning
The first of the five management roles presented in this module is planning.
Key issues
• Understanding what planning is
• Differentiating between strategic and operational planning
Flip chart, board, markers and copies of the handout.
Input
Planning cuts across all other management tasks. It is a mental process in which the members of an
association assess the external environment, their organisation, and the resources they have available, and
decide about objectives. The following types of planning can be differentiated:
• Strategic planning (see Module 4): deciding about the vision, mission, values, broad objectives and
strategies of an association. Strategic planning has a long-term horizon.
• Operational planning: this is about implementation of the strategic plan. It focuses on getting activities
accomplished effectively over a span of time usually ranging from several weeks or months to one or two
years. Operational planning includes planning for funds, staffing and action planning.
Exercise: Planning in your association
Ask the participants to think about their own association and identify examples of strategic and operational
planning. List the examples and keep the list for a later exercise.
Experience
Below are the results from one group.
Strategic planning Operational planning
Planning to build a fish processing plant Planning participation at farm fairs
Deciding on a new focus, e.g. tourism Planning to recruit staff
Deciding to cater for students’ practical assignments Planning meetings
Deciding to integrate women on the board Preparing the annual budget
Exercise: Planning a vegetable garden
Divide the group into small groups and read out the following case study (or provide the groups with
Handout 13.2.1).
Case study: Vegetable garden
The members of your association have made a request for increased services. They would like the
association’s shop to stock a wider assortment of agricultural inputs. This will require increasing the
surface area of the shop by constructing a new building. The request has been discussed by the board
and it was decided that in order to generate the necessary funds a community vegetable garden will be
created. The community is willing to allocate a piece of land free of charge. Moreover the association’s
members have offered voluntary labour to grow the vegetables. The vegetables will be sold by the
association to generate funds for constructing the building.
Ask the participants to work together to prepare a plan for the vegetable garden. Ask them to make a list of

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activities that need to take place and to think about resources and responsibilities. Ask them to make a time
plan showing when the different activities are to take place.
Experience
One group prepared the following plan for their vegetable garden.
Activity
Week
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Appoint coordinator (volunteer)
Form 3 groups of volunteers to work in weekly shifts
Gather and buy seeds and other inputs
Find tractor on loan and plough the land
Start compost
Prepare the beds
Sow the seeds
Transplant
Inspect, weed, water, perform maintenance
Harvest
Discuss the results in plenary and summarise by highlighting that in planning it is useful to ask the following
questions:
• What has to be done?
• How is it to be done?
• What is needed?
• Who will do it?
• When is it to be done?
• How long will it take?
• What has to be done first; which activities can/should take place at the same time?
Exercise: Identifying our associations’planning roles and responsibilities
Ask the group to brainstorm on the planning roles and responsibilities in their association. Record the ideas on
a flipchart.
Experience
Below is a list of planning roles and responsibilities prepared by one group.
Planning role Responsibility
Determining the vision, mission, values, broad objectives and
strategies of an association
Board with input from manager
Formulate policies Board
Formulate annual objectives, plans and budgets Manager
Approve annual objectives, plans and budgets Board
Prepare report on achievement of annual objectives Manager
Monitor achievement of long-term objectives Board and manager
Operational planning Manager
• Planning is a cross-cutting management task.
• Planning includes strategic and operational planning.
• Strategic planning is a role and responsibility of the board.
• Operational planning is the task of the manager.

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Handout 13.2.1: Vegetable garden case study
Case study: Vegetable garden
The members of your association have made a request for increased services. They would like the
association’s shop to stock a wider assortment of agricultural inputs. This will require increasing the
surface area of the shop by constructing a new building. The request has been discussed by the board
and it was decided that in order to generate the necessary funds a community vegetable garden will be
created. The community is willing to allocate a piece of land free of charge. Moreover the association’s
members have offered voluntary labour to grow the vegetables. The vegetables will be sold by the
association to generate funds for constructing the building.

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Session 13.3: Organising
Once plans have been made they need to be implemented. Organisation is about the practical issues involved
in getting things done, including implementing activities and providing services. This role requires specific
skills and at times can be quite demanding and complex.
Key issues
• Understanding that organising is a management role
• Understanding which skills are required to organise effectively
Materials required
Flip chart, board and markers.
Input
Organising is about getting things done. It involves coordination and administration of people, activities
and budgets with a view to implementing plans in a timely and effective way. Organising involves setting
priorities, planning actions, respecting schedules, solving problems, making decision and managing time.
Organising is very much about ensuring smooth operations and it is a major task for the manager. Depending
on how many staff work for an association, delegation may be important.
Exercise: Identifying our associations’organisational roles and responsibilities
Ask the group to brainstorm on the organisational roles in their association. For each role define whether the
board or the manager is responsible. Record the ideas on a flipchart.
Experience
Below is a list of organising roles and responsibilities prepared by one group.
Organising role Responsibility
Organise board meetings Board and manager
Assess the needs of the members Manager
Manage the delivery of services/activities Manager
Organise a fund raising campaign Manager
Evaluate the services of the association Board
Maintain accounts Manager
Prepare reports of activities Manager
Manage external contacts: liaison and network Manager
• Organising is about coordinating and administering resources to implement plans.
• Organising requires special skills.
• Organising is first and foremost a task of the manager.

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Session 13.4: Staffing
Recruiting staff for the first time may be daunting. Often board members are unfamiliar with what the
recruitment process entails and may be uncertain about how to fulfill their staff management roles. While this
session is primarily about preparing the board to deal with paid staff, it may also be applicable to volunteers.
Key issues
• Comprehending what the recruitment process entails
• Comprehending that motivating staff is an important management role
• Comprehending how to motivate staff
• Comprehending the need and importance of appraising staff
• Comprehending when and how to dismiss staff
Materials required
Flip chart, board, markers and metacards.
Input31
Recruiting, motivating, appraising and dismissing staff are important staff management roles. These roles are
performed by the board (for the manager) and the manager (for other staff).
Recruiting staff
The decision to recruit staff rests with the board. Once the decision has been made it is important to find the
best person for the job. Mistakes in recruitment can be costly and damaging, not only for the individual but
also to the reputation and activities of the association. Staff recruitment should be done by a recruitment
panel; it should not rest with one individual. The recruitment panel can comprise selected board members,
general members and/or other staff as appropriate. It is important that both the recruitment process and the
panel ensure objectivity, fairness, openness and a systematic process in the selection of the candidate. The
following is a list of steps generally followed in the recruitment process:
• Create the person specification for the job. This is a list of key experience, qualifications, skills and other
qualities needed for the job.
• Prepare a job description.
• Advertise the vacancy (including person specification and job description).
• Shortlist the applicants by choosing those closest to the person specification.
• Conduct interviews with shortlisted individuals.
• Choose the best candidate.
• Write a letter of appointment stating the position, joining date, termination date (if applicable), salary
details and benefits, notice period and responsibilities. Keep a copy of the letter, signed by both the
employee and the employer, in the office.
Every step in the recruitment process should be documented. The paper trail is important and can be useful if
procedures or decisions are challenged.
Associations also work with volunteers. In some circumstances it may be judicious to organise letters of
assignment for volunteers stating the time period, responsibilities and any allowances.
Motivating staff
Humans are social beings. Motivating staff is important to ensure that social, psychological and emotional
needs are satisfied and obstacles causing frustration are lifted. This will help in getting staff engaged and
securing the commitment and spirit to achieve maximum results. Two important areas to be considered in
staff motivation are the following:
31 Strength to strength, capacity-building newsletter for MRDF partners, February 2006, issue 3. Methodist Relief and Development Fund.
http://www.mrdf.org.uk/assets/downloads/partnership/S2S3%20English.pdf.
Leading your NGO, corporate governance, a reference guide for NGO boards, 2002.
http://www.swd.gov.hk/doc/ngo/corp-gov-eng.pdf.

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• Relationships at the work place: managers have an important role in promoting and maintaining good
relationships between staff.
• People’s search for self-fulfillment: for this staff need challenges (e.g. goals or targets); they also need
responsibilities and a certain amount of autonomy. It is the role of managers to align the search for self-
fulfillment with the fulfillment of the goals of the association.
Staff can easily lose motivation as a result of the following:
• conflict
• a bad atmosphere or low morale in the association
• weak management
• not recognising staff commitment and good work
• lack of overall strategy or ethos binding the staff together
• inadequate management systems and procedures
• job insecurity
• stress and overwork
Motivating staff is an important management role for both the board and the manager. Staff motivation needs
to be done actively to maintain the high morale necessary to achieve the best results.
Some ways to motivate staff:
• Use participatory working methods, for example in planning and evaluation. Have staff participate in
decision-making and encourage them to give feedback and share experiences and new ideas at board
meetings. Make staff feel valued.
• Reward staff by recognising their efforts publicly, in writing or through other non-financial incentives; or
reward staff through bonuses or salary increases where appropriate.
• Give staff promotions, increased responsibility or new challenges where possible; this will enable staff to
grow and develop in their role.
• Encourage an open, honest and transparent atmosphere in the workplace.
• Provide opportunities for professional development like training courses or visits to other NGOs. Training
needs can be identified through a capacity building plan (see Module 6) and during staff appraisals.
• Set annual goals for staff to focus on and improve on last year’s performance. This can be done during an
annual appraisal.
Exercise: What motivates me?
Ask each participant, whether staff or board member, to reflect on what motivates him or her. What needs do
they have in order to remain motivated? Share and compare the responses. Discuss and summarise then ask
who is responsible for keeping motivation levels high. What actions can be taken to ensure that motivation
levels remain high?
Experience
Below are the results from one group.
What motivates me is:
• Facing challenges and overcoming obstacles one by one so that in the end I have the satisfaction of having
done a good job.
• Being part of an effective team with members working well together.
• Getting the chance to improve my own personal competencies.
• Working for a brighter future for our children.
• Working to provide services to satisfy the needs of our population.
• That I am able to contribute to developing my village.
• That I am able to contribute to the economy of my country.
Toremainmotivateditisimportantthatweworkinharmony,supportingeachotherandrecognisingeachother’s
contributions.Itisalsoimportantthatweseeapositiveoutcome.Weareallresponsibletokeepmotivationlevels
high. There are several ways to keep motivation levels high — for example, readily investing time and effort,
being sincere and occasionally having a lunch together.

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Succession planning
Succession planning concerns replacement of persons in management positions in the event of:
• retirement (end of tenure)
• resignation
• dismissal
• sickness
In the context of an association consideration needs to be given to succession of both board and staff members.
Good succession planning includes timely recruitment of new board and staff members and their induction. This
ensures that there is continuity and things do not grind to a halt when the reins are handed over.
Sometimes succession planning offers an opportunity to review the composition of the board and plan for
changing it. Strategic recruitment is a further tool to plan for change. For example youth and women can be
actively recruited to the board if the association feels these groups should be better represented.
Exercise: Renewing the board
Ask the group to consider their association and facilitate a discussion around the following questions:
• What is the tenure period of board members?
• How are they elected and how are they replaced at the end of their tenure?
• Is there an induction programme?
• Is the current composition of the board satisfactory?
• When is the next board renewal?
• Who can be made available or is qualified to stand for certain positions?
• What measures exist to ensure continuity?
Experience
Below are the results of one group’s work on succession planning.
The group decided that:
• The board shall be composed of seven members (chair, vice-
chair, treasurer, vice-treasurer, secretary, deputy secretary and
one member).
• Each of the seven board members shall be a fisher and
representative of one of seven identified community stakeholder
groups (traditional chiefly structure, municipality, women,
youth, those dependent on more than one source of income,
those dependent solely on fishing, those fishing for non-frozen
fish delivery).
• Staff members shall be non-voting observers at board meetings.
• Before elections, candidate board members shall be screened on
the following qualities:
• Ability to invest time
• Likelihood of participating actively
• Self-confidence
• Motivation
• How well-regarded the person is by his or her group
Appraising staff
Staff appraisals (see also Session 2.3 of this manual) are formal one-to-one conversations undertaken annually
between a staff member and the supervisor. The board chair usually appraises the manager while the
manager appraises other staff. The purpose of appraisals is to allow for reflection about how a job is performed
in the given context and to facilitate improvements in motivation, relationships, confidence, job satisfaction,
and career development. It is a way by which the board or supervisor can provide a supportive environment

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in which staff members are listened to so as to further develop mutual expectations and responsibilities.
Appraisals serve to:
• recognise strengths of staff;
• identify areas for improvement and how to achieve them;
• set annual job-specific objectives; and
• identify training needs.
In giving staff feedback it is important to be constructive. Giving feedback involves telling staff how they are
seen by others and identifying strengths and weaknesses in their actions and behaviour. Giving feedback has
the aim of improving motivation and performance. If badly handled, or not done, it can result in loss of staff
interest. Neither giving nor receiving feedback is easy. Supervisors generally do not enjoy critiquing their staff;
staff members can easily become defensive or upset. It may help to know that both the giver and receiver feel
just as uncomfortable.
An important outcome of an appraisal exercise is identifying staff training needs. Training needs can be
identified in a discussion with the concerned staff member or through a skills audit. The latter involves
preparing a list of required skills for the job and evaluating in which measure the skills are already present and
in which measure they are lacking. The following table is an example of a skills audit.
Who Competency/
performance
objective
Skills required Current skills Needed skills How to improve
Chair Chairing
meetings
Setting agenda
Leading meetings
Agenda OK
Leading
meetings,
insufficient
Practice leading
meetings
Training,
guidance,
practice
Treasurer Accounting Understand basic
accounting
Insufficient Insight into
current
accounting
practice
Accounting
training, guidance
All board
members
Able to fulfill
board members’
roles
Knowledge
of association
objectives, board
roles
Insufficient More clarity
needed
Workshop to
define and clarify
objectives and
roles
Skills audit
The results are translated into a staff development plan showing the actions to be taken (e.g. formal or
informal training, attachments or guidance by another staff member) and a time schedule. Staff development
not only helps to maintain high performance by ensuring the competency is acquired, but also helps to
maintain high motivation levels because people recognise that the association is investing in them as
individuals. Module 6 presents a way of developing a capacity building plan for board members.
Dismissing staff
Dismissing a staff member is a difficult thing to do. It needs to be done responsibly. Some suggestions to deal
with this are given below.
• Prevention: ensure that there is good two-way communication between the staff member and the
supervisor so that expectations are clear to both parties.
• Monitoring: monitor staff performance by using tools such as a probationary period, annual appraisals,
giving assistance, organising training, establishing personal objectives and issuing warning letters.
Reasons for proceeding to dismissal can be various and may include the following:
• Persistent underperformance to the detriment of the association.
• Serious misconduct such as theft, physical violence, serious damage to property, refusal to obey a
reasonable instruction, conduct bringing the association into disrepute, being under the influence of

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drugs or alcohol during working hours, sexual harassment and discrimination.
• Inadequate funding.
• Long-term illness.
The manager should consult with the board over the decision to proceed to dismissal. It is advisable to not
delay matters, to write a letter of termination clarifying the reasons, to meet with the employee to explain how
the termination will occur (when, what needs to be done before the employee leaves, etc) and to end the
meeting on a positive note.
Exercise: Identifying our associations’staffing roles and responsibilities
Ask the group to brainstorm on the staffing roles in their association. For each role define whether the board
or the manager is responsible. Record the ideas on a flipchart.
Experience
Below is a list of staffing roles and responsibilities prepared by one group.
Staffing role Responsibility
Decide to hire staff Board
Employ the manager Board
Hire and dismiss staff Manager
Recruit board members Board
Direct the work of staff Manager
Manage conflict between staff Manager
Decide about staff salary levels and conditions Manager and board
Appraise staff Board (for manager) and manager (for other staff)
Manage staff development Manager
• Staff management involves recruiting, motivating, appraising and dismissing staff.
• Both the board and the manager have staff management roles and responsibilities.

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Session 13.5: Directing and leading
Directing or leading involves setting well-defined, clearly understood and consistently administered policies;
providing a clear course; and leading employees and members to achieve goals. It also involves decision-
making and delegation of responsibilities. Sometimes it is not clear where responsibilities lie. Such diffuse
situations can be cleared up by preparing a responsibility chart. Both the board and the manager have roles in
directing and leading.
Key issues
• Understanding the roles of board and manager in directing and leading an association
• Understanding what makes a leader
• Understanding what advocacy is
Flip chart, board, markers and copies of handouts.
Input32
The board and manager have different roles in directing and leading the association.
Board roles in directing
The board has the role of setting policies, e.g. relating to administration, finance and membership. The board
reviews and decides about membership applications, reviews and approves reports and makes decisions
about long-term plans.
Manager roles in directing
The manager has roles such as creating positive working conditions for staff, supervising, training, and
appraising staff and acting as a spokesperson for the association.
Leadership
Leadership has been the subject of study throughout human history. Much has been written about the
characteristics of leaders and how they motivate people.
Exercise: Identifying leaders
Ask the group to think of their own daily lives and to come up with examples of leaders. Record the results on
a flipchart. Then ask the group what all these people have in common that makes them leaders.
Experience
One group produced the following list of leaders:
• head of a political party
• priest or pastor
• village chief
• the elders
• headmistress
• teacher
• household head
• in a group of children there is often a leader
• chairman of the association
32 Advocacy, Building skills for NGO leaders, 1999. The CEDPA Training manual series, Volume XI. Centre for development and population
activities.
http://www.getvisable.org/files/resourcesmodule/@random41940ceb78dbb/advocacy_manual.pdf

150
The example shows that our daily lives are full of examples of leaders who give us direction. What all these
people have in common is that they are able to get people to do what they wish. However, sometimes those
in leadership positions may not be performing a leadership role. For example if a teacher, in spite of being in
a leadership position, does not have the right personality, quality or skills to manage the class, he or she will
likely have a chaotic class. Leadership is about having the right combination of personality, qualities and skills
to motivate a group of people to act to achieve a common goal. In the context of an association, a leader
inspires others to achieve the goals of the association. Both the board and the manager need to be leaders.
Exercise: What characteristics should a good leader in your association have?
Ask participants to formulate characteristics, qualities and/or skills of a good leader for their association. List
them on a flipchart and hang the list on one side of the room for easy reference. You will find that many of the
qualities and skills have been talked about in the previous sessions of this module.
Experience
On the right is the list prepared by one group.
A good leader in our association is:
• Motivated and motivates others.
• Honest.
• Open minded and listens to others, communicates easily,
accepts critique and knows how to give constructive feedback to
others.
• Has good negotiation skills; manages to find marketing outlets.
• Good in planning, organising and directing.
• Has good problem solving skills.
• Is good at time management.
• Is good at leading meetings.
• Manages conflicts well.
Handout 13.5.1 lists qualities that do or do not enhance leadership.
Handout 13.5.2 lists management skills of good leaders and how they can be applied.
Advocacy
Advocacy is an externally oriented leadership role that most associations engage in. Often association
members find it difficult to express exactly what advocacy is.
Exercise: What is advocacy?
In order to clarify the term‘advocacy’, ask the group to brainstorm and come up with associated words. Here is
a list of words that they may come up with:
Defending Influencing
Sensitising Marketing
Changing Raising awareness
Persuading Selling an idea
Communicating Lobbying
Exposing Attracting attention
Providing a solution Acting
Promoting Backing
Supporting Encouraging

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Advocacy means‘giving voice’to a group or population that traditionally has been‘voiceless’. Advocacy
involves speaking up about or drawing attention to an important issue, and directing decision-makers toward
a solution. In advocacy associations work with other people and organisations to make a difference.
In summary, advocacy is the act or process of supporting a cause or issue. We advocate a cause or issue
because we want to:
• Build support for that cause or issue.
• Influence others to support it.
• Try to influence or change legislation that affects it.
Associations have an important role to play as intermediaries between marginalised people and policy-
makers. They may organise advocacy campaigns, which are a set of specific actions in support of a cause or
issue. While the best advocates bring passion and commitment to their work, they also need technical skills to
identify issues, plan, communicate and network.
Preparing an advocacy campaign
Below is a series of steps to guide the preparation of an advocacy campaign.
• Identify the issue around which a policy change is to be promoted. The issue should be focused, clear, and
widely supported in the advocacy group.
• Based on the issue, articulate an advocacy goal (similar to a vision) and objectives (which are short-term,
specific and measureable).
• Identify the key policy audience — the decision-makers who have the power to bring about a policy
change.
• Develop a compelling advocacy message and tailor it to the interests of the policy audience.
• Select the appropriate communication channels to deliver the advocacy message to the policy audience
(e.g. a press conference, an executive briefing package, a public debate, a conference for policy-makers,
etc).
• Seek to broaden the support base by targeting society members and other potential allies.
• Raise funds and mobilise other resources to support the advocacy campaign.
• Implement the advocacy strategy according to a plan of action.
Throughout the process:
• Collect data, e.g. it is often necessary to research the position of policy-makers toward the issue.
• Monitor and evaluate to be in a position to measure what will be different as a result of the campaign.
Exercise: Identifying our association’s directing and leading roles and responsibilities
Ask the group to brainstorm on the directing or leading roles in their association. For each role define whether
the board or the manager is responsible. Record the ideas on a flipchart.
Experience
Below is a list of directing or leading roles and responsibilities prepared by one group.
Directing or leading role Responsibility
Problem solving and decision-making Manager, board
Deciding on goal and objectives Board
Operational planning Manager
Advocacy Manager, board
Delegation Manager (to other staff), board (to manager)

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Managing
- Staff
- Human resources
- Communications
- Time
- Resources
- Conflicts
Mostly manager and some board
Leading meetings Manager, board chair
• Both the board and the manager have roles in directing and leading an association. Their roles are
different.
• Leaders are people who have the right combination of personality, qualities and skills to inspire and
motivate a group of people to achieve the goal of the association.
• Advocacy involves speaking up or drawing attention to an important issue, and directing decision-makers
toward a solution.

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Handout 13.5.1: Qualities that do or do not enhance leadership
Qualities enhancing leadership Qualities that do not enhance leadership
Patience Impatience
Good listening skills Never listening
Helpfulness Lack of interest
Honesty Dishonesty
Fairness Favoritism
Not dominating, encouraging participation Dominating, authoritarianism
Ability to resolve conflicts Getting into conflicts
Keeping one’s word Not keeping promises
Paying debts Having debts
Know-how Being ill-informed, not having a direction
Planning skills Lack of planning skills
Problem solving skills Leaving problems unsolved
Being good at encouraging team work Not caring about team work

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Handout 13.5.2: Management skills of good leaders and how they can be
applied
Management skill How to apply the skill
Problem solving and
decision-making
Define the problem (if it is complex break it down into sub-problems), prioritise the
problems (urgent, necessary?), identify causes, identify alternatives and select an
approach, then implement, monitor and verify.
Planning Decision-making about ends, means, policies and results.
Delegation This does not transfer accountability. Delegation can motivate others, but the right
person must be selected. It is important to give the person space to operate, give
feedback regularly, evaluate and reward performance.
Task management Break up projects into action steps to make them manageable.
Group management Set the standards of performance and behaviour. Develop roles within the group;
develop team work, cooperation, morale and team spirit.
Managing individuals Individuals have different needs, skills, strengths and fears. Balance the needs of the team,
the tasks at hand and the needs of the individual.
Manage communication Communication needs to be strong and clear to all.
Time management Good time management ensures that tasks are completed on time.
Meeting skills These help ensure effective meetings.
Human resource
management
Planning, recruitment, selection, induction, training and development, performance
appraisal, promotion / transfer / dismissal.
Conflict management Conflict is about power and interests and can be managed in different ways:
• Negotiation
• Joint problem-solving
• Facilitation by a neutral third party
• Mediation (formal process): the role of the mediator is to stop the argument,
hear parties, allow parties to propose solutions, choose the best solution and get
agreement for the solution.
• Arbitration (legal proceedings)

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Session 13.6: Controlling
Controlling is a management role involving the ability to influence the results of an association. By making
appropriate adjustments in a timely manner performance can be improved. In order for the board and
manager to make the right adjustments, they must have oversight and ongoing knowledge on progress and
performance.
Key issues
• Understanding the concept and purpose of controlling
• Understanding the concept and purpose of monitoring
• Understanding the concept and purpose of evaluating
• Planning a monitoring and evaluation activity for the association
Flip chart, board, markers, tape, thumb pins and copies of handout.
Exercise: The project cycle
Divide the participants into groups and give each group a set of cards, prepared in advance, showing the
elements of the project cycle (one element per card). The project cycle is shown in Handout 13.6.1.
Ask the groups to discuss and place the elements in the right order, thereby constructing the project cycle.
Facilitate a discussion on the elements of monitoring and evaluation:
• What are the roles of monitoring and evaluation?
• Why are they part of the project cycle?
• Are they essential parts of the project cycle?
• Why are they placed where they are?
Input33
Controlling is a management role involving the ability to influence the performance of an association. For
those in management positions to be able to exercise this role they need information about the beginning
situation (also called baseline), regular updates on progress and the desired end situation (generally expressed
in the objectives of a programme). Monitoring and evaluation are processes aimed at providing much of this
information.
What is monitoring?
Monitoring is the process of continuous and periodic checking of the implementation of a programme by
timely gathering of systematic information on work schedules, input delivery, targeted outputs, and other
variables required for the programme to achieve its objectives.
The purpose of monitoring is to:
• provide information on the current programme status and check whether progress is as planned;
• provide the basis for corrective measures if there is a problem with progress;
• verify proper utilisation of programme resources; and
• verify that inputs are made available on time to implement activities that result in outputs (see the
management definition in Session 13.1).
Monitoring is a systematic way of recording project activities. This information helps to evaluate our work.
What is evaluation?
Evaluation is the systematic collection of information on the conceptualisation, design, implementation and/
or impact of an intervention or programme. The purpose of evaluating is to:
33 Monitoring and evaluation of nutrition and nutrition-related programmes, a training manual for programme managers and implemen-
tors, 1999. The Applied Nutrition Programme, University of Nairobi. http://www.pronutrition.org/files/M&E%20TrainingManual.pdf

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• determine, referring to objectives, the extent to which desired changes have occurred; and
• determine whether the changes are the result of the activities of the association.
Evaluation is a systematic process that assesses whether or not project objectives have been achieved. It is a
way of finding out the quality of our activities.
Both monitoring and evaluation are ways of assessing the work we do so that we can improve. However, in
order to make sense out of monitoring and evaluation information we need to relate that information to a
beginning and an end point. The beginning point is the baseline and it needs to be measured at the start of
any intervention. The desired end point is expressed in the objectives.
Exercise: Why are monitoring and evaluation important?
Ask the group to consider this question: Why is it important for an association to monitor and evaluate? Write
the ideas on a flipchart.
Experience
One group came up with the following list:
• To see if the association is achieving what we created it for (vision, mission).
• To increase transparency: if we don’t measure what we are doing, we don’t know what we are doing.
• To learn from what we did wrong and what we did right.
• To improve the quality of our activities and services.
• To better manage highs and lows in the life of our association.
• To help us to plan better in the future.
• To measure if we are successful and if we are making progress in achieving our objectives.
• To gather information for our annual report.
• To find out whether members are satisfied with the association.
• To measure if the results of our activities are proportionate to the cost.
• To asses if what we are doing is sustainable.
• To gather information to show our progress to members, donors, the government and others.
Planning for monitoring and evaluation
Monitoring and evaluation are very important tools for the board and manager, ensuring they have
information about progress and giving them the basis to make timely decisions on corrective actions.
Monitoring and evaluation help maintain delivery of high quality services. For monitoring and evaluation to
work properly, they must be properly planned.
Exercise: Monitoring and evaluation in our association
Ask the group to try to identify monitoring and evaluation processes currently existing in their association by
asking the following questions:
• What kinds of data are being collected?
• What do they measure, how are they collected and who collects them?
• When are they collected and processed?
List the responses on a flipchart under the title‘data being collected’. Then ask the group what kind of
information is not being collected. Refer to the objectives of the association. List this information on another
flipchart under the title‘data not collected’.
Experience
The results from one group are given below.
Information we collect Missing information
How the farmers are implementing their projects. Systematic evaluation of our participation at different markets.
Whether new skills are applied following training. How satisfied our members are with our services.

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An inventory of materials and equipment.
How we invested our funds.
The income from our shop.
The condition of our materials and equipment.
The functioning of our staff.
The quality of the farmers’ produce.
The size and condition of our stock of fresh produce.
Break the group into smaller groups and give each group the task planning a monitoring and evaluation
process for collecting one part of the missing information. Ask the groups to think about the following
elements:
• The purpose of the process (why do we need to collect that information?).
• Who is responsible.
• Where and when the collection will be carried out.
• Who will be targeted to gather the information (present members, past members, community members,
donors…?).
• Which methods to use to gather the information (interviews, community meetings, project records, group
discussions…).
• How to go about collecting the information.
• Analysing the data.
• Writing a report.
• Deciding if corrective action needs to be taken and if so, which action.
Experience
Below is a plan prepared by one group to collect missing information.
Missing information: systematic evaluation of our participation at different markets.
Element How/why/who/when?
Decide on the purpose of the process (why do we need to
collect that information?).
To know which markets and fairs are good (we will return)
and which are bad (we will abandon).
Decide who is responsible. Staff charged with marketing.
Decide where and when it will be carried out. The morning after each market.
Who will be targeted to gather the information (present
members, past members, community members,
donors…?).
Staff and members who participated at the stand to sell the
produce.
Decide which methods to use to gather the information
(interviews, community meeting, project records, group
discussion…).
Records:
• Records of quantity, quality and type of produce taken
and returned.
• Names of staff and members selling at the stand (are
they good or bad salespersons?).
• Total cash income and expenditure.
• Time investment including preparation, travel and
being present at the market.
• Evaluation of the stand/place/situation (are we visible,
do we attract customers etc).
How to go about collecting the information. Information to be collected for every market and fair.
Analyse the data. Data will be analysed once a year.
Write a report. Analysis will be presented at the last board meeting of the
year.
Decide if corrective action needs to be taken and if so,
which action.
Board will decide which markets and fairs will be attended
during the next year, who will be the salespersons, which
products will be sold and how to improve our stand.

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Exercise: Identifying our associations’controlling roles and responsibilities
Ask the group to brainstorm on the controlling roles in their association. For each role define whether the
board or the manager is responsible. Record the ideas on a flipchart.
Experience
Below is a list of controlling roles and responsibilities prepared by one group of trainees.
Controlling role Responsibility
Monitor how farmers’ projects are doing Manager, reporting to the board
Follow the application of skills learnt during trainings Manager, reporting to the board
Follow the evolution of the budget Manager, reporting to the board
Follow the evolution of the shop Manager, reporting to the board
Monitor the condition of materials and equipment and the
frequency of their use by members
Manager, reporting to the board
Monitor the condition of the office equipment Manager, reporting to the board
Measure the satisfaction of our members Manager, reporting to the board
• Controlling is having the ability to influence the performance of an association by taking timely corrective
action when and where necessary.
• In order to know if corrective action is necessary we need to measure performance.
• Performance is measured through monitoring and evaluation — the systematic collection of data.
• To be able to measure performance we need to know how the data at a certain point in time compares to
what the situation was at the starting point (baseline) and what the desired end situation is (objectives).

159
Handout 13.6.1: Project cycle34
34 Project cycle management technical guide, 2001. Socio-economic and gender analysis programme, Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/sd/seaga/downloads/EN/projecten.pdf
Evaluation: periodic
review of project
with feedback for
next project cycle
Identification:
generation of the
initial project idea and
preliminary design
Appraisal: analysis of
technical, financial,
economic, gender,
social, institutional and
environmental aspects
Proposal preparation,
approval and
financing: writing the
proposal, approval
for implementation,
arranging funds
Monitoring: ongoing
checks on progress
and feedback
Preparation:
detailed design of the
project addressing
technical and
operational aspects
Implementation of
project activities

160
Session 13.7: Preparing a responsibility chart
For any organisation to function effectively it is necessary that responsibilities be clear to everyone. A clearly
visible responsibility chart in the association’s office may help shed light on a situation which is all too often
diffuse.
Key issues
• Recognising the need for clarity about responsibilities
• Preparing a responsibility chart for the association
Materials required
Flip chart, board, tape, thumb pins and markers.
Input35
As in the workplace, it is important for associations that responsibilities for management roles be clear. It is
also important that there be a consensus regarding the responsibilities, that board members and manager be
aware of their responsibilities and that the information be easily accessible by other members. A responsibility
chart is a useful tool to ensure all of these.
Exercise: Preparing a responsibility chart
Using the results of the exercises on management roles and responsibilities completed in Sessions 13.1 to
13.6, a responsibility chart can now be prepared by compiling the results into one table.
Prepare a table like the one below. In the first column write in the management roles and activities identified
during the previous sessions. In the second and third columns, with a cross, show whose responsibility each
activity is. Hang the chart in the association’s office.
Management roles/activities
Responsibility
Board CEO
Planning
• AAA
• AAA
• AAA
Organising
• BBB
• BBB
• BBB
Staffing
• CCC
• CCC
• CCC
Directing or leading
• DDD
• DDD
• DDD
Controlling
• EEE
• EEE
• EEE
35 Smith, M. and Erwin J. Role and responsibility charting (RACI). http://www.pmforum.org/library/tips/pdf_files/RACI_R_Web3_1.pdf

161
Experience
Below is an example of a responsibility chart prepared by one group for the management role of ‘Planning’.
Management roles/activities in PLANNING
Responsibility
Board CEO
Prepare annual plan and budget X X
Meeting roster X
Market roster X
Operational planning for all activities X
Arrange audit X
Prepare annual report X
If useful, the second column can be divided into several columns, one for each board member. Alternatively
the names of the persons can be mentioned in the columns. In some instances it may be necessary to
mention committees or groups, even groups outside the association, if they perform certain management
roles or have an impact on the performance of the management roles.
If there is a wish to further detail the responsibility chart, this can be done using the following acronyms in
columns 2 and 3:
• R — This person has responsibility for an action or decision but may not necessarily have the authority to
act independently.
• A — This person must approve the action or decision in order for it to take effect.
• C — This person must be consulted before the action or decision but cannot affect its outcome.
• I — This person must be kept informed of an action or decision but cannot affect its outcome.
• X — This person has no formal role.
Ideally there is only one R and one A for each row. If more than one R and A are obtained, then it may be
necessary to work at a more detailed level or renegotiate to change some As to Cs or Is. C means that input
(consultation not approval) must be received before making a commitment. No cell may contain more than
one letter. First place the R and then proceed to the other levels.

162
Annex 1: Evaluating training
Evaluating training is a useful exercise for different reasons. It gives overall feedback to the trainer on how
the participants experienced the training. It can give information about which parts of the training were
appreciated the most and the least. Finally, it is a way of closing the training.
This annex gives several exercises for evaluating training.
Evaluation: Three faces
On a large sheet of paper draw three faces:
• a smiling face
• a frowning face
• a neutral face
Ask participants to match their overall feelings about your training to one of the faces by placing a cross under
the appropriate face. A space can be provided to participants who wish to make comments.
Finally, thank the participants for their participation and hard work and close the training.
Evaluation: Hand signals
Explain that you will read out a question and people should respond quickly with hand signals; you will not
allow time to think, discuss or check what other people think. What counts is the instant reaction; it will show
what a person thinks right now.
Demonstrate the hand signals.
Signal Meaning
2 thumbs up Feel very, very positive
1 thumb up Feel positive
1 thumb sideways Just OK
1 thumb down Feel negative
2 thumbs down Feel very, very negative
Practice the hand signals with the group. Then take a list of questions prepared in advance. Ask the first

163
question and get a response from the participants. You may want to document the response. Continue with
the second question and so on down the list. Examples of questions are:
• Did you enjoy this training?
• Did you find this training useful?
• Do you feel more confident about your role as a board member?
• Do you plan to apply what you learnt?
Following the exercise, and depending on the results, you may want to have a more detailed discussion on
one or two aspects of the training.
Evaluation: Small group discussion
Divide the group into small groups of three or four persons. Give the groups 10 or 15 minutes to discuss and
answer the following questions:
• Name one thing that you did not like about the whole training. Give reasons for your answer.
• What was the main thing you learnt from the whole training? Give reasons for your answer.
• Is there anything from today’s training that you need further information on to help you be more effective?
• What other topics do you feel you need training on to improve the running of your association?
Ask each group to share the results with the rest of the participants. Discuss as necessary.

164
Annex2:Listofexercises
ModuleSessionNameofexercise
Module1
Civilsociety,capacitybuildingandempowermentSession1.1
Make-upofsociety
Whatdoesourownsocietylooklike?
Session1.2
Socialcapital
Oursocialcapital
Session1.3
Capacitybuildingandempowerment
Whatcapacitymeansforourownassociation
Whatcananempoweredcommunityachieve?
Capacity,empowermentandourownassociation
Module2
Goodgovernance
Session2.1
Principlesofgoodgovernance
Examplesofgoodgovernanceinourenvironment
Goodgovernanceinourassociation
Session2.2
Structureofanassociation
Structurequestionnaire
Definingthegoverningstructureofourassociation
Decision-makinginourassociation
Whatmotivatesmetobeontheboard?
Session2.3
Staff
Staffquestionnaire
WhydoIneedaboard?
Ourmanagerneedstheboard
Session2.4
Valuesandpolicies
Valuesandpoliciesquestionnaire
Thevaluesofourassociation
Whatiswrongwiththisassociation?
Session2.5
Financialmanagement
Financialmanagementquestionnaire
Assessingourassociation’sfinancialmanagementcapacity
Session2.6
Boardmeetings
Boardmeetingsquestionnaire
Howgoodareourboardmeetings?
Session2.7
Teamwork
Teamworkquestionnaire
Identifyingactionsthatconstituteteamwork
Isourboardateam?
Tasks,dutiesandrolesofboa
Session2.8
Completingtheevaluationwheel
Summarisingthesessionsongoodgovernance
Completingtheevaluationwheel
Module3
Identifyingprioritiesthroughaproblemtreeanalysis
(Onesession)Brainstormingproblems
Module4
Strategicplanning
(Onesession)Why?Who?What?How?
Identifyavision
Definethemissionstatement
Definevalues
Formulateobjectives
Identifystrategies
Identifyactivities
Prepareanactionplan
Identifyingindicators

165
Module5
Preparingalogicalframework
(Onesession)Problemtreeanalysis
Strategicplanning
Module6
Preparingacapacitybuildingplan
(Onesession)Assessingtheperformanceoftheassociation
SWOTanalysis
Fromobstaclesandweaknessestoacapacitybuildingplan
Module7
Conflictresolution
(Onesession)Timeline
Venndiagram
Assessingtheperformanceoftheassociation
Reachingaconsensus
Fishbone
Preparinganactionplan
Module8
Participation
(Onesession)Whatdoesparticipationmeantome?
Participationinourassociation
Increasingparticipationinourassociation
Module9
Self-help,dependencyandvolunteerism
Session9.1
Self-helpanddependency
Casestudy‘Chernobyl20yearson’
Examplesofdependencyinmyassociation
FarmersFirstassociation
Internalresourcesandourdevelopmentproject
Session9.2
Volunteerism
Casestudyonvolunteerism
Whatismymotivationtoworkformyassociation?
Module10
Genderawareness
(Onesession)Drawingfarmers/fishers
Describingmenandwomen
Genderchange
Genderandcommunityinstitutions/associations
Module11
Communicationandpresentation
Session11.1
Communication
Whatiscommunication?
Whisperline
Goodandbadcommunicators
One-wayandtwo-waycommunication
Talking,listeningandobserving
Session11.2
Presentation
Usingvocalskills
Nervousnessatpresentinginfrontofagroup
Module12
Preparing,holdingandfollowingupmeetings
(Onesession)Perceptionsaboutmeetings
Currentmeetingpractice
Stepsinholdingameeting
Purposeofanagenda
Rolesofachair
Writinganinvitationletter
Preparingyourownmeeting

166
Module13
Managementandleadership
Session13.1
Definingmanagement
Everyoneisamanager
Identifyingourassociation’smanagementrolesandtasks
Managementdefinitions
Session13.2
Planning
Planninginyourassociation
Planningavegetablegarden
Identifyingourassociations’planningrolesandresponsibilities
Session13.3
Organising
Identifyingourassociations’organisationalrolesandresponsibilities
Session13.4
Staffing
Whatmotivatesme?
Renewingtheboard
Identifyingourassociations’staffingrolesandresponsibilities
Session13.5
Directingandleading
Identifyingleaders
Whatcharacteristicsshouldagoodleaderinyourassociationhave?
Whatisadvocacy?
Identifyingourassociations’directingandleadingrolesandresponsibilities
Session13.6
Controlling
Theprojectcycle
Whyaremonitoringandevaluationimportant?
Monitoringandevaluationinourassociation
Identifyingourassociations’controllingrolesandresponsibilities
Session13.7
Preparingaresponsibilitychart
Preparingaresponsibilitychart

167
Annex3:Listofhandouts
ModuleSessionHandout
Module1
Civilsociety,capacitybuildingandempowerment
Session1.1Make-upofsocietyHandout1.1.1:Mainsectorsinsociety
Session1.2SocialcapitalHandout1.2.1:Socialcapital
Session1.3Capacitybuildingand
empowerment
Handout1.3.1:Situationbefore
Handout1.3.2:Situationafter
Handout1.3.3:Whatcapacitybuildingandempowermentareallabout
Module2
Goodgovernance
Session2.1PrinciplesofgoodgovernanceNone
Session2.2StructureofanassociationHandout2.2.1:Structurequestionnaire
Session2.3StaffHandout2.3.1:Staffquestionnaire
Session2.4ValuesandpoliciesHandout2.4.1:Valuesandpoliciesquestionnaire
Handout2.4.2:‘Farmersforabrightfuture’association
Session2.5FinancialmanagementHandout2.5.1:Financialmanagementquestionnaire
Handout2.5.2:Ingredientsofstrongfinancialmanagementcapacity
Handout2.5.3:Assessingfinancialmanagementcapacity
Session2.6BoardmeetingsHandout2.6.1:Boardmeetingsquestionnaire
Session2.7TeamworkHandout2.7.1:Teamworkquestionnaire
Handout2.7.2:Tasks,dutiesandpositiondescriptionofboardmembers
Handout2.7.3:Questionsaboardmembershouldbeabletoanswer
Session2.8CompletingtheevaluationwheelNone
Module3
Identifyingprioritiesthroughaproblemtreeanalysis
(Onesession)Handout3.1:Problemtreepreparedbyagroupoffarmers
Module4
Strategicplanning
(Onesession)Handout4.1:Strategicplanningsummary
Module5
Preparingalogicalframework
(Onesession)Handout5.1:Summaryofthecontentofalogframe
Handout5.2:Typesofindicators
Module6
Preparingacapacitybuildingplan
(Onesession)None
Module7
Conflictresolution
(Onesession)None
Module8
Participation
(Onesession)Handout8.1:Levelsofparticipation
Module9
Self-help,dependencyandvolunteerism
Session9.1Self-helpanddependencyHandout9.1.1:Article‘VolunteersdriverecoveryofChernobyl-affectedcommunities’
Handout9.1.2:Case-studyofFarmersFirstassociation
Session9.2VolunteerismNone
Module10
Genderawareness
(Onesession)Handout10.1:Instructionsheet—Drawingafarmerorfisher
Handout10.2:Genderlens

168
Module11
Communicationandpresentation
Session11.1
Communication
Handout11.1.1:Communication
Handout11.1.2:Instructionsheetsforcommunicationexercise
Session11.2PresentationNone
Module12
Preparing,holdingandfollowingupmeetings
(Onesession)Handout12.1:Stepsinholdingameeting
Handout12.2:Outlineforanagenda
Handout12.3:Roles,tasksandqualitiesofagoodchair
Handout12.4:Roles,tasksandqualitiesofagoodsecretary
Handout12.5:Sampleinvitationletterforaboardmeeting
Handout12.6:Roles,tasksandqualitiesofagoodparticipantatameeting
Handout12.7:Instructionsheetforpreparingthenextboardmeeting
Module13
Managementandleadership
Session13.1DefiningmanagementNone
Session13.2PlanningHandout13.2.1:Casestudyvegetablegarden
Session13.3OrganisingNone
Session13.4StaffingNone
Session13.5DirectingandleadingHandout13.5.1:Qualitiesthatenhanceanddonotenhanceleadership
Handout13.5.2:Managementskillsofagoodleaderandhowthoseskillscanbeapplied
Session13.6ControllingHandout13.6.1:Projectcycle
Session13.7PreparingaresponsibilitychartNone

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