Understanding SBLCs

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200
2 08
Edition

UN RSTANDIN
NDER NG
SBLC
S CS (STAND BY LETT OF CREDI )
D TERS IT

WHAT UNDER T SURF
T IS U THE FACE

Gregg W. Humphr
G rey
Ovadya Funding Group Inte
O ernational, In
nc.

Understanding SBLCs (Stand By Letters of Credit)
Ovadya Funding Group International © 2006 updated April 2008
Letters of Credit

Understanding and Using Letters of Credit
Letters of credit accomplish their purpose by substituting the credit of one party for another, such as a bank,
corporation, or other financial institution for that of the customer, for the purpose of facilitating trade, balance sheet
enhancement, or project financing. There are basically two types: commercial and standby. The commercial letter of
credit is the primary payment mechanism for a specific or specific set of transaction(s), whereas the standby letter
of credit is a secondary payment mechanism. The funds or assets securing an LOC may be seen as “primary”
collateral, whereas the assets, or future assets of a project, for example, may be utilized as “secondary” collateral.
Here, the term “bank” will be used to designate the issuer of an LOC.

Overview

Letters of credit could be listed as a guarantee of payment by a bank (issuing institution) to a third party for a
specific amount of money, if certain conditions are met. A letter of credit is generally a term used for the guarantee
that a bank or any other financial body grants to an applicant business group. Letters Of Credit will explain the
details of Letters of credit in this article. For example, via such a letter, a financial body may take the responsibility
of payment to an exporter. This is an irrevocable document, which means that even if the applicant wants to do
otherwise, the financial organization will have to pay for the transaction.

Letters of credit are used extensively for financial transactions, today, with more and more financial organizations
specializing in the practice. This is especially beneficial for large transactions between two far-off countries.
Irrevocability is a major criterion of most credit letters today and the financial institution and the receiver are
considered the most important parties. Thus, often, the applicant is not even taken as a party to the transaction. The
bank can call back the letters of credit anytime during the transaction, a step that is subject to certain terms and
conditions. In case the applicant turns insolvent, the bank can claim a major portion of its loss from the
credit risk that the applicant has already paid for. The applicant has to submit certain documents in order to
avail the facilities of Letters of credit. Letters Of Credit may be structured that the entire transaction is also based on
a certain time level after which the bank will have to pay back the entire amount.

History

The oldest know LOC type device is the ancient south Asian credit instrument called Hundi.

The most important class of credit Instruments that evolved in India were termed Hundis. Their use was most
widespread in the twelfth century, and has continued till today. In a sense, they represent the oldest surviving form
of credit instrument. Hundis were used

* as remittance instruments (to transfer funds from one place to another)

* as credit instruments (to borrow money [IOUs])

* for trade transactions (as bills of exchange)

Ovadya Funding Group International, Inc. does NOT sell insurance, is NOT licensed to buy or sell insurance, or to by or sell securities, etc.  Furthermore,
OFGI is not a professional investment advisor and does NOT give investment advice.  Nor, does OFGI give tax or legal advice of any kind.   This
information is presented for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY.

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Nineteenth century Period Hundi

Hundis were of various kinds and each type had certain distinguishing features.

Darshani Hundi : This was a demand bill of exchange, payable on presentation according to the usage and
custom of the place. These were mainly of four types.

Sah-jog - was a hundi transferable by endorsement and delivery but payable only to a Sah or to his order. A Sah
was a respectable and responsible person, a man of worth and substance who was known in the market.

Dhanni-jog - was a demand bill of exchange payable only to the dhanni, i.e. the payee. This hundi was not
negotiable.

Firman-jog - hundis came into existence during the Muslim period. Firman is a Persian word meaning order and
therefore, firman-jog hundis were payable to the order of the person named. These hundis could be negotiated with
a simple or conditional endorsement.

D] Dekhavanhar - hundi was a bearer demand bill of exchange payable to the person presenting it to the drawee.
Thus it corresponded to a bearer cheque.


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Muddati Hundi : This is a usance bill and is payable after stipulated time or on a given date or on a determinable
future date or on the happening of a certain stipulated event. Muddati hundis of Sah-jog, dhanni-jog and firman-jog
types had the same features as those attached to the same types of darshani hundis. However, the most important
type of muddati hundi was the jokhami hundi, which was a documentary bill of exchange corresponding to the
present day bill of lading. This had been in use for centuries and payment was conditional on the safe arrival of
goods.

The first Western Letters of Credit in recorded history date back to late 15h Century Europe.

Letters Of Credit will now try to trace back the history of Letters of credit in and around the United States. Different
forms of financial transactions have been present in the world all through the ages. We have had moneylenders who
conducted large business based on financial transactions. They often conducted even international businesses. One
such moneylender, Shylock has been made immortal by Shakespeare in his play "The Merchant Of Venice". In
today's world, with the increase in technology and transport system, letters of credit are a very important part of
trans-continental businesses. In fact letters of credit play a very important role in the progress of the global
economy in today's world

Examples of Letters of Credit and Related Instruments

TRADITIONAL
Import Letters of Credit Import Documentary Collections
Banker’s Acceptance Export Letters of Credit
Export Documentary Collections Banker’s Acceptance
L/C Confirmations Standby L/Cs / Bid & Performance Bonds /
Payment Guarantees

NON-TRADITIONAL

Offshore L/C Issuance Authority to Pay
Open Account Management “Silent Confirmation” or Commitment to Purchase
Discounting of Accepted Drafts Electronic Export Document Preparation
A/R Financing

Impact on Corporate Law Internationally

Of great consequence for the later development of International commercial law was the foundation of colonial
companies, usually through royal charter, for the exploitation and administration of the colonies of the European
countries. The first, the Dutch East India Company, was chartered in 1602. Only such companies were able to attract
the immense amounts of capital that were needed. The liability of each member was limited to his contribution,
which was represented by share certificates that were transferable. Limited liability of shareholders and negotiability
of shares were in fact fundamental to the operation of these companies. They were adopted and refined later into
the most important vehicle of modern capitalism—the corporation.

Of great importance in international trade is the letter of credit. A letter of credit is essentially an authorization made
by a buyer to his agent (usually a bank) to make payment to a seller. The letter of credit comes into use when there
is a substantial time lag between the dispatch of goods by a seller and their receipt by the buyer – such as shipping
of goods from the “mother country” to colonies, or vice versa. The seller, having sent the goods off, has fulfilled his
part of the contract and seeks payment. The buyer, not having received the goods and being unable to inspect them,
will be reluctant to pay. To overcome this difficulty, the buyer and seller make arrangements to have intermediaries
operating in each of the two


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countries involved make settlement. The buyer instructs his bank to issue a letter of credit authorizing payment to
be made to the seller when the latter's part of the contract has been fulfilled (usually when the seller has dispatched
the correct quantity of conforming goods). The buyer's (or issuing) bank ascertains whether or not this has been
done by obtaining the cooperation of a bank in the seller's country. This bank (the “corresponding” bank), having
inspected all the relevant documents of title and bills of lading to ensure that the seller has performed, makes
payment to the seller, often by means of a bill of exchange or other credit device. The document of title, bills of
lading, and so forth are then mailed to the buyer. The buyer then reimburses his bank, which in turn reimburses the
corresponding bank for making payment to the seller.

In no other branch of international trade have the efforts at unification of law been more successful than in that of
letters of credit. In 1933 the International Chamber of Commerce in Paris published the Uniform Customs
and Practice for Documentary Credits, which was revised in 1951, in 1962, and once again in 1983. It has been
adopted by banks and by banking associations in almost all countries of the world.

Commercial Letter of Credit

Commercial letters of credit have been used for centuries to facilitate payment in international trade. Their use will
continue to increase as the global economy evolves.
Letters of credit used in international transactions are governed by the International Chamber of Commerce Uniform
Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits. The general provisions and definitions of the International Chamber
of Commerce are binding on all parties. Domestic collections in the United States are governed by the Uniform
Commercial Code.
A commercial letter of credit is a contractual agreement between a bank, known as the issuing bank, on behalf of
one of its customers, authorizing another bank, known as the advising or confirming bank, to make payment to the
beneficiary. The issuing bank, on the request of its customer, opens the letter of credit. The issuing bank makes a
commitment to honor drawings made under the credit. The beneficiary is normally the provider of goods and/or
services. Essentially, the issuing bank replaces the bank's customer as the payee.

Elements of a Letter of Credit

• A payment undertaking given by a bank (issuing bank)
• On behalf of a buyer (applicant)
• To pay a seller (beneficiary) for a given amount of money
• On presentation of specified documents representing the supply of goods (for example)
• Within specified time limits
• Documents must conform to terms and conditions set out in the letter of credit
• Documents to be presented at a specified place

Beneficiary
The beneficiary is entitled to payment as long as he can provide the documentary evidence required by the letter of
credit. The letter of credit is a distinct and separate transaction from the contract on which it is based. All parties
deal in documents and not in goods. The issuing bank is not liable for performance of the underlying contract
between the customer and beneficiary. The issuing bank's obligation to the buyer, is to examine all documents to
insure that they meet all the terms and conditions of the credit. Upon requesting demand for payment the
beneficiary warrants that all conditions of the agreement have been complied with. If the beneficiary (seller)
conforms to the letter of credit, the seller must be paid by the bank.

Issuing Bank
The issuing bank's liability to pay and to be reimbursed from its customer becomes absolute upon the completion of
the terms and conditions of the letter of credit. Under the provisions of the Uniform Customs and Practice for
Documentary Credits, the bank is given a reasonable amount of time after receipt of the documents to honor the
draft. Basically, think of the “bank” as the co-signer of a loan.


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The issuing banks' role is to provide a guarantee to the seller that if compliant documents are presented, the bank
will pay the seller the amount due and to examine the documents, and only pay if these documents comply with the
terms and conditions set out in the letter of credit.

Typically the documents requested will include a commercial invoice, a transport document such as a bill of lading or
airway bill and an insurance document; but there are many others. Letters of credit situation in documents, not
goods.

Advising Bank
An advising bank, usually a foreign correspondent bank of the issuing bank will advise the beneficiary. Generally, the
beneficiary would want to use a local bank to insure that the letter of credit is valid. In addition, the advising bank
would be responsible for sending the documents to the issuing bank. The advising bank has no other obligation
under the letter of credit. If the issuing bank does not pay the beneficiary, the advising bank is not obligated to pay.

Confirming Bank
A correspondent bank may be involved to confirm the letter of credit for the beneficiary. At the request of the issuing
bank, the correspondent obligates itself to insure payment under the letter of credit. The confirming bank would not
confirm the credit until it evaluated the country and bank where the letter of credit originates. The confirming bank
is usually the advising bank. A confirming bank may or may not be involved in a transaction.

Letter of Credit Characteristics
Negotiability
Letters of credit are usually negotiable. The issuing bank is obligated to pay not only the beneficiary, but also any
bank nominated by the beneficiary. Negotiable instruments are passed freely from one party to another almost in
the same way as money. To be negotiable, the letter of credit must include an unconditional promise to pay, on
demand or at a definite time. The nominated bank becomes a holder in due course. As a holder in due course, the
holder takes the letter of credit for value, in good faith, without notice of any claims against it. A holder in due
course is treated favorably under the UCC.
The transaction is considered a straight negotiation if the issuing bank's payment obligation extends only to the
beneficiary of the credit. If a letter of credit is a straight negotiation it is referenced on its face by "we engage with
you" or "available with ourselves". Under these conditions the promise does not pass to a purchaser of the draft as a
holder in due course.

Revocability
Letters of credit may be either revocable or irrevocable. A revocable letter of credit may be revoked or modified for
any reason, at any time by the issuing bank without notification. A revocable letter of credit cannot be confirmed. If
a correspondent bank is engaged in a transaction that involves a revocable letter of credit, it serves as the advising
bank.
Once the documents have been presented and meet the terms and conditions in the letter of credit, and the draft is
honored, the letter of credit cannot be revoked. The revocable letter of credit is not a commonly used instrument. It
is generally used to provide guidelines for shipment. If a letter of credit is revocable it would be referenced on its
face.
The irrevocable letter of credit may not be revoked or amended without the agreement of the issuing bank, the
confirming bank, and the beneficiary. An irrevocable letter of credit from the issuing bank insures the beneficiary
that if the required documents are presented and the terms and conditions are complied with, payment will be made.
If a letter of credit is irrevocable it is referenced on its face.


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Transfer and Assignment
The beneficiary has the right to transfer or assign the right to draw, under a credit only when the credit states that it
is transferable or assignable. Credits governed by the Uniform Commercial Code (Domestic) maybe transferred an
unlimited number of times. Under the Uniform Customs Practice for Documentary Credits (International) the credit
may be transferred only once. However, even if the credit specifies that it is nontransferable or nonassignable, the
beneficiary may transfer their rights prior to performance of conditions of the credit.

Sight and Time Drafts
All letters of credit require the beneficiary to present a draft and specified documents in order to receive payment. A
draft is a written order by which the party creating it, orders another party to pay money to a third party. A draft is
also called a bill of exchange.
There are two types of drafts: sight and time. A sight draft is payable as soon as it is presented for payment. The
bank is allowed a reasonable time to review the documents before making payment.
A time draft is not payable until the lapse of a particular time period stated on the draft. The bank is required to
accept the draft as soon as the documents comply with credit terms. The issuing bank has a reasonable time to
examine those documents. The issuing bank is obligated to accept drafts and pay them at maturity.

Standby Letter of Credit
The standby letter of credit serves a different function than the commercial letter of credit. The commercial letter of
credit is the primary payment mechanism for a transaction, or a specific set of transactions. The standby letter of
credit serves as a secondary payment mechanism. A bank will issue a standby letter of credit on behalf of a
customer to provide assurances of his ability to perform under the terms of a contract between the
customer and beneficiary. The parties involved with the transaction do not expect that the letter of
credit will ever be (directly) drawn upon (although in conjunction with a project for example, the project
may be permitted to utilize the instrument as collateral to guarantee the repayment of a loan, but it is
still of course incumbent upon the project to repay the loan plus interest; therefore it is necessary that
the project show sufficient wherewithal intrinsic and inherent to the project itself to demonstrate such
an ability).

The standby letter of credit assures the beneficiary of the performance of the customer's obligation (in the case of
project funding – the collateral relates, again, to the principal, but usually NOT the interest). The beneficiary is able
to draw under the credit by presenting a draft, copies of invoices, with evidence that the customer has not
performed its obligation. The bank is obligated to make payment if the documents presented comply with
the terms of the letter of credit. Standby letters of credit are issued by banks to stand behind monetary
obligations, to insure the refund of advance payment, to support performance and bid obligations, to insure the
completion of a sales contract, or to collateralize loan principal. The credit has an expiration date, usually 12 months,
but may be renewed, usually up to 5 years.

The standby letter of credit is often used to guarantee performance or to strengthen the credit worthiness of a
customer or project. In the above example, the letter of credit is issued by the bank and held by the supplier or
lender. The customer is provided open account terms. If payments are made in accordance with the suppliers' or
lender’s terms, the letter of credit would not be drawn on. The seller or lender pursues the customer for payment
directly. If the customer is unable to pay, the seller presents a draft and copies of invoices to the bank for payment.
The domestic standby letter of credit is governed by the Uniform Commercial Code. Under these provisions, the bank
is given until the close of the third banking day after receipt of the documents to honor the draft.


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Procedures for Using the Tool
The following procedures include a flow of events that follow the decision to use a Commercial Letter of Credit.
Procedures required to execute a Standby Letter of Credit are less rigorous. The standby credit is a domestic
transaction. It does not require a correspondent bank (advising or confirming). The documentation requirements are
also less tedious.

• Buyer and seller (or project and lender) agree to conduct business. The seller (or lender) wants a letter of
credit to guarantee payment (or principal).
• Buyer applies to his bank for a letter of credit in favor of the seller, or lender.
• Buyer's or Project’s bank approves the credit risk of the buyer or project, issues and forwards the credit to
its correspondent bank (advising or confirming). The correspondent bank is usually located in the same
geographical location as the seller or lender (beneficiary).
• Advising bank will authenticate the credit and forward the original credit to the seller or lender (beneficiary).
• Seller or lender (beneficiary) ships the goods, or develops the approved project, then verifies and develops
the documentary requirements to support the letter of credit. Documentary requirements may vary greatly
depending on the perceived risk involved in dealing with a particular company.
• In the case of a buy/sell transaction, Seller presents the required documents to the advising or confirming
bank to be processed for payment.
• Advising or confirming bank examines the documents for compliance with the terms and conditions of the
letter of credit.
• If the documents are correct, the advising or confirming bank will claim the funds by:
o Debiting the account of the issuing bank.
o Waiting until the issuing bank remits, after receiving the documents.
o Reimburse on another bank as required in the credit.
• Advising or confirming bank will forward the documents to the issuing bank.
• Issuing bank will examine the documents for compliance. If they are in order, the issuing bank will debit the
buyer's account.
• Issuing bank then forwards the documents to the buyer.

Standard Forms of Documentation
When making payment for product on behalf of its customer, the issuing bank must verify that all documents and
drafts conform precisely to the terms and conditions of the letter of credit. Although the credit can require an array
of documents, the most common documents that must accompany the draft include:

Commercial Invoice
The billing for the goods and services. It includes a description of merchandise, price, FOB origin, and name and
address of buyer and seller. The buyer and seller information must correspond exactly to the description in the letter
of credit. Unless the letter of credit specifically states otherwise, a generic description of the merchandise is usually
acceptable in the other accompanying documents.

Bill of Lading
A document evidencing the receipt of goods for shipment and issued by a freight carrier engaged in the business of
forwarding or transporting goods. The documents evidence control of goods. They also serve as a receipt for the
merchandise shipped and as evidence of the carrier's obligation to transport the goods to their proper destination.


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Warranty of Title
A warranty given by a seller to a buyer of goods that states that the title being conveyed is good and that the
transfer is rightful. This is a method of certifying clear title to product transfer. It is generally issued to the purchaser
and issuing bank expressing an agreement to indemnify and hold both parties harmless.

Letter of Indemnity
Specifically indemnifies the purchaser against a certain stated circumstance. Indemnification is generally used to
guaranty that shipping documents will be provided in good order when available.

Common Defects in Documentation
About half of all drawings presented contain discrepancies. A discrepancy is an irregularity in the documents that
causes them to be in non-compliance to the letter of credit. Requirements set forth in the letter of credit cannot be
waived or altered by the issuing bank without the express consent of the customer. The beneficiary should prepare
and examine all documents carefully before presentation to the paying bank to avoid any delay in receipt of
payment. Commonly found discrepancies between the letter of credit and supporting documents include:

• Letter of Credit has expired prior to presentation of draft.
• Bill of Lading evidences delivery prior to or after the date range stated in the credit.
• Stale dated documents.
• Changes included in the invoice not authorized in the credit.
• Inconsistent description of goods.
• Insurance document errors.
• Invoice amount not equal to draft amount.
• Ports of loading and destination not as specified in the credit.
• Description of merchandise is not as stated in credit.
• A document required by the credit is not presented.
• Documents are inconsistent as to general information such as volume, quality, etc.
• Names of documents not exact as described in the credit. Beneficiary information must be exact.
• Invoice or statement is not signed as stipulated in the letter of credit.

When a discrepancy is detected by the negotiating bank, a correction to the document may be allowed if it can be
done quickly while remaining in the control of the bank. If time is not a factor, the exporter should request that the
negotiating bank return the documents for corrections.
If there is not enough time to make corrections, the exporter should request that the negotiating bank send the
documents to the issuing bank on an approval basis or notify the issuing bank by wire, outline the discrepancies, and
request authority to pay. Payment cannot be made until all parties have agreed to jointly waive the discrepancy.


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Tips for Exporters

• Communicate with your customers in detail before they apply for letters of credit.
• Consider whether a confirmed letter of credit is needed.
• Ask for a copy of the application to be fax to you, so you can check for terms or conditions that may cause
you problems in compliance.
• Upon first advice of the letter of credit, check that all its terms and conditions can be complied with within
the prescribed time limits.
• Many presentations of documents run into problems with time-limits. You must be aware of at least three
time constraints - the expiration date of the credit, the latest shipping date and the maximum time allowed
between dispatch and presentation.
• If the letter of credit calls for documents supplied by third parties, make reasonable allowance for the time
this may take to complete.
• After dispatch of the goods, check all the documents both against the terms of the credit and against each
other for internal consistency.

Summary
The use of the letters of credit as a tool to reduce risk has grown substantially over the past decade. Letters of credit
accomplish their purpose by substituting the credit of the bank for that of the customer, for the purpose of
facilitating trade.
The credit professional should be familiar with two types of letters of credit: commercial and standby. Commercial
letters of credit are used primarily to facilitate foreign trade. The commercial letter of credit is the primary payment
mechanism for a transaction.
The standby letter of credit serves a different function. The standby letter of credit serves as a secondary payment
mechanism. The bank will issue the credit on behalf of a customer to provide assurances of his ability to perform
under the terms of a contract.
Upon receipt of the letter of credit, the credit professional should review all items carefully to insure that what is
expected of the seller is fully understood and that he can comply with all the terms and conditions. When compliance
is in question, the buyer should be requested to amend the credit

Understanding and Using Letters of Credit, Part II

Purpose
The purpose of this document is to provide a general understanding of letters of credit, their use and application.
The topics covered are the following:

• General background information;
• Types of letters of credit;
• Common problems with letters of credit;
• Procedures for establishing letters of credit;
• Amendments; and
• General tips to both buyers and sellers.

In addition, attachments to this document detail a step-by-step letter of credit procedures


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Definition
Letters of credit are commonly used to reduce credit risk to sellers in both domestic and international sales
arrangements. By having a bank issue a letter of credit, in essence, one is substituting the bank's credit worthiness
for that of the customer.

Types
There are two basic forms of letters of credit: Standby and Documentary. Documentary letters of credit can be either
Revocable or Irrevocable, although the first is extremely rare. Irrevocable letters of credit can be Confirmed or Not
Confirmed. Each type of credit has advantages and disadvantages for the buyer and for the seller, which this
information will review below. Charges for each type will also vary. However, the more the banks assume risk by
guaranteeing payment, the more they will charge for providing the service.

Documentary Revocable Letter of Credit
Revocable credits may be modified or even canceled by the buyer without notice to the seller. Therefore, they are
generally unacceptable to the seller.

Documentary Irrevocable Letter of Credit
This is the most common form of credit used in international trade. Irrevocable credits may not be modified or
canceled by the buyer. The buyer's issuing bank must follow through with payment to the seller so long as the seller
complies with the conditions listed in the letter of credit. Changes in the credit must be approved by both the buyer
and the seller. If the documentary letter of credit does not mention whether it is revocable or irrevocable, it
automatically defaults to irrevocable. See Credit Administration, Sample Procedure for Administration of a
Documentary Irrevocable Letters of Credit for a systematic procedure for establishing an irrevocable letter of credit.

There are two forms of irrevocable credits:

Unconfirmed credit (the irrevocable credit not confirmed by the advising bank)
In an unconfirmed credit, the buyer's bank issuing the credit is the only party responsible for payment to the seller.
The seller's advising bank pays only after receiving payment from the issuing bank. The seller's advising bank merely
acts on behalf of the issuing bank and, therefore, incurs no risk.

Confirmed credit (the irrevocable confirmed credit)
In a confirmed credit, the advising bank adds its guarantee to pay the seller to that of the buyer's issuing bank.
Once the advising bank reviews and confirms that all documentary requirements are met, it will pay the seller. The
advising bank will then look to the issuing bank for payment. Confirmed Irrevocable letters of credit are used when
trading in a high-risk area where war or social, political, or financial instability are real threats. Also common when
the seller is unfamiliar with the bank issuing the letter of credit or when the seller needs to use the confirmed letter
of credit to obtain financing its bank to fill the order. A confirmed credit is more expensive because the bank has
added liability.


Standby Letter of Credit
This credit is a payment or performance guarantee used primarily in the United States. They are often called non-
performing letters of credit because they are only used as a backup should the buyer fail to pay as agreed. Thus, a

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stand-by letter of credit allows the customer to establish a rapport with the seller by showing that it can fulfill its
payment commitments. Standby letters of credit are used, for example, to guarantee repayment of loans, to ensure
fulfillment of a contract, and to secure payment for goods delivered by third parties. The beneficiary to a standby
letter of credit can cash it on demand. Stand-by letters of credit are generally less complicated and involve far less
documentation requirements than irrevocable letters of credit. See Credit Administration, Sample Procedure for
Administration of a Standby Letter of Credit for a systematic procedure for establishing a standby letter of credit.

Special Letters of Credit
The following is a brief description of some special letters of credit.

Back-to-Back Letter of Credit
This is a new letter of credit opened based on an already existing, nontransferable credit used as collateral. Traders
often use back-to-back arrangements to pay the ultimate supplier. A trader receives a letter of credit from the buyer
and then opens another letter of credit in favor of the supplier. The first letter of credit serves as collateral for the
second credit.

Deferred Payment (Usance) Letter of Credit
In Deferred Payment Letters of Credit, the buyer accepts the documents related to the letter of credit and agrees to
pay the issuing bank after a fixed period. This credit gives the buyer a grace period for payment.

Red Clause Letter of Credit
Red Clause Letters of Credit provide the seller with cash prior to shipment to finance production of the goods. The
buyer's issuing bank may advance some or all of the funds. The buyer, in essence, extends financing to the seller
and incurs the risk for all advanced credits.

Revolving Letter of Credit
With a Revolving Letter of Credit, the issuing bank restores the credit to its original amount once it has been used or
drawn down. Usually, these arrangements limit the number of times the buyer may draw down its line over a
predetermined period.

Transferable Letter of Credit
This type of credit allows the seller to transfer all or part of the proceeds of the original letter of credit to a second
beneficiary, usually the ultimate supplier of the goods. The letter of credit must clearly state that it is transferable for
its to be considered as such. This is a common financing tactic for middlemen and is common in East Asia.


Assignment of Proceeds
The beneficiary of a letter of credit may assign all or part of the proceeds under a credit to a third party (the
assignee). However, unlike a transferred credit, the beneficiary maintains sole rights to the credit and is solely
responsible for complying with its terms and conditions. For the assignee, an assignment only means that the paying
bank, once it receives notice of the assignment, undertakes to follow the assignment instructions, if and when

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payment is made. The assignee is dependent upon the beneficiary for compliance, and thus this arrangement is
riskier than a transferred credit. Before agreeing to an assignment of proceeds arrangement, the assignee should
carefully review the original letter of credit.

Common Problems with Letters of Credit
Most problems result from the seller's inability to fulfill obligations stated in the letter of credit. The seller may find
these terms difficult or impossible to fulfill and, either tries to fulfill them and fails, or asks the buyer to amend to the
letter of credit. As most letters of credit are irrevocable, amendments may at times be difficult since both the buyer
and the seller must agree.
Sellers may have one or more of the following problems:

• The shipment schedule cannot be met;
• The stipulations concerning freight costs are unacceptable;
• The price becomes too low due to exchange rates fluctuations;
• The quantity of product ordered is not the expected amount;
• The description of product is either insufficient or too detailed; and,
• The stipulated documents are difficult or impossible to obtain.

Even when sellers accept the terms of a letter of credit, problems often arise late in the process. When this occurs,
the buyer's and seller's banks will try to negotiate any differences. In some cases, the seller can correct the
documents and present them within the time specified in the letter of credit. If the documents cannot be corrected,
the advising bank will ask the issuing bank to accept the documents despite the discrepancies found. It is important
to note that, if the documents are not in accord with the specifications of the letter of credit, the buyer's issuing bank
is no longer obligated to pay.

Basic Procedures for Establishing a Letter of Credit
The letter of credit process has been standardized by a set of rules published by the International Chamber of
Commerce (ICC). These rules are called the Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (UCP) and are
contained in ICC Publication No. 500. The following is the basic set of steps used in a letter of credit transaction.
Specific letter of credit transactions follow somewhat different procedures.

1. After the buyer and seller agree on the terms of a sale, the buyer arranges for his bank to open a letter of
credit in favor of the seller. Note: The buyer will need to have a line of credit established at the bank or
provide cash collateral for the amount of the letter of credit.
2. The buyer's issuing bank prepares the letter of credit, including all of the buyer's instructions to the seller
concerning shipment and required documentation.
3. The buyer's bank sends the letter of credit to the seller's advising bank.
4. The seller's advising bank forwards the letter of credit to the seller.
5. The seller carefully reviews all conditions stipulated in the letter of credit. If the seller cannot comply with
any of the provisions, it will ask the buyer to amend the letter of credit.
6. After final terms are agreed upon, the seller ships the goods to the appropriate port or location.


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7. After shipping the goods, the seller obtains the required documents. Please note that the seller may have to
obtain some documents prior to shipment.
8. The seller presents the documents to its advising bank along with a draft for payment.
9. The seller's advising bank reviews the documents. If they are in order, it will forward them to the buyer's
issuing bank. If a confirmed letter of credit, the advising bank will pay the seller (cash or a bankers'
acceptance).
10. Once the buyer's issuing bank receives and reviews the documents, it either (1) pays if there are no
discrepancies; or (2) forwards the documents to the buyer if there are discrepancies for its review and
approval.

Opening a Letter of Credit

Level of Detail
The wording in a letter of credit should be simple, but specific. The more detailed an L/C is, the more likely the seller
will reject it as too difficult to fulfill. At the same time, the buyer will wish to define in detail what its is paying for.

Type of Credit
Letters of credit used in trade are usually either irrevocable unconfirmed credits or irrevocable confirmed credits. In
choosing which type to open both the seller and the buyer should consider the generally accepted payment
processes in each country, the value and demand for the goods, and the reputation of the buyer and seller.

Documents
In specifying required documents, it is very important to include those required for customs and those reflecting the
agreement reached between the buyer and the seller. Required documents usually include the bill of lading, a
commercial and/or consular invoice, the bill of exchange, the certificate of origin, and the insurance document. Other
documents required may be an inspection certificate, copies of a cable sent to the buyer with shipping information, a
confirmation from the shipping company of the state of its ship, and a confirmation from the forwarder that the
goods are accompanied by a certificate of origin. Prices should be stated in the currency of the letter of credit and
documents should in the same language as the letter of credit


The Letter of Credit Application
The following information should be addressed when establishing a letter of credit.

1. Beneficiary The seller should provide to the buyer its full corporate name and correct address. A simple
mistake here may translate to inconsistent or improper documentation at the other end.

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2. Amount The seller should state the actual amount of the letter of credit. One can request a maximum
amount when there is doubt as to the actual count or quantity of the goods. Another option is to use words
like "approximate", "circa", or "about" to indicate an acceptable 10 % plus or minus from the stated amount.
For consistency, if you use this wording you will need to use it also in connection with the quantity.
3. Validity The seller will need time to ship and to prepare all the necessary documents. Therefore, the seller
should ensure that the validity and period for document presentation after the shipment of the goods is long
enough.
4. Seller's Bank The seller should list its advising bank as well as a reimbursing bank if applicable. The
reimbursing bank is the local bank appointed by the issuing bank as the disbursing bank.
5. Type of Payment Availability The buyer and seller may agree to use sight drafts, time drafts, or some sort of
deferred payment mechanism.
6. Desired Documents The buyer specifies the necessary documents. Buyers can list, for example, a bill of
lading, a commercial invoice, a certificate of origin, certificates of analysis, etc. The seller must agree to all
documentary requirements or suggest an amendment to the letter of credit.
7. Notify Address This is the address to notify upon the imminent arrival of goods at the port or airport of
destination. A notification listing damaged goods is also sent to this address, if applicable.
8. Description of Goods The seller should provide a short and precise description of the goods as well as the
quantity involved. Note the comments in step #2 above concerning approximate amounts.
9. Confirmation Order With international arrangements, the seller may wish to confirm the letter of credit with
a bank in its country.

Amendment of a Letter of Credit
For the seller to change the terms noted on an irrevocable letter of credit, it must request an amendment from the
buyer. The amendment process is as follows:

1. The seller requests a modification or amendment of questionable terms in the letter of credit;
2. If the buyer and issuing bank agree to the changes, the issuing bank will change the letter of credit;
3. The buyer's issuing bank notifies the seller's advising bank of the amendment; and
4. The seller's advising bank notifies the seller of the amendment. Tips for Buyers and Sellers


Seller

1. Before signing a sales contract, the seller should make inquiries about the buyer's creditworthiness and
business practices. The seller's bank will generally assist in this investigation.
2. In many cases, the issuing bank will specify the advising and/or confirming bank. These designations are
usually based on the issuing bank's established correspondent relationships. The seller should ensure that
the advising/confirming bank is a financially sound institution.
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3. The seller should confirm the good standing of the buyer's issuing bank if the letter of credit is unconfirmed.
4. For confirmed letters of credit, the seller's advising bank should be willing to confirm the letter of credit
issued by the buyer's bank. If the advising bank refuses to do so, the seller should request another issuing
bank as the current bank may be or is in the process of becoming insolvent.
5. The seller should carefully review the letter of credit to ensure its conditions can be met. All documents must
conform to the terms of the letter of credit. The seller must comply with every detail of the letter of credit
specifications; otherwise the security given by the credit is lost.
6. The seller should ensure that the letter of credit is irrevocable.
7. If amendments are necessary, the seller should contact the buyer immediately so that the buyer can
instruct the issuing bank to make the necessary changes quickly. The seller should keep the letter of credit's
expiration date in mind throughout the amendment process.
8. The seller should confirm with the insurance company that it can provide the coverage specified in the letter
of credit and that insurance charges listed in the letter of credit are correct. Typical insurance coverage is for
CIF (cost, insurance and freight) often the value of the goods plus about 10 percent.
9. The seller must ensure that the goods match the description in the letter of credit and the invoice
description.
10. The seller should be familiar with foreign exchange limitations in the buyer's country that could hinder
payment procedures.

Buyer

1. When choosing the type of letter of credit, the buyer should consider the standard payment methods in the
seller's country.
2. The buyer should keep the details of the purchase short and concise.
3. The buyer should be prepared to amend or re-negotiate terms of the letter of credit with the seller. This is a
common procedure in international trade. With irrevocable letters of credit, the most common type, all
parties must agree to amend the document.
4. The buyer can reduce the foreign exchange risk by buying forward currency contracts.
5. The buyer should use a bank experienced in foreign trade as its issuing bank.
6. The validation time stated on the letter of credit should give the seller ample time to produce the goods or
to pull them out of stock.
7. A letter of credit is not fail-safe. Banks are only responsible for the documents exchanged and not the goods
shipped. Documents in conformity with the letter of credit specifications cannot be rejected on grounds that
the goods were not delivered as specified in the contract. The goods shipped may not in fact be the goods
ordered and paid for.
8. Purchase contracts and other agreements pertaining to the sale between the buyer and seller are not the
concern of the issuing bank. Only the letter of credit terms are binding on the bank.
9. Documents specified in the letter of credit should include those the buyer requires for customs clearance.


Using Stand By Letters of Credit for Project Financing

Stand By Letters of Credit may be utilized for the purpose of project financing in one or more of five ways.

1. The project purchases a Stand By Letter of Credit from an issuing institution with its own funds at a
discount, and then pursues a funding for the project, now properly collateralized, via a second institution –
lender.

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2. The project engages the services of a “collateral provider” to provide the cash necessary to purchase a
Stand By Letter of Credit where the provider allows the project to encumber the SBLC.

3. The project uses non-cash assets as collateral and engages an institution to issue a SBLC. The issuing
institution allows the project to encumber the SBLC in order to assist in obtaining financing.

4. The project engages an institution to assimilate non-cash collateral (securities to be purchased at a discount
out of loan proceeds for example) and the institution issues an SBLC and allows the project to encumber the
SBCL in order to assist in obtaining financing.

5. A(n) Investor(s) uses cash or non-cash assets to acquire an SBLC from an issuing bank on behalf of a
project. The Investor(s) obtains a loan against the now over collateralized project on behalf o the project,
and in turn lends some of the proceeds of such a loan to the project.

Again, in order for a project to successfully utilize an SBLC, it is necessary for the issuing institution (and/or
collateral provider) to have sufficient confidence in the project that it is unlikely that the SBCL will be “called” by the
ultimate project lender.

By the same token, it is necessary for the end lender to have the same high level of confidence in the project, that
although the project is over collateralized by an SBLC, the lender will not have to “call” the SBLC.

It is necessary to obtain those levels of comfort with each of the parties involved in the transaction.

– Securities lending is a “two sided coin”. The “head” is the collateral (cash backed security for example) and the
“tail” is the project (exit strategy regarding loan repayment). Just as a coin has two sides, so does securities
lending.

Put another way, “it’s ALL about the collateral AND it’s ALL about the project”.

Strength in one area and not the other is a recipe for failure to fund a project.

Issuers of SBLCs, collateral providers, and lenders want to become involved with projects that are expected to
succeed – the failure of a project, and the necessity to “call” an SBLC is akin to a home foreclosure. It is something
all parties want to avoid.

Please feel free to contact us, should you wish our profession advice as to how to make a particular project stronger
and more likely to be able to utilize such methods for funding. Often, in today’s credit marketplace, there are few
alternatives to such transactions. We refer the reader to another article entitled “The Real World of Large Project
Financing” for further details and discussion of alternate methods – as well as the “pros” and “cons” of each.


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