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Understanding Sustainable Architecture 1st Edition Helen Bennetts
Understanding Sustainable
Architecture
Understanding Sustainable Architecture is a review of the assumptions, beliefs,
goals and bodies of knowledge that underlie the endeavour to design (more)
sustainable buildings and other built developments.
Much of the available advice and rhetoric about sustainable architecture
begins from positions where important ethical, cultural and conceptual issues
are simply assumed. If sustainable architecture is to be a truly meaningful pursuit
then it must be grounded in a coherent theoretical framework. This book sets
out to provide that framework. Through a series of self-reflective questions for
designers, the authors argue the ultimate importance of reasoned argument in
ecological, social and built contexts, including clarity in the problem framing
and linking this framing to demonstrably effective actions. Sustainable architec-
ture, then, is seen as a revised conceptualization of architecture in response to a
myriad of contemporary concerns about the effects of human activity.
The aim of this book is to be transformative by promoting understanding and
discussion of commonly ignored assumptions behind the search for a more envir-
onmentally sustainable approach to development. It is argued that design deci-
sions must be based on both an ethical position and a coherent understanding
of the objectives and systems involved. The actions of individual designers and
appropriate broader policy settings both follow from this understanding.
Terry Williamson was educated in engineering and architecture in Australia
and is Dean of the School of Architecture, Landscape Architecture and Urban
Design at the University of Adelaide, Australia. Antony Radford was educated
in architecture and planning in the United Kingdom and is Professor of Archi-
tecture at the University of Adelaide. Helen Bennetts was educated in archi-
tecture in Australia and, after researching how architects actually use information
in seeking to produce environmentally responsible buildings, now concentrates
on the family business of wine- and cheese-making. All three have taught,
researched and published in areas of energy, environment and sustainability.
This book draws particularly on their development and teaching of a new course
called Issues in Urban and Landscape Sustainability.
Allie
Understanding
Sustainable
Architecture
Terry Williamson,
Antony Radford
and Helen Bennetts
London and New York
First published 2003 by Spon Press
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Spon Press
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
Spon Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
© 2003 Terry Williamson, Antony Radford and Helen Bennetts
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested.
ISBN 0-415-28351-5 (hbk)
ISBN 0-415-28352-3 (pbk)
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004.
ISBN 0-203-21729-2 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-27313-3 (Adobe eReader Format)
To our families – past, present and future generations
Allie
Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
1 Sustainability 1
ESD (?) 3
A global framework 4
A cultural/philosophical framework 7
The manageable (but fragile) earth 9
Towards a basis for action 12
2 Images 19
Fields of significance 19
World citizens and pluralism 22
The international culture of architecture 24
Architectural expression 26
The natural image 27
The cultural image 29
The technical image 31
Overlapping images 33
3 Ethics 42
Questions about value 44
The moral class 47
Rights and duties 48
The consequentialist approach 51
Intergenerational equity 51
Environmental ethics 53
Discourse ethics 59
Beautiful acts 60
4 Objectives 64
Stakeholders 65
Knowledge 67
Design advice 70
The globalization of standards and regulations 75
Local contexts 77
5 Systems 81
A systems view 82
Buildings as systems 84
The environment 86
Social and cultural relevance 89
The occupants 91
Economic performance 91
The building 92
The life cycle of a building 93
Life cycle sustainability assessment 97
Environment assessment 98
Economic assessment 99
The environmental assessment of building 100
Iterative multiple criteria decision-making 101
Recognizing assumptions 104
6 Green houses 107
Climate and architecture 107
The science of global warming 111
The international politics 114
Global warming and building design 119
Building design and climate change 120
The appropriate objectives 125
7 Cohesion 127
Responsive cohesion 128
Place, people and stuff 128
Reflective practice and reasoned argument 130
Credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability 131
Public policy and the status quo 132
The future 133
Appendix: A partial checklist for sustainable architecture 138
Bibliography 145
Index 155
viii Contents
Preface
Towards the end of the twentieth century the word sustainable (and sustain-
ability) entered into the consciousness of architects and became an essential
concern in the discourse of architecture.
Our decision to write this book stemmed from two sources: research on how
architects conceptualized sustainability in the design of houses, and the teaching
of a course called Issues in Urban and Landscape Sustainability to students of
architecture and landscape architecture. In both cases we found that although
there is much written about the urgency of taking sustainability seriously, and
much advice about building techniques to adopt, there was little which addressed
the interrelated issues of the sociocultural, ethical, professional and techno-
logical complexities of ‘sustainable architecture’. The following chapters record
our understanding of these complexities. They are relatively self-contained, so
that each chapter can be read alone.
Sustainable architecture is a revised conceptualization of architecture in
response to a myriad of contemporary concerns about the effects of human
activity. In this book we review the assumptions, beliefs, goals, processes and
knowledge sources that underlie the endeavour to design buildings that address
sustainability in environmental, sociocultural, and economic terms. Rather than
providing ‘how to’ building advice or critically reviewing existing projects that
claim to be examples of sustainable architecture, we aim to bring to the fore-
front some components of the milieu in which other books that do address
these topics are positioned. We argue that the design of sustainable architecture
must be grounded in an inclusive view of the scope of sustainability in each
situation, and without such an approach attempts to use available published
advice may in many ways be counterproductive.
In the core chapters of the book we address approaches to architectural
sustainability. First, we consider the ways that sustainability is conceptualized in
architecture. We then turn to questions about the ethical or moral bases of our
decision-making and different perceptions of stakeholders, from anthropocen-
tric ‘human rights’ or ‘consequentialist’ positions to a ‘deep ecology’ position in
which humans have no more rights than other stakeholders in our planet. We
suggest that sustainable architecture is most likely to result from the inclination
of architects to perform beautiful acts. How this might be brought about leads to
a discussion of the nature of architectural decision making, and the roles of
guidelines and regulations as means-based and performance-based assertions of
‘what should happen’ in design. The reductionist approach inherent in most
design guides, standards and regulations ignores the many contextual issues that
surround sustainable designing. This is followed by an exploration of a way of
thinking using a systems approach to building design combining both quantifi-
able and non-quantifiable factors. How the framing of objectives and advice is
connected with larger political and economic concerns is illustrated in a discus-
sion of the promotion of ‘greener houses’ in response to concerns about climate
change, the dominant international environmental issue of our time. The final
chapter of the book draws together this discussion, and addresses the question of
how we might recognize design for truly sustainable architecture through a
search for ‘responsive cohesion’.
Our aim in this book is to be transformative by promoting understanding and
discussion of commonly ignored assumptions behind the search for a more envir-
onmentally sustainable approach to development. We argue that design decisions
must be based on both an ethical position and a coherent understanding of the
objectives, processes and systems involved. The actions of individual designers
and appropriate broader policy settings both follow from this understanding.
x Preface
Acknowledgements
We thank many people: Peter Fawcett, Deborah White, Scott Drake, Mark
Jackson and Garrett Cullity for reading and commenting on drafts of the book,
Warwick Fox for his initial encouragement and guidance on responsive cohesion,
Veronica Soebarto, Deborah White, Susan Pietsch, Dinah Ayers, Barry Rowney,
Derrick Kendrick and Nguyen Viet Huong for their help and advice and our
colleagues at the School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture at the
University of Adelaide for their support. We particularly thank Susan Coldicutt
for her wise counsel. We also acknowledge the Australian Research Council for
funding a linked project on ethics, sustainability and houses. Finally we thank
the students, present and past, who have motivated us to write this book.
Material from The Hannover Principles is reproduced by permission of William
McDonough & Partners.
Material from Our Common Future by The World Commission on Environ-
ment and Development (1990) is reproduced by permission of Oxford Univer-
sity Press Australia © Oxford University Press, http://www.oup.com.au
Photographs are reproduced by permission of the photographers or other
copyright holders: T. R. Hamzah & Yeang Sdn Bhd (photograph of the model
of the EDITT Tower) Walter Dobkins (photographs of the Comesa Centre),
Cradle Huts P/L (photograph of Kia Ora Hut), Richard Harris (photograph of
Hollow Spruce), Barry Rowney (photograph of The Mosque at New Gourna),
George Baird (photograph of Eastgate), Ian Lambot(photographof Commerzbank).
Figure 2.1 is reproduced from K. Milton (ed.) Environmentalism: the view from
anthropology, Routledge, London, 1993 with the permission of Taylor and Francis.
1.1 The fragile Earth: View over the moon from Apollo 8, 22 December 1968 (NASA).
Sustainability 1
1 Sustainability
At certain times in the practice of a discipline, concepts and strategies based on
common themes or concerns can be seen to arise. The continuation, small
shifts, fundamental transformations, or replacement of issues can be affected by
institutional settings such as political events, changes in technologies, scientific
discoveries, calamities (actual or imagined) or economic practices and processes.
Viewed in this way, ‘green’, ‘ecological’, and ‘environmental’ are labels that
embody the notion that the design of buildings should fundamentally take
account of their relationship with and impact on the natural environment. The
formation of these concepts can, more or less, be traced to the early 1970s.
Emerging from the same period, labels such as ‘low energy’, ‘solar’ and ‘passive’
are used to denote approaches to designing concerned with the concept of
reducing reliance on fossil fuels to operate a building. In general, the labels refer
to a particular strategy employed to achieve the conceptual outcome, and the
strategies that occur in a discourse must be understood as instances from a range
of theoretical possibilities. The promotion of a restricted range of strategic
options regulates the discourse and the ways of practising the discipline. An
examination of sustainable design discourse and practice will reveal something
of this regulation.1
Overall, practitioners modify their concept of their discipline
to embrace these new themes, concerns and ways of practice.2
Sustainable architecture, then, is a revised conceptualization of architecture
in response to a myriad of contemporary concerns about the effects of human
activity. The label ‘sustainable’ is used to differentiate this conceptualization
from others that do not respond so clearly to these concerns.
Not long ago a major part of the image of good architecture was a building
that was suitable for its environmental context – one that would adequately
protect the inhabitants from the climate. More recently it is ‘the environment’
that has been seen as needing protection. The concept of good architecture has
shifted to encompass the notion of a building that is sensitive to its environment
– one that will adequately protect the environment from the potential pollution
and degradation caused by human habitation. In many ways the built environ-
ment, the very means by which we attempt to create secure conditions, is itself
seen as becoming (or having become) a source of danger and threat.
2 Sustainability
At a certain point . . . – very recently in historical terms – we started
worrying less about what nature can do to us, and more about what we
have done to nature. This marks the transition from the predominance of
external risk to that of manufactured risk.
(Giddens 1999a)
Manufactured risk is created by the impact we are having upon the world.
It refers to risk situations which humans have never encountered, and which
we therefore have no traditional experience in dealing with. They result
directly from the applications of technology in response to the circumstances of
increasing populations3
and desired higher standards of living. Charles Jenks,
best known as a critic writing on modern and postmodern architecture, states
unequivocally:
The problems of a modern technocratic civilization will always keep one
step ahead of any amelioration because the reigning ideology of continual
human growth – both numerical and economic – is unrealistic. It will
continue to manufacture new problems, equivalents of the greenhouse
effect and the hole in the ozone layer. No matter how many piecemeal
solutions to these are instituted, the problems will go on multiplying
because, for the first time in history, humanity rather than the Earth has
become the dominant background. The players have become the stage.
(Jenks 1993: 126–7)
Ultimately, then, manufactured risk is an issue that needs to be addressed. As
Sylvan and Bennett observe,
To be green in more than a token fashion is to have some commitment to
containing or reducing the environmental impact of humans on the Earth
or regions of it. . . . [That] means commitment in the immediate future
term to either:
• human population reduction, or
• less impacting lifestyles for many humans, or
• improvements in technology to reduce overall impact.
(Sylvan and Bennett 1994: 23)
This can be put succinctly in the form of the equation:
EI = P × C × T, or
Environmental Impact of a group = Population × Consumption ×
Technology
(Sylvan and Bennett 1994: 47)
The implication of this formula is that for the human race to continue
indefinitely its environmental impact must be no more than the level that the
Sustainability 3
world can sustain indefinitely, known as the ‘carrying capacity’ of the world’s
ecosystems.4
However, this is not a static system; the environmental impact of
humans changes over time (historically increasing, but neither the population,
consumption nor the technology are constants and impacts can potentially
decrease as well as increase). Perhaps, in the very long term, what happens does
not really matter: humans are more likely to miss having a habitable world than
what might be left of the world is likely to miss humans, and in a few more
million years civilization might start all over again. The very idea that human
action can destroy the Earth repeats in negative form the hubristic ambitions of
those who seek complete human control of the world (Harvey 1998).5
Perhaps the destiny of man is to have a short but fiery, exciting and
extravagant life rather than a long, uneventful and vegetative existence.
Let other species – the amoebas, for example – which have no spiritual
ambitions inherit an Earth still bathed in plenty of sunshine.
(Georgescu-Roegen 1993: 105)
But most of us would wish to avoid the more catastrophic prospects, at least
during our own, our children’s and our grandchildren’s lifetimes. Buildings
contribute directly and substantially to manufactured risk because of the amount
of raw materials, energy and capital they devour and the pollutants that they
emit, and architects therefore have a specific and significant professional role in
reducing this risk.
ESD (?)
‘Sustainable’ is defined in dictionaries in terms of continuity and maintenance
of resources, for example:
sus.tain.able adj (ca. 1727) 1: capable of being sustained 2 a: of, relating
to, or being a method of harvesting or using a resource so that the resource
is not depleted or permanently damaged <~ techniques> <~ agriculture>
b: of or relating to a lifestyle involving the use of sustainable methods
<~ society> – sus.tain.abil.i.ty n
(Merriam-Webster 1994)
This and similar definitions present sustainability from an essentially anthropocen-
tric and instrumental position, concerned with how to maintain and even improve
the quality of human life within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems.
The acronym ESD is often adopted as fuzzy code expressing a concern for sus-
tainability issues in the way that human beings impact on this carrying capacity
in the future.6
The meaning of E varies between environmental, ecological and even
economic, while the D sometimes means development and sometimes design. While
the S stands for sustainable (and sustainability), this term in recent usage has
come to denote a broader perspective and a new way of looking at the world. It
suggests, at least in western countries, a social and cultural shift, a different
4 Sustainability
attitude to the world around us, and modified patterns and styles of living. It
acknowledges that the problem is global in scale and related to the basic issue of
population increase and the resulting effects of human existence on the Earth.
Some understandings of ESD include actions aimed at mitigating the per-
ceived adverse effects on local communities of trends toward economic global-
ization and free trade, accepting an argument that sustainable design should
necessarily express community differences. In these broad views the concept
bundles together issues of long-term human sociocultural and economic health
and vitality,7
issues that may or may not be linked with a concern for the well
being of ‘the environment’ ‘for its own sake’ rather than solely as a potential
resource and necessary support for human beings. The sustainability of all three
– environmental, sociocultural and economic systems – is sometimes called the
‘triple bottom line’ by which the viability and success of design and develop-
ment should be assessed.
Taken literally, the term ‘sustainable architecture’ focuses on the sustainability
of architecture, both as a discipline and a product of the discipline. It carries with
it the imprecise and contested meanings embedded in ESD, and denotes broader
ideas than any of the individual understandings of ESD, in particular, the no-
tion of ‘sustainable architecture’ includes questions of a building’s suitability for
its sociocultural as well as environmental context. The associated question of
‘What does sustainability mean for architecture?’ forefronts architecture and
looks for ways in which it must adapt. The question of ‘What does architecture
mean for sustainability?’ forefronts sustainability and positions architecture as
one amongst many contributing factors in achieving a meaningful human exist-
ence in a milieu of uncertainty.8
A global framework
In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development report Our
Common Future (also known as the Brundtland Report) provided an early (and
still much-used) authoritative definition of what constitutes sustainable devel-
opment.9
Thus, according to the Brundtland Report:
Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable – to ensure that
it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs . . . Sustainable development is not a
fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploita-
tion of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of techno-
logical development, and institutional change are made consistent with
future as well as present needs.
(WCED 1990: 8)
This definition of sustainable development contains two crucial elements. First,
it accepts the concept of ‘needs’, in particular those basic needs of the world’s
poor, such as food, clothing and shelter essential for human life, but also other
Sustainability 5
‘needs’ to allow a reasonably comfortable way of life. Second, it accepts the
concept of ‘making consistent’ the resource demands of technology and social
organizations with the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.
This includes both local and global concerns and has a political dimension,
embracing issues of resource control and the inequities that exist between
developed and developing nations.10
In this way it endorses the notion of sus-
tainable development as improving (and not merely maintaining) the quality
of life within the limits of the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems.
The project to consider sustainability as an integral aspect of all develop-
ment, following the lead of the Brundtland Commission, has been enshrined in
international declarations, conventions and other plans for action. The Earth
Summit held in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, was a defining event in the
sustainable development movement. Not only did it bring together an unpreced-
ented number of countries, organizations and citizens from throughout the world,
it represented the first time that developed and developing nations reached con-
sensus on some difficult issues related to the environment and development. The
summit adopted the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, consisting of
27principlesthatwereputforwardasablueprintforachieving global sustainability.11
Principle 1 states that ‘Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustain-
able development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony
with nature.’ Several important international agreements emerged from the Earth
Summit: Agenda 21 (United Nations 1992b), the UN Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC 1992a), the UN Convention on Biological Diversity
(United Nations 1992c), and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification in
Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification (United Nations
1992d).12
While all four have some implications for sustainable architecture,
two are more directly related.
Agenda 21 has the goal to ‘halt and reverse the environmental damage to our
planet and to promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in
all countries on Earth’. Moving the discussion of sustainability from theory to a
plan of action, Agenda 21 sets out detailed proposals for communities through-
out the world to adopt and implement specific measures centred on eight key
objectives aimed at improving the social, economic and environmental quality
of human settlements and the living and working environments of all people.
These eight objectives are:
Providing adequate shelter,
Improving management of urban settlements,
Promoting sustainable land-use planning and management,
Providing environmentally sound infrastructure facilities,
Promoting energy-efficient technology, alternative and renewable energy
sources and sustainable transport systems,
Enabling disaster-prone countries to plan for and recover from natural disasters,
Promoting sustainable construction industry activities, and finally
Human resource development.
6 Sustainability
The objective of the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC 1992)
is to slow down or halt suspected adverse changes of climate (in excess of
anticipated natural climate variations) that may be attributable directly or indir-
ectly to human activity. Since the operation of buildings makes a significant
contribution to the production of carbon dioxide and other ‘greenhouse gas’
emissions that are held responsible for these changes of climate, this convention
could have a far-reaching effect on the design of buildings. We shall discuss it,
and policy and design changes that have followed for houses, in Chapter 6.
Within the discipline of architecture, a statement recognizing that building
design professionals should frame their work in terms of sustainable design was
made at the Union of International Architects’ World Congress of Architects
meeting in Chicago in June 1993. Embracing both environmental and social
sustainability, the Congress asserted:
We commit ourselves, as members of the world’s architectural and building-
design professions, individually and through our professional organizations, to:
• Place environmental and social sustainability at the core of our practice
and professional responsibilities;
• Develop and continually improve practice, procedures, products, cur-
ricula, services and standards that will enable the implementation of
sustainable design;
• Educate our fellow professionals, the building industry, clients, students
and the general public about the critical importance and substantial
opportunities of sustainable design;
• Establish policies, regulations, and practices in government and business
that ensure sustainable design becomes normal practice;
• Bring all existing and future elements of the built environment – in
their design, production, use and eventual re-use – up to sustainable
design standards.
(UIA 1993)
The commitment was unequivocal but what does it mean – what follows from
the commitment? We have already noted the imprecision associated with con-
cepts of sustainable architecture and development, and ‘sustainable design’ is a
label that has been assigned for many different reasons to many kinds of build-
ings, from a woven grass and thatch bure on a Pacific island to a high-tech office
building in the United States. The former is reckoned to be a sustainable design
because it is constructed entirely of biodegradable material and appropriates
only a tiny amount of the world’s resources for its construction, compared with
a typical ‘western’ building. The office building may be considered an example
of sustainable design if it requires significantly less energy for heating, cooling
and lighting than is typical for its class. They both appear as manifestations of
the values that have come to be associated with sustainability (von Bonsdorff
1993: 8). The implications for our conceptualization of architecture was appar-
ent at the time. Susan Maxman, then President of the American Institute of
Sustainability 7
Architects (and with Olufemi Majekodunmi, then UIA President, named under
the commitment) wrote that ‘sustainable architecture isn’t a prescription. It’s an
approach, an attitude. It shouldn’t really even have a label. It should just be
architecture’ (Maxman 1993, quoted in Guy and Farmer 2001: 140).
A cultural/philosophical framework
In societies of European descent or influence three trademarks, dualism, reduc-
tionism and positivism, pervade modern living. They shape the way we think
about problems, the way we make decisions and therefore the way we design
buildings. Sustainability (and why we are discussing it as an issue) reflects
the philosophical framework of these trademarks. The seventeenth-century
thinker René Descartes is commonly credited with laying its foundations, and
the effects have touched all aspects of human endeavour, from science to morality.
Alberto Pérez-Gómez traces how this philosophical position influenced the way
architecture was reconceptualized during the late eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries in his book Architecture and the Crisis of Modern Science (Pérez-Gómez
1983).13
Probably the most significant of the trademarks, dualism expresses a distinction
between body and mind, between matter and spirit, and between reason and
emotion. By body/matter/reason is meant the extended or corporal world, every-
thing beyond self-consciousness, a world in which all phenomena can be completely
determined by mechanistic principles. This divide separates regular predictable
and controllable events from those that are erratic, unpredictable and uncertain.
Cartesian dualism effectively sets humans apart from nature, but also an individual
self apart from ‘the other’ of everything outside the self. Conventionally, respons-
ibility for ‘the other’ is dealt with by articulating codes of appropriate behaviour.
Science based disciplines operate by disconnecting ‘anthropological reference
from its description of the world’ (Dripps 1999: 47). By definition, reason-
determined solutions become the only true ones. The conventional application
of economics to distribute resources, for example, ‘treats the economy as a
separate, mechanically reversible system, virtually independent of the ecosphere’
(Rees 1999). Mind/spirit/emotion, on the other hand, together with all mental
phenomena, is totally severed from sense experiences. Institutions as bureaucra-
cies deal with people in terms of procedural rationality, where the emotions of
an individual, as Bauman describes, that ‘unruly voice of conscience that may
prompt one to help the sufferer’ (Bauman 1995: 260) is constrained and moral
sentiments are exiled from the process.
The second trademark of modern living, reductionism, perceives all entities as
consisting of simpler or more basic entities. From this derives a method of acquir-
ing knowledge and thinking about issues that consists of breaking down a problem
into simpler units, its component parts, in a process of atomization. We study
and attempt to understand these simple units, and reassembling the parts in a
‘logical’ fashion shapes our understanding of the whole problem. The whole
consists of the sum of the parts, no more and no less. Confidence in this process
8 Sustainability
is evident in the trademark of positivism, belief in ‘the infinite capacity of human
reason to control, dominate, and put to work the forces of nature’ so that event-
ually everything could be understood and managed (Pérez-Gómez 1983: 273).
The reconceptualization of architecture in response to Cartesian thinking
retained a place for the ‘mind/body/spirit’ side of the duality. This led to the
familiar distinction between the science of architecture and the art of architecture,
as explained in a paper delivered to the Royal Institute of British Architects by
Mark Hartland Thomas,
Science communicates notions of quantities, verifiable by number, and
intended to be the same for all men . . . Art, on the other hand, communic-
ates notions of value, fantasy, never the same for any two recipients, no two
responses being alike, although the relative importance of works of art does
emerge from the sum total of many differing responses . . . It is common-
place that architecture partakes of science as well as of art.
(Hartland Thomas 1948)14
An alternative approach conceived from a different philosophical perspective
has emerged which offers both a critique of the conventional scientific paradigm
and a different view for judging the appropriateness of actions. This approach
derives from the notions of ecology as the science of the relationships between
organisms and their environment; or of the relationship between a human
group and its environment. In this view of the world, biotic organisms and non-
biotic elements are integral parts of an ecosystem. In philosophical terms eco-
logy goes beyond the limits of the analytical and empirical world of direct
experience and enters the metaphysical realms, in which complete comprehen-
sion of the environment is essentially unknowable. We shall return to ecology
and environmental ethics in Chapter 3. Ecology provides insights about how
natural systems work, including systems subject to human interference. Indeed,
natural systems ecology very often serves as a model that provides a scientific
justification for sustainability. The absence of sustainability in natural systems is
generally marked by two observations; resource demands in excess of absolute
limits or variations imposed on the system whose rate of change is beyond the
possibilities of adjustment. While perhaps providing a valuable insight into
possible dangers it does carry a logical ambiguity. As Redclift (1994) points out,
this discourse framed as an ecological view fails to connect into the image the
issues of human choices and of human interventions.
While modernity continues as the dominant framework of architectural prac-
tice, (as manifest in its political context, legislation, regulations, design advice,
and other practices), ‘postmodern’ theorists and critics point to the enormity of
the predicaments we face and repudiate the modern ways of going about solving
the problems.
One of the practical dimensions of the crisis derives from the sheer magni-
tude of our powers. What we and other people do may have profound,
Sustainability 9
far-reaching and long-term consequences, which we can neither see directly
nor predict with precision. Between the deeds and their outcomes there is a
huge distance – both in time and in space – which we cannot fathom using
our innate, ordinary powers of perception – and so we can hardly measure
the quality of our actions by a full inventory of their effects. What we and
others do has ‘side-effects’, ‘unanticipated consequences’, which may smother
whatever good purposes are intentioned and bring about disasters and suf-
fering neither we nor anybody else wished or contemplated.
(Bauman 1993: 17–18)
Science has become one of the most influential ways of understanding the
world, and this institutionalized confidence and scientific methodology has led
to new technologies that have contributed to material well-being and health for
many people. It has, though, also brought with it the invention of hideous
weapons of destruction and the extravagant use of limited resources. Consider-
ing the world as something to be exploited and manipulated for human purposes
has resulted in the destruction and pollution of much of the natural environment
and the extinction of whole species. Michael Redclift illustrates the way that
sustainability relates to both modernist and postmodern views:
The idea of sustainability is derived from science, but at the same time
highlights the limitations of science. It is used to carry moral, human,
imperatives, but at the same time acquires legitimacy from identifying
biospheric ‘imperatives’ beyond human sciences. Married to the idea of
development, sustainability represents the high-water mark of Modernist
tradition. At the same time, emphasis on cultural diversity, which some
writers view as the underpinning of sustainability, is a clear expression of
Postmodernism.
(Redclift 1994: 17)
The manageable (but fragile) Earth
Maarten Hajer links the way that environmental issues are now framed and
understood to the photographs of planet Earth taken from outer space during
the Apollo space missions. The earliest of these photographs, taken during the
Apollo 8 mission of 1968, records the first time that humans had travelled far
enough from Earth to obtain an image that showed the whole planet. Hajer sees
this image as marking a ‘fundamental shift in thinking about the relationship
between man and nature’ (Hajer 1995: 8) with conflicting impressions of a
world that is both bounded and manageable (and therefore amenable to the
tools of the scientific tradition) and small and vulnerable (and therefore fragile
and easily damaged by human carelessness).15
Andrew Ross, in his book The
Chicago Gangster Theory of Life, captures this impression of fragility and callous
human carelessness:
10 Sustainability
The clichés of the standard environmental image are well known to us all:
on the one hand, belching smokestacks, seabirds mired in petrochemical
sludge, fish floating belly-up, traffic jams in Los Angeles and Mexico City,
and clearcut forests; on the other hand, the redeeming repertoire of pastoral
imagery, pristine, green and unspoiled by human habitation, crowned by
the ultimate global spectacle, the fragile, vulnerable ball of spaceship Earth.
(Ross 1994: 171)
Two responses to this new popular concern about the degrading environment
are, continuing Ross’s appeal to stereotypes, first a call to ‘repent for tomorrow
is the end’ by the ‘prophets of doom’, and second claims that ‘we have the
answer’ from the ‘snake-oil peddlers’. The first manifests itself in unsubstanti-
ated and exaggerated claims about the future implications of possible envir-
onmental impacts, and the second in unsubstantiated and exaggerated claims
about the future benefits of products or processes. The ‘prophets of doom’
simplify the complex and uncertain research into the actual relationships
between climate and human impact into the presentation of alarming scenarios
as scientifically-authenticated certainties. This is dangerous because it leads to
a misallocation of effort and resources and masks valid concerns. The ‘snake oil
peddlers’ present products of all kinds, including buildings, as offering qualities
of sustainability and environmental friendliness. ‘Greenness, suddenly, is market-
able’ (Fisher 1994: 33). This phenomenon of eco-labelling has been given the title
‘greenwash’ (Greer and Bruno 1996). Garden furniture made in Vietnam and
using timber taken from virgin forests in Cambodia, Laos and Burma has been
branded Ecoline with a label that reads: ‘This article is an environmental-friendly
product. For every fallen tree a new one is planted so no tropical rainforest need
be destroyed’ (Tickell 1999). The organization Friends of the Earth revealed
that the logging of this timber was often highly destructive, often illegal and
often took place in national parks and reserves intended to protect endangered
wildlife. In France, a large supermarket chain sold a similar range, but in this
case the origin was not identified. On each table and chair was simply a tag
bearing a vague Asian graphic and a statement that
Le maranti dint sont fabriqué vos meuble de jardin provient de foréts gérées dans
le but de mantenir un parfait equilibre écologique. (The merranti that is used to
make this garden furniture comes from forests managed with the aim of
maintaining a perfect ecological equilibrium.)
If, as advertising people say, marketing is mainly about selling concepts and
lifestyles that just happen to have products attached, then the fact that such
statements exist is a testament to the degree the sustainability issue has pen-
etrated the public consciousness in these countries. Sometimes these statements
are misrepresentations made in ignorance rather than with the intention to
mislead or deceive. Often, however, a fraudulent intention seems clear – there
are lies, damned lies and claims for sustainability.
Sustainability 11
Without some form of authoritative certification such statements are worth-
less. For timber, such an authoritative certification system does exist. The Forest
Stewardship Council (FSC) was established in 1993 as a worldwide standard-
setter for socially and environmentally beneficial forestry. FSC accredits inde-
pendent certifiers to audit forestry practices against its standards. Products made
of timber from certified forests may carry the FSC logo. It is the only eco-label
for timber approved by the major environmental groups. But even this guide
can have pitfalls, as an Australian architect discovered. She specified ‘that only
certified plantation grown, Australian eucalypt timber’ should be used for par-
quetry flooring of a dwelling. The ‘specified’ timber arrived on site in packages
labelled Fabricado em Portugal. It was unclear whether the timber had been
grown in Portugal or logs had been transported there for manufacture into the
flooring product.
There is much ‘doom and greenwash’ in the discourse of architecture. The
doom is apparent in some of the rhetoric of government and other agencies,
used as a means to attract attention following the principle that the ends justify
the means. The greenwash is manifest in some of the claims made for the
plethora of building materials, features and gadgets that by their presence alone
are held to authenticate a green building. Sometimes these are rustic materials
(mud brick, straw bales, rammed earth). Sometimes they are high-tech gadgets
(solar panels, sun scoops and geothermal heating systems). The important point
is that while biodegradable materials and technical devices can make effective
contributions, and symbolic elements can be important in their own right (we
discuss this later), the use of such materials and devices is not alone a sufficient
indicator of an environmentally friendly building. There must be demonstrable
benefits in the particular case. Many ecogadgets do not really justify in use the
environmental and financial cost of their production, and many buildings do
not operate (or are operated by their occupants) as imagined. Drawing arrows
on building cross sections, for example, does not mean that airflow will cooperat-
ively follow the indicated path. This point was nicely made in a paper entitled
‘Air is stupid (It can’t follow the arrows)’ (Were 1989).16
Showing a photograph
of an ancient middle-eastern windcatcher on a new design proposal for another
place does not mean that the careful and effective cooling effect achieved after
hundreds of years of development for the original local climate will be trans-
ferred to the new building. So far there has been remarkably little systematic
post-construction measurement and evaluation of buildings for which claims of
‘sustainable architecture’ are made.
We can parallel the notion of ‘ecogadgets’ by coining the term ‘cultureclamps’,
those devices which relate to sustainability in cultural rather than physical envir-
onment terms. This refers to the assumption that a global building designed
elsewhere can be clamped limpet-like to a local culture by using the ‘right’
materials, features and gadgets appropriated from the vernacular. Examples are
corrugated iron denoting Australianness, grass roofs in South Pacific resort
hotels, and half-timbered walls in English country villages. There is nothing
intrinsically wrong or right about such styles and features, and their use may
12 Sustainability
well be a careful contextual approach rather than a part of what we might call
‘culturewash’. In the final chapter of this book we shall look to reasoned argu-
ment to distinguish between expressions of environmental and cultural sensitiv-
ity on the one hand, and of greenwash and culturewash on the other hand.
Towards a basis for action
Given this situation, how should architects and other designers respond? We
have to act; to make decisions in our day-to-day practices as designers. There are
checklists of recommended design actions in many books and web sites, and we
add yet another in the Appendix of this book, which we shall introduce in
Chapter 4. For each checklist the emphasis that is given to a recommendation
depends partly on the moral position implicitly taken by the author. Some
green architects such as William McDonough have set down principles upon
which they believe sustainable design should be based. The following nine
points, known as the Hannover Principles, were developed when McDonough
was commissioned by the city of Hannover, Germany, to develop guidelines of
design for sustainability for the Expo 2000 World’s Fair.
1 Insist on rights of humanity and nature to coexist in a healthy, sup-
portive, diverse and sustainable condition.
2 Recognize interdependence. The elements of human design interact
with and depend upon the natural world, with broad and diverse implic-
ations at every scale. Expand design considerations to recognizing even
distant effects.
3 Respect relationships between spirit and matter. Consider all aspects of
human settlement including community, dwelling, industry, and trade
in terms of existing and evolving connections between spiritual and
material consciousness.
4 Accept responsibility for consequences of design decisions upon human
well-being, the viability of natural systems, and their rights to coexist.
5 Create safe objects of long-term value. Do not burden future genera-
tions with requirements for maintenance or vigilant administration
of potential danger due to careless creation of products, processes, or
standards.
6 Eliminate the concept of waste. Evaluate and optimize the full life
cycle of products and processes, to approach the state of natural sys-
tems, in which there is no waste.
7 Rely on natural energy flows. Human designs should, like the living
world, derive their creative forces from perpetual solar income. Incor-
porate this energy efficiently and safely for responsible use.
8 Understand the limitation of design. No human creation lasts forever
and design does not solve all problems. Those who create and plan
should practice humility in the face of nature. Treat nature as a model
and a mentor, not an inconvenience to be evaded or controlled.
Sustainability 13
9 Seek constant improvement by the sharing of knowledge. Encourage
direct and open communication between colleagues, patrons, manufac-
turers, and users to link long term sustainable considerations with eth-
ical responsibility, and re-establish the integral relationship between
natural processes and human activity.
(McDonough, William and Partners 1992: 5)
These recommendations are welcome and generally valid. They do, though,
mix references to stakeholders (humanity and nature, principle 1), objectives
(‘do not burden future generations with requirements for maintenance’, principle
5), means to achieve objectives (‘incorporate [solar] energy efficiently and safely
for responsible use’, principle 7), and design approaches (‘encourage direct and
open communication between colleagues, patrons, manufacturers, and users’,
principle 9).17
At best, checklists show a range of possibilities; at worse they risk
giving a confusing indication of how to proceed in design. They do not necessarily
help people design (though that is usually their intent), and may actually
mislead because they cannot cope with the complexities and uniqueness of a
particular design situation. In this sense they can be ‘unecological’, given that the
concept of ecology has taught us to take account of complexity, interconnected-
ness and uniqueness.
This, then, is the context in which we write this book. Our topic is the way
in which sustainable architecture is and should be conceptualized, and the
beliefs, goals, processes and advice that underlie its promotion. Our aim is to
inform this conceptualization by promoting discussion and understanding of
commonly ignored assumptions behind the search for a more sustainable archi-
tecture, arguing that design decisions must be based on a coherent understand-
ing of ethical stances and the objectives and systems involved. Individual actions
and appropriate broader policies both follow from this understanding. Rather
than providing ‘how to’ advice or critically reviewing existing projects that
claim to be examples of sustainable architecture, we shall place in the forefront
the milieu in which other books that do address these topics are positioned and
read. We address our book primarily to other architects and future architects.18
In approaching our aim some of the questions that arise are:
• How is ‘architectural sustainability’ conceptualized?
• Does ethics offer a basis for action?
• Who or what are the stakeholders?
• How far can indicators of sustainability be quantified and understood in
terms of the behaviour of systems?
• How do we deal with non-commensurable objectives and advice?
• How can we make and recognize sustainable architecture?
In dealing with these questions we argue that the notion of ‘sustainable archi-
tecture’ as a product, as attributes of buildings, is not only problematic but often
counterproductive as it can lead to simplification and the undervaluing of local
14 Sustainability
cultural and physical contexts. Instead, we advocate a way of thinking based on
performing beautiful acts that arise out of credible reasoned argument, with a
recognition of the way our values and our knowledge inform this process. We
argue that:
• ‘Sustainable architecture’ is a cultural construction in that it is a label for a
revised conceptualization of architecture;
• Within this revised conceptualization, by designing (more) ‘sustainable
architecture’ we perform a ‘beautiful act’;
• A ‘sustainable design’ is a creative adaptation to ecological, sociocultural
and built contexts (in that order of priority), supported by credible cohesive
arguments.
In the following chapters we shall examine some of the key approaches that are
promoted in the discourse of sustainability in architecture and building. We
shall compare competing images of architectural sustainability that are apparent
in the contemporary discourse of architecture. We shall consider ethical frame-
works for practice. We shall locate regulations and design guides as means-based
or performance-based statements about ‘what should happen’ in design. We
shall explore the possibilities of systems theory with its assumption of the pos-
sibility of quantification and auditing of the life cycle impacts of the production,
life, demolition and recycling of buildings. We shall examine the way that pro-
posed responses to environmental impacts of buildings are connected with larger
political and economic concerns. Finally we shall summarize individual and
policy directions that might follow from the arguments set out in this exposition.
Notes
1 Foucault sees such strategies as ‘systematically different ways of treating objects of
discourse . . . of manipulating concepts (of giving them rules for their use, inserting
them into regional coherences, and thus constituting conceptual architectures)’
(Foucault 1972: 70). An analysis of competing conceptions of ecological place-
making in the products and literature of architecture is made by Simon Guy and
Graham Farmer (2000 and 2001). We shall explore this theme in Chapter 2.
2 See Donald Schön (1982: 103):
At any given time in the life of a profession, certain ways of framing problems and
roles come into good currency. . . . Their frames determine their strategies of atten-
tion and thereby set the directions in which they will try to change the situation,
the values which will shape their practice. . . . When a practitioner becomes
aware of his frames, he also becomes aware of the possibility of alternative ways
of framing the realities of his practice. He takes note of the values and norms to
which he has given priority, and those he has given less importance, or left out
of account altogether. Frame awareness tends to entrain awareness of dilemmas.
3 The world population at the start of the twenty-first century was around six billion.
Population projections are inherently unreliable. A 2001 study by the International
Institute for Applied Systems Analysis in Laxenberg, Austria reported in Nature,
Sustainability 15
August 2001, suggested a peak of nine billion by 2070 with a population in decline
by the end of this century.
4 When applied to sustainability, Seidl and Tisdell (1999) suggest that ‘carrying capac-
ity’, rather than being a universal constraint, is a normative political concept to be
understood only in terms of complex ecological dynamics together with the human
social and institutional settings. The report of the Club of Rome Limits to Growth
(Meadows 1972) focused awareness on the relationships between population, eco-
nomic growth and environmental degradation. ‘If the present growth trends in world
population, industrialization, pollution, food production, and resource depletion con-
tinue unchanged, the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime
within the next one hundred years’ (Meadows 1972: 23). If we regard a decline in
human population as desirable (by no means a universally accepted position), then
we might use our professional skills to help raise living standards in the Third World
with an expectation that lower birth rates will follow. This may be a desirable end,
but Peter Fawcett responds:
It is often argued that, because population growth is greatest in the under-
developed countries, and because birth rates are lowered by affluence, world
population increase can be limited by economic growth in poorer countries
towards Western standards. There are two fallacies in this argument. Firstly,
population continues to grow in even the richest countries; and secondly, the
trade-off of consumption increase against reduction in population increase will
take the ecosystem beyond limits. The total impact . . . will rise unless tech-
nology is cleaned up, affluence is restrained and population is limited.
(Fawcett 1998: 64)
5 David Harvey continues:
It is crucial to understand that it is materially impossible for us to destroy the
planet Earth, that the worst we can do is to engage in material transformations
of our environment so as to make life less rather than more comfortable for our
own species, while recognizing that what we do also does have ramifications
(both positive and negative) for other living species.
(Harvey 1998: 328)
6 In Australia the description ‘ecologically sustainable development’ was coined in
1989 while developing policy directions to help resolve the socially divisive politics
between competing environmental and developmental interests. This process started
with an initiative led by the then Prime Minister Bob Hawke, who in 1989 released
a Statement on the Environment, entitled Our Country, Our Future, and culminated
in the release in 1992 of a National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development
(The ESD Strategy) that set out four main tenets:
• The Precautionary Principle – that measures to prevent environmental degrada-
tion should not be postponed due to lack of full scientific certainty.
• Intergenerational equity – that resources are left in trust for the benefit of future
generations.
• Conservation of biological diversity – that measures should be undertaken to
preserve genetic, species and ecosystem diversity and integrity.
• Environmental economic valuation, implying that the true cost of environ-
mental impacts should be factored into the market economy.
The strategy has been endorsed in national and local government, for example, the
Environmental Management policy of Central Sydney Development Control Plan
16 Sustainability
(CSDCP 1996) requires that ‘principles of ecologically sustainable development (ESD)
are integrated into the design and construction of development’. Similar positions
have been taken in other countries.
7 While the growing use of the term [sustainable development] has led to a loss of
clarity which needs to be addressed, what is important for us about sustainable
development is its recognition of interconnections between a number of crucial
areas. These are: environmental degradation; inequality; the future stability of
society and the environment; and lastly, participation in and control of the
decisions which affect these areas.
(Smith, Whitelegg and Williams 1998: 10)
8 People may ask – ‘what does sustainability mean for architecture?’ but perhaps the
proper question is – ‘what does architecture mean for sustainability?’ The former
question suggests a ‘weak’ approach to sustainability, i.e. an implicit assumption
that sustainability has implications (possibly serious) for our present ways of pro-
curing the built environment but those ways are basically appropriate. The
latter question recognizes sustainability as the overarching concern, in terms of
which all social disciplines and conduct must be reinterpreted and reformulated.
(Fawcett 1998: 68)
9 In the words of the Commission Chair, Gro Harlem Brundtland, then Prime Minis-
ter of Norway:
The environment does not exist as a sphere separate from human actions,
ambitions, and needs, and attempts to defend it in isolation from human con-
cerns have given the very word ‘environment’ a connotation of naivety in
some political circles. The word ‘development’ has also been narrowed by some
into a very limited focus, along the lines of ‘what poor nations should do to
become richer’, and thus again is automatically dismissed by many in the inter-
national arena as being a concern of specialists, of those involved in questions of
‘development assistance’. . . . But the ‘environment’ is where we all live; and
‘development’ is what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within that
abode. The two are inseparable. Further, development issues must be seen as
crucial by the political leaders who feel that their countries have reached a plateau
towards which other nations must strive. Many of the development paths of the
industrialized nations are clearly unsustainable. And the development decisions
of these countries, because of their great economic and political power, will
have a profound effect upon the ability of all peoples to sustain human progress
for generations to come. . . . Many critical survival issues are related to uneven
development, poverty, and population growth. They all place unprecedented
pressures on the planet’s lands, waters, forests, and other natural resources, not
least in the developing countries. The downward spiral of poverty and envir-
onmental degradation is a waste of opportunities and of resources. In particular,
it is a waste of human resources. These links between poverty, inequality, and
environmental degradation formed a major theme in our analysis and recom-
mendations. What is needed now is a new era of economic growth – growth that
is forceful and at the same time socially and environmentally sustainable.
(WCED 1990: xv–xvi)
The World Commission for Economic Development was the first global effort to
address the issue of sustainable development. It was also the first international policy
advice document that acknowledged and focused on the interrelations between the
economy and environmental well-being.
Sustainability 17
10 Some in fact have suggested that issues that are presented as serious threats to
sustainability, such as resource depletion and global warming, are entirely political
phenomena, examples of what the American journalist and satirist Henry Louis
Mencken described thus: ‘The whole aim of practical politics is to keep the populace
alarmed – and hence clamorous to be led to safety – by menacing it with an endless
series of hobgoblins, all of them imaginary’ (Reproduced from Favourite Quotes: H.L.
Mencken, Online. Available HTTP: http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/7248/
mencken.html (January 2002).
11 For the full text of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development; see
Online. Available HTTP: http://www.unep.org/unep/rio.html (January, 2002).
12 These are published together as the ‘Rio Cluster’ of UN Proceedings, Online. Avail-
able HTTP: http://www.igc.org/habitat/un-proc/index.html (March 2002).
13 Pérez-Gómez concentrates on writing and work in France which led up to and fol-
lowed Nicolas-Louis Durand’s two famous theoretical books: the Recueil et Paralléle
des Edifices de Tout Genre, Anciens et Modernes (1801), a large collection of drawings
of building examples; and the Précis des Leçons d’Architecture (1802), which presented
the content of his courses at the École Polytechnique.
14 This distinction implies that the ‘science’ and ‘art’ could be pursued separately, and
even today the staffing and presentation of the discipline in schools of architecture
commonly articulates and reinforces this perception.
15 Ingold (1993) maintains that the world view that locates the viewer outside the
world with the Earth seen as a globe is associated with the triumph of modern
science and technology. It carries implications that the Earth is something that can
be conceived of as a whole and known objectively.
16 The trouble is, of course, that the air passing through the building has not seen
the drawing. Even if it had, it would not be able to follow (understand) the
arrows and, even if it could, it would not be able to follow the arrows (path)
because air is stupid.
(Were 1989)
17 In Chapter 4 we shall locate these in a ‘decision theory’ model of the relations
between decisions, means, objectives and other components of a purposeful design
process.
18 We, as authors, are not viewing the world dispassionately from outside, observing
what is happening and making an independent and objective record. We are down
here in the world, carrying our own cultural baggage and taking part in the discourse
and practice of architecture. As authors, our own collective background is western-
educated (Australia and England) in architecture, engineering and planning, with a
research and practice record that has been dominated by modernism.
Allie
Images 19
2 Images
Fields of significance
We noted in Chapter 1 that in modern Western societies discussions of
sustainability are almost invariably associated with a particular way of looking
at the ‘environment’ that is scientific in nature and global in scope. Environ-
mental problems such as climate change, acid rain and the depletion of the
ozone layer are essentially ‘modern’ in that they are global concerns, identified
using scientific methods, and involve international cooperation and national
institutions in their solution. The very expression ‘the global environment’
2.1 The fourteen spheres of the world, from Scala Naturale 1564 by Giovanni Camillo
Maffei (Ingold 1993: 33).
20 Images
makes this scope explicit, but even when we leave out the term ‘global’ the way
that environmental issues are discussed often implies that there is just one big
environment that we can somehow stand outside and comprehend (Cooper
1992: 167). But we can also think of environmental issues in terms of ‘the
environment’ as it affects us in our day-to-day lives, as in ‘the home environ-
ment’ or ‘the work environment’. This is not just a narrower or more selected
version of the global view. It is a quite different perspective based on knowing
from within that environment, and can never be fully appreciated from the
‘outside’. It has connections to ancient views about the relationship of the
individual to the world that were conceptualized as a person at the centre of a
series of spheres (see Figure 2.1). The individual’s view of the world grew from
his or her local knowledge and personal and immediate experience and was
drawn ever deeper into the world.
The medieval Judeo-Christian view of the universe placed the static, spher-
ical earth at its centre with the stars attached to a surrounding, rotating sphere
that marked the edge of the universe. The cosmology was rich in sign and
symbol, with one of the central motifs being that nature was a book through
which God’s word could be read. David Cooper suggests that these notions of
the environment were ‘local’ not so much in terms of geographical proximity or
causal impact, but rather because one’s environment was where one was ‘at
home’, knew one’s way around, and knew what things meant and stood for.
People generally had a sense of belonging and identity that was intimately
related to places and things (Cooper 1992).1
Cooper talks of the environment
as a ‘field of significance’ in which features and patterns of behaviour have
acquired significance because of their importance in everyday practices. For
example, a tree may have significance because it marks the halfway point of
the walk home, because one’s grandfather planted it or because it produces a
wonderful crop of early apricots. These environments are known experientially
through the senses as well as understood intellectually. Being at the centre of
things, it is difficult for an individual to define the extent of his or her environ-
ment, but its sustainability for the individual entails the continuation of the
myriad significances for that individual. Cooper refers to Heidegger’s description
of the ‘referential totality’ of a farm where items such as a cow’s udder and a
milk pail ‘take on significance only as parts of a whole’ (Cooper 1992: 170).
According to Heidegger the sense of ‘dwelling’, of deep connection to land and
place, is central to living and well-being. He asks us to
Think for a while of a farmhouse in the Black Forest, which was built some
two hundred years ago by the dwelling of peasants. Here the self-sufficiency
of the power to let earth and heaven, divinities and mortals enter in simple
oneness into things, ordered the house.
(Heidegger 1971: 160)
The Black Forest farmhouse and other indigenous regional architectures of the
kind that Rudofsky captured in his 1964 exhibition and book Architecture Without
Images 21
Architects2
(Rudofsky 1964) originate through practical and pragmatic choices
based on the availability of local materials and the nature of local climate. They
acquire a role in local culture and identity by ‘being there’ as a part of local life,
a basis for sharing and participation. Over time, the technical and tectonic poten-
tial of modes of construction were developed to enrich the symbolic qualities of
buildings, particularly those with religious or other particular cultural signific-
ance such a Norwegian stave church, a Greek temple or a Sarawak long-house.
In these terms, sustainability implies the potential to continue dwelling indefin-
itely, maintaining this connection to land and place. The land is instrumentally
valuable in making cultivation possible, but equally important is its emotional
role in a meaningful life. Further, family and society become intertwined with
land and place, so that people belong in specific places in specific kinds of
environments. To some peoples (including Australian Aborigines and Canadian
Inui), elements of the landscape themselves have great spiritual significance.
People ‘belong’ to a particular land area even if living elsewhere, and that area
contains ‘sacred sites’ that only initiated members of the community know
about and which must not be disturbed. Sustainability is then the protection
and maintenance of existing land with all of its meanings.3
But if we live in a
(mythical) stable and an undisturbed local society, sustainability is not an issue.
Our neighbours share our own cultural horizons, change is slow, and building
form, culture and environmental change move in step. They have a similar field
of significance and similar images of the world to our own.
By ‘images’ in this book we mean both the visual image (the most common
meaning of the word) and what occurs ‘behind the eye’, the way we represent
ideas to ourselves and to others and the impressions we have of other people,
products and things. As Kenneth Boulding (1961) described the concept in the
early 1960s, images in this sense are about memory and imagination, connec-
tions to the past and to the future.4
They can be likened to subjective know-
ledge, or what one believes to be true, and encapsulate not only verifiable ‘facts’
but values and emotions. Images are built up from a wide range of sources
including personal experience, education, the media and our relationships with
others. This is most familiar to architects through the writing of Kevin Lynch
about the images that people have of cities and how these help in way-finding
and ‘reading’ a city. He talks of the environmental image as:
The generalized mental picture of the exterior physical world that is held
by an individual. The image is both the product of immediate sensation
and of the memory of past experience, and it is used to interpret informa-
tion and to guide action.
(Lynch 1960: 4)
Lynch maintains that the mental images that people have of a place: ‘are
organized structures of recognition and relationship. They are also suffused with
meaning, feeling, and value, and these meanings are more complex and subtle
than are the dry bones of structure’ (Lynch 1976: 112–13).
22 Images
The very nature of images means that they cannot be defined rigidly. Rather,
these descriptions indicate the scope and possibilities of images: their multi-
faceted nature, the importance of the pictorial or visual element, the ability to
incorporate values, meaning, beliefs, and emotions, and the strong connection
with memory.
An appreciation of the importance of one’s own environments may provide
the basis for confronting modern environmental problems. Cooper argues:
The concerns . . . will begin ‘at home’, with their environments, the networks
of meanings with which they are daily engaged. And these concerns will be
directed at whatever threatens to separate them from their environment, to
make their milieu alien. They will be directed, say, at the proposed erection
of a factory farm, the squawking and stench from which expel the familiar
sounds and smells of their surroundings; or at the planned construction of
a motorway which will render impossible the old intimacy between neigh-
bours on opposite sides of the valley.
(Cooper 1992: 170)
Awareness of other cultures and other people’s fields of significance changes
assumptions from the way things are to a very different acknowledgment of the
way things are now for me. Cooper continues:
But these concerns will not remain purely ‘local’. While my environmental
concerns begin with my environment, I recognize that other people (and
animals, too) have, or should have, their environments. If I appreciate the
importance for my life of a place I know my way about I must appreciate
the importance this has for others as well, and I will want to defend their
efforts to preserve such places.
(Cooper 1992: 170)
World citizens and pluralism
The latter part of the twentieth century and the opening of our current cen-
tury have been marked by globalization and global issues that are not readily
addressed within the boundaries of the nation state. We have transnational
corporations that cross boundaries and whose immense resources are necessary
to respond to major resource projects. We have political and economic migra-
tion where people cross political boundaries in order to seek a better life for
themselves and their children. We have global issues such as terrorism and
climate change that cannot be addressed within individual nations. We have
international news media, increasingly integrated multinational political and
economic groupings and agencies such as the European Economic Community,
the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. We have international
law and multinational agreements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade.
Images 23
Few people experience a single, geographic, place-based field of significance
in our current century.5
Conventionally the discussion of culture has concentrated
on national and regional groups and their horizons, but national and regional
boundaries are no longer effective markers in a world made smaller by commun-
ications and migration. There are cultural groups of international financiers
and politicians as well as local fishermen. Further, cultures have ‘ill-defined
edges’, so that people do not always clearly belong, or not belong, to a particular
culture. Individuals are typically members of several overlaid cultural groups,
with professional, religious, racial, national and other affiliations. The con-
temporary citizen is culturally hyphenated: a green-architect-Italian-American-
something else; and along with the notion of the ‘culturally hyphenated’ is the
notion of multiple fields of significance.
This view acknowledges that there are many environments that are defined
in relation to their significance to ‘that which is environed’: an individual may
recognize several environments and different individuals will recognize different
environments. For many people, their images associated with the term ‘environ-
ment’ encompass both global and individual views. They shift focus easily
between the global view and the individual field of significance views depend-
ing on the context in which environmental considerations arise.
We have, then, a world in which there is a tension between the international
‘world citizen’ horizon and the traditional ‘race and place’ horizon, and tensions
between such concepts as universal human rights and local religious and cul-
tural rights. Francis Fukuyama, who famously suggested that we had reached
the end of history because the universal appeal of liberal democracy and free
markets marked the end of the progress of humans towards modernity (Fukuyama
1992), argues that this process indeed threatens the traditional existence of
some societies. For the modernist world citizen, place is just another com-
modity. Whether to live on a Greek island, in a Scandinavian forest, or in an
American city is a choice made on the way that these places enable different
lifestyles (including economic opportunities and climate), not on a sense of
belonging and identity in the Heideggarian sense. Local culture – and local
modes of building and architectural style – are facets of the commodity of place.
Like the land itself, they may be embraced and valued, but they never carry the
same deep meaning for the global itinerant dweller as they do for the native.
Spector makes this point in The Ethical Architect:
Modernists unapologetically maintain that globalization, scientific ration-
ality, and technology are the most important elements of any context in
this day and age; climate, history, and topography must be dealt with, of
course, but they are easily dispatched. This attitude, simply put, is what it
means to be modern.
(Spector 2001: 162)
To the modernist world citizen, then, sustainability is construed primarily as the
economic and environmental sustainability of our planet as a whole, with the
24 Images
continuation of this ‘progress’ towards modernity and increased personal freedom.
It is seen predominantly in terms of global issues: protection of climate, resource
conservation, biodiversity and cultural diversity, and economic stability as desir-
able features of the planet as a whole. When the regional and particular culture,
economy, climate or ecosystem is addressed, this is done as instances of multiple
particulars and with a constant awareness of the ‘others’. It cannot be otherwise.
Indeed, this book is a typical enterprise of the modernist world citizen; it tries to
address global issues from our own cultural positions, with a desire to be instru-
mental (at least in a small way) on a global scale, and does so through the global
publishing industry.
The international culture of architecture
Both the discourse and practice of architecture are increasingly dominated by
global itinerants. Students of architecture are educated in architecture schools
where staff may come from many countries, are taught with reference to globally-
published reference books, are referred to the same iconic and emblematic
buildings, and take part in international student competitions. When seeking
information and knowledge they are likely to try an internet search engine
before the shelves of their own library; indeed, if looking for a book they may
well try Amazon.com before the library catalogue. The products of architecture
are made known through international journals. The international strength
of the disciplinary culture of architecture, with a small number of ‘superstar’
architects working concurrently in different parts of the world, dominates local
contexts. The international offices share expertise across national boundaries,
and their buildings are subject to internationally-agreed codes and standards.
The growth of the multinational architectural firm leads to a divorce between
the places where architectural design takes place (in ‘design-oriented’ ateliers),
where documentation is carried out, where skilled people command lower salar-
ies, and where the building is to be constructed. The ‘meanings’ associated with
the building are those of global organizations and world citizens. Where the
importance of local ‘meaning’ is recognized, it tends to be treated as something
that can be ‘given’ to a building by designers for whom it is not meaningful, as
just another ‘function’ of architecture.6
Modernism has accepted and celebrated internationalism with its manifest
benefits, but at the same time as the practice and production of architecture is
becoming more global and undifferentiated, the theory and discourse of the
discipline is paying increasing attention to regional and national differences.
Yet this recognition is not equivalent to operating from inside a culture. Theor-
ies of vernacularism, regionalism, critical regionalism, cross-cultural difference
and heritage conservation are essentially perspectives on what happens locally
seen from the position of the global citizen.
Simon Guy and Graham Farmer (2000, 2001) show through a social
constructivist analysis how competing conceptions of ecological place-making
in contemporary products and literature of architecture tend to create ‘centres
Images 25
Table 2.1 Three images of architectural sustainability
Image
Natural
Cultural
Technical
Approach
Study local natural
systems; emphasize
sensitivity and
humility in
relation to nature.
Study local culture
and building;
emphasize local
involvement and
local expertise
Study science,
economics and
technology;
emphasize
transnational
expertise
Dominant concerns
Environmental
place, ecosystems,
health, balance
Cultural place,
people, genius
loci, difference,
cultural
sustainability
Technologies,
global environ-
mental impacts,
cost-benefit
analysis, risk
management
Symbolism/aesthetics
‘Touching the earth
lightly’ with forms
echoing nature
Highly contextual
with forms,
materials and
construction
methods echoing
the local vernacular
Leading edge
contemporary
international
systems
Dominant
horizon
Local
Local
Global
of gravity’ and ‘structuring’ within the wider architectural discourse. This struc-
turing ‘is not created in abstraction as a recognition of purely contemporary
concerns for environmental issues, it is also a reflection of a long and complex
intermingling of architectural history’ (Guy and Farmer 2000: 141). The rhet-
oric and terminology change to follow each paradigm. They cite eco-technic,
eco-centric, eco-aesthetic, eco-cultural, eco-medical and eco-central logics, where
a ‘logic’ is ‘a specific ensemble of ideas, concepts and categorizations that are
produced, reproduced and transformed in a particular set of practices through
which meaning is given to social and physical realities’ (Hajer 1995: 44). This
has similarities to Boulding’s ‘image’, but emphasizes the cultural analysis of a
phenomenal structure rather than the mental concept. A particular building
project might be described in a journal using one or several (but rarely many) of
these structures. Each of them has dominant concerns, dominant local or global
horizons, and appears to privilege particular kinds of building character. Some
may be shared with other professions; the ‘eco-social’ logic, for example, is
shared with planners and the ‘eco-technic’ is the one most closely aligned with
the scientific paradigm of engineering.
Here we shall present just three contrasting images of architectural
sustainability which we shall call, as shorthand for the complex association of
ideas that they embody, the natural image, the cultural image, and the technical
image (Table 2.1). The three images are caricatures in the sense that practice
and hence real building tends to play with more than one image at a time, as we
shall discuss later. This classification and tabling, of course, is the kind of act
26 Images
that modernists would do, and is yet another example of the ordering of discourse
through listing and categorizing. Before looking at each of these categories in
turn we shall make some general comments about the connections between
images of sustainability and associated symbolism and aesthetics.
Architectural expression
In The Ethical Function of Architecture, Karsten Harries (1997) addresses archi-
tecture’s task of helping to articulate a common ethos, to interpret a way of life
for our period. He is concerned with both the actual and ‘rhetorical’ (visually
indicated) function of buildings, and the associated roles of aesthetics and what
he terms the ‘problem’ of architectural language, when those who view a build-
ing do not understand the secondary meanings of its language. This ‘problem’
refers to the way in which the particular form and details of a building are
meaningful only to those who understand the cultural and functional reasoning
behind them. Ultimately, we can only fully understand a building by being a
part of the community that builds it, with its values (and perhaps not even
then). Thus we cannot design a building to fully reflect a regional culture which
we do not share. We can, though, seek to reflect our (admittedly partial) under-
standing and values of architectural sustainability. This symbolic dimension is
desirable and necessary, and the recognition and invention of accepted symbols
has always been a part of architecture. Architects are inevitably interested in
the tectonic potential of the forms that can arise with a sound understanding of
sustainability and ecology, and what this will suggest and privilege in building
form, materials and decoration.
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, chimneys were often
emphasized as elements in design compositions – note, for example, the import-
ance of chimneys in the aesthetics of houses designed by Edwin Lutyens in
England or Frank Lloyd Wright in America. Chimneys were essential to the
functioning of houses, and styles developed where they were integral and neces-
sary to the style. Sunshades, cooling shafts, solar panels and rammed earth walls
– and other features – are exploited as design elements in contemporary build-
ings, so that the architectural expression of these features becomes a significant
part of the aesthetics and character of the building (Baird 2001). This is ‘form
follows function’ in the tradition of modernism, with its commitment to derive
beautiful form directly from function. The aesthetic qualities of the building are
justified and rationalized because they are expressions of its environmental func-
tions and the conditions of its production, as in nature.7
This imparts a sense of
legitimacy and conviction to the appearance, a sense that has been neither
sought nor demonstrated in much postmodern architecture, with its justification
of form and decoration on other grounds of coding and meaning.8
But in the
same way that the buildings of modernism are sometimes criticized for functions
that appear to have been invented to justify the aesthetics, there are doubtless
cases where the desire to make form with towers or shades has driven the
decision to adopt corresponding ‘environmental’ devices, rather than vice versa.
Images 27
So where is the boundary between a ‘legitimate’ symbol of sustainability, and
the proliferation of ecogadgets as a feature of greenwash that was noted in
Chapter 1? And where is the boundary between a respectful learning from a
local vernacular and the cynical use of cultureclamps? Symbolization is a pro-
found human need and is indispensable for the perpetuation of culture. The
symbol accentuates the presence of a building which has genuine and reasoned
claims to be in some ways ‘more sustainable’ than most of its contemporaries. It
can raise questions in those who occupy and see the building – how and why
does this place ‘work’? Why is sustainability important? Greenwash and
culturewash are counterfeit or disguise – or simply a demonstration of lack of
knowledge, which in turn may demonstrate lack of real concern.
The natural image
In his enormously influential book Design with Nature, published in 1969, Ian
McHarg argues that
If one accepts the simple proposition that nature is the arena of life and
that a modicum of knowledge of her processes is indispensable for survival
and rather more for existence, health and delight, it is amazing how many
apparently difficult problems present ready solution.
(McHarg 1969: 7)
In the natural image, the key to architectural sustainability is to work with,
not against, nature; to understand, sensitively exploit and simultaneously avoid
damaging natural systems. As a planner and landscape architect, McHarg used
examples from regional planning in identifying places with intrinsic suitability
for agriculture, forestry, recreation and urbanization. ‘Design with nature’ at the
building level is a code for recognizing sun paths, breezes, shade trees and rock
formations as natural features that can be ‘worked with’ in making somewhere
for people to inhabit, while recognizing significant trees, animal tracks, habitats
and natural drainage systems as natural features that must be ‘protected’. When
seeking a device with a high shading coefficient in summer and a low coefficient
in winter, a vine may be used rather than a mechanical system; the vine shades the
building when (and only when) it is needed, and the building provides a ‘home’
for the vine. Thus both the building and the ‘other’ of nature are sustainable. By
adding rainwater collection, reed beds for sewage and perhaps wind or solar
power for electrical energy the building ‘working with nature’ can be independent
of imported services and exported waste, keeping its environmental footprint
within the footprint of its site. The archetypal visual image is the remote and
isolated self-sufficient building dominated by its surrounding landscape.
The natural image of architectural sustainability, then, mirrors a view that it
is necessary to position human activities as a non-damaging part of the ongoing
ecological landscape, with a belief that ‘nature knows best’. The ‘eco-centric’ logic
that Guy and Farmer (2001: 142–3) identify in the discourse of architecture
28 Images
embraces this image of sustainability, linking it strongly with a rhetoric
of a fragile, delicately balanced earth where straying far from this path will lead
to environmental catastrophe. Even if that is the way it occurs in contemporary
writing, the natural image has a currency and attraction without this threat
of doom. Frank Lloyd Wright, after all, published The Natural House in 1954.9
Two other logics that Guy and Farmer report in the discourse of architecture are
also linked to this natural image, the ‘eco-medical’ logic and the ‘eco-aesthetic’
logic. The former encompasses a discourse focusing on healthy people in ‘healthy’
buildings, drinking ‘pure’ water and breathing ‘clean’ air. The natural image
naturally assumes purity in the environment, because pristine nature is unblem-
ished by the act of building. Moreover, the calming and stress-free attributes
attributed to nature10
are also encompassed in this image, so that mental health
accompanies physical health: a healthy mind in a healthy body in a healthy
building, in which humans and other creatures live in happy harmony.
2.2 The natural image: ‘Hollow Spruce’ (1988) in Grizedale Forest, England, artist Richard
Harris (photographer Richard Harris).
Images 29
The symbolic and ‘eco-aesthetic’ manifestations of this image reinforce ident-
ification with nature and natural systems.11
Materials are those of nature with
little human modification: straw bale, rammed earth and pressed mud brick, or
rough-hewn stone, and ‘natural’ timber rather than ‘manufactured’ timber par-
ticle boards, all with ‘natural’ finishes. Soft, organic, sensuous curves may be
favoured over hard mechanical angles, and ‘earth colours’ over brighter hues.
Neither does the building dominate its natural setting. Rather it expresses
humility in the face of nature, its character coming as much from the play of
sunlight and shade over its surface as from its own form. This move from the
clearly artificial towards immersion in the subtleties, folds, movement and
restraint of nature brings to mind the parallel movement in environmental art.
Indeed, for an emblem of the natural image we can turn to art. Richard Harris’s
literally and metaphorically organic ‘Hollow Spruce’ (1988) in Grizedale Forest
in the Lake District of northern England (Figure 2.2) ‘acts as a filter through
which to re-experience the light, sound, colour and space of the dense Spruce’
(Harris 1991: 49).12
An impression of shelter (of a kind) is provided, but it is
constructed of local materials with minimal impact on its environment and will
decay back into the same environment. Even the fact that we can see that to
inhabit this ‘building’ would necessitate giving up much of our expectations of
personal comfort is a part of the natural image. We are prepared to do so for the
benefits to us of ‘living close to nature’ and the benefits to nature of continuing
to live undisturbed. But with care, ‘designing with nature’ can provide both
physical and spiritual comfort (Day 2000). Like its occupants, the building lives
in happy harmony with its setting.
The cultural image
In Architecture: Meaning and Place, Christian Norberg-Schulz laments the way
that place and artefacts have lost meaning for ‘modern man’:
In general, the loss of things and places makes up a loss of ‘world’. Modern
man becomes ‘worldless’, and thus loses his own identity, as well as the
sense of community and participation. Existence is experienced as ‘meaning-
less,’ and man becomes ‘homeless’ because he does not any longer belong to
a meaningful totality. Moreover he becomes ‘careless,’ since he does not
feel the urge to protect and cultivate a world any more.
(Norberg-Schulz 1988: 12)
The cultural image portrays a distinct and meaningful genius loci of which archi-
tecture is a part. It mirrors an anthropological view that promotes keeping
people culturally in place, combined with a belief that ‘the local culture knows
best’. Sustainability means protecting and continuing this genius loci, and work-
ing within the limitations and possibilities that this requires. Sustainability of
the building is sublimated to sustainability of the place. The image embraces a
30 Images
concern for the way local people live and interact with their buildings, and an
expectation that this will be different from other places.
The symbolic and aesthetic manifestations of the image reinforce identifica-
tion with ‘authentic place’ and celebrate discernible difference between places.
Since the local vernacular mode of building is seen as having authentically
emerged as a response to local culture and the genius loci (and, indeed, to be an
important part of that culture), it is the model for new building. Materials,
colours and building forms draw on this local vernacular. Buildings are highly
contextual, following Christopher Alexander’s notion in A New Theory of Urban
Design (1987) of new development as ‘healing the city’, of repairing wherever
the ‘authentic place’ is damaged by earlier inappropriate work. But new building
also symbolizes the continuing vitality of the local culture, so that the new
building is expected to rework rather than reproduce the vernacular, to be
identifiably contemporary while eminently respectful of the past.
An emblem of the cultural image might be the Mosque at New Gourna (1945)
designed by Hassan Fathy to recognize traditional Nubian vernacular forms.
Fathy set out to create buildings in ‘a style that he believed incorporated the
essence of his own culture’ (Steele, 1997: 6), informed by and respecting tradi-
tion but not simply reproducing it. The main façade of the mosque (Figure 2.3)
‘uses a very sophisticated and deliberate kind of iconography’ combining elements
with complex historical connotations that are regional but also ‘transcend local
tradition to make a connection with the formation of Islamic identity itself’
2.3 The vernacular image: The Mosque at New Gourna, Egypt (1945), architect Hassan
Fathy, built with forms and materials echoing the local vernacular (photographer Barry
Rowney).
Images 31
(Steele 1997: 75). New Gourna is his best-known community project, built to
relocate the village of Gourna al-Gadida to be more distant from the famous
tombs in the Valleys of the Kings, Queens and Nobles in Luxor.13
Steele notes
six principles that guided Fathy: humanism, a universal approach, appropriate
technology (mud brick in the Mosque, as in the local vernacular), socially
orientated construction techniques, tradition, and ‘the reestablishment of national
cultural pride through the act of building’ (Steele 1997: 16).
The impression that it would be difficult to expand this architectural language
to accommodate the diversity and scale of contemporary requirements is a part
of the cultural image. In it we have to accept that sustaining culture may mean
limiting what is accommodated (the insertion of new activities into the com-
munity) as well as how buildings look.
The ‘eco-cultural’ and ‘eco-social’ logics which Guy and Farmer identify both
overlap this cultural image. The discourse of the ‘eco-cultural’ logic frames local
ecology and climate as a part of the sense of place, helping to define the culture
and vernacular. The discourse of the ‘eco-social’ logic ‘suggests the creation of
buildings that embody and express the notion of a social and ecological commun-
ity in which democratic values such as full participation and freedom is the
norm’ (Guy and Farmer 2001: 146). In the idealized vernacular image, the
identifiable community is assumed to be healthy, democratic and self-sufficient
with a clear sense of identity and belonging: happy people living in happy
cooperation with one another. Like the people, the buildings cooperate with
each other in collectively making a place with an equally clear sense of identity
and difference.
The technical image
In an interview about his design work for the Reichstag parliament building in
Berlin, the architect Lord Norman Foster said:
Since Stonehenge, architects have always been at the cutting edge of
technology. And you can’t separate technology from the humanistic and
spiritual content of a building . . . This building is highly engineered . . . great
mirrors bring light down right into the debating chamber . . . It looks
forward to the day when buildings will give off no pollution, no greenhouse
gases.
(Foster 1999)
The technical image of sustainability portrays technical innovation in the solu-
tion of social, economic and environmental problems. In this image sustainability
is a matter of developing technical devices that neutralize or make benefits out
of what may temporarily appear to be problems. The track record of architects
over the centuries in finding technical solutions to innumerable problems inspires
confidence that the same will happen in the future. Success is seen as a matter
of applying the tools of the social, economic and physical sciences to analyse
32 Images
the situation and discover a range of answers. But neither applying these tools
nor implementing the answers is easy. The prerequisite for success is profes-
sional expertise.
The technical image forefronts hard ‘facts’, and particularly the measurable
‘environmental facts’ of the constituents of air, lighting and noise levels, resource
consumption, etc., along with equally measurable economics. Success can also
be measured: reduced energy consumption, reduced embodied energy in mater-
ials, internal temperatures and lighting levels within desired levels, reduced
initial and operating costs. The key is rationality and efficiency in planning,
material use and systems.
The symbolic/aesthetic representation of the image is one of technical pro-
ficiency in using the materials of contemporary architecture: sparkling glass,
gleaming stainless steel, precision cladding panels in alloys or aluminium (just-
ified by their low weight and long life). Passive and active devices such as double
skin external walls and roofs, filtering and responsive glass, ‘sun scoops’, sun-
tracking sunshades and photovoltaic panels supplement this international
language of architecture. Not visible will be geothermal systems, heat recovery,
and the ‘intelligent’ computer control of lighting, heating and cooling via timers
and movement detectors. The archetypal visual image is the high-tech corpor-
ate office in a city of similar offices: efficient people in efficient buildings, both
in control, both responding to challenges through innovation. An emblematic
project might be the Commerzbank Headquarters in Frankfurt, Germany (architects
Foster and Partners), described as ‘the world’s first ecological high-rise office
block’14
and, when constructed, Europe’s tallest building (Figure 2.4). It has
many technical features. Amongst them are double skin walls, dual natural
and artificial ventilation systems (openable windows which can all be closed by
a central control, with natural ventilation replaced by full air conditioning
when weather conditions dictate), four-storey high winter gardens which enable
inward-facing offices to have natural light, an atrium acting as a ventilation
chimney, and sludge water from the air-conditioning cooling towers used for
flushing lavatories (Jones 1998: 228; Daniels 1995: 91–5). But we could also
adopt as an emblematic project a small house or a factory. Indeed, the facilities
for the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia, hailed for the environ-
mental responsibility that was a factor in the original award of the Games to
Sydney in a highly competitive bid process, overwhelmingly reinforce the tech-
nology image. It is a part of this image that technology can deal with any project
in any place.
The ‘eco-technic’ logic that Guy and Farmer (2001: 142) find in the dis-
course of architectural sustainability projects this image. They note its link to
‘ecological modernization’ at the policy level, which portrays apparently serious
environmental side-effects of development as just more problems in the path of
modernization which can be managed, like other problems, by international
treaties and local regulation. The field of significance is global, the problems are
global (with an emphasis on climate change and transnational pollution), and
the answers and the expertise to implement them are universally applicable.
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soccorso. Nel tempo stesso Narsete ponendo torri di legno sulla
sponda del fiume riuscì interamente ad abbatter l'animo dei suoi
avversari. I Goti scorati e stretti dal difetto di cibo si rifugiarono ad
una montagna vicina chiamata dai Romani in latino Mons Lactarius.
Quivi non potevano inseguirli i Romani per cagione del cattivo terreno.
Ma presto i barbari incominciarono a pentirsi d'esserci andati ché le
provviste si fecero anche più scarse tanto che in nessun modo
potevano più mantener sé stessi e i cavalli loro. Di che, stimando
meglio accettevole morire in ordine di battaglia che per lenta fame,
calaron giù quando il nemico men li aspettava facendo contro esso
impeto improvviso. I Romani li fronteggiarono così com'erano senza
ordinarsi secondo lor capitani, o compagnie, o posizioni, nè collocarsi
in alcuna maniera d'ordine tra loro, ma difendendosi contro il nemico
ciascuno come gli accadde trovarsi. Allora i Goti lasciati i cavalli
composero una profonda falange tutti colla faccia rivolta al nemico e
anch'essi i Romani vedendo questo lasciarono i cavalli e tutti si
strinsero insieme nello stesso ordine.
«E qui io narrerò una battaglia assai memorabile per sé stessa e per la
chiara virtù spiegata da Teia che non si mostrò minore ad alcuno di
quelli a cui diamo nome d'eroi. E il disperato partito a cui erano ridotti
i Goti accresceva in essi prodezza, mentre i Romani li confrontavano
con ogni possa vergognosi di cedere a coloro che già eran vinti, sicché
d'ambe parti s'attaccavano i più vicini nemici, gli uni cercando la morte
gli altri la gloria. E cominciando la battaglia per tempo al mattino, Teia
riparato dallo scudo e imbrandita la lancia stava in luogo cospicuo
innanzi alla falange. Quando i Romani lo videro, pensarono che s'egli
cedesse sarebbe più facile romper tutta la linea di battaglia, onde
quanti pretendevano d'aver coraggio, ed eran molti, s'adunarono
insieme contro di lui, alquanti appuntando in lui le lancie altri
scagliandogliele addosso. Ma egli celato dallo scudo, in questo
riceveva i dardi e poi a un tratto gettandosi sui nemici, molti ne
uccideva. E quando vedeva che lo scudo era carico di dardi, ei lo dava
ad uno de' suoi scudieri e prendevane un altro. Così continuò a
combattere per una terza parte del giorno, quando essendo il suo
scudo trapassato da dodici dardi ei non poteva più muoverlo a posta
sua nè respingere i suoi assalitori. Ma egli soltanto chiamò in fretta
uno dei suoi scudieri, senza lasciar suo posto o dare indietro un pollice
o lasciare il nemico avanzarsi, e senza rivolgersi o coprirsi le spalle con
lo scudo o mettersi da lato; ma egli stava con lo scudo come piantato
in terra, menando colpi mortali colla destra, tenendo tutti a distanza
colla manca, e chiamando per nome il suo scudiero. E allorché questi
gli portò lo scudo, ei subito lo cambiò con quel che aveva greve per
gl'infissi dardi. In quella avvenne che gli rimase il petto scoperto un
momento e un giavellotto colselo e l'uccise di colpo. E alcuni Romani
infissero una picca al capo suo e questo portarono attorno
mostrandolo ai due eserciti; ai Romani per incorarli, ai Goti affinché,
sparita ogni speranza, cessassero la guerra. Pure nemmen per questo
i Goti lasciarono il combattere, ancora che per certo sapessero ch'era
morto il re loro. Ma quando fu scuro, gli uni e gli altri separandosi
passaron la notte entro l'arme, e sorgendo presto il mattino appresso
venner fuori di nuovo nell'ordine medesimo e combatterono fino a
notte, gli uni non cedendo agli altri nè rivolgendosi o lasciando presa
un momento, avvegnaché molti restassero morti d'ambo i lati, ma
ostinandosi nel contrasto e infuriati a vicenda. Imperocché i Goti bene
sapevano di combattere la battaglia suprema e i Romani stimavano
troppo da meno di loro l'essere vinti. Da ultimo i barbari spedirono
alcuni di lor capi a Narsete dicendo d'essere omai persuasi ch'eglino
contendevano con Dio perché sentivano che il poter suo stava
contr'essi. Perciò considerando questa verità al paragone di quanto
era accaduto, desideravano mutar d'avviso e cessare la lotta non già
per obbedire all'imperatore ma per vivere liberamente con altri
barbari. E chiesero che i Romani li lasciassero ritirarsi in pace e non
contrastassero a loro un trattamento ragionevole, ma concedessero
loro come mantenimento pel viaggio tutta la moneta ch'essi tenevan
raccolta in lor castella in Italia. E mentre Narsete stava deliberando,
Giovanni figlio di Vitaliano lo consigliò di acconsentire alla domanda, e
che non era da seguitare a combatter con uomini disposti a morire, nè
porre più oltre a prova una virtù che veniva da disperazione e del pari
era funesta a chi la mostrava e a chi l'opponeva. ‘Imperocché, egli
disse, all'uom saggio dovrebbe bastare il vincere, e il voler troppo
rischia d'essere in pregiudizio d'ambe le parti’. Questo consiglio
piacque a Narsete, e combinarono che quanti rimanevano dei barbari,
raccolti i lor beni tosto se n'andassero fuori d'Italia, e per nessuna
ragione combattessero più contro i Romani. Frattanto circa mille dei
Goti, lasciato il campo s'erano recati alla città di Pavia e alle contrade
di là dal Po; e quell'Indulfo che abbiam già menzionato era tra coloro
che li conducevano. Ma tutti gli altri confermarono per giuramento
quanto s'era combinato. Così i Romani presero Cuma e tutti gli altri
luoghi, e questo fu il termine del decimottavo anno della guerra coi
Goti che fu scritta da Procopio.»
In Cassiodoro e Procopio si riassume tutta la storia di questa età, ma
v'hanno insieme alcuni scrittori minori degni di menzione. Agatia
continuò, anch'egli in greco, la storia di Procopio narrando le imprese
di Narsete, e può essere consultato con frutto circa le ultime vicende
della guerra gotica dopo la morte di Teia[28]. Un'arida cronaca latina è
quella di Marcellino Conte, la quale dai tempi di Teodosio va fino a
quelli di Giustiniano (A. D. 379-558), ma pur malgrado l'aridità sua ha
valore specialmente per la cronologia di alcuni fatti. Lo stesso può dirsi
per la cronaca di Mario Aventicense[29]. Assai superiore a costoro per
interesse e per pregio è Magno Felice Ennodio vescovo di Pavia. Di
stirpe indubbiamente gallo-romana e nobile, nacque per quanto pare a
Pavia e certo v'ebbe dimora fanciullo. Fu legato di parentela e
d'amicizia coi primi uomini del suo tempo e più segnalati per sapere e
per nascita. Ebbe moglie ed un figlio, ma più tardi egli e la sposa
lasciato il secolo si consacrarono alla Chiesa. Nominato diacono,
Ennodio rimase lungamente in tal grado finché fu chiamato alla dignità
di vescovo di Pavia dove morì verso il 521. Godè riputazione grande
come retore a' suoi tempi, e scrisse in nome suo e d'altrui moltissime
orazioni, lettere ed epitaffi per cui fu celebrato largamente. Ma la fama
maggiore gli venne da un panegirico di Teodorico e da un libro
apologetico in favore di papa Simmaco. Il panegirico fu scritto nei
primi anni del sesto secolo. Non è ben certo in quale città fosse
recitato a Teodorico, e taluno reca valide ragioni per credere che esso
non sia stato recitato mai[30]. È scrittura di pessimo gusto,
abbondante in tutti i difetti dello stile di Cassiodoro, scarsa nei pregi.
La povertà di migliori documenti le dà qualche importanza storica ma
non certo paragonabile alla importanza delle sue lettere e della vita di
Santo Epifanio vescovo di Pavia. Le lettere dirette quasi sempre a
personaggi cospicui, contengono molte notizie preziose per gli studiosi
del secolo quinto e del sesto. La vita di Santo Epifanio poi non pure
dipinge l'accesa carità d'un santo tutto rivolto a riscattar coloro che i
barbari nelle loro incursioni trascinavano schiavi fuor della patria, ma è
una pittura viva della torbida età che precedette immediatamente i
tempi gotici, torbidi anch'essi e sovra i quali purtroppo incombono
oramai tempi di maggior dolore[31].
Capitolo II
Calamitose condizioni d'Italia nel primo periodo della
invasione longobarda — Gregorio il Grande. Raccolta
delle sue lettere. Altissima importanza di esse per la
storia d'Italia. I libri dei Dialoghi — Editto di Rotari — La
«Origo Langobardorum» e scritti minori fino a Paolo
Diacono — Vita di Paolo Diacono, sue opere e
specialmente sua storia dei Longobardi.
Caduto il regno dei Goti, l'Italia non fu affrancata. Belisario e Narsete
colle loro imprese erano bastati a spezzar le armi gotiche ma non
potevano erigere un baluardo sicuro dagli assalti nuovi. L'Impero in
Occidente era davvero sfasciato e i suoi legami coll'Oriente gli erano
inevitabile cagion di rovina. La corte di Bizanzio fiacca per corruzione
non era sufficiente a sé stessa e sciupava le forze d'Italia col suo
dominio non nazionale e non abbastanza straniero. Da ciò la rovina
d'Italia. Se, come già si è venuto dicendo, il concetto di Cassiodoro
avesse potuto avverarsi e il popol goto fondersi nelle stirpi latine, forse
un vero regno italico sarebbe sorto capace di contrastare da un lato
alle nuove immigrazioni barbariche, dall'altro alle sordide pretese dei
Bizantini. Assicurata così per quanto comportavano i tempi una specie
di nazionalità italica, forse la civiltà romana non sarebbe rimasta
soffocata per tanto andare di secoli, e i giorni della rinascenza si
sarebbero maturati prima e con minore stento. Se non che guida le
vicissitudini umane una legge storica profonda come ogni decreto
della Provvidenza e non facilmente scrutabile, e l'umanità
attraversando tanto dolore ha forse invece affrettato il suo cammino.
Ma se il rimpianto è vano, mal sa guardarsene chi s'affaccia a
riconsiderar nella mente gl'immensi mali che sovrastavano in quell'ora
all'alma parente delle nazioni moderne.
Il primo invadere e stabilirsi dei Longobardi in Italia segna il periodo
più infausto della storia medioevale italiana. Venuti dalla Pannonia,
sotto la guida d'un re prode e feroce, Alboino, i Longobardi scesero in
Italia alcuni anni dopo l'ultima disfatta dei Goti. Trovarono poca
resistenza. A Narsete era succeduto un dappoco, Longino, e le città
abbandonate a sé stesse si difesero come poterono. In breve giro di
tempo la dominazione loro incominciata nel Friuli si distese per una
gran parte d'Italia. Diversi di religione perché altri d'essi erano ariani,
altri idolatri ancora, i Longobardi vivevano ferocemente e ferocemente
operavano verso i conquistati. Le rapine e le stragi, spargevano
intorno squallore e desolazione echeggiate nel lamento che
prorompeva dal cuore di papa Pelagio II quando in una lettera ad
Aunacario vescovo di Auxerre, esclamava: «E perché non gemete in
vedere sparso dinanzi agli occhi nostri tanto sangue d'innocenti, e
profanati i sacri altari, e fatto insulto dagli idolatri alla fede cattolica?»
Le condizioni giuridiche degli Italiani sotto i nuovi conquistatori furono
durissime per tutto il tempo della loro dominazione che si mantenne
due secoli finché fu abbattuta da Carlomagno. L'antica civiltà già
scadente patì un ultimo colpo e fu gran pena se potè serbare qualche
povero frammento di vita e la tradizione del gran nome di Roma.
E in Roma veramente giaceva il seme della redenzione futura. In
quell'ora di dolore Roma si maturava ad una grande trasformazione, e
l'antica dominatrice scaduta dalla primitiva grandezza e coi barbari alle
porte, s'apparecchiava ad esercitare una influenza nuova e non meno
vasta sul mondo. Mentre l'Italia era lacerata dal mal governo dei
Bizantini di Ravenna e dalle devastazioni dei Longobardi, un uomo di
genio, Gregorio il Grande, dalla cattedra di Pietro sorgeva a difendere
l'Italia, e girando lontano lo sguardo, quasi inconscio e per istinto di
romana grandezza poneva le fondamenta alla supremazia universale
della Chiesa. Certo niun uomo poteva nascer temprato meglio di lui a
condurre un rivolgimento così tenace e durevole, così riccamente
fecondo d'eventi nella storia futura. «A pochi altri uomini,» ha scritto
di recente uno storico, «natura e fortuna si fecero incontro con più
benigna concordia, ma pochi uomini anche più solleciti di quello in
spender bene i lor doni e cavarne il più largo frutto e farne ricco
patrimonio altrui. Rampollo di illustre stirpe patrizia (si crede che fosse
della gente Anicia; suo padre era il senatore Gordiano, tra gli antenati
contava un papa, Felice IV) insieme col censo cospicuo de' maggiori
ne aveva ereditate le tempre robuste e l'assennatezza. La gravità del
romano e l'ardore del cristiano si unirono in Gregorio come in nessun
altro pontefice prima e dopo di lui.»[32]
Un uomo siffatto, mescolato com'era a quanto di notevole accadeva
nel mondo, di necessità doveva riflettere l'età sua in quante scritture
gli sgorgavano dalla penna feconda, onde talune di queste, intese
allora a tutt'altro scopo, hanno oggi un valore storico altissimo che
s'accresce per la gran povertà di ricordi contemporanei. Nato verso il
540, mentre Belisario contrastava ai Goti il dominio d'Italia, Gregorio
studiò a Roma grammatica, rettorica, filosofia e diritto[33].
Giovanissimo ancora era salito alla dignità di Pretore o di Prefetto in
Roma, ma le cure politiche non bastavano a distoglier lui uomo
insieme di azione e di pensiero, dalle pie opere e dalle abitudini
contemplative. Mosso da quella forza infaticabile che non gli fallì mai
nella vita, egli dietro la guida d'Ambrogio e d'Agostino, fonti limpide e
profonde com'ei le chiamava, intendeva la mente alla teologia e
intanto volgeva le vaste ricchezze sue a fondare sei monasteri in Sicilia
e un settimo a Roma al Clivo di Scauro là sul Celio, dove oggi ancora
sorge una Chiesa che s'intitola dal suo nome. In questo monastero
egli si chiuse alquanto più tardi a vita austera abbandonando la cosa
pubblica, ma da questa non gli fu dato sottrarsi gran tratto. L'illustre
casato e la potenza dell'ingegno suo non erano tali da lasciarlo
rimaner nell'oscuro. Il pontefice Benedetto l'ordinò diacono per
affidargli una delle sette regioni di Roma, e Pelagio secondo lo mandò
come apocrisario a trattar gli affari della Chiesa a Costantinopoli. Quivi
durante l'ambasceria acquistò credito presso l'Imperatore, e salì in tale
riputazione, che al suo ritorno in Roma, morto nel 590 papa Pelagio, i
Romani con voto unanime lo chiamarono a succedergli. La sua
resistenza e la tentata fuga da Roma non valsero a salvarlo dal peso di
quella gran dignità. Il volere del popolo e del clero di Roma ebbe a
Costantinopoli la sanzione imperiale, e gli fu forza rassegnarsi ed
accettare un incarico che tanto più lo sgomentava quanto al suo genio
e al suo cuore ne apparivano più vasto il concetto e più tremendi i
doveri. I tempi calamitosi imponevano all'alto ministero sempre nuove
fatiche e suggerivano sempre nuovi pensieri, ma la sua mente
anelando al cielo ritornava ogni ora al ricordo della pace perduta e
richiamava con tenerezza infinita la solitudine del monastero. «Il
dolore ch'io soffro continuamente, ormai per uso è antico ed è pur
sempre nuovo. L'anima mia angustiata ricorda quale era un tempo nel
monastero, e come ella sovrastava alle cose fugaci, e pensando solo
delle celesti per virtù di contemplazione trapassava oramai il claustro
della carne e la morte divenivale cara come principio di vita e premio
dell'opera, sua.»[34] Con tale rimpianto egli apriva un giorno
l'angosciata anima ad un amico che lo aveva sorpreso sedente in
luogo solitario, a meditare in silenzio il suo dolore. Ma nè le tendenze
ascetiche dello spirito nè le infermità che lo travagliavano ebbero forza
di stornarlo dagli obblighi dell'ufficio suo. Un cuore romano gli batteva
nel romano petto, ed ei ne seguiva i dettami con fermezza d'antico. La
mente sua larga come il suo zelo spandeva in ogni plaga le cure
benefiche, e per esse ei diveniva centro a popoli diversi e guida ad
una nuova civiltà ignota ancora ma nascente per impulso di lui. Or
tutte queste cure continue e varie, animate da una carità così intensa
e così comprensiva, originarono tra gli altri suoi scritti uno stupendo
volume di lettere che attestano la sublimità di sua vita e sono insieme
il maggiore monumento storico dell'età sua. Divise in quattordici libri
secondo gli anni del suo pontificato[35], e scritte ad ogni ceto di
persone, queste lettere spiegano mirabilmente le condizioni dei tempi
gregoriani e riflettendo l'immagine della vita d'allora mantengono o
confermano il ricordo di fatti ignoti o mal noti. Semplici e prive d'ogni
ornamento, ciascuna d'esse rivela la ispirazione momentanea per cui
fu dettata, ma dal loro complesso si ricava il lungo e continuo pensiero
dello scrittore. Lo stile dei profeti ai quali ispiravasi nelle altre opere
sue, non veniva innanzi a Gregorio quando esprimeva caldamente e
improvviso i pensieri suoi senza scopo letterario e stretto quasi sempre
da motivi immediati e incalzanti. Perciò lo stile delle sue lettere scevro
da mistica ampollosità procede piano e scorrevole ricordando talora la
semplice e dignitosa latinità di tempi migliori[36]. I soggetti d'esse
svariatissimi trattano ogni materia dalle più ardue questioni religiose e
politiche alla minuta amministrazione dei beni della Chiesa, dalla
ansiosa cura delle singole anime al patetico familiare racconto dei suoi
lunghi e quasi continui patimenti morali e fisici[37]. Ma il riferire alcuna
di queste lettere gioverà meglio d'ogni discorso a descriverne
l'importanza e a dipingere lo squallore che ravvolgeva allora la storia
nostra. Così la lettera seguente indirizzata all'imperatrice Costantina
per ottenere alleviamento ai mali che gravavano sulla Corsica e la
Sardegna, mostra qual fosse il governo dei Greci e come stesse l'Italia
a strazio tra le due tirannidi dei nuovi e degli antichi oppressori.
«Posciaché» egli scrive «io conosco la serenissima Donna nostra esser
pensierosa della patria celeste e della vita dell'anima sua, io terrei me
gravemente colpevole, se tacessi quanto per timore dell'onnipotente
Iddio è da suggerire. Avendo io saputo essere nell'isola di Sardegna
molti gentili, ed essi tuttavia secondo il loro mal uso, sacrificare
agl'idoli, e i sacerdoti di quell'isola andare torpenti a predicare il
Redentore, vi mandai uno de' vescovi italiani, che, aiutando Iddio
trasse alla fede molti dei gentili. Ma egli mi ha annunciata una cosa
sacrilega; che coloro, i quali colà sacrificano agl'idoli, pagano al
giudice affinché ciò sia lecito loro. Dei quali essendo alcuni stati
battezzati e avendo lasciati quei sacrifizi, tuttavia il giudice dell'isola,
anche dopo il battesimo, esige quella paga usata dare da loro. Ed
avendolo il vescovo ripreso di ciò, rispose egli, aver promesso tanto in
paga dell'impiego, che nol potrebbe riavere se non a quel modo.
L'isola di Corsica poi è oppressa di tanta soverchieria degli esattori e
tanta gravezza d'esazioni, che gli abitatori vi possono a mala pena
supplire vendendo i proprî figliuoli; ondeché lasciando la pia
repubblica e' sono sforzati a rifuggire alla nefandissima gente de'
Longobardi. E qual cosa più grave, qual più crudele veramente,
potrebbero eglino patire dai Barbari, oltre all'esser ridotti a vendere i
propri figliuoli? In Sicilia dicesi d'un cotale Stefano cartulario delle parti
marittime, che coll'invadere ogni luogo, e con porre senza pronunziar
giudizio i cartelli a' poderi e alle case, arreca tanti danni, tante
oppressioni che s'io volessi dire tutte le opere riferitemi di lui, nol
potrei compiere in un gran volume. Adunque vegga la serenissima
nostra Donna tutte queste cose, e sollevi i gemiti degli oppressi. Ben
sono io certo non essere elleno pervenute alle vostre pie orecchie; che
se 'l fossero non avrebbero durato fino al presente. Suggeritele a suo
tempo al piissimo Signore, affinché dall'anima sua, dall'Imperio e da'
suoi figliuoli ei rimova tale e tanto gravame di peccato. E ben so ch'ei
dirà forse, mandarsi a noi per le spese d'Italia quanto si raccoglie dalle
suddette isole. Ma dico io: conceda meno per le spese d'Italia e tolga
dal suo Imperio le lacrime degli oppressi. E perciò forse tante spese
fatte per questa terra giovano meno perché con mescolanza di
peccato lor si provvede. Comandino adunque i serenissimi Signori che
nulla più si raccolga con peccato. E se così si attribuisca meno alle
spese della repubblica, tuttavia le si gioverà più, e sarà meglio non
provvedere alla vita nostra temporale che procacciare impedimento
alla vostra eterna. Pensate di che animo, di che cuore, in che strazi
esser debbano quei genitori che per salvarsene strappansi dappresso i
figliuoli! E chi ha figliuoli ben può sapere come s'abbiano a
compassionare gli altri. A me poi basti l'aver questo brevemente
suggerito, affinché se rimanesse la vostra pietà ignorante di quanto
succede in questi paesi, non fossi io poi del mio silenzio appresso il
severo Giudice incolpato e castigato.»[38]
In quella desolazione d'Italia, Gregorio conscio che il governo
imperiale piuttosto era d'aggravio che di soccorso ai mali, cercava
quando poteva di concluder paci temporanee coi Longobardi per
procacciare almeno a Roma e alle provincie dell'Impero qualche
respiro in quella vita d'oppressione. Ma Romano esarca di Ravenna
con gretta e gelosa politica gli faceva ostacolo e gli ruppe tra gli altri
un accordo iniziato con Ariolfo duca longobardo di Spoleto. Ne
conseguì una incursione longobarda intorno a Roma e stragi e rapine
fin sotto le mura della città. Il pontefice oppresso dal gran dolore ne
cadde infermo e solo riebbesi per andare incontro a nuove amarezze.
Agilulfo, re dei Longobardi, volendo ricuperare alcune città ritoltegli
per tradimento dai Greci, mosse rapidamente da Pavia verso Toscana,
ricuperò Perugia e accostatosi anch'egli fin sotto le mura di Roma,
recò ivi intorno nuovi guasti e saccheggi. Gregorio che a quel tempo
spiegava ai Romani Ezechiele in un corso d'omelie, sopraffatto dalle
calamità del suo popolo, non ebbe forza di seguitare. «Da ogni lato»
sclamava «udiam gemiti; città distrutte, castella rase, campi devastati,
la terra mutata in un deserto. Altri vediam tratti prigioni, altri mutilati,
altri uccisi.» E di lì a poco cessando, così se ne scusava: «Non mi si
faccia rimprovero s'io cesso dopo questo discorso, poiché, tutti lo
vedete, le nostre tribolazioni s'accrebbero. D'ogni parte ne circondan
le spade, da ogni parte temiamo un pericolo imminente di morte. Altri
ci tornano innanzi colle mani mozzate, d'altri ci si annunzia che son
captivi, d'altri che spenti. M'è necessario oramai trattener la lingua da
questa esposizione.»[39]
Intanto ch'egli tentava d'alleggerir le sventure della patria e soffriva
per esse nell'anima col doppio dolore di cristiano e di cittadino, i
dignitari imperiali affaticandosi di scalzare l'autorità sua a
Costantinopoli, l'accusavano d'esser caduto negli inganni del Duca di
Spoleto e d'aver con ciò ingannato l'Imperatore. Gregorio indignato si
difese, e scrivendo aperto ed austero all'Imperatore stesso: «Se la
schiavitù di mia terra» diceva «non crescesse ogni dì, io pur tacerei
del disprezzo e della derisione fatta di me. Ma questo mi duole che
mentre mi si dà taccia di mentitore si strascina Italia più e più sotto al
giogo de' Longobardi. Io dico al mio piissimo signore: pensi egli di me
ogni male; ma intorno all'utile della repubblica e alla liberazione
d'Italia, non dia facile le pie orecchie a ciascuno ma più creda ai fatti
che alle parole. Contro ai sacerdoti poi non si sdegni nella sua terrena
potestà il signor nostro sì prontamente; ma in considerazione di colui
onde essi sono servi, comandi loro in modo da mostrar la dovuta
riverenza.... Di quanto ebbi a soffrire dirò brevemente. Primo, mi fu
guasta la pace ch'io senza spesa della repubblica avea fatta co'
Longobardi in Toscana; poi, guasta la pace, si tolsero dalla città di
Roma i soldati, e gli uni rimasero uccisi da' nimici gli altri collocati a
Narni o a Perugia; e per tener Perugia si lasciò Roma. Fu peggio la
venuta d'Agilulfo, quando io ebbi di miei occhi a vedere i Romani a
guisa di cani colle funi al collo ire ad esser venduti in Francia. Noi, la
Dio grazia, sfuggimmo, racchiusi nella città, dalle costoro mani; ma
allora fu cercato d'incolparci che mancasser frumenti nella città, dove
pure, com'io esposi altra volta, non si possono a lungo serbare. Nè di
me duolmi; che fidato, il confesso in mia coscienza, purché salvi
l'anima mia, mi tengo apparecchiato ad ogni cosa. Duolmi sì dei
gloriosi uomini Gregorio prefetto e Castorio maestro de' militi, i quali
fecero ogni cosa fattibile e durarono nell'assedio durissime fatiche di
vigilie e guardie, e tuttavia poi furono colpiti dalla grave indignazione
de' signori. Ond'io ben veggo aver ad essi nociuto non le azioni loro
ma la mia persona; che dopo essersi con me affaticati con me ora son
tribolati. E quanto a ciò che mi si accenna del terribile giudicio dello
onnipotente Iddio, prego io per lo stesso onnipotente Iddio che mai
più nol ripeta la pietà de' miei signori. Perché noi non sappiamo quale
abbia ad essere quel giudicio; e dice Paolo egregio predicatore: Non
giudicare anzi tempo, finché non venga il Signore il quale illuminerà i
nascondigli delle tenebre e manifesterà i consigli dei cuori. Questo io
dico brevemente perché, indegno peccatore più m'affido nella
misericordia di Gesù che nella giustizia della vostra pietà. E Iddio
regga qui di sua mano il mio piissimo signore e in quel terribil giudicio
lo trovi libero d'ogni delitto; e faccia poi piacere me, se è d'uopo, agli
uomini; ma in cotal modo che io non offenda la sua eterna
grazia.»[40]
Del resto nè calunnie nè ostacoli lo trattennero dal negoziar nuove
tregue coi Longobardi studiandosi così di sollevar le campagne
specialmente da quelle guerre devastatrici. Regnava allora sui
Longobardi Agilulfo già duca di Torino principe di gran valore e
conciliante d'animo, chiamato al trono da Teodelinda allorché rimasta
vedova di re Autari, i nobili, al dire di Paolo Diacono[41] la lasciarono
arbitra del regno invitandola ad eleggersi fra i duchi longobardi un
successore all'estinto. Questa principessa, donna d'alte virtù, bavarese
di nascita, cattolica di fede, esercitò una grande e salutare influenza
nelle cose del regno e sui consigli del marito, e fu spesso mediatrice di
pace. Dalle lettere di Gregorio apparisce sovente com'egli la tenesse in
gran pregio e sperasse per lei di condurre al cattolicesimo i
Longobardi. Riuscì in parte all'intento. Per le persuasioni di Teodelinda
par che Agilulfo s'inducesse a lasciar l'arianesimo a quel modo che in
Inghilterra le persuasioni di Berta aiutarono la conversione di
Etelberto. Certo dopo Agilulfo i Longobardi a poco a poco, sebbene
non senza molta resistenza, incominciarono a tenere una sola fede
con gli Italiani e il fatto avea grande importanza perché valeva a
scemare le divisioni tra i due popoli e n'aiutava la fusione alla quale
peraltro fu sempre impedimento la coesistenza dell'Impero in Oriente.
Verso quel tempo per cura di Teodelinda sorse la cattedrale di Monza
a cui fu data in offerta la corona ferrea che servì da quel tempo a
incoronare i re d'Italia e dopo aver cinta la fronte a Carlomagno e a
Napoleone, apparve in un giorno di dolore solenne dietro al feretro di
Vittorio Emanuele rinnovatore del regno italico. Quando nacque ad
Agilulfo un figliuolo (A. D. 603), fu battezzato secondo il rito cattolico.
Gregorio che afferrava bene la utilità di quell'evento, ne mandò lieto
rallegramenti e lodi a Teodelinda. «Quello che mi mandaste in iscritto
dalle contrade genovesi,» così le diceva Gregorio, «mi fece partecipe
del gaudio vostro col farmi noto che per la grazia di Dio onnipotente vi
fu concesso un figliuolo, e, quel che torna a lode della eccellenza
vostra, ch'egli fu ascritto alla fede cattolica. Nè altro era da aspettarsi
dalla cristianità vostra se non che avreste procurato di munir del
sussidio della giustizia cattolica colui che v'era dato per dono divino,
affinché il Redentore conoscesse in voi una serva fedele, e
alimentasse nel suo timore il nuovo re alla nazione dei Longobardi.
Perciò prego l'onnipotente Iddio ch'egli custodisca voi nella via de' suoi
mandati e faccia crescer nell'amor suo l'eccellentissimo figliuol mio
Adaloaldo per tal modo ch'egli già grande infra gli uomini anche per
sue buone opere divenga glorioso dinnanzi agli occhi del nostro Iddio.
«Quanto a ciò che scrisse la eccellenza vostra che io dovessi
sottilmente rispondere all'abbate Secondo, figliuol mio carissimo, chi
mai, se infermità nol contrastasse, vorrebbe indugiarsi a soddisfare la
domanda sua e il desiderio vostro il quale, vedesi, riuscirebbe utile a
molti? Se non che mi opprime tale infermità di podagra, che non pur
m'è negato il dettare, ma a stento posso levarmi a discorrere. Ciò
sanno i legati vostri apportatori di queste lettere, i quali mi trovarono
infermo al venire e mi lasciano in pericolo grande e dubbio della vita.
Ma se l'onnipotente Iddio vorrà ch'io guarisca, a quanto egli mi scrisse
risponderò sottilmente.
«.... All'eccellentissimo figliuol mio Adaloaldo re, mando alcune
reliquie, cioè una croce col legno della santa croce del Signore, ed una
lezione del Santo Vangelo inclusa in una teca persica. E alla figliuola
mia, sua sorella, mando tre anelli, due con giacinti uno con onice, le
quali cose prego sien date da voi a loro affinché per mezzo della
eccellenza vostra riesca loro grato l'affetto mio.
«Nel mandarvi con amor paterno il debito saluto, chieggovi che al
figliuol nostro eccellentissimo il re vostro sposo rendiate grazie per la
fatta pace, e che per l'avvenire secondo l'uso vostro, lo esortiate con
ogni maniera alla pace. Così tra le molte buone opere vostre potrete
trovare innanzi al cospetto di Dio la mercé usata ad un popolo
innocente che poteva perir nel dissidio.»[42]
Queste lettere scelte non senza esitazione tra molte d'ugual valore,
possono in qualche modo mostrar la luce che viene alla storia d'Italia
da questo singolare epistolario. Ma l'ampia mente di Gregorio, le
ispirazioni del suo ministero, la larghezza cristiana della sua carità, non
gli consentivano di restringere nella sola Italia l'opera sua, onde le sue
lettere sono fonte di storia non pure italiana ma universale. La storia
d'Europa si chiarisce mirabilmente per le lettere scritte nelle Gallie e in
Ispagna, notevolissime tra le prime quelle dirette alla famosa
Brunichilde[43], e tra le seconde quelle dirette a Leandro quel vescovo
di Siviglia che indusse il re Recaredo e i suoi Visigoti ad abbandonar
l'arianesimo. Del pari le lettere dirette a Costantinopoli, ad Alessandria
ed altrove in Oriente e in Affrica, descrivono lo stato dei paesi più
lontani e le loro relazioni con Roma. Quali poi fossero le relazioni tra
Gregorio e la Inghilterra, e qual parte egli avesse alla conversione di
quel paese, è famoso al mondo. Beda il venerabile raccogliendo le
tradizioni inglesi ne ha lasciato un racconto notissimo ripetuto per
tutto il medio evo. Egli narra come Gregorio non ancora pontefice
veduti in Roma alcuni schiavi inglesi, colpito dall'angelica bellezza loro,
udendo ch'essi erano idolatri, concepisse il pensiero di convertir
l'Inghilterra alla fede. Ottenutane licenza ei s'avviava missionario a
quelle contrade, ma appena mosso, ecco il popolo romano a sollevarsi
e costringere il papa a richiamarlo. Questo racconto della cui verità
non apparisce traccia nelle opere di Gregorio, riflette non solo
l'affettuosa venerazione che nutrivasi per lui in Inghilterra qualche
secolo dopo la sua morte, ma puranco l'affettuosa sollecitudine che
nelle lettere di Gregorio traluce continua per quella missione[44].
L'infiammato ardore di carità che lo ispira su tale argomento mi sforza
a varcare i limiti di questo lavoro, e uscendo dalla storia particolare
d'Italia raccolgo qua e là qualche frammento in cui Gregorio parla di
questa impresa a lui cara, e nel compiacersi della riuscita, coi gravi e
dolci ammonimenti la dirige al suo termine.
«Ma,» egli scrive ad Eulogio vescovo Alessandrino, «poiché io so che
voi tanto vi rallegrate nel bene operato da voi quanto in quel che è
operato dagli altri, rendovi cambio del favor vostro e v'annunzio non
dissimili cose. Imperocché perfidiando finora nel culto de' tronchi e
delle pietre la nazione degli Angli che vive nel più remoto angolo del
mondo, a me collo aiuto delle orazioni vostre entrò nell'animo ch'io
dovessi mandar colà un monaco del monastero a predicare colla
grazia di Dio. Il quale con mia licenza fatto vescovo dai vescovi di
Germania, anche col conforto loro fu condotto laggiù in fin del mondo
a quella gente, e pur ora ci son pervenute scritte notizie di sua salute
e dell'opera sua. E tra quella gente splendono di tanti miracoli ed egli
e gl'inviati con lui, che sembrano imitar le virtù insigni ch'essi vanno
sponendo degli apostoli. Nella festa della Natività del Signore occorsa
in questa prima indizione, ci annunzia il fratello e convescovo nostro
che oltre a diecimila Angli furono battezzati. La qual cosa io vi narro
affinché sappiate ciò che parlando operate tra il popolo Alessandrino,
e pregando operate ai confini del mondo. Le orazioni vostre sono dove
voi non siete e dove siete appariscono le opere sante.»
Nel seguito di questa lettera così notevole per giusta compiacenza e
per l'umile fede che ne traspare, si fa cenno d'una grave questione
ch'egli ebbe in Oriente con Giovanni il Digiunatore patriarca
costantinopolitano, intorno al titolo di vescovo universale ch'egli
rifiutava per sé e non voleva riconoscere in altri. Ma una tale
questione che originò molte lettere della raccolta importantissime per
la storia della Chiesa, trasmoda troppo la cerchia di questo libro. È
necessità tralasciarla e concludere queste citazioni, forse già troppo
lunghe, coi brani di un'altra lettera scritta ad Agostino l'apostolo
d'Inghilterra: «Gloria negli eccelsi a Dio e pace in terra agli uomini di
buona volontà. Come il morto grano di frumento recò molto frutto
cadendo a terra affinché non regnasse solo nel cielo, così noi viviamo
per la morte sua, ci confortiamo per la sua infermità, pel suo patire
siam tolti al patire, per l'amor suo cerchiamo in Britannia i fratelli che
ci erano ignoti, per sua grazia troviamo quelli che noi ignoranti
cercavamo. Chi varrà a dir quanta gioia sia nata quì in cuore di tutti i
fedeli a udir che la nazione degli Angli per la grazia dell'onnipotente
Iddio e le fatiche della fraternità tua, scacciate le tenebre dell'errore
s'è circondata della luce della santa fede, che già con mente franca
essa calpesta gl'idoli a cui prima soggiaceva insana per terrore; a Dio
onnipotente si piega pura nel cuore, dalle prave opere è trattenuta per
le regole della santa predicazione, ai precetti divini inchina l'animo e
sollevasi coll'intelletto, infino a terra umiliasi coll'orazione per non
giacer colla mente a terra? Di chi è questa opera se non di colui che
dice: Il Padre mio opera fino ad ora ed opero anch'io?[45].... Or tu
godi pure perché le anime degli Angeli pe' miracoli esteriori son tratti
alla grazia interiore, ma temi che fra queste maraviglie che sono
operate l'infermo animo non si levi a presunzione, e mentre esaltasi
fuori ad onore non cada internamente per vanagloria... Imperocché ai
discepoli del vero non deve arrecar gaudio se non quel bene che
hanno comune con tutti e nel quale non hanno fine alla letizia. Resta
dunque, o fratello carissimo, che tra ciò che tu per opera di Dio fai
esternamente, sempre all'interno ti giudichi sottilmente, e che
sottilmente osservi ciò che sei tu stesso e quanta grazia sia in quella
gente per la cui conversione ottenesti perfino il dono di far miracoli. E
se ti ricorderai d'aver mancato talora innanzi al Creatore nostro o colla
parola o coll'opera, sempre ti richiamerai ciò a memoria affinché il
ricordo della colpa reprima la insorgente vanità del cuore. E quanto di
operar miracoli ti sarà o ti fu concesso, stimalo donato non a te ma a
coloro per la cui salute ti si concede.... Molto adunque vuolsi premer
giù l'animo tra i segni e i miracoli affinché esso non cerchi la propria
gloria ed esulti nel gaudio privato della sua esaltazione.
«Le quali cose io dico perché desidero umiliar l'animo di chi m'ascolta,
ma tuttavia abbia anche la sua fiducia l'umiltà tua. Imperocché io
peccatore tengo speranza certissima che per la grazia dell'onnipotente
nostro Creatore e Redentore Dio e Signore Gesù Cristo, già i peccati
tuoi sono rimessi e perciò sei eletto affinché per te si rimettano i
peccati altrui. Nè avrai afflizione d'alcun peccato in avvenire tu che ti
sforzi di far gaudio in cielo per la conversione di molti. Lo stesso
Creatore e Redentore nostro, parlando della penitenza degli uomini,
afferma: Io vi dico che si farà maggior gaudio in cielo per un
peccatore penitente, che per novantanove giusti a cui non fa d'uopo
pentirsi[46]. E se per un sol penitente è così grande gaudio nel cielo,
qual gaudio crederem noi che si faccia per tanto popolo convertito
dall'error suo, il quale venendo alla fede condannò col pentirsi il male
che fece? In tanto gaudio di cielo e d'angeli ripetiam dunque quelle
parole angeliche che premettemmo: “Gloria negli eccelsi a Dio e pace
in terra agli uomini di buona volontà.”»[47]
L'anno 604, nel giorno 14 di marzo, chiudeva la santa vita Gregorio
Magno e col cessare del suo epistolario la storia d'Italia perde la guida
sua più luminosa attraverso que' secoli. Altre opere di Gregorio hanno
pregio storico per le allusioni che vi si trovano a fatti contemporanei o
recenti, e principale tra queste opere è il libro dei Dialoghi. In questo
libro singolare, uno di quelli che più hanno affascinata la fantasia del
medio evo, Gregorio descrisse le vite e i miracoli di San Benedetto e
d'alcuni altri Italiani in fama di santità vissuti intorno al suo tempo e i
più d'essi o conosciuti da lui o da persone a lui note. È una raccolta di
leggende strane e fantastiche narrate con ferma fede e con ferma
fede ripetute per secoli, ed è maraviglioso insieme e caratteristico di
que' tempi e di questa nostra natura umana il trovar tanta puerile
credulità in uomo di genio così mirabile. Ma queste leggende riescon
preziose alla storia sparse come sono di fatti reali e d'allusioni a luoghi
ad usi a monumenti non ancora scomparsi, a personaggi che vissero e
operarono in quella età momentosa[48].
Colla morte di Gregorio le testimonianze contemporanee e dirette sulla
storia d'Italia nei tempi longobardi cessano quasi del tutto. Il
documento di maggior valore è l'Editto di re Rotari (A. D. 643), che
con le aggiunte fattevi dai re successivi raccoglie in sé tutta la
legislazione longobarda. Rotari prefisse all'Editto un prologo il quale
nella scarsità delle memorie serve molto alla storia essendo riferita in
esse con diligenza la serie dei re longobardi coi nomi di loro famiglie
ed una accurata genealogia per dieci generazioni della famiglia dello
stesso Rotari che era degli Arodi.
Finché Rotari non le raccolse, nessuno aveva scritto le leggi dei
Longobardi. Esse scendevano tramandate colla parola viva da
generazione a generazione e il somigliante accadeva per la memoria di
loro genealogie e di loro imprese che circonfuse di leggende erano
affidate al canto. Verso il 670 un Longobardo tentò come seppe di
ricavare da quelle saghe alquanti cenni intorno alla provenienza del
suo popolo, e questo lavoro eletto Origo Langobardorum s'aggiunse
ab antico nei codici al prologo dell'Editto di Rotari e parve quasi
confondersi in quello[49]. Prima di questi tentativi esisteva una storia
dei Longobardi compilata da quell'abbate Secondo di Trento († 612),
che levò al fonte battesimale il fanciullo Adaloaldo e si trova nominato
qui sopra nella lettera di Gregorio Magno alla Regina Teodelinda, ma
di questa storia, che sembra essere stata importante, riman la sola
menzione negli scritti di Paolo Diacono a cui siam giunti oramai[50]. Il
continuatore di Prospero d'Aquitania il quale condusse la sua
continuazione fino al 671 ed un magister Stefanus che verso il 698
compose una rozzissima poesia in lode di re Cuniperto sono le sole
fonti contemporanee che abbiamo oltre la Origo e l'Editto, e
provenienti da scrittori di origine latina. I Longobardi stentarono sopra
ogni altro popolo germanico ad avvicinarsi alla cultura latina e vi si
avvicinarono sol quando la loro dominazione era presso al tramonto.
Però, come osserva il Wattenbach, «i grammatici che malgrado la
contrarietà dei tempi avevano sempre continuata l'opera loro,
trovarono a poco a poco discepoli tra i Longobardi e quando la costoro
signoria si appressò alla fine, già avevano educato al popolo straniero
il suo storico che, come Giordane, alla caduta del regno ne serbò
almeno la memoria.»[51] Questo storico fu Paolo Diacono, e di lui,
insigne tra gli storici dell'antico medio evo italiano devesi ora trattar di
proposito[52].
Paolo Diacono ci ha lasciato egli stesso memoria di sé qua e là ne' suoi
scritti, e in essi possiamo seguir le traccie della sua vita che fu certo
notevole. Nasceva da stirpe antica ed egli ne risalisce la storia
intessuta di leggende. Leupchis, lo stipite ch'egli menziona del suo
casato, scese nel Friuli con Alboino al tempo della prima invasione
longobarda e quivi morì lasciando cinque figliuoli che poco appresso
presi in una incursione degli Avari furon tratti via dalla patria. Durava
da lungo la lor prigionia quando Lopichis un d'essi, pervenuto alla
virilità potè scampar colla fuga. Dopo un lungo vagar solitario alla
ventura tra stenti immani e pericoli, un dì sulle Alpi mentre
considerava incerto il suo cammino, ecco presentarglisi innanzi
d'improvviso un lupo e farglisi guida per la via sconosciuta. Poi a un
tratto sparitogli dagli ocelli misteriosamente il lupo, una visione gli
venne a soccorso nel sonno e gl'indicò la rimanente strada fino al
Friuli. Quivi trovò la deserta casa dov'era nato, e riconosciuto dai suoi
parenti potè ristorarla e fondare in essa la sua famiglia. Da Lopichis
derivò Arechis e da lui Warnefrit, il quale unitosi ad una Teodelinda,
n'ebbe alquanti figliuoli. Un d'essi, nato per quanto si congettura tra il
720 e il 725 all'incirca, fu il nostro Paolo Varnefrido o, come più
universalmente è chiamato. Paolo Diacono.
Paolo ebbe a maestro nelle lettere il grammatico Flaviano nipote ad un
altro grammatico di nome Felice. Nelle scuole studiò la lingua greca
non senza profitto come è da credere malgrado la modestia colla
quale egli accenna a questo ramo del suo sapere. Non è ben sicuro in
quale luogo Flaviano gl'impartisse l'insegnamento suo, ma par
probabile ch'ei fosse educato in Pavia alla corte del re dove per questi
grammatici la cultura latina schiudevasi un varco. Certo Paolo
trovavasi in corte ai tempi del re Ratchis (A. D. 744-749), perché ci
narra d'avere egli stesso veduto quel re mostrare dopo un convito la
tazza famosa che Alboino fe' far col teschio di Cunimondo re dei
Gepidi. Com'è noto, Alboino, ucciso in guerra Cunimondo di cui poscia
sposò la figliuola Rosemunda, soleva ai solenni conviti ber nel suo
teschio ridotto ad uso di coppa. Un giorno a Verona grave di vino oltre
il dovere, il tiranno offrì la tazza orrenda alla regina invitandola a ber
lietamente col padre. L'atroce ingiuria vendicata più tardi ferocemente
par così enorme a Paolo che nel narrarcela esclama: «Affinché ciò ad
alcuno non apparisca impossibile, dico la verità innanzi a Cristo, io
stesso un dì di festa vidi il re Ratchis che tenea in mano questa coppa
mostrandola a' convitati suoi.»
Questo episodio che s'introduce qui ad esempio della feroce barbarie
de' primi Longobardi, bene ci aiuta a seguire la storia della vita di
Paolo e non è il solo per cui lo vediamo trattare familiarmente coi
principi del suo tempo. Lo scritto più antico che ci rimane di Paolo (A.
D. 763), è un carme sulle sei età del mondo, di cui le strofe recano
acrosticamente il nome di Adelperga pia figlia del re longobardo
Desiderio e moglie di Arichi duca di Benevento. Questa principessa
che aveva avuto Paolo a maestro, gli rimase sempre amica e lo invitò
più tardi ad aumentare e continuare la storia romana di Eutropio. Pare
che egli componesse l'epitaffio in versi per la regina Ansa madre di
Adelperga il cui cadavere fu ricondotto in patria dalla Francia dove
Ansa era andata con Desiderio quando l'armi di Carlo Magno fransero
il regno dei Longobardi. I versi della iscrizione che dallo stile pare
sicuramente esser di Paolo, spirano una malinconia profonda e
attestano l'affetto che l'autore portava alla stirpe sua longobarda. Non
si sa in quale anno egli ricevesse i sacri ordini nè quando entrasse nel
chiostro, ma il Waitz tiene per non improbabile ch'egli si rendesse
monaco a Montecassino quando Ratchis balzato dal trono vi trovò un
rifugio. Quivi la solenne pace del monastero presto pigliò tanto impero
sull'animo di Paolo, che mai forse non si sarebbe indotto a lasciarla se
gravi casi non l'avessero chiamato fuori. Nel 776 i Longobardi da breve
conquistati si rivoltarono in varî luoghi contro a' Franchi e più
vastamente nel ducato del Friuli. Se Paolo non s'immischiò in questa
rivolta certo vi prese parte il fratel suo Arechis, il quale tratto
prigioniero in Francia ebbe confiscate tutte le sostanze sue. Da questo
fatto dee trarre origine una leggenda intorno a Paolo nata verso il
secolo decimo e largamente diffusa nei secoli posteriori. A voler
seguire questa leggenda, Carlo Magno sospettando Paolo complice in
una congiura, l'avrebbe cacciato in esilio e confinatolo nell'isoletta di
Tremiti donde egli qualche anno appresso avrebbe potuto fuggire per
miracolo, rifugiarsi a Benevento e di là a Montecassino. Ma tutto
questo racconto è fantastico. Per contrario quando già Carlo era
venuto a Roma e avea dato prova di temperata mitezza nelle cose di
Stato e mostravasi protettore delle lettere, vediamo Paolo rivolgersi al
monarca vincitore. In versi ei gli chiede che sia reso il fratel suo alla
famiglia da sei anni giacente in una miseria di cui dipinge lo squallore
con gran vivezza di colorito e gran calore d'affetto. A far più efficace la
intercessione, Paolo lasciò il monastero e valicate le Alpi si recò in
corte di Carlo. Questi lo accolse con molto onore e lo trattenne più a
lungo ch'ei non avrebbe voluto. Dalle rive della Mosella il desiderio del
monaco tornava alla dolce pace gustata tra i maestosi silenzî delle rupi
cassinesi: «Sebbene,» egli scrive all'abate suo Teodemaro, «uno
spazio vasto di terra mi separi dal consorzio vostro, me congiunge a
voi un tenace affetto che non può mai disciogliersi, nè il riferir per
lettera e la brevità di queste pagine bastano a dirvi l'amor che mi
crucia ad ogni momento per voi e pe' miei seniori e fratelli.
Imperocché quando mi sovvengono alla mente gli ozî occupati solo in
opere divine, e la grata dimora della cella mia, e il pio religioso affetto
vostro, e la santa caterva di tanti soldati di Cristo intesa al culto
divino, e di ciascun fratello gli esempi fulgidi per virtù diverse, e i dolci
colloqui sulle perfezioni della superna patria, io tremo attonito e
languisco, nè so trattener le lacrime tra i sospiri che m'escono dal
profondo del petto. M'aggiro tra cattolici e dediti al culto cristiano, tutti
m'accolgono bene, tutti mi si mostrano benigni per amore del padre
nostro Benedetto, e pei meriti vostri. Ma al paragone del cenobio
vostro il palazzo m'è carcere, al paragone di tanta quiete che si trova
fra voi il viver qui m'è tempesta. Solo pel corpo frale son tenuto via da
codesta patria, con tutta l'anima mia sono con voi. E ora mi pare
d'essere ai vostri troppo soavi concenti, ora seder nel cenacolo a
saziarci più colla lettura che col cibo, ora a considerar le opere di
ciascuno negli uffici diversi, ora a indagar lo stato degli aggravati per
vecchiezza o per male, ora a logorar le soglie dei santi care a me
come un paradiso.» E chiudeva la lettera esprimendo la speranza di
raggiunger presto i fratelli suoi, ma l'indugio al ritorno non fu così
breve. Appunto in quel tempo Carlo adunando alla sua corte da ogni
paese tutti coloro nei quali splendeva ancor qualche raggio della ormai
spenta cultura, studiavasi di ravvivare intorno a sé la luce della civiltà
romana mentre si preparava a far rivivere nell'ordinamento politico il
nome di Roma e l'autorità dell'Impero. Paolo Diacono non poteva
rimanersi estraneo a quest'opera di civiltà e si lasciò indurre a
prendervi parte. Di ciò avanza un chiaro monumento nei versi che
Pietro da Pisa gli scrisse in nome di Carlo magnificando le doti e la
scienza di Paolo e paragonandolo agli scrittori più grandi della
antichità. «La figliuola mia,» dice Carlo in que' versi «deve andare
sposa in Grecia ed è mio desiderio che Paolo ammaestri nella lingua
greca coloro che dovranno accompagnarla a Costantinopoli.» Paolo
verseggiando in risposta accetta l'incarico ma rifiuta modesto le lodi
regali ed anche nega d'aver tentata la conversione del re di Danimarca
Sigfrido, attribuitagli da Carlo in altri versi di Pietro da Pisa. Verso quel
tempo Paolo compose l'epitaffio d'Ildegarde moglie di Carlo Magno (†
783) e delle sorelle e figliuole di lui. Inoltre, sempre ad istanza di
Carlo, condusse a termine una pregevole raccolta di omelie, abbozzata
già a Montecassino la quale, come già altri osservò, venne in grande
aiuto all'ignoranza quasi universale in quei tempi del clero[53].
Nè si limitarono a tanto le fatiche letterarie del nostro monaco
cresciuto oramai in fama tra i letterati dell'età sua. Fece un estratto
del trattato De verborum significatione di Festo Pompeio, serbando
così ai posteri almeno in parte un documento che ancora è prezioso ai
filologi e agli studiosi della legislazione romana. Pregato da
Angilramno vescovo di Metz, compose la storia dei vescovi Metensi e
aprì egli primo oltre l'Alpi, la serie di quelle storie episcopali che hanno
tanto giovato in ogni paese alla storia della chiesa cristiana[54]. In
quest'opera narrò diffusamente la vita di santo Arnulfo stipite della
casa carolingia e colse al volo la propizia occasione per celebrare le
glorie e le virtù del monarca che gli si mostrava così benigno. In corte
dovette Paolo incontrarsi e si strinse di calda intima amicizia con uno
dei maggiori uomini di quella età, parente a Carlo, Adalardo abate di
Corvey. Pur questa amicizia recò frutti letterari, e, a richiesta
dell'amico, Paolo si diè ad emendare il testo delle lettere di Gregorio il
Grande del quale anche dettò una vita, ma colto da infermità potè
solo compiere una breve parte del suo lavoro che mandò ad Adalardo
con una soave lettera riboccante d'affetto.
Pare che Paolo mettendo a profitto quegli anni di dimora oltralpe
visitasse gran parte di Francia e i monasteri più famosi in essa. Ma nè
le attrattive di quel bel paese bastarono a fargli dimenticare la cara
patria, nè i dolci legami delle nuove amicizie a fermarlo per sempre in
corte di Carlo. Nota il Wattenbach che forse la nimicizia tra Carlo e
Arechis principe di Benevento, sempre crescente finché scoppiò in
guerra aperta, potè da ultimo rattristargli la dimora in Francia sebbene
il re gli rimanesse sempre amico. Inchina altri a credere che Paolo sul
cadere del 786 tornasse in Italia collo stesso Carlo. Conghietture
probabili entrambe ma non sicure. Certo è solo che intorno al 787
Paolo dettava da Montecassino una bella iscrizione per Arechis morto
in quell'anno, e con quel pio tributo suggellava l'amicizia fedele onde
s'era legato al marito d'Adelperga sua discepola. L'affannoso desiderio
del monaco toccava alfine la cima sua. Dopo così lungo aggirarsi tra i
rumori del mondo e il fasto delle corti, egli poteva adesso rigoder
quella pace profonda verso cui s'affannano certe anime con tanto più
ardore quanti più trovano contrasti a raggiungerla. Dalla vetta di quel
monte venerando per pie memorie, dove Benedetto aveva deposto un
seme tanto fecondo di civiltà, quel monaco solitario sciolto alfine
d'ogni cura mondana poteva levarsi dalla contemplazione degli eventi
umani alla contemplazione serena di Dio. Così in quei riposi tranquilli
nacquero gli ultimi due lavori a cui consacrò la rimanente vita[55], un
commentario alla regola monastica e quella storia dei Longobardi che
gli ha assicurata la fama presso i posteri.
La nascita di Paolo Diacono e i casi di sua vita sembravano destinarlo
all'ufficio di storico. Nato in Italia da stirpe longobarda quando il regno
longobardo si avvicinava alla sua caduta, amante del popolo da cui
traeva l'origine, amico ai suoi principi, e d'altra parte educato da
maestri italiani alle tradizioni doppiamente latine della antichità
classica e della Chiesa, Paolo Diacono era insieme italiano e
longobardo. Da ciò quella specie di patriottismo che unisce in lui le
due razze e par che simboleggi tra esse una fusione che non potè mai
compiersi intera e solo si compì in parte quando il popolo oppressore
soggiacendo ai Franchi scese alquanto più vicino agli oppressi. Già
Paolo rifacendo l'opera d'Eutropio aveva narrata la storia di Roma, ed
ora mutato per dir così il titolo del suo lavoro, nelle vicende del popolo
longobardo narrava il proseguimento di quella storia. Come s'è già
veduto, i popoli germanici ignari di lettere affidavano la notizia di loro
genealogie e di loro imprese alla tradizione che le tramutava in canti e
in leggende. Ricavare da queste leggende la vita del popolo ch'esse
celebravano, era l'ufficio di chi metteva mano alla storia quando le
imprese accumulate e i primi raggi della civiltà penetrati ispiravano
quasi inconsciamente il desiderio d'una narrazione più certa e più
duratura. Da ciò quell'intrecciarsi continuo dei fatti reali coi leggendari
che dà un carattere così spiccato alla storia dei Longobardi i quali
anche, per loro indole rude ma cavalleresca, spesso condussero
imprese da leggenda piuttosto ispirati da vaghezza di mostrarsi prodi
che da ragione di Stato. Bene Cesare Balbo con l'usata acutezza sua
ha notato che fin dai tempi di Autari e di Teodelinda «possono dirsi
incominciati in Italia i tempi, benché il nome non peranco, della
cavalleria; tempi più piacevoli all'immaginazione che all'effetto, più
ammirabili ne' romanzi che nelle storie; tempi non senza virtù, ma di
virtù sprecata.»[56] Nè v'ha per fermo romanzo cavalleresco delle età
posteriori che narri alcun racconto più ricco d'avventurosa poesia di
questo che ci è narrato da Paolo:
«.... Dopo queste cose re Autari inviò legati in Baviera per chiedere in
matrimonio la figlia del re Garibaldo, e questi accoltili benignamente
promise di dare ad Autari la figlia sua Teodelinda. Ciò nel tornare
riferendo i legati ad Autari, egli desideroso di veder cogli occhi suoi la
sua sposa, presi con sé alcuni pochi ma scelti Longobardi e
conducendo quasi come seniore un suo fedelissimo, senza indugio
trasse in Baviera. I quali introdotti secondo l'usanza dei legati al
cospetto di re Garibaldo, posciaché colui ch'era venuto con Autari
quasi come seniore ebbe fatti i saluti e le parole d'uso, Autari ignoto a
tutta quella gente, fattosi più presso a re Garibaldo gli disse: ‘Il signor
mio Autari re qui mi ha propriamente inviato a veder la figliuola vostra
sua sposa, affinché io possa sicuramente annunziare al signor mio
quale ne sia la bellezza.’ E udendo ciò il re e fatta venir la figliuola,
Autari contemplatala tacitamente e vedendola di belle forme e
compiacendosene in ogni cosa, disse al re: ‘Poiché tale vediamo
essere la persona della figliuola vostra che bene dobbiamo desiderarla
per nostra regina, noi ameremmo, se piace alla podestà vostra, che
ella ci desse di mano sua la coppa del vino come dovrà fare appresso
con noi.’ E avendo il re conceduto che ciò si facesse, ella presa la
coppa del vino, prima propinò a colui che pareva esser seniore. Poscia
avendola pôrta ad Autari ch'ella ignorava esser lo sposo suo, questi,
dopo aver bevuto, nel render la tazza, senza che altri lo notasse col
dito le toccò la mano, e accostò la fronte e il volto alla sua destra. Ella
suffusa di rossore narrò il fatto alla nutrice. A cui la nutrice disse: ‘Se
questi non fosse lo stesso re e il tuo sposo, certo non avrebbe osato
toccarti. Ma tacciamo frattanto che non lo sappia tuo padre: per fermo
egli è persona degna e di tenere il regno e d'associartisi in
matrimonio.’ Era allora Autari florido d'età giovanile, di bella statura,
biondo di crine e di nobilissimo aspetto. Coloro preso commiato dal re,
ripigliando la via della patria mossero in fretta a' confini dei Norici.
Imperocché la provincia dei Norici abitata dal popol de' Bavari, ha la
Pannonia da oriente, da occidente la Svevia, da mezzogiorno l'Italia e
da tramontana il corso del Danubio. Autari adunque essendo già
arrivato presso a' confini d'Italia e avendo con sé i Bavari che lo
riaccompagnavano, levossi quanto potè sul cavallo che inforcava, e
con tutta forza infisse nell'albero che gli era più prossimo la scure che
tenea in mano e ve la lasciò infissa con queste parole: ‘Di cotali ferite
suol fare Autari.’ E avendo ciò detto, allora i Bavari che
l'accompagnavano intesero ch'egli era lo stesso re Autari.»[57]
Nè solo per fatti somiglianti apparisce in forma così leggendaria la
storia dei Longobardi. Il racconto di rivolgimenti politici gravissimi
mostra il vero della osservazione del Balbo intorno alla tendenza
cavalleresca che si veniva manifestando allora in Italia e improntava
del suo carattere molte azioni reali di quel popolo. Questa tendenza si
riflette come in uno specchio nell'anima ingenua ed immaginosa di
Paolo diacono ed è gran fortuna pei posteri. Ispirato da essa egli narra
la storia delle cose avvenute quali la voce viva delle tradizioni gliele
riferisce e non sciupa queste ultime sfoggiando una vana erudizione o
una critica non concessa ai suoi tempi. Così per lui rientriamo davvero
nella età longobarda e i suoi personaggi sono ritratti con un vigore di
movimento e di colorito che ci aiuta a maraviglia per intenderli e per
rifarci nella mente que' tempi de' quali egli solo ci ha lasciato un largo
e durevole ricordo. Dalle prime mitiche origini longobarde egli scende
fin quasi ai tempi di Desiderio e di Adelchi di cui non tratta, o che la
morte gli rompesse a mezzo il racconto o che gli fosse troppo arduo
narrar la conquista del suo popolo compiuta da quel Carlo che lo
aveva tanto onorato. Longobardi, Greci, Romani da Alboino a
Liutprando ci ritornano ancor vivi dinnanzi. Tra la gran folta del popolo
tutti quei papi e re e gran baroni, e gli aderenti loro e i nemici, e
monaci e guerrieri e santi e donne eroiche ed abbiette tutti risorgono
e si muovono nel libro di Paolo. Battaglie aperte e congiure, splendori
di corti e spelonche di romiti, virtù e delitti, sacrilegi e miracoli, si
seguono e s'intrecciano in un contrasto pieno di vita. Scegliere esempi
dalle narrazioni di Paolo è difficile, massime quando è necessità
limitarsi: valga perciò questo solo episodio che narro in gran parte
colle parole stesse di Paolo.
Dopo il glorioso regno di Rotari il legislatore e l'altro assai breve di
Rodoaldo, fu chiamato al trono Ariperto figlio ad un fratello di
Teodelinda il quale regnò nove anni di cui quasi nulla ricorda la storia.
Alla sua morte due figli suoi Godeperto e Pertarito si divisero il regno e
il primo pose stanza a Pavia l'altro a Milano. Questa divisione, nuova
presso i Longobardi, mostra come gli animi fossero divisi intorno alla
elezione e si potessero male accordare. Infatti indi a breve pur tra i
fratelli sorse dissenso, e Godeperto istigato da mali consiglieri, spedì il
duca di Torino a Grimoaldo duca di Benevento, principe dei più potenti
d'Italia e per le qualità sue personali riputatissimo. Godeperto offriva
una sua sorella in isposa al beneventano e in cambio gli chiedeva
aiuto contro Pertarito, ma il messaggero fattosegli traditore offrì
invece a Grimoaldo la corona regia e l'esortò a trar partito dalle
discordie di que' fratelli per farsi signore d'Italia. Grimoaldo si recò in
Lombardia, e quel da Torino inteso sempre nel suo proposito,
eccitando sospetti vicendevoli tra i due alleati, adoperò così scaltro
che al primo loro abboccarsi Grimoaldo uccise di mano sua Godeperto.
All'annunzio del fatto Pertarito, sentendosi forse mancare a un tratto
ogni appoggio, abbandonò Milano a così gran fretta che si lasciò dietro
la regina e il figliuol Cuniperto i quali furono confinati entrambi a
Benevento mentre egli vagava. Grimoaldo intanto sposò la sorella
dell'ucciso principe, fatto non senza esempio nella storia longobarda
ma pur molto strano, e nel 662 fu confermato re a Pavia. Le vicende
dello sbandito re Pertarito lungo l'esilio ci sono così narrate dallo
storico nostro:
«Confermato dunque Grimoaldo nel regno sul Ticino, non molto dopo
si tolse in moglie la figliuola di re Ariperto che già eragli stata
promessa e di cui egli avea ucciso il fratello Godeperto. L'esercito
beneventano che l'aveva aiutato a impadronirsi del regno rimandò con
gran doni alle sue case. Tuttavia trattenne solo alquanti di esso a star
seco concedendo a loro possedimenti larghissimi.
«Il quale posciaché seppe che Pertarito fuggendo era arrivato in Scizia
e dimorava presso del Kan, a quel medesimo Kan re degli Avari mandò
dicendo per suoi ambasciatori, che se ricoverasse Pertarito nel regno
suo, non potrebbe mantener più quella pace che s'era mantenuta fino
ad allora tra i Longobardi e lui. Udendo ciò il re degli Avari chiamato
Pertarito dissegli ch'egli andasse pure in qual parte gli piaceva ma che
gli Avari non avean da contrarre nimicizie coi Longobardi. E Pertarito
in udir ciò si rivolse all'Italia per tornarsene a Grimoaldo perché aveva
udito ch'egli era clementissimo. Pervenuto adunque alla città di Lodi,
prima di sé mandò a re Grimoaldo, Unulfo un fedelissimo uom suo che
gli annunziasse la sua venuta. Unulfo quindi presentandosi al re gli
annunziò che Pertarito veniva a mettersi nella sua fede. La qual cosa
udendo colui promise sicuramente ch'egli non patirebbe alcun male
poiché veniva alla fede sua. In questa venendo Pertarito, entrato
presso Grimoaldo, mentre voleva buttarglisi a' piedi, il re clemente lo
trattenne e lo sollevò all'amplesso suo. A cui Pertarito: ‘Io son tuo
servo, gli dice; sapendoti cristianissimo e pio, mentre potea viver tra i
pagani, m'affidai alla tua clemenza e ti venni innanzi.’ A cui il re col
solito suo giuramento così promise dicendo: ‘Per colui che mi fe'
nascere, posciaché tu venisti alla mia fede, in niuna cosa tu patirai
male, ed io così ordinerò le tue cose che tu possa vivere
onoratamente.’ Quindi assegnandogli ospizio in una casa spaziosa gli
disse di riposarsi dopo il travaglio del viaggio, e impose che gli si
somministrasse largamente dal denaro pubblico il vitto e ogni cosa
necessaria. Ma poiché Pertarito fu andato alla casa apparecchiatagli
dal re, subito cominciarono torme di cittadini pavesi ad accorrer quivi
o per vederlo, o, quelli che già lo conoscevano, per salutarlo. Però
dove non giungono le male lingue? Imperocché tosto alcuni adulatori
maligni recatisi al re gli sussurrano che s'ei non toglierà prestamente
Pertarito di vita, egli stesso perderà in breve e regno e vita,
asseverando che perciò tutta la città accorreva a lui. Udito ciò
Grimoaldo troppo credulo e dimentico delle promesse, s'accende
subito al pensiero d'uccider Pertarito e fa consiglio del come ucciderlo
l'indomani poiché l'ora era omai troppo tarda. In sul vespro gli invia
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Understanding Sustainable Architecture 1st Edition Helen Bennetts

  • 1. Understanding Sustainable Architecture 1st Edition Helen Bennetts download https://ebookgate.com/product/understanding-sustainable- architecture-1st-edition-helen-bennetts/ Get Instant Ebook Downloads – Browse at https://ebookgate.com
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  • 5. Understanding Sustainable Architecture Understanding Sustainable Architecture is a review of the assumptions, beliefs, goals and bodies of knowledge that underlie the endeavour to design (more) sustainable buildings and other built developments. Much of the available advice and rhetoric about sustainable architecture begins from positions where important ethical, cultural and conceptual issues are simply assumed. If sustainable architecture is to be a truly meaningful pursuit then it must be grounded in a coherent theoretical framework. This book sets out to provide that framework. Through a series of self-reflective questions for designers, the authors argue the ultimate importance of reasoned argument in ecological, social and built contexts, including clarity in the problem framing and linking this framing to demonstrably effective actions. Sustainable architec- ture, then, is seen as a revised conceptualization of architecture in response to a myriad of contemporary concerns about the effects of human activity. The aim of this book is to be transformative by promoting understanding and discussion of commonly ignored assumptions behind the search for a more envir- onmentally sustainable approach to development. It is argued that design deci- sions must be based on both an ethical position and a coherent understanding of the objectives and systems involved. The actions of individual designers and appropriate broader policy settings both follow from this understanding. Terry Williamson was educated in engineering and architecture in Australia and is Dean of the School of Architecture, Landscape Architecture and Urban Design at the University of Adelaide, Australia. Antony Radford was educated in architecture and planning in the United Kingdom and is Professor of Archi- tecture at the University of Adelaide. Helen Bennetts was educated in archi- tecture in Australia and, after researching how architects actually use information in seeking to produce environmentally responsible buildings, now concentrates on the family business of wine- and cheese-making. All three have taught, researched and published in areas of energy, environment and sustainability. This book draws particularly on their development and teaching of a new course called Issues in Urban and Landscape Sustainability.
  • 8. First published 2003 by Spon Press 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Spon Press 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Spon Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group © 2003 Terry Williamson, Antony Radford and Helen Bennetts All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested. ISBN 0-415-28351-5 (hbk) ISBN 0-415-28352-3 (pbk) This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004. ISBN 0-203-21729-2 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-27313-3 (Adobe eReader Format)
  • 9. To our families – past, present and future generations
  • 10. Allie
  • 11. Contents Preface ix Acknowledgements xi 1 Sustainability 1 ESD (?) 3 A global framework 4 A cultural/philosophical framework 7 The manageable (but fragile) earth 9 Towards a basis for action 12 2 Images 19 Fields of significance 19 World citizens and pluralism 22 The international culture of architecture 24 Architectural expression 26 The natural image 27 The cultural image 29 The technical image 31 Overlapping images 33 3 Ethics 42 Questions about value 44 The moral class 47 Rights and duties 48 The consequentialist approach 51 Intergenerational equity 51 Environmental ethics 53 Discourse ethics 59 Beautiful acts 60
  • 12. 4 Objectives 64 Stakeholders 65 Knowledge 67 Design advice 70 The globalization of standards and regulations 75 Local contexts 77 5 Systems 81 A systems view 82 Buildings as systems 84 The environment 86 Social and cultural relevance 89 The occupants 91 Economic performance 91 The building 92 The life cycle of a building 93 Life cycle sustainability assessment 97 Environment assessment 98 Economic assessment 99 The environmental assessment of building 100 Iterative multiple criteria decision-making 101 Recognizing assumptions 104 6 Green houses 107 Climate and architecture 107 The science of global warming 111 The international politics 114 Global warming and building design 119 Building design and climate change 120 The appropriate objectives 125 7 Cohesion 127 Responsive cohesion 128 Place, people and stuff 128 Reflective practice and reasoned argument 130 Credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability 131 Public policy and the status quo 132 The future 133 Appendix: A partial checklist for sustainable architecture 138 Bibliography 145 Index 155 viii Contents
  • 13. Preface Towards the end of the twentieth century the word sustainable (and sustain- ability) entered into the consciousness of architects and became an essential concern in the discourse of architecture. Our decision to write this book stemmed from two sources: research on how architects conceptualized sustainability in the design of houses, and the teaching of a course called Issues in Urban and Landscape Sustainability to students of architecture and landscape architecture. In both cases we found that although there is much written about the urgency of taking sustainability seriously, and much advice about building techniques to adopt, there was little which addressed the interrelated issues of the sociocultural, ethical, professional and techno- logical complexities of ‘sustainable architecture’. The following chapters record our understanding of these complexities. They are relatively self-contained, so that each chapter can be read alone. Sustainable architecture is a revised conceptualization of architecture in response to a myriad of contemporary concerns about the effects of human activity. In this book we review the assumptions, beliefs, goals, processes and knowledge sources that underlie the endeavour to design buildings that address sustainability in environmental, sociocultural, and economic terms. Rather than providing ‘how to’ building advice or critically reviewing existing projects that claim to be examples of sustainable architecture, we aim to bring to the fore- front some components of the milieu in which other books that do address these topics are positioned. We argue that the design of sustainable architecture must be grounded in an inclusive view of the scope of sustainability in each situation, and without such an approach attempts to use available published advice may in many ways be counterproductive. In the core chapters of the book we address approaches to architectural sustainability. First, we consider the ways that sustainability is conceptualized in architecture. We then turn to questions about the ethical or moral bases of our decision-making and different perceptions of stakeholders, from anthropocen- tric ‘human rights’ or ‘consequentialist’ positions to a ‘deep ecology’ position in which humans have no more rights than other stakeholders in our planet. We suggest that sustainable architecture is most likely to result from the inclination of architects to perform beautiful acts. How this might be brought about leads to
  • 14. a discussion of the nature of architectural decision making, and the roles of guidelines and regulations as means-based and performance-based assertions of ‘what should happen’ in design. The reductionist approach inherent in most design guides, standards and regulations ignores the many contextual issues that surround sustainable designing. This is followed by an exploration of a way of thinking using a systems approach to building design combining both quantifi- able and non-quantifiable factors. How the framing of objectives and advice is connected with larger political and economic concerns is illustrated in a discus- sion of the promotion of ‘greener houses’ in response to concerns about climate change, the dominant international environmental issue of our time. The final chapter of the book draws together this discussion, and addresses the question of how we might recognize design for truly sustainable architecture through a search for ‘responsive cohesion’. Our aim in this book is to be transformative by promoting understanding and discussion of commonly ignored assumptions behind the search for a more envir- onmentally sustainable approach to development. We argue that design decisions must be based on both an ethical position and a coherent understanding of the objectives, processes and systems involved. The actions of individual designers and appropriate broader policy settings both follow from this understanding. x Preface
  • 15. Acknowledgements We thank many people: Peter Fawcett, Deborah White, Scott Drake, Mark Jackson and Garrett Cullity for reading and commenting on drafts of the book, Warwick Fox for his initial encouragement and guidance on responsive cohesion, Veronica Soebarto, Deborah White, Susan Pietsch, Dinah Ayers, Barry Rowney, Derrick Kendrick and Nguyen Viet Huong for their help and advice and our colleagues at the School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture at the University of Adelaide for their support. We particularly thank Susan Coldicutt for her wise counsel. We also acknowledge the Australian Research Council for funding a linked project on ethics, sustainability and houses. Finally we thank the students, present and past, who have motivated us to write this book. Material from The Hannover Principles is reproduced by permission of William McDonough & Partners. Material from Our Common Future by The World Commission on Environ- ment and Development (1990) is reproduced by permission of Oxford Univer- sity Press Australia © Oxford University Press, http://www.oup.com.au Photographs are reproduced by permission of the photographers or other copyright holders: T. R. Hamzah & Yeang Sdn Bhd (photograph of the model of the EDITT Tower) Walter Dobkins (photographs of the Comesa Centre), Cradle Huts P/L (photograph of Kia Ora Hut), Richard Harris (photograph of Hollow Spruce), Barry Rowney (photograph of The Mosque at New Gourna), George Baird (photograph of Eastgate), Ian Lambot(photographof Commerzbank). Figure 2.1 is reproduced from K. Milton (ed.) Environmentalism: the view from anthropology, Routledge, London, 1993 with the permission of Taylor and Francis.
  • 16. 1.1 The fragile Earth: View over the moon from Apollo 8, 22 December 1968 (NASA).
  • 17. Sustainability 1 1 Sustainability At certain times in the practice of a discipline, concepts and strategies based on common themes or concerns can be seen to arise. The continuation, small shifts, fundamental transformations, or replacement of issues can be affected by institutional settings such as political events, changes in technologies, scientific discoveries, calamities (actual or imagined) or economic practices and processes. Viewed in this way, ‘green’, ‘ecological’, and ‘environmental’ are labels that embody the notion that the design of buildings should fundamentally take account of their relationship with and impact on the natural environment. The formation of these concepts can, more or less, be traced to the early 1970s. Emerging from the same period, labels such as ‘low energy’, ‘solar’ and ‘passive’ are used to denote approaches to designing concerned with the concept of reducing reliance on fossil fuels to operate a building. In general, the labels refer to a particular strategy employed to achieve the conceptual outcome, and the strategies that occur in a discourse must be understood as instances from a range of theoretical possibilities. The promotion of a restricted range of strategic options regulates the discourse and the ways of practising the discipline. An examination of sustainable design discourse and practice will reveal something of this regulation.1 Overall, practitioners modify their concept of their discipline to embrace these new themes, concerns and ways of practice.2 Sustainable architecture, then, is a revised conceptualization of architecture in response to a myriad of contemporary concerns about the effects of human activity. The label ‘sustainable’ is used to differentiate this conceptualization from others that do not respond so clearly to these concerns. Not long ago a major part of the image of good architecture was a building that was suitable for its environmental context – one that would adequately protect the inhabitants from the climate. More recently it is ‘the environment’ that has been seen as needing protection. The concept of good architecture has shifted to encompass the notion of a building that is sensitive to its environment – one that will adequately protect the environment from the potential pollution and degradation caused by human habitation. In many ways the built environ- ment, the very means by which we attempt to create secure conditions, is itself seen as becoming (or having become) a source of danger and threat.
  • 18. 2 Sustainability At a certain point . . . – very recently in historical terms – we started worrying less about what nature can do to us, and more about what we have done to nature. This marks the transition from the predominance of external risk to that of manufactured risk. (Giddens 1999a) Manufactured risk is created by the impact we are having upon the world. It refers to risk situations which humans have never encountered, and which we therefore have no traditional experience in dealing with. They result directly from the applications of technology in response to the circumstances of increasing populations3 and desired higher standards of living. Charles Jenks, best known as a critic writing on modern and postmodern architecture, states unequivocally: The problems of a modern technocratic civilization will always keep one step ahead of any amelioration because the reigning ideology of continual human growth – both numerical and economic – is unrealistic. It will continue to manufacture new problems, equivalents of the greenhouse effect and the hole in the ozone layer. No matter how many piecemeal solutions to these are instituted, the problems will go on multiplying because, for the first time in history, humanity rather than the Earth has become the dominant background. The players have become the stage. (Jenks 1993: 126–7) Ultimately, then, manufactured risk is an issue that needs to be addressed. As Sylvan and Bennett observe, To be green in more than a token fashion is to have some commitment to containing or reducing the environmental impact of humans on the Earth or regions of it. . . . [That] means commitment in the immediate future term to either: • human population reduction, or • less impacting lifestyles for many humans, or • improvements in technology to reduce overall impact. (Sylvan and Bennett 1994: 23) This can be put succinctly in the form of the equation: EI = P × C × T, or Environmental Impact of a group = Population × Consumption × Technology (Sylvan and Bennett 1994: 47) The implication of this formula is that for the human race to continue indefinitely its environmental impact must be no more than the level that the
  • 19. Sustainability 3 world can sustain indefinitely, known as the ‘carrying capacity’ of the world’s ecosystems.4 However, this is not a static system; the environmental impact of humans changes over time (historically increasing, but neither the population, consumption nor the technology are constants and impacts can potentially decrease as well as increase). Perhaps, in the very long term, what happens does not really matter: humans are more likely to miss having a habitable world than what might be left of the world is likely to miss humans, and in a few more million years civilization might start all over again. The very idea that human action can destroy the Earth repeats in negative form the hubristic ambitions of those who seek complete human control of the world (Harvey 1998).5 Perhaps the destiny of man is to have a short but fiery, exciting and extravagant life rather than a long, uneventful and vegetative existence. Let other species – the amoebas, for example – which have no spiritual ambitions inherit an Earth still bathed in plenty of sunshine. (Georgescu-Roegen 1993: 105) But most of us would wish to avoid the more catastrophic prospects, at least during our own, our children’s and our grandchildren’s lifetimes. Buildings contribute directly and substantially to manufactured risk because of the amount of raw materials, energy and capital they devour and the pollutants that they emit, and architects therefore have a specific and significant professional role in reducing this risk. ESD (?) ‘Sustainable’ is defined in dictionaries in terms of continuity and maintenance of resources, for example: sus.tain.able adj (ca. 1727) 1: capable of being sustained 2 a: of, relating to, or being a method of harvesting or using a resource so that the resource is not depleted or permanently damaged <~ techniques> <~ agriculture> b: of or relating to a lifestyle involving the use of sustainable methods <~ society> – sus.tain.abil.i.ty n (Merriam-Webster 1994) This and similar definitions present sustainability from an essentially anthropocen- tric and instrumental position, concerned with how to maintain and even improve the quality of human life within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems. The acronym ESD is often adopted as fuzzy code expressing a concern for sus- tainability issues in the way that human beings impact on this carrying capacity in the future.6 The meaning of E varies between environmental, ecological and even economic, while the D sometimes means development and sometimes design. While the S stands for sustainable (and sustainability), this term in recent usage has come to denote a broader perspective and a new way of looking at the world. It suggests, at least in western countries, a social and cultural shift, a different
  • 20. 4 Sustainability attitude to the world around us, and modified patterns and styles of living. It acknowledges that the problem is global in scale and related to the basic issue of population increase and the resulting effects of human existence on the Earth. Some understandings of ESD include actions aimed at mitigating the per- ceived adverse effects on local communities of trends toward economic global- ization and free trade, accepting an argument that sustainable design should necessarily express community differences. In these broad views the concept bundles together issues of long-term human sociocultural and economic health and vitality,7 issues that may or may not be linked with a concern for the well being of ‘the environment’ ‘for its own sake’ rather than solely as a potential resource and necessary support for human beings. The sustainability of all three – environmental, sociocultural and economic systems – is sometimes called the ‘triple bottom line’ by which the viability and success of design and develop- ment should be assessed. Taken literally, the term ‘sustainable architecture’ focuses on the sustainability of architecture, both as a discipline and a product of the discipline. It carries with it the imprecise and contested meanings embedded in ESD, and denotes broader ideas than any of the individual understandings of ESD, in particular, the no- tion of ‘sustainable architecture’ includes questions of a building’s suitability for its sociocultural as well as environmental context. The associated question of ‘What does sustainability mean for architecture?’ forefronts architecture and looks for ways in which it must adapt. The question of ‘What does architecture mean for sustainability?’ forefronts sustainability and positions architecture as one amongst many contributing factors in achieving a meaningful human exist- ence in a milieu of uncertainty.8 A global framework In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development report Our Common Future (also known as the Brundtland Report) provided an early (and still much-used) authoritative definition of what constitutes sustainable devel- opment.9 Thus, according to the Brundtland Report: Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable – to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs . . . Sustainable development is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploita- tion of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of techno- logical development, and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs. (WCED 1990: 8) This definition of sustainable development contains two crucial elements. First, it accepts the concept of ‘needs’, in particular those basic needs of the world’s poor, such as food, clothing and shelter essential for human life, but also other
  • 21. Sustainability 5 ‘needs’ to allow a reasonably comfortable way of life. Second, it accepts the concept of ‘making consistent’ the resource demands of technology and social organizations with the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs. This includes both local and global concerns and has a political dimension, embracing issues of resource control and the inequities that exist between developed and developing nations.10 In this way it endorses the notion of sus- tainable development as improving (and not merely maintaining) the quality of life within the limits of the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems. The project to consider sustainability as an integral aspect of all develop- ment, following the lead of the Brundtland Commission, has been enshrined in international declarations, conventions and other plans for action. The Earth Summit held in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, was a defining event in the sustainable development movement. Not only did it bring together an unpreced- ented number of countries, organizations and citizens from throughout the world, it represented the first time that developed and developing nations reached con- sensus on some difficult issues related to the environment and development. The summit adopted the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, consisting of 27principlesthatwereputforwardasablueprintforachieving global sustainability.11 Principle 1 states that ‘Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustain- able development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.’ Several important international agreements emerged from the Earth Summit: Agenda 21 (United Nations 1992b), the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC 1992a), the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (United Nations 1992c), and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification (United Nations 1992d).12 While all four have some implications for sustainable architecture, two are more directly related. Agenda 21 has the goal to ‘halt and reverse the environmental damage to our planet and to promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in all countries on Earth’. Moving the discussion of sustainability from theory to a plan of action, Agenda 21 sets out detailed proposals for communities through- out the world to adopt and implement specific measures centred on eight key objectives aimed at improving the social, economic and environmental quality of human settlements and the living and working environments of all people. These eight objectives are: Providing adequate shelter, Improving management of urban settlements, Promoting sustainable land-use planning and management, Providing environmentally sound infrastructure facilities, Promoting energy-efficient technology, alternative and renewable energy sources and sustainable transport systems, Enabling disaster-prone countries to plan for and recover from natural disasters, Promoting sustainable construction industry activities, and finally Human resource development.
  • 22. 6 Sustainability The objective of the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC 1992) is to slow down or halt suspected adverse changes of climate (in excess of anticipated natural climate variations) that may be attributable directly or indir- ectly to human activity. Since the operation of buildings makes a significant contribution to the production of carbon dioxide and other ‘greenhouse gas’ emissions that are held responsible for these changes of climate, this convention could have a far-reaching effect on the design of buildings. We shall discuss it, and policy and design changes that have followed for houses, in Chapter 6. Within the discipline of architecture, a statement recognizing that building design professionals should frame their work in terms of sustainable design was made at the Union of International Architects’ World Congress of Architects meeting in Chicago in June 1993. Embracing both environmental and social sustainability, the Congress asserted: We commit ourselves, as members of the world’s architectural and building- design professions, individually and through our professional organizations, to: • Place environmental and social sustainability at the core of our practice and professional responsibilities; • Develop and continually improve practice, procedures, products, cur- ricula, services and standards that will enable the implementation of sustainable design; • Educate our fellow professionals, the building industry, clients, students and the general public about the critical importance and substantial opportunities of sustainable design; • Establish policies, regulations, and practices in government and business that ensure sustainable design becomes normal practice; • Bring all existing and future elements of the built environment – in their design, production, use and eventual re-use – up to sustainable design standards. (UIA 1993) The commitment was unequivocal but what does it mean – what follows from the commitment? We have already noted the imprecision associated with con- cepts of sustainable architecture and development, and ‘sustainable design’ is a label that has been assigned for many different reasons to many kinds of build- ings, from a woven grass and thatch bure on a Pacific island to a high-tech office building in the United States. The former is reckoned to be a sustainable design because it is constructed entirely of biodegradable material and appropriates only a tiny amount of the world’s resources for its construction, compared with a typical ‘western’ building. The office building may be considered an example of sustainable design if it requires significantly less energy for heating, cooling and lighting than is typical for its class. They both appear as manifestations of the values that have come to be associated with sustainability (von Bonsdorff 1993: 8). The implications for our conceptualization of architecture was appar- ent at the time. Susan Maxman, then President of the American Institute of
  • 23. Sustainability 7 Architects (and with Olufemi Majekodunmi, then UIA President, named under the commitment) wrote that ‘sustainable architecture isn’t a prescription. It’s an approach, an attitude. It shouldn’t really even have a label. It should just be architecture’ (Maxman 1993, quoted in Guy and Farmer 2001: 140). A cultural/philosophical framework In societies of European descent or influence three trademarks, dualism, reduc- tionism and positivism, pervade modern living. They shape the way we think about problems, the way we make decisions and therefore the way we design buildings. Sustainability (and why we are discussing it as an issue) reflects the philosophical framework of these trademarks. The seventeenth-century thinker René Descartes is commonly credited with laying its foundations, and the effects have touched all aspects of human endeavour, from science to morality. Alberto Pérez-Gómez traces how this philosophical position influenced the way architecture was reconceptualized during the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in his book Architecture and the Crisis of Modern Science (Pérez-Gómez 1983).13 Probably the most significant of the trademarks, dualism expresses a distinction between body and mind, between matter and spirit, and between reason and emotion. By body/matter/reason is meant the extended or corporal world, every- thing beyond self-consciousness, a world in which all phenomena can be completely determined by mechanistic principles. This divide separates regular predictable and controllable events from those that are erratic, unpredictable and uncertain. Cartesian dualism effectively sets humans apart from nature, but also an individual self apart from ‘the other’ of everything outside the self. Conventionally, respons- ibility for ‘the other’ is dealt with by articulating codes of appropriate behaviour. Science based disciplines operate by disconnecting ‘anthropological reference from its description of the world’ (Dripps 1999: 47). By definition, reason- determined solutions become the only true ones. The conventional application of economics to distribute resources, for example, ‘treats the economy as a separate, mechanically reversible system, virtually independent of the ecosphere’ (Rees 1999). Mind/spirit/emotion, on the other hand, together with all mental phenomena, is totally severed from sense experiences. Institutions as bureaucra- cies deal with people in terms of procedural rationality, where the emotions of an individual, as Bauman describes, that ‘unruly voice of conscience that may prompt one to help the sufferer’ (Bauman 1995: 260) is constrained and moral sentiments are exiled from the process. The second trademark of modern living, reductionism, perceives all entities as consisting of simpler or more basic entities. From this derives a method of acquir- ing knowledge and thinking about issues that consists of breaking down a problem into simpler units, its component parts, in a process of atomization. We study and attempt to understand these simple units, and reassembling the parts in a ‘logical’ fashion shapes our understanding of the whole problem. The whole consists of the sum of the parts, no more and no less. Confidence in this process
  • 24. 8 Sustainability is evident in the trademark of positivism, belief in ‘the infinite capacity of human reason to control, dominate, and put to work the forces of nature’ so that event- ually everything could be understood and managed (Pérez-Gómez 1983: 273). The reconceptualization of architecture in response to Cartesian thinking retained a place for the ‘mind/body/spirit’ side of the duality. This led to the familiar distinction between the science of architecture and the art of architecture, as explained in a paper delivered to the Royal Institute of British Architects by Mark Hartland Thomas, Science communicates notions of quantities, verifiable by number, and intended to be the same for all men . . . Art, on the other hand, communic- ates notions of value, fantasy, never the same for any two recipients, no two responses being alike, although the relative importance of works of art does emerge from the sum total of many differing responses . . . It is common- place that architecture partakes of science as well as of art. (Hartland Thomas 1948)14 An alternative approach conceived from a different philosophical perspective has emerged which offers both a critique of the conventional scientific paradigm and a different view for judging the appropriateness of actions. This approach derives from the notions of ecology as the science of the relationships between organisms and their environment; or of the relationship between a human group and its environment. In this view of the world, biotic organisms and non- biotic elements are integral parts of an ecosystem. In philosophical terms eco- logy goes beyond the limits of the analytical and empirical world of direct experience and enters the metaphysical realms, in which complete comprehen- sion of the environment is essentially unknowable. We shall return to ecology and environmental ethics in Chapter 3. Ecology provides insights about how natural systems work, including systems subject to human interference. Indeed, natural systems ecology very often serves as a model that provides a scientific justification for sustainability. The absence of sustainability in natural systems is generally marked by two observations; resource demands in excess of absolute limits or variations imposed on the system whose rate of change is beyond the possibilities of adjustment. While perhaps providing a valuable insight into possible dangers it does carry a logical ambiguity. As Redclift (1994) points out, this discourse framed as an ecological view fails to connect into the image the issues of human choices and of human interventions. While modernity continues as the dominant framework of architectural prac- tice, (as manifest in its political context, legislation, regulations, design advice, and other practices), ‘postmodern’ theorists and critics point to the enormity of the predicaments we face and repudiate the modern ways of going about solving the problems. One of the practical dimensions of the crisis derives from the sheer magni- tude of our powers. What we and other people do may have profound,
  • 25. Sustainability 9 far-reaching and long-term consequences, which we can neither see directly nor predict with precision. Between the deeds and their outcomes there is a huge distance – both in time and in space – which we cannot fathom using our innate, ordinary powers of perception – and so we can hardly measure the quality of our actions by a full inventory of their effects. What we and others do has ‘side-effects’, ‘unanticipated consequences’, which may smother whatever good purposes are intentioned and bring about disasters and suf- fering neither we nor anybody else wished or contemplated. (Bauman 1993: 17–18) Science has become one of the most influential ways of understanding the world, and this institutionalized confidence and scientific methodology has led to new technologies that have contributed to material well-being and health for many people. It has, though, also brought with it the invention of hideous weapons of destruction and the extravagant use of limited resources. Consider- ing the world as something to be exploited and manipulated for human purposes has resulted in the destruction and pollution of much of the natural environment and the extinction of whole species. Michael Redclift illustrates the way that sustainability relates to both modernist and postmodern views: The idea of sustainability is derived from science, but at the same time highlights the limitations of science. It is used to carry moral, human, imperatives, but at the same time acquires legitimacy from identifying biospheric ‘imperatives’ beyond human sciences. Married to the idea of development, sustainability represents the high-water mark of Modernist tradition. At the same time, emphasis on cultural diversity, which some writers view as the underpinning of sustainability, is a clear expression of Postmodernism. (Redclift 1994: 17) The manageable (but fragile) Earth Maarten Hajer links the way that environmental issues are now framed and understood to the photographs of planet Earth taken from outer space during the Apollo space missions. The earliest of these photographs, taken during the Apollo 8 mission of 1968, records the first time that humans had travelled far enough from Earth to obtain an image that showed the whole planet. Hajer sees this image as marking a ‘fundamental shift in thinking about the relationship between man and nature’ (Hajer 1995: 8) with conflicting impressions of a world that is both bounded and manageable (and therefore amenable to the tools of the scientific tradition) and small and vulnerable (and therefore fragile and easily damaged by human carelessness).15 Andrew Ross, in his book The Chicago Gangster Theory of Life, captures this impression of fragility and callous human carelessness:
  • 26. 10 Sustainability The clichés of the standard environmental image are well known to us all: on the one hand, belching smokestacks, seabirds mired in petrochemical sludge, fish floating belly-up, traffic jams in Los Angeles and Mexico City, and clearcut forests; on the other hand, the redeeming repertoire of pastoral imagery, pristine, green and unspoiled by human habitation, crowned by the ultimate global spectacle, the fragile, vulnerable ball of spaceship Earth. (Ross 1994: 171) Two responses to this new popular concern about the degrading environment are, continuing Ross’s appeal to stereotypes, first a call to ‘repent for tomorrow is the end’ by the ‘prophets of doom’, and second claims that ‘we have the answer’ from the ‘snake-oil peddlers’. The first manifests itself in unsubstanti- ated and exaggerated claims about the future implications of possible envir- onmental impacts, and the second in unsubstantiated and exaggerated claims about the future benefits of products or processes. The ‘prophets of doom’ simplify the complex and uncertain research into the actual relationships between climate and human impact into the presentation of alarming scenarios as scientifically-authenticated certainties. This is dangerous because it leads to a misallocation of effort and resources and masks valid concerns. The ‘snake oil peddlers’ present products of all kinds, including buildings, as offering qualities of sustainability and environmental friendliness. ‘Greenness, suddenly, is market- able’ (Fisher 1994: 33). This phenomenon of eco-labelling has been given the title ‘greenwash’ (Greer and Bruno 1996). Garden furniture made in Vietnam and using timber taken from virgin forests in Cambodia, Laos and Burma has been branded Ecoline with a label that reads: ‘This article is an environmental-friendly product. For every fallen tree a new one is planted so no tropical rainforest need be destroyed’ (Tickell 1999). The organization Friends of the Earth revealed that the logging of this timber was often highly destructive, often illegal and often took place in national parks and reserves intended to protect endangered wildlife. In France, a large supermarket chain sold a similar range, but in this case the origin was not identified. On each table and chair was simply a tag bearing a vague Asian graphic and a statement that Le maranti dint sont fabriqué vos meuble de jardin provient de foréts gérées dans le but de mantenir un parfait equilibre écologique. (The merranti that is used to make this garden furniture comes from forests managed with the aim of maintaining a perfect ecological equilibrium.) If, as advertising people say, marketing is mainly about selling concepts and lifestyles that just happen to have products attached, then the fact that such statements exist is a testament to the degree the sustainability issue has pen- etrated the public consciousness in these countries. Sometimes these statements are misrepresentations made in ignorance rather than with the intention to mislead or deceive. Often, however, a fraudulent intention seems clear – there are lies, damned lies and claims for sustainability.
  • 27. Sustainability 11 Without some form of authoritative certification such statements are worth- less. For timber, such an authoritative certification system does exist. The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) was established in 1993 as a worldwide standard- setter for socially and environmentally beneficial forestry. FSC accredits inde- pendent certifiers to audit forestry practices against its standards. Products made of timber from certified forests may carry the FSC logo. It is the only eco-label for timber approved by the major environmental groups. But even this guide can have pitfalls, as an Australian architect discovered. She specified ‘that only certified plantation grown, Australian eucalypt timber’ should be used for par- quetry flooring of a dwelling. The ‘specified’ timber arrived on site in packages labelled Fabricado em Portugal. It was unclear whether the timber had been grown in Portugal or logs had been transported there for manufacture into the flooring product. There is much ‘doom and greenwash’ in the discourse of architecture. The doom is apparent in some of the rhetoric of government and other agencies, used as a means to attract attention following the principle that the ends justify the means. The greenwash is manifest in some of the claims made for the plethora of building materials, features and gadgets that by their presence alone are held to authenticate a green building. Sometimes these are rustic materials (mud brick, straw bales, rammed earth). Sometimes they are high-tech gadgets (solar panels, sun scoops and geothermal heating systems). The important point is that while biodegradable materials and technical devices can make effective contributions, and symbolic elements can be important in their own right (we discuss this later), the use of such materials and devices is not alone a sufficient indicator of an environmentally friendly building. There must be demonstrable benefits in the particular case. Many ecogadgets do not really justify in use the environmental and financial cost of their production, and many buildings do not operate (or are operated by their occupants) as imagined. Drawing arrows on building cross sections, for example, does not mean that airflow will cooperat- ively follow the indicated path. This point was nicely made in a paper entitled ‘Air is stupid (It can’t follow the arrows)’ (Were 1989).16 Showing a photograph of an ancient middle-eastern windcatcher on a new design proposal for another place does not mean that the careful and effective cooling effect achieved after hundreds of years of development for the original local climate will be trans- ferred to the new building. So far there has been remarkably little systematic post-construction measurement and evaluation of buildings for which claims of ‘sustainable architecture’ are made. We can parallel the notion of ‘ecogadgets’ by coining the term ‘cultureclamps’, those devices which relate to sustainability in cultural rather than physical envir- onment terms. This refers to the assumption that a global building designed elsewhere can be clamped limpet-like to a local culture by using the ‘right’ materials, features and gadgets appropriated from the vernacular. Examples are corrugated iron denoting Australianness, grass roofs in South Pacific resort hotels, and half-timbered walls in English country villages. There is nothing intrinsically wrong or right about such styles and features, and their use may
  • 28. 12 Sustainability well be a careful contextual approach rather than a part of what we might call ‘culturewash’. In the final chapter of this book we shall look to reasoned argu- ment to distinguish between expressions of environmental and cultural sensitiv- ity on the one hand, and of greenwash and culturewash on the other hand. Towards a basis for action Given this situation, how should architects and other designers respond? We have to act; to make decisions in our day-to-day practices as designers. There are checklists of recommended design actions in many books and web sites, and we add yet another in the Appendix of this book, which we shall introduce in Chapter 4. For each checklist the emphasis that is given to a recommendation depends partly on the moral position implicitly taken by the author. Some green architects such as William McDonough have set down principles upon which they believe sustainable design should be based. The following nine points, known as the Hannover Principles, were developed when McDonough was commissioned by the city of Hannover, Germany, to develop guidelines of design for sustainability for the Expo 2000 World’s Fair. 1 Insist on rights of humanity and nature to coexist in a healthy, sup- portive, diverse and sustainable condition. 2 Recognize interdependence. The elements of human design interact with and depend upon the natural world, with broad and diverse implic- ations at every scale. Expand design considerations to recognizing even distant effects. 3 Respect relationships between spirit and matter. Consider all aspects of human settlement including community, dwelling, industry, and trade in terms of existing and evolving connections between spiritual and material consciousness. 4 Accept responsibility for consequences of design decisions upon human well-being, the viability of natural systems, and their rights to coexist. 5 Create safe objects of long-term value. Do not burden future genera- tions with requirements for maintenance or vigilant administration of potential danger due to careless creation of products, processes, or standards. 6 Eliminate the concept of waste. Evaluate and optimize the full life cycle of products and processes, to approach the state of natural sys- tems, in which there is no waste. 7 Rely on natural energy flows. Human designs should, like the living world, derive their creative forces from perpetual solar income. Incor- porate this energy efficiently and safely for responsible use. 8 Understand the limitation of design. No human creation lasts forever and design does not solve all problems. Those who create and plan should practice humility in the face of nature. Treat nature as a model and a mentor, not an inconvenience to be evaded or controlled.
  • 29. Sustainability 13 9 Seek constant improvement by the sharing of knowledge. Encourage direct and open communication between colleagues, patrons, manufac- turers, and users to link long term sustainable considerations with eth- ical responsibility, and re-establish the integral relationship between natural processes and human activity. (McDonough, William and Partners 1992: 5) These recommendations are welcome and generally valid. They do, though, mix references to stakeholders (humanity and nature, principle 1), objectives (‘do not burden future generations with requirements for maintenance’, principle 5), means to achieve objectives (‘incorporate [solar] energy efficiently and safely for responsible use’, principle 7), and design approaches (‘encourage direct and open communication between colleagues, patrons, manufacturers, and users’, principle 9).17 At best, checklists show a range of possibilities; at worse they risk giving a confusing indication of how to proceed in design. They do not necessarily help people design (though that is usually their intent), and may actually mislead because they cannot cope with the complexities and uniqueness of a particular design situation. In this sense they can be ‘unecological’, given that the concept of ecology has taught us to take account of complexity, interconnected- ness and uniqueness. This, then, is the context in which we write this book. Our topic is the way in which sustainable architecture is and should be conceptualized, and the beliefs, goals, processes and advice that underlie its promotion. Our aim is to inform this conceptualization by promoting discussion and understanding of commonly ignored assumptions behind the search for a more sustainable archi- tecture, arguing that design decisions must be based on a coherent understand- ing of ethical stances and the objectives and systems involved. Individual actions and appropriate broader policies both follow from this understanding. Rather than providing ‘how to’ advice or critically reviewing existing projects that claim to be examples of sustainable architecture, we shall place in the forefront the milieu in which other books that do address these topics are positioned and read. We address our book primarily to other architects and future architects.18 In approaching our aim some of the questions that arise are: • How is ‘architectural sustainability’ conceptualized? • Does ethics offer a basis for action? • Who or what are the stakeholders? • How far can indicators of sustainability be quantified and understood in terms of the behaviour of systems? • How do we deal with non-commensurable objectives and advice? • How can we make and recognize sustainable architecture? In dealing with these questions we argue that the notion of ‘sustainable archi- tecture’ as a product, as attributes of buildings, is not only problematic but often counterproductive as it can lead to simplification and the undervaluing of local
  • 30. 14 Sustainability cultural and physical contexts. Instead, we advocate a way of thinking based on performing beautiful acts that arise out of credible reasoned argument, with a recognition of the way our values and our knowledge inform this process. We argue that: • ‘Sustainable architecture’ is a cultural construction in that it is a label for a revised conceptualization of architecture; • Within this revised conceptualization, by designing (more) ‘sustainable architecture’ we perform a ‘beautiful act’; • A ‘sustainable design’ is a creative adaptation to ecological, sociocultural and built contexts (in that order of priority), supported by credible cohesive arguments. In the following chapters we shall examine some of the key approaches that are promoted in the discourse of sustainability in architecture and building. We shall compare competing images of architectural sustainability that are apparent in the contemporary discourse of architecture. We shall consider ethical frame- works for practice. We shall locate regulations and design guides as means-based or performance-based statements about ‘what should happen’ in design. We shall explore the possibilities of systems theory with its assumption of the pos- sibility of quantification and auditing of the life cycle impacts of the production, life, demolition and recycling of buildings. We shall examine the way that pro- posed responses to environmental impacts of buildings are connected with larger political and economic concerns. Finally we shall summarize individual and policy directions that might follow from the arguments set out in this exposition. Notes 1 Foucault sees such strategies as ‘systematically different ways of treating objects of discourse . . . of manipulating concepts (of giving them rules for their use, inserting them into regional coherences, and thus constituting conceptual architectures)’ (Foucault 1972: 70). An analysis of competing conceptions of ecological place- making in the products and literature of architecture is made by Simon Guy and Graham Farmer (2000 and 2001). We shall explore this theme in Chapter 2. 2 See Donald Schön (1982: 103): At any given time in the life of a profession, certain ways of framing problems and roles come into good currency. . . . Their frames determine their strategies of atten- tion and thereby set the directions in which they will try to change the situation, the values which will shape their practice. . . . When a practitioner becomes aware of his frames, he also becomes aware of the possibility of alternative ways of framing the realities of his practice. He takes note of the values and norms to which he has given priority, and those he has given less importance, or left out of account altogether. Frame awareness tends to entrain awareness of dilemmas. 3 The world population at the start of the twenty-first century was around six billion. Population projections are inherently unreliable. A 2001 study by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis in Laxenberg, Austria reported in Nature,
  • 31. Sustainability 15 August 2001, suggested a peak of nine billion by 2070 with a population in decline by the end of this century. 4 When applied to sustainability, Seidl and Tisdell (1999) suggest that ‘carrying capac- ity’, rather than being a universal constraint, is a normative political concept to be understood only in terms of complex ecological dynamics together with the human social and institutional settings. The report of the Club of Rome Limits to Growth (Meadows 1972) focused awareness on the relationships between population, eco- nomic growth and environmental degradation. ‘If the present growth trends in world population, industrialization, pollution, food production, and resource depletion con- tinue unchanged, the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next one hundred years’ (Meadows 1972: 23). If we regard a decline in human population as desirable (by no means a universally accepted position), then we might use our professional skills to help raise living standards in the Third World with an expectation that lower birth rates will follow. This may be a desirable end, but Peter Fawcett responds: It is often argued that, because population growth is greatest in the under- developed countries, and because birth rates are lowered by affluence, world population increase can be limited by economic growth in poorer countries towards Western standards. There are two fallacies in this argument. Firstly, population continues to grow in even the richest countries; and secondly, the trade-off of consumption increase against reduction in population increase will take the ecosystem beyond limits. The total impact . . . will rise unless tech- nology is cleaned up, affluence is restrained and population is limited. (Fawcett 1998: 64) 5 David Harvey continues: It is crucial to understand that it is materially impossible for us to destroy the planet Earth, that the worst we can do is to engage in material transformations of our environment so as to make life less rather than more comfortable for our own species, while recognizing that what we do also does have ramifications (both positive and negative) for other living species. (Harvey 1998: 328) 6 In Australia the description ‘ecologically sustainable development’ was coined in 1989 while developing policy directions to help resolve the socially divisive politics between competing environmental and developmental interests. This process started with an initiative led by the then Prime Minister Bob Hawke, who in 1989 released a Statement on the Environment, entitled Our Country, Our Future, and culminated in the release in 1992 of a National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development (The ESD Strategy) that set out four main tenets: • The Precautionary Principle – that measures to prevent environmental degrada- tion should not be postponed due to lack of full scientific certainty. • Intergenerational equity – that resources are left in trust for the benefit of future generations. • Conservation of biological diversity – that measures should be undertaken to preserve genetic, species and ecosystem diversity and integrity. • Environmental economic valuation, implying that the true cost of environ- mental impacts should be factored into the market economy. The strategy has been endorsed in national and local government, for example, the Environmental Management policy of Central Sydney Development Control Plan
  • 32. 16 Sustainability (CSDCP 1996) requires that ‘principles of ecologically sustainable development (ESD) are integrated into the design and construction of development’. Similar positions have been taken in other countries. 7 While the growing use of the term [sustainable development] has led to a loss of clarity which needs to be addressed, what is important for us about sustainable development is its recognition of interconnections between a number of crucial areas. These are: environmental degradation; inequality; the future stability of society and the environment; and lastly, participation in and control of the decisions which affect these areas. (Smith, Whitelegg and Williams 1998: 10) 8 People may ask – ‘what does sustainability mean for architecture?’ but perhaps the proper question is – ‘what does architecture mean for sustainability?’ The former question suggests a ‘weak’ approach to sustainability, i.e. an implicit assumption that sustainability has implications (possibly serious) for our present ways of pro- curing the built environment but those ways are basically appropriate. The latter question recognizes sustainability as the overarching concern, in terms of which all social disciplines and conduct must be reinterpreted and reformulated. (Fawcett 1998: 68) 9 In the words of the Commission Chair, Gro Harlem Brundtland, then Prime Minis- ter of Norway: The environment does not exist as a sphere separate from human actions, ambitions, and needs, and attempts to defend it in isolation from human con- cerns have given the very word ‘environment’ a connotation of naivety in some political circles. The word ‘development’ has also been narrowed by some into a very limited focus, along the lines of ‘what poor nations should do to become richer’, and thus again is automatically dismissed by many in the inter- national arena as being a concern of specialists, of those involved in questions of ‘development assistance’. . . . But the ‘environment’ is where we all live; and ‘development’ is what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within that abode. The two are inseparable. Further, development issues must be seen as crucial by the political leaders who feel that their countries have reached a plateau towards which other nations must strive. Many of the development paths of the industrialized nations are clearly unsustainable. And the development decisions of these countries, because of their great economic and political power, will have a profound effect upon the ability of all peoples to sustain human progress for generations to come. . . . Many critical survival issues are related to uneven development, poverty, and population growth. They all place unprecedented pressures on the planet’s lands, waters, forests, and other natural resources, not least in the developing countries. The downward spiral of poverty and envir- onmental degradation is a waste of opportunities and of resources. In particular, it is a waste of human resources. These links between poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation formed a major theme in our analysis and recom- mendations. What is needed now is a new era of economic growth – growth that is forceful and at the same time socially and environmentally sustainable. (WCED 1990: xv–xvi) The World Commission for Economic Development was the first global effort to address the issue of sustainable development. It was also the first international policy advice document that acknowledged and focused on the interrelations between the economy and environmental well-being.
  • 33. Sustainability 17 10 Some in fact have suggested that issues that are presented as serious threats to sustainability, such as resource depletion and global warming, are entirely political phenomena, examples of what the American journalist and satirist Henry Louis Mencken described thus: ‘The whole aim of practical politics is to keep the populace alarmed – and hence clamorous to be led to safety – by menacing it with an endless series of hobgoblins, all of them imaginary’ (Reproduced from Favourite Quotes: H.L. Mencken, Online. Available HTTP: http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/7248/ mencken.html (January 2002). 11 For the full text of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development; see Online. Available HTTP: http://www.unep.org/unep/rio.html (January, 2002). 12 These are published together as the ‘Rio Cluster’ of UN Proceedings, Online. Avail- able HTTP: http://www.igc.org/habitat/un-proc/index.html (March 2002). 13 Pérez-Gómez concentrates on writing and work in France which led up to and fol- lowed Nicolas-Louis Durand’s two famous theoretical books: the Recueil et Paralléle des Edifices de Tout Genre, Anciens et Modernes (1801), a large collection of drawings of building examples; and the Précis des Leçons d’Architecture (1802), which presented the content of his courses at the École Polytechnique. 14 This distinction implies that the ‘science’ and ‘art’ could be pursued separately, and even today the staffing and presentation of the discipline in schools of architecture commonly articulates and reinforces this perception. 15 Ingold (1993) maintains that the world view that locates the viewer outside the world with the Earth seen as a globe is associated with the triumph of modern science and technology. It carries implications that the Earth is something that can be conceived of as a whole and known objectively. 16 The trouble is, of course, that the air passing through the building has not seen the drawing. Even if it had, it would not be able to follow (understand) the arrows and, even if it could, it would not be able to follow the arrows (path) because air is stupid. (Were 1989) 17 In Chapter 4 we shall locate these in a ‘decision theory’ model of the relations between decisions, means, objectives and other components of a purposeful design process. 18 We, as authors, are not viewing the world dispassionately from outside, observing what is happening and making an independent and objective record. We are down here in the world, carrying our own cultural baggage and taking part in the discourse and practice of architecture. As authors, our own collective background is western- educated (Australia and England) in architecture, engineering and planning, with a research and practice record that has been dominated by modernism.
  • 34. Allie
  • 35. Images 19 2 Images Fields of significance We noted in Chapter 1 that in modern Western societies discussions of sustainability are almost invariably associated with a particular way of looking at the ‘environment’ that is scientific in nature and global in scope. Environ- mental problems such as climate change, acid rain and the depletion of the ozone layer are essentially ‘modern’ in that they are global concerns, identified using scientific methods, and involve international cooperation and national institutions in their solution. The very expression ‘the global environment’ 2.1 The fourteen spheres of the world, from Scala Naturale 1564 by Giovanni Camillo Maffei (Ingold 1993: 33).
  • 36. 20 Images makes this scope explicit, but even when we leave out the term ‘global’ the way that environmental issues are discussed often implies that there is just one big environment that we can somehow stand outside and comprehend (Cooper 1992: 167). But we can also think of environmental issues in terms of ‘the environment’ as it affects us in our day-to-day lives, as in ‘the home environ- ment’ or ‘the work environment’. This is not just a narrower or more selected version of the global view. It is a quite different perspective based on knowing from within that environment, and can never be fully appreciated from the ‘outside’. It has connections to ancient views about the relationship of the individual to the world that were conceptualized as a person at the centre of a series of spheres (see Figure 2.1). The individual’s view of the world grew from his or her local knowledge and personal and immediate experience and was drawn ever deeper into the world. The medieval Judeo-Christian view of the universe placed the static, spher- ical earth at its centre with the stars attached to a surrounding, rotating sphere that marked the edge of the universe. The cosmology was rich in sign and symbol, with one of the central motifs being that nature was a book through which God’s word could be read. David Cooper suggests that these notions of the environment were ‘local’ not so much in terms of geographical proximity or causal impact, but rather because one’s environment was where one was ‘at home’, knew one’s way around, and knew what things meant and stood for. People generally had a sense of belonging and identity that was intimately related to places and things (Cooper 1992).1 Cooper talks of the environment as a ‘field of significance’ in which features and patterns of behaviour have acquired significance because of their importance in everyday practices. For example, a tree may have significance because it marks the halfway point of the walk home, because one’s grandfather planted it or because it produces a wonderful crop of early apricots. These environments are known experientially through the senses as well as understood intellectually. Being at the centre of things, it is difficult for an individual to define the extent of his or her environ- ment, but its sustainability for the individual entails the continuation of the myriad significances for that individual. Cooper refers to Heidegger’s description of the ‘referential totality’ of a farm where items such as a cow’s udder and a milk pail ‘take on significance only as parts of a whole’ (Cooper 1992: 170). According to Heidegger the sense of ‘dwelling’, of deep connection to land and place, is central to living and well-being. He asks us to Think for a while of a farmhouse in the Black Forest, which was built some two hundred years ago by the dwelling of peasants. Here the self-sufficiency of the power to let earth and heaven, divinities and mortals enter in simple oneness into things, ordered the house. (Heidegger 1971: 160) The Black Forest farmhouse and other indigenous regional architectures of the kind that Rudofsky captured in his 1964 exhibition and book Architecture Without
  • 37. Images 21 Architects2 (Rudofsky 1964) originate through practical and pragmatic choices based on the availability of local materials and the nature of local climate. They acquire a role in local culture and identity by ‘being there’ as a part of local life, a basis for sharing and participation. Over time, the technical and tectonic poten- tial of modes of construction were developed to enrich the symbolic qualities of buildings, particularly those with religious or other particular cultural signific- ance such a Norwegian stave church, a Greek temple or a Sarawak long-house. In these terms, sustainability implies the potential to continue dwelling indefin- itely, maintaining this connection to land and place. The land is instrumentally valuable in making cultivation possible, but equally important is its emotional role in a meaningful life. Further, family and society become intertwined with land and place, so that people belong in specific places in specific kinds of environments. To some peoples (including Australian Aborigines and Canadian Inui), elements of the landscape themselves have great spiritual significance. People ‘belong’ to a particular land area even if living elsewhere, and that area contains ‘sacred sites’ that only initiated members of the community know about and which must not be disturbed. Sustainability is then the protection and maintenance of existing land with all of its meanings.3 But if we live in a (mythical) stable and an undisturbed local society, sustainability is not an issue. Our neighbours share our own cultural horizons, change is slow, and building form, culture and environmental change move in step. They have a similar field of significance and similar images of the world to our own. By ‘images’ in this book we mean both the visual image (the most common meaning of the word) and what occurs ‘behind the eye’, the way we represent ideas to ourselves and to others and the impressions we have of other people, products and things. As Kenneth Boulding (1961) described the concept in the early 1960s, images in this sense are about memory and imagination, connec- tions to the past and to the future.4 They can be likened to subjective know- ledge, or what one believes to be true, and encapsulate not only verifiable ‘facts’ but values and emotions. Images are built up from a wide range of sources including personal experience, education, the media and our relationships with others. This is most familiar to architects through the writing of Kevin Lynch about the images that people have of cities and how these help in way-finding and ‘reading’ a city. He talks of the environmental image as: The generalized mental picture of the exterior physical world that is held by an individual. The image is both the product of immediate sensation and of the memory of past experience, and it is used to interpret informa- tion and to guide action. (Lynch 1960: 4) Lynch maintains that the mental images that people have of a place: ‘are organized structures of recognition and relationship. They are also suffused with meaning, feeling, and value, and these meanings are more complex and subtle than are the dry bones of structure’ (Lynch 1976: 112–13).
  • 38. 22 Images The very nature of images means that they cannot be defined rigidly. Rather, these descriptions indicate the scope and possibilities of images: their multi- faceted nature, the importance of the pictorial or visual element, the ability to incorporate values, meaning, beliefs, and emotions, and the strong connection with memory. An appreciation of the importance of one’s own environments may provide the basis for confronting modern environmental problems. Cooper argues: The concerns . . . will begin ‘at home’, with their environments, the networks of meanings with which they are daily engaged. And these concerns will be directed at whatever threatens to separate them from their environment, to make their milieu alien. They will be directed, say, at the proposed erection of a factory farm, the squawking and stench from which expel the familiar sounds and smells of their surroundings; or at the planned construction of a motorway which will render impossible the old intimacy between neigh- bours on opposite sides of the valley. (Cooper 1992: 170) Awareness of other cultures and other people’s fields of significance changes assumptions from the way things are to a very different acknowledgment of the way things are now for me. Cooper continues: But these concerns will not remain purely ‘local’. While my environmental concerns begin with my environment, I recognize that other people (and animals, too) have, or should have, their environments. If I appreciate the importance for my life of a place I know my way about I must appreciate the importance this has for others as well, and I will want to defend their efforts to preserve such places. (Cooper 1992: 170) World citizens and pluralism The latter part of the twentieth century and the opening of our current cen- tury have been marked by globalization and global issues that are not readily addressed within the boundaries of the nation state. We have transnational corporations that cross boundaries and whose immense resources are necessary to respond to major resource projects. We have political and economic migra- tion where people cross political boundaries in order to seek a better life for themselves and their children. We have global issues such as terrorism and climate change that cannot be addressed within individual nations. We have international news media, increasingly integrated multinational political and economic groupings and agencies such as the European Economic Community, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. We have international law and multinational agreements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
  • 39. Images 23 Few people experience a single, geographic, place-based field of significance in our current century.5 Conventionally the discussion of culture has concentrated on national and regional groups and their horizons, but national and regional boundaries are no longer effective markers in a world made smaller by commun- ications and migration. There are cultural groups of international financiers and politicians as well as local fishermen. Further, cultures have ‘ill-defined edges’, so that people do not always clearly belong, or not belong, to a particular culture. Individuals are typically members of several overlaid cultural groups, with professional, religious, racial, national and other affiliations. The con- temporary citizen is culturally hyphenated: a green-architect-Italian-American- something else; and along with the notion of the ‘culturally hyphenated’ is the notion of multiple fields of significance. This view acknowledges that there are many environments that are defined in relation to their significance to ‘that which is environed’: an individual may recognize several environments and different individuals will recognize different environments. For many people, their images associated with the term ‘environ- ment’ encompass both global and individual views. They shift focus easily between the global view and the individual field of significance views depend- ing on the context in which environmental considerations arise. We have, then, a world in which there is a tension between the international ‘world citizen’ horizon and the traditional ‘race and place’ horizon, and tensions between such concepts as universal human rights and local religious and cul- tural rights. Francis Fukuyama, who famously suggested that we had reached the end of history because the universal appeal of liberal democracy and free markets marked the end of the progress of humans towards modernity (Fukuyama 1992), argues that this process indeed threatens the traditional existence of some societies. For the modernist world citizen, place is just another com- modity. Whether to live on a Greek island, in a Scandinavian forest, or in an American city is a choice made on the way that these places enable different lifestyles (including economic opportunities and climate), not on a sense of belonging and identity in the Heideggarian sense. Local culture – and local modes of building and architectural style – are facets of the commodity of place. Like the land itself, they may be embraced and valued, but they never carry the same deep meaning for the global itinerant dweller as they do for the native. Spector makes this point in The Ethical Architect: Modernists unapologetically maintain that globalization, scientific ration- ality, and technology are the most important elements of any context in this day and age; climate, history, and topography must be dealt with, of course, but they are easily dispatched. This attitude, simply put, is what it means to be modern. (Spector 2001: 162) To the modernist world citizen, then, sustainability is construed primarily as the economic and environmental sustainability of our planet as a whole, with the
  • 40. 24 Images continuation of this ‘progress’ towards modernity and increased personal freedom. It is seen predominantly in terms of global issues: protection of climate, resource conservation, biodiversity and cultural diversity, and economic stability as desir- able features of the planet as a whole. When the regional and particular culture, economy, climate or ecosystem is addressed, this is done as instances of multiple particulars and with a constant awareness of the ‘others’. It cannot be otherwise. Indeed, this book is a typical enterprise of the modernist world citizen; it tries to address global issues from our own cultural positions, with a desire to be instru- mental (at least in a small way) on a global scale, and does so through the global publishing industry. The international culture of architecture Both the discourse and practice of architecture are increasingly dominated by global itinerants. Students of architecture are educated in architecture schools where staff may come from many countries, are taught with reference to globally- published reference books, are referred to the same iconic and emblematic buildings, and take part in international student competitions. When seeking information and knowledge they are likely to try an internet search engine before the shelves of their own library; indeed, if looking for a book they may well try Amazon.com before the library catalogue. The products of architecture are made known through international journals. The international strength of the disciplinary culture of architecture, with a small number of ‘superstar’ architects working concurrently in different parts of the world, dominates local contexts. The international offices share expertise across national boundaries, and their buildings are subject to internationally-agreed codes and standards. The growth of the multinational architectural firm leads to a divorce between the places where architectural design takes place (in ‘design-oriented’ ateliers), where documentation is carried out, where skilled people command lower salar- ies, and where the building is to be constructed. The ‘meanings’ associated with the building are those of global organizations and world citizens. Where the importance of local ‘meaning’ is recognized, it tends to be treated as something that can be ‘given’ to a building by designers for whom it is not meaningful, as just another ‘function’ of architecture.6 Modernism has accepted and celebrated internationalism with its manifest benefits, but at the same time as the practice and production of architecture is becoming more global and undifferentiated, the theory and discourse of the discipline is paying increasing attention to regional and national differences. Yet this recognition is not equivalent to operating from inside a culture. Theor- ies of vernacularism, regionalism, critical regionalism, cross-cultural difference and heritage conservation are essentially perspectives on what happens locally seen from the position of the global citizen. Simon Guy and Graham Farmer (2000, 2001) show through a social constructivist analysis how competing conceptions of ecological place-making in contemporary products and literature of architecture tend to create ‘centres
  • 41. Images 25 Table 2.1 Three images of architectural sustainability Image Natural Cultural Technical Approach Study local natural systems; emphasize sensitivity and humility in relation to nature. Study local culture and building; emphasize local involvement and local expertise Study science, economics and technology; emphasize transnational expertise Dominant concerns Environmental place, ecosystems, health, balance Cultural place, people, genius loci, difference, cultural sustainability Technologies, global environ- mental impacts, cost-benefit analysis, risk management Symbolism/aesthetics ‘Touching the earth lightly’ with forms echoing nature Highly contextual with forms, materials and construction methods echoing the local vernacular Leading edge contemporary international systems Dominant horizon Local Local Global of gravity’ and ‘structuring’ within the wider architectural discourse. This struc- turing ‘is not created in abstraction as a recognition of purely contemporary concerns for environmental issues, it is also a reflection of a long and complex intermingling of architectural history’ (Guy and Farmer 2000: 141). The rhet- oric and terminology change to follow each paradigm. They cite eco-technic, eco-centric, eco-aesthetic, eco-cultural, eco-medical and eco-central logics, where a ‘logic’ is ‘a specific ensemble of ideas, concepts and categorizations that are produced, reproduced and transformed in a particular set of practices through which meaning is given to social and physical realities’ (Hajer 1995: 44). This has similarities to Boulding’s ‘image’, but emphasizes the cultural analysis of a phenomenal structure rather than the mental concept. A particular building project might be described in a journal using one or several (but rarely many) of these structures. Each of them has dominant concerns, dominant local or global horizons, and appears to privilege particular kinds of building character. Some may be shared with other professions; the ‘eco-social’ logic, for example, is shared with planners and the ‘eco-technic’ is the one most closely aligned with the scientific paradigm of engineering. Here we shall present just three contrasting images of architectural sustainability which we shall call, as shorthand for the complex association of ideas that they embody, the natural image, the cultural image, and the technical image (Table 2.1). The three images are caricatures in the sense that practice and hence real building tends to play with more than one image at a time, as we shall discuss later. This classification and tabling, of course, is the kind of act
  • 42. 26 Images that modernists would do, and is yet another example of the ordering of discourse through listing and categorizing. Before looking at each of these categories in turn we shall make some general comments about the connections between images of sustainability and associated symbolism and aesthetics. Architectural expression In The Ethical Function of Architecture, Karsten Harries (1997) addresses archi- tecture’s task of helping to articulate a common ethos, to interpret a way of life for our period. He is concerned with both the actual and ‘rhetorical’ (visually indicated) function of buildings, and the associated roles of aesthetics and what he terms the ‘problem’ of architectural language, when those who view a build- ing do not understand the secondary meanings of its language. This ‘problem’ refers to the way in which the particular form and details of a building are meaningful only to those who understand the cultural and functional reasoning behind them. Ultimately, we can only fully understand a building by being a part of the community that builds it, with its values (and perhaps not even then). Thus we cannot design a building to fully reflect a regional culture which we do not share. We can, though, seek to reflect our (admittedly partial) under- standing and values of architectural sustainability. This symbolic dimension is desirable and necessary, and the recognition and invention of accepted symbols has always been a part of architecture. Architects are inevitably interested in the tectonic potential of the forms that can arise with a sound understanding of sustainability and ecology, and what this will suggest and privilege in building form, materials and decoration. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, chimneys were often emphasized as elements in design compositions – note, for example, the import- ance of chimneys in the aesthetics of houses designed by Edwin Lutyens in England or Frank Lloyd Wright in America. Chimneys were essential to the functioning of houses, and styles developed where they were integral and neces- sary to the style. Sunshades, cooling shafts, solar panels and rammed earth walls – and other features – are exploited as design elements in contemporary build- ings, so that the architectural expression of these features becomes a significant part of the aesthetics and character of the building (Baird 2001). This is ‘form follows function’ in the tradition of modernism, with its commitment to derive beautiful form directly from function. The aesthetic qualities of the building are justified and rationalized because they are expressions of its environmental func- tions and the conditions of its production, as in nature.7 This imparts a sense of legitimacy and conviction to the appearance, a sense that has been neither sought nor demonstrated in much postmodern architecture, with its justification of form and decoration on other grounds of coding and meaning.8 But in the same way that the buildings of modernism are sometimes criticized for functions that appear to have been invented to justify the aesthetics, there are doubtless cases where the desire to make form with towers or shades has driven the decision to adopt corresponding ‘environmental’ devices, rather than vice versa.
  • 43. Images 27 So where is the boundary between a ‘legitimate’ symbol of sustainability, and the proliferation of ecogadgets as a feature of greenwash that was noted in Chapter 1? And where is the boundary between a respectful learning from a local vernacular and the cynical use of cultureclamps? Symbolization is a pro- found human need and is indispensable for the perpetuation of culture. The symbol accentuates the presence of a building which has genuine and reasoned claims to be in some ways ‘more sustainable’ than most of its contemporaries. It can raise questions in those who occupy and see the building – how and why does this place ‘work’? Why is sustainability important? Greenwash and culturewash are counterfeit or disguise – or simply a demonstration of lack of knowledge, which in turn may demonstrate lack of real concern. The natural image In his enormously influential book Design with Nature, published in 1969, Ian McHarg argues that If one accepts the simple proposition that nature is the arena of life and that a modicum of knowledge of her processes is indispensable for survival and rather more for existence, health and delight, it is amazing how many apparently difficult problems present ready solution. (McHarg 1969: 7) In the natural image, the key to architectural sustainability is to work with, not against, nature; to understand, sensitively exploit and simultaneously avoid damaging natural systems. As a planner and landscape architect, McHarg used examples from regional planning in identifying places with intrinsic suitability for agriculture, forestry, recreation and urbanization. ‘Design with nature’ at the building level is a code for recognizing sun paths, breezes, shade trees and rock formations as natural features that can be ‘worked with’ in making somewhere for people to inhabit, while recognizing significant trees, animal tracks, habitats and natural drainage systems as natural features that must be ‘protected’. When seeking a device with a high shading coefficient in summer and a low coefficient in winter, a vine may be used rather than a mechanical system; the vine shades the building when (and only when) it is needed, and the building provides a ‘home’ for the vine. Thus both the building and the ‘other’ of nature are sustainable. By adding rainwater collection, reed beds for sewage and perhaps wind or solar power for electrical energy the building ‘working with nature’ can be independent of imported services and exported waste, keeping its environmental footprint within the footprint of its site. The archetypal visual image is the remote and isolated self-sufficient building dominated by its surrounding landscape. The natural image of architectural sustainability, then, mirrors a view that it is necessary to position human activities as a non-damaging part of the ongoing ecological landscape, with a belief that ‘nature knows best’. The ‘eco-centric’ logic that Guy and Farmer (2001: 142–3) identify in the discourse of architecture
  • 44. 28 Images embraces this image of sustainability, linking it strongly with a rhetoric of a fragile, delicately balanced earth where straying far from this path will lead to environmental catastrophe. Even if that is the way it occurs in contemporary writing, the natural image has a currency and attraction without this threat of doom. Frank Lloyd Wright, after all, published The Natural House in 1954.9 Two other logics that Guy and Farmer report in the discourse of architecture are also linked to this natural image, the ‘eco-medical’ logic and the ‘eco-aesthetic’ logic. The former encompasses a discourse focusing on healthy people in ‘healthy’ buildings, drinking ‘pure’ water and breathing ‘clean’ air. The natural image naturally assumes purity in the environment, because pristine nature is unblem- ished by the act of building. Moreover, the calming and stress-free attributes attributed to nature10 are also encompassed in this image, so that mental health accompanies physical health: a healthy mind in a healthy body in a healthy building, in which humans and other creatures live in happy harmony. 2.2 The natural image: ‘Hollow Spruce’ (1988) in Grizedale Forest, England, artist Richard Harris (photographer Richard Harris).
  • 45. Images 29 The symbolic and ‘eco-aesthetic’ manifestations of this image reinforce ident- ification with nature and natural systems.11 Materials are those of nature with little human modification: straw bale, rammed earth and pressed mud brick, or rough-hewn stone, and ‘natural’ timber rather than ‘manufactured’ timber par- ticle boards, all with ‘natural’ finishes. Soft, organic, sensuous curves may be favoured over hard mechanical angles, and ‘earth colours’ over brighter hues. Neither does the building dominate its natural setting. Rather it expresses humility in the face of nature, its character coming as much from the play of sunlight and shade over its surface as from its own form. This move from the clearly artificial towards immersion in the subtleties, folds, movement and restraint of nature brings to mind the parallel movement in environmental art. Indeed, for an emblem of the natural image we can turn to art. Richard Harris’s literally and metaphorically organic ‘Hollow Spruce’ (1988) in Grizedale Forest in the Lake District of northern England (Figure 2.2) ‘acts as a filter through which to re-experience the light, sound, colour and space of the dense Spruce’ (Harris 1991: 49).12 An impression of shelter (of a kind) is provided, but it is constructed of local materials with minimal impact on its environment and will decay back into the same environment. Even the fact that we can see that to inhabit this ‘building’ would necessitate giving up much of our expectations of personal comfort is a part of the natural image. We are prepared to do so for the benefits to us of ‘living close to nature’ and the benefits to nature of continuing to live undisturbed. But with care, ‘designing with nature’ can provide both physical and spiritual comfort (Day 2000). Like its occupants, the building lives in happy harmony with its setting. The cultural image In Architecture: Meaning and Place, Christian Norberg-Schulz laments the way that place and artefacts have lost meaning for ‘modern man’: In general, the loss of things and places makes up a loss of ‘world’. Modern man becomes ‘worldless’, and thus loses his own identity, as well as the sense of community and participation. Existence is experienced as ‘meaning- less,’ and man becomes ‘homeless’ because he does not any longer belong to a meaningful totality. Moreover he becomes ‘careless,’ since he does not feel the urge to protect and cultivate a world any more. (Norberg-Schulz 1988: 12) The cultural image portrays a distinct and meaningful genius loci of which archi- tecture is a part. It mirrors an anthropological view that promotes keeping people culturally in place, combined with a belief that ‘the local culture knows best’. Sustainability means protecting and continuing this genius loci, and work- ing within the limitations and possibilities that this requires. Sustainability of the building is sublimated to sustainability of the place. The image embraces a
  • 46. 30 Images concern for the way local people live and interact with their buildings, and an expectation that this will be different from other places. The symbolic and aesthetic manifestations of the image reinforce identifica- tion with ‘authentic place’ and celebrate discernible difference between places. Since the local vernacular mode of building is seen as having authentically emerged as a response to local culture and the genius loci (and, indeed, to be an important part of that culture), it is the model for new building. Materials, colours and building forms draw on this local vernacular. Buildings are highly contextual, following Christopher Alexander’s notion in A New Theory of Urban Design (1987) of new development as ‘healing the city’, of repairing wherever the ‘authentic place’ is damaged by earlier inappropriate work. But new building also symbolizes the continuing vitality of the local culture, so that the new building is expected to rework rather than reproduce the vernacular, to be identifiably contemporary while eminently respectful of the past. An emblem of the cultural image might be the Mosque at New Gourna (1945) designed by Hassan Fathy to recognize traditional Nubian vernacular forms. Fathy set out to create buildings in ‘a style that he believed incorporated the essence of his own culture’ (Steele, 1997: 6), informed by and respecting tradi- tion but not simply reproducing it. The main façade of the mosque (Figure 2.3) ‘uses a very sophisticated and deliberate kind of iconography’ combining elements with complex historical connotations that are regional but also ‘transcend local tradition to make a connection with the formation of Islamic identity itself’ 2.3 The vernacular image: The Mosque at New Gourna, Egypt (1945), architect Hassan Fathy, built with forms and materials echoing the local vernacular (photographer Barry Rowney).
  • 47. Images 31 (Steele 1997: 75). New Gourna is his best-known community project, built to relocate the village of Gourna al-Gadida to be more distant from the famous tombs in the Valleys of the Kings, Queens and Nobles in Luxor.13 Steele notes six principles that guided Fathy: humanism, a universal approach, appropriate technology (mud brick in the Mosque, as in the local vernacular), socially orientated construction techniques, tradition, and ‘the reestablishment of national cultural pride through the act of building’ (Steele 1997: 16). The impression that it would be difficult to expand this architectural language to accommodate the diversity and scale of contemporary requirements is a part of the cultural image. In it we have to accept that sustaining culture may mean limiting what is accommodated (the insertion of new activities into the com- munity) as well as how buildings look. The ‘eco-cultural’ and ‘eco-social’ logics which Guy and Farmer identify both overlap this cultural image. The discourse of the ‘eco-cultural’ logic frames local ecology and climate as a part of the sense of place, helping to define the culture and vernacular. The discourse of the ‘eco-social’ logic ‘suggests the creation of buildings that embody and express the notion of a social and ecological commun- ity in which democratic values such as full participation and freedom is the norm’ (Guy and Farmer 2001: 146). In the idealized vernacular image, the identifiable community is assumed to be healthy, democratic and self-sufficient with a clear sense of identity and belonging: happy people living in happy cooperation with one another. Like the people, the buildings cooperate with each other in collectively making a place with an equally clear sense of identity and difference. The technical image In an interview about his design work for the Reichstag parliament building in Berlin, the architect Lord Norman Foster said: Since Stonehenge, architects have always been at the cutting edge of technology. And you can’t separate technology from the humanistic and spiritual content of a building . . . This building is highly engineered . . . great mirrors bring light down right into the debating chamber . . . It looks forward to the day when buildings will give off no pollution, no greenhouse gases. (Foster 1999) The technical image of sustainability portrays technical innovation in the solu- tion of social, economic and environmental problems. In this image sustainability is a matter of developing technical devices that neutralize or make benefits out of what may temporarily appear to be problems. The track record of architects over the centuries in finding technical solutions to innumerable problems inspires confidence that the same will happen in the future. Success is seen as a matter of applying the tools of the social, economic and physical sciences to analyse
  • 48. 32 Images the situation and discover a range of answers. But neither applying these tools nor implementing the answers is easy. The prerequisite for success is profes- sional expertise. The technical image forefronts hard ‘facts’, and particularly the measurable ‘environmental facts’ of the constituents of air, lighting and noise levels, resource consumption, etc., along with equally measurable economics. Success can also be measured: reduced energy consumption, reduced embodied energy in mater- ials, internal temperatures and lighting levels within desired levels, reduced initial and operating costs. The key is rationality and efficiency in planning, material use and systems. The symbolic/aesthetic representation of the image is one of technical pro- ficiency in using the materials of contemporary architecture: sparkling glass, gleaming stainless steel, precision cladding panels in alloys or aluminium (just- ified by their low weight and long life). Passive and active devices such as double skin external walls and roofs, filtering and responsive glass, ‘sun scoops’, sun- tracking sunshades and photovoltaic panels supplement this international language of architecture. Not visible will be geothermal systems, heat recovery, and the ‘intelligent’ computer control of lighting, heating and cooling via timers and movement detectors. The archetypal visual image is the high-tech corpor- ate office in a city of similar offices: efficient people in efficient buildings, both in control, both responding to challenges through innovation. An emblematic project might be the Commerzbank Headquarters in Frankfurt, Germany (architects Foster and Partners), described as ‘the world’s first ecological high-rise office block’14 and, when constructed, Europe’s tallest building (Figure 2.4). It has many technical features. Amongst them are double skin walls, dual natural and artificial ventilation systems (openable windows which can all be closed by a central control, with natural ventilation replaced by full air conditioning when weather conditions dictate), four-storey high winter gardens which enable inward-facing offices to have natural light, an atrium acting as a ventilation chimney, and sludge water from the air-conditioning cooling towers used for flushing lavatories (Jones 1998: 228; Daniels 1995: 91–5). But we could also adopt as an emblematic project a small house or a factory. Indeed, the facilities for the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia, hailed for the environ- mental responsibility that was a factor in the original award of the Games to Sydney in a highly competitive bid process, overwhelmingly reinforce the tech- nology image. It is a part of this image that technology can deal with any project in any place. The ‘eco-technic’ logic that Guy and Farmer (2001: 142) find in the dis- course of architectural sustainability projects this image. They note its link to ‘ecological modernization’ at the policy level, which portrays apparently serious environmental side-effects of development as just more problems in the path of modernization which can be managed, like other problems, by international treaties and local regulation. The field of significance is global, the problems are global (with an emphasis on climate change and transnational pollution), and the answers and the expertise to implement them are universally applicable.
  • 49. Discovering Diverse Content Through Random Scribd Documents
  • 50. pagato romani ufficiali affinché distruggessero le statue di Teodorico per vendicar l'uccisione del padre Simmaco e del marito Boezio. Ma Totila non concesse che le si facesse ingiuria e salvò da oltraggio lei e tutte l'altre donne, della qual temperanza ei ricevette gran lode.» Mentre Procopio in questo episodio commovente tributa onore a Totila e alle ultime reliquie del patriziato romano, ci dà prova insieme di possedere una grande serenità di giudizio e quella qualità eccellente in uno storico del saper cogliere la vera luce dei fatti ed esporli in guisa che dal complesso loro appariscano le condizioni generali dei tempi descritti. Del resto le migliori qualità sue di scrittore mi par che si mostrino tutte in questa descrizione dell'estrema battaglia combattuta tra Bizantini e Goti, colla quale Procopio conclude la sua narrazione: «A pie' del monte Vesuvio sono sorgenti di pura acqua e ne deriva un fiume chiamato Draco (Sarno) che passa assai prossimo alla città di Nocera, e i due eserciti s'erano accampati a' due lati del fiume. Ma il Draco ancorché contenga poca acqua, non può guadarsi da cavalieri nè da fanti perché stringe il suo letto in breve spazio e solca d'ambo i lati la terra a molta profondità talché le sponde divengono ripide molto. Se ciò avvenga per la qualità del suolo o dell'acqua io non so. E i Goti occupato il ponte e accampativisi presso, posero in quello torri di legno e macchine diverse, e tra esse quella che chiamano balista, per modo ch'essi potevano dall'alto ferire e tormentar l'inimico. Imperocché, come ho detto, per cagion del fiume che si frapponeva, era impossibile combatter petto a petto e per lo più ciascuna parte attaccava l'altra con missili avvicinandosi per quanto poteva sulla sua sponda. Pochi certami singolari avean luogo quando qualche Goto varcava il ponte recando una sfida. E così i due eserciti passarono lo spazio di due mesi. Ma quinci i Goti eran padroni del mare presso a cui s'accampavano, e potevan reggere finché le lor navi recavan per essi le provviste occorrenti. Poi i Romani[27] preser le navi nemiche per tradimento del Goto che comandava l'armata, ed anche navi innumerevoli da Sicilia e dal rimanente Impero vennero a loro soccorso. Nel tempo stesso Narsete ponendo torri di legno sulla sponda del fiume riuscì interamente ad abbatter l'animo dei suoi avversari. I Goti scorati e stretti dal difetto di cibo si rifugiarono ad
  • 51. una montagna vicina chiamata dai Romani in latino Mons Lactarius. Quivi non potevano inseguirli i Romani per cagione del cattivo terreno. Ma presto i barbari incominciarono a pentirsi d'esserci andati ché le provviste si fecero anche più scarse tanto che in nessun modo potevano più mantener sé stessi e i cavalli loro. Di che, stimando meglio accettevole morire in ordine di battaglia che per lenta fame, calaron giù quando il nemico men li aspettava facendo contro esso impeto improvviso. I Romani li fronteggiarono così com'erano senza ordinarsi secondo lor capitani, o compagnie, o posizioni, nè collocarsi in alcuna maniera d'ordine tra loro, ma difendendosi contro il nemico ciascuno come gli accadde trovarsi. Allora i Goti lasciati i cavalli composero una profonda falange tutti colla faccia rivolta al nemico e anch'essi i Romani vedendo questo lasciarono i cavalli e tutti si strinsero insieme nello stesso ordine. «E qui io narrerò una battaglia assai memorabile per sé stessa e per la chiara virtù spiegata da Teia che non si mostrò minore ad alcuno di quelli a cui diamo nome d'eroi. E il disperato partito a cui erano ridotti i Goti accresceva in essi prodezza, mentre i Romani li confrontavano con ogni possa vergognosi di cedere a coloro che già eran vinti, sicché d'ambe parti s'attaccavano i più vicini nemici, gli uni cercando la morte gli altri la gloria. E cominciando la battaglia per tempo al mattino, Teia riparato dallo scudo e imbrandita la lancia stava in luogo cospicuo innanzi alla falange. Quando i Romani lo videro, pensarono che s'egli cedesse sarebbe più facile romper tutta la linea di battaglia, onde quanti pretendevano d'aver coraggio, ed eran molti, s'adunarono insieme contro di lui, alquanti appuntando in lui le lancie altri scagliandogliele addosso. Ma egli celato dallo scudo, in questo riceveva i dardi e poi a un tratto gettandosi sui nemici, molti ne uccideva. E quando vedeva che lo scudo era carico di dardi, ei lo dava ad uno de' suoi scudieri e prendevane un altro. Così continuò a combattere per una terza parte del giorno, quando essendo il suo scudo trapassato da dodici dardi ei non poteva più muoverlo a posta sua nè respingere i suoi assalitori. Ma egli soltanto chiamò in fretta uno dei suoi scudieri, senza lasciar suo posto o dare indietro un pollice o lasciare il nemico avanzarsi, e senza rivolgersi o coprirsi le spalle con lo scudo o mettersi da lato; ma egli stava con lo scudo come piantato
  • 52. in terra, menando colpi mortali colla destra, tenendo tutti a distanza colla manca, e chiamando per nome il suo scudiero. E allorché questi gli portò lo scudo, ei subito lo cambiò con quel che aveva greve per gl'infissi dardi. In quella avvenne che gli rimase il petto scoperto un momento e un giavellotto colselo e l'uccise di colpo. E alcuni Romani infissero una picca al capo suo e questo portarono attorno mostrandolo ai due eserciti; ai Romani per incorarli, ai Goti affinché, sparita ogni speranza, cessassero la guerra. Pure nemmen per questo i Goti lasciarono il combattere, ancora che per certo sapessero ch'era morto il re loro. Ma quando fu scuro, gli uni e gli altri separandosi passaron la notte entro l'arme, e sorgendo presto il mattino appresso venner fuori di nuovo nell'ordine medesimo e combatterono fino a notte, gli uni non cedendo agli altri nè rivolgendosi o lasciando presa un momento, avvegnaché molti restassero morti d'ambo i lati, ma ostinandosi nel contrasto e infuriati a vicenda. Imperocché i Goti bene sapevano di combattere la battaglia suprema e i Romani stimavano troppo da meno di loro l'essere vinti. Da ultimo i barbari spedirono alcuni di lor capi a Narsete dicendo d'essere omai persuasi ch'eglino contendevano con Dio perché sentivano che il poter suo stava contr'essi. Perciò considerando questa verità al paragone di quanto era accaduto, desideravano mutar d'avviso e cessare la lotta non già per obbedire all'imperatore ma per vivere liberamente con altri barbari. E chiesero che i Romani li lasciassero ritirarsi in pace e non contrastassero a loro un trattamento ragionevole, ma concedessero loro come mantenimento pel viaggio tutta la moneta ch'essi tenevan raccolta in lor castella in Italia. E mentre Narsete stava deliberando, Giovanni figlio di Vitaliano lo consigliò di acconsentire alla domanda, e che non era da seguitare a combatter con uomini disposti a morire, nè porre più oltre a prova una virtù che veniva da disperazione e del pari era funesta a chi la mostrava e a chi l'opponeva. ‘Imperocché, egli disse, all'uom saggio dovrebbe bastare il vincere, e il voler troppo rischia d'essere in pregiudizio d'ambe le parti’. Questo consiglio piacque a Narsete, e combinarono che quanti rimanevano dei barbari, raccolti i lor beni tosto se n'andassero fuori d'Italia, e per nessuna ragione combattessero più contro i Romani. Frattanto circa mille dei Goti, lasciato il campo s'erano recati alla città di Pavia e alle contrade
  • 53. di là dal Po; e quell'Indulfo che abbiam già menzionato era tra coloro che li conducevano. Ma tutti gli altri confermarono per giuramento quanto s'era combinato. Così i Romani presero Cuma e tutti gli altri luoghi, e questo fu il termine del decimottavo anno della guerra coi Goti che fu scritta da Procopio.» In Cassiodoro e Procopio si riassume tutta la storia di questa età, ma v'hanno insieme alcuni scrittori minori degni di menzione. Agatia continuò, anch'egli in greco, la storia di Procopio narrando le imprese di Narsete, e può essere consultato con frutto circa le ultime vicende della guerra gotica dopo la morte di Teia[28]. Un'arida cronaca latina è quella di Marcellino Conte, la quale dai tempi di Teodosio va fino a quelli di Giustiniano (A. D. 379-558), ma pur malgrado l'aridità sua ha valore specialmente per la cronologia di alcuni fatti. Lo stesso può dirsi per la cronaca di Mario Aventicense[29]. Assai superiore a costoro per interesse e per pregio è Magno Felice Ennodio vescovo di Pavia. Di stirpe indubbiamente gallo-romana e nobile, nacque per quanto pare a Pavia e certo v'ebbe dimora fanciullo. Fu legato di parentela e d'amicizia coi primi uomini del suo tempo e più segnalati per sapere e per nascita. Ebbe moglie ed un figlio, ma più tardi egli e la sposa lasciato il secolo si consacrarono alla Chiesa. Nominato diacono, Ennodio rimase lungamente in tal grado finché fu chiamato alla dignità di vescovo di Pavia dove morì verso il 521. Godè riputazione grande come retore a' suoi tempi, e scrisse in nome suo e d'altrui moltissime orazioni, lettere ed epitaffi per cui fu celebrato largamente. Ma la fama maggiore gli venne da un panegirico di Teodorico e da un libro apologetico in favore di papa Simmaco. Il panegirico fu scritto nei primi anni del sesto secolo. Non è ben certo in quale città fosse recitato a Teodorico, e taluno reca valide ragioni per credere che esso non sia stato recitato mai[30]. È scrittura di pessimo gusto, abbondante in tutti i difetti dello stile di Cassiodoro, scarsa nei pregi. La povertà di migliori documenti le dà qualche importanza storica ma non certo paragonabile alla importanza delle sue lettere e della vita di Santo Epifanio vescovo di Pavia. Le lettere dirette quasi sempre a personaggi cospicui, contengono molte notizie preziose per gli studiosi del secolo quinto e del sesto. La vita di Santo Epifanio poi non pure dipinge l'accesa carità d'un santo tutto rivolto a riscattar coloro che i
  • 54. barbari nelle loro incursioni trascinavano schiavi fuor della patria, ma è una pittura viva della torbida età che precedette immediatamente i tempi gotici, torbidi anch'essi e sovra i quali purtroppo incombono oramai tempi di maggior dolore[31].
  • 55. Capitolo II Calamitose condizioni d'Italia nel primo periodo della invasione longobarda — Gregorio il Grande. Raccolta delle sue lettere. Altissima importanza di esse per la storia d'Italia. I libri dei Dialoghi — Editto di Rotari — La «Origo Langobardorum» e scritti minori fino a Paolo Diacono — Vita di Paolo Diacono, sue opere e specialmente sua storia dei Longobardi. Caduto il regno dei Goti, l'Italia non fu affrancata. Belisario e Narsete colle loro imprese erano bastati a spezzar le armi gotiche ma non potevano erigere un baluardo sicuro dagli assalti nuovi. L'Impero in Occidente era davvero sfasciato e i suoi legami coll'Oriente gli erano inevitabile cagion di rovina. La corte di Bizanzio fiacca per corruzione non era sufficiente a sé stessa e sciupava le forze d'Italia col suo dominio non nazionale e non abbastanza straniero. Da ciò la rovina d'Italia. Se, come già si è venuto dicendo, il concetto di Cassiodoro avesse potuto avverarsi e il popol goto fondersi nelle stirpi latine, forse un vero regno italico sarebbe sorto capace di contrastare da un lato alle nuove immigrazioni barbariche, dall'altro alle sordide pretese dei Bizantini. Assicurata così per quanto comportavano i tempi una specie di nazionalità italica, forse la civiltà romana non sarebbe rimasta soffocata per tanto andare di secoli, e i giorni della rinascenza si sarebbero maturati prima e con minore stento. Se non che guida le vicissitudini umane una legge storica profonda come ogni decreto della Provvidenza e non facilmente scrutabile, e l'umanità attraversando tanto dolore ha forse invece affrettato il suo cammino. Ma se il rimpianto è vano, mal sa guardarsene chi s'affaccia a
  • 56. riconsiderar nella mente gl'immensi mali che sovrastavano in quell'ora all'alma parente delle nazioni moderne. Il primo invadere e stabilirsi dei Longobardi in Italia segna il periodo più infausto della storia medioevale italiana. Venuti dalla Pannonia, sotto la guida d'un re prode e feroce, Alboino, i Longobardi scesero in Italia alcuni anni dopo l'ultima disfatta dei Goti. Trovarono poca resistenza. A Narsete era succeduto un dappoco, Longino, e le città abbandonate a sé stesse si difesero come poterono. In breve giro di tempo la dominazione loro incominciata nel Friuli si distese per una gran parte d'Italia. Diversi di religione perché altri d'essi erano ariani, altri idolatri ancora, i Longobardi vivevano ferocemente e ferocemente operavano verso i conquistati. Le rapine e le stragi, spargevano intorno squallore e desolazione echeggiate nel lamento che prorompeva dal cuore di papa Pelagio II quando in una lettera ad Aunacario vescovo di Auxerre, esclamava: «E perché non gemete in vedere sparso dinanzi agli occhi nostri tanto sangue d'innocenti, e profanati i sacri altari, e fatto insulto dagli idolatri alla fede cattolica?» Le condizioni giuridiche degli Italiani sotto i nuovi conquistatori furono durissime per tutto il tempo della loro dominazione che si mantenne due secoli finché fu abbattuta da Carlomagno. L'antica civiltà già scadente patì un ultimo colpo e fu gran pena se potè serbare qualche povero frammento di vita e la tradizione del gran nome di Roma. E in Roma veramente giaceva il seme della redenzione futura. In quell'ora di dolore Roma si maturava ad una grande trasformazione, e l'antica dominatrice scaduta dalla primitiva grandezza e coi barbari alle porte, s'apparecchiava ad esercitare una influenza nuova e non meno vasta sul mondo. Mentre l'Italia era lacerata dal mal governo dei Bizantini di Ravenna e dalle devastazioni dei Longobardi, un uomo di genio, Gregorio il Grande, dalla cattedra di Pietro sorgeva a difendere l'Italia, e girando lontano lo sguardo, quasi inconscio e per istinto di romana grandezza poneva le fondamenta alla supremazia universale della Chiesa. Certo niun uomo poteva nascer temprato meglio di lui a condurre un rivolgimento così tenace e durevole, così riccamente fecondo d'eventi nella storia futura. «A pochi altri uomini,» ha scritto di recente uno storico, «natura e fortuna si fecero incontro con più
  • 57. benigna concordia, ma pochi uomini anche più solleciti di quello in spender bene i lor doni e cavarne il più largo frutto e farne ricco patrimonio altrui. Rampollo di illustre stirpe patrizia (si crede che fosse della gente Anicia; suo padre era il senatore Gordiano, tra gli antenati contava un papa, Felice IV) insieme col censo cospicuo de' maggiori ne aveva ereditate le tempre robuste e l'assennatezza. La gravità del romano e l'ardore del cristiano si unirono in Gregorio come in nessun altro pontefice prima e dopo di lui.»[32] Un uomo siffatto, mescolato com'era a quanto di notevole accadeva nel mondo, di necessità doveva riflettere l'età sua in quante scritture gli sgorgavano dalla penna feconda, onde talune di queste, intese allora a tutt'altro scopo, hanno oggi un valore storico altissimo che s'accresce per la gran povertà di ricordi contemporanei. Nato verso il 540, mentre Belisario contrastava ai Goti il dominio d'Italia, Gregorio studiò a Roma grammatica, rettorica, filosofia e diritto[33]. Giovanissimo ancora era salito alla dignità di Pretore o di Prefetto in Roma, ma le cure politiche non bastavano a distoglier lui uomo insieme di azione e di pensiero, dalle pie opere e dalle abitudini contemplative. Mosso da quella forza infaticabile che non gli fallì mai nella vita, egli dietro la guida d'Ambrogio e d'Agostino, fonti limpide e profonde com'ei le chiamava, intendeva la mente alla teologia e intanto volgeva le vaste ricchezze sue a fondare sei monasteri in Sicilia e un settimo a Roma al Clivo di Scauro là sul Celio, dove oggi ancora sorge una Chiesa che s'intitola dal suo nome. In questo monastero egli si chiuse alquanto più tardi a vita austera abbandonando la cosa pubblica, ma da questa non gli fu dato sottrarsi gran tratto. L'illustre casato e la potenza dell'ingegno suo non erano tali da lasciarlo rimaner nell'oscuro. Il pontefice Benedetto l'ordinò diacono per affidargli una delle sette regioni di Roma, e Pelagio secondo lo mandò come apocrisario a trattar gli affari della Chiesa a Costantinopoli. Quivi durante l'ambasceria acquistò credito presso l'Imperatore, e salì in tale riputazione, che al suo ritorno in Roma, morto nel 590 papa Pelagio, i Romani con voto unanime lo chiamarono a succedergli. La sua resistenza e la tentata fuga da Roma non valsero a salvarlo dal peso di quella gran dignità. Il volere del popolo e del clero di Roma ebbe a Costantinopoli la sanzione imperiale, e gli fu forza rassegnarsi ed
  • 58. accettare un incarico che tanto più lo sgomentava quanto al suo genio e al suo cuore ne apparivano più vasto il concetto e più tremendi i doveri. I tempi calamitosi imponevano all'alto ministero sempre nuove fatiche e suggerivano sempre nuovi pensieri, ma la sua mente anelando al cielo ritornava ogni ora al ricordo della pace perduta e richiamava con tenerezza infinita la solitudine del monastero. «Il dolore ch'io soffro continuamente, ormai per uso è antico ed è pur sempre nuovo. L'anima mia angustiata ricorda quale era un tempo nel monastero, e come ella sovrastava alle cose fugaci, e pensando solo delle celesti per virtù di contemplazione trapassava oramai il claustro della carne e la morte divenivale cara come principio di vita e premio dell'opera, sua.»[34] Con tale rimpianto egli apriva un giorno l'angosciata anima ad un amico che lo aveva sorpreso sedente in luogo solitario, a meditare in silenzio il suo dolore. Ma nè le tendenze ascetiche dello spirito nè le infermità che lo travagliavano ebbero forza di stornarlo dagli obblighi dell'ufficio suo. Un cuore romano gli batteva nel romano petto, ed ei ne seguiva i dettami con fermezza d'antico. La mente sua larga come il suo zelo spandeva in ogni plaga le cure benefiche, e per esse ei diveniva centro a popoli diversi e guida ad una nuova civiltà ignota ancora ma nascente per impulso di lui. Or tutte queste cure continue e varie, animate da una carità così intensa e così comprensiva, originarono tra gli altri suoi scritti uno stupendo volume di lettere che attestano la sublimità di sua vita e sono insieme il maggiore monumento storico dell'età sua. Divise in quattordici libri secondo gli anni del suo pontificato[35], e scritte ad ogni ceto di persone, queste lettere spiegano mirabilmente le condizioni dei tempi gregoriani e riflettendo l'immagine della vita d'allora mantengono o confermano il ricordo di fatti ignoti o mal noti. Semplici e prive d'ogni ornamento, ciascuna d'esse rivela la ispirazione momentanea per cui fu dettata, ma dal loro complesso si ricava il lungo e continuo pensiero dello scrittore. Lo stile dei profeti ai quali ispiravasi nelle altre opere sue, non veniva innanzi a Gregorio quando esprimeva caldamente e improvviso i pensieri suoi senza scopo letterario e stretto quasi sempre da motivi immediati e incalzanti. Perciò lo stile delle sue lettere scevro da mistica ampollosità procede piano e scorrevole ricordando talora la semplice e dignitosa latinità di tempi migliori[36]. I soggetti d'esse
  • 59. svariatissimi trattano ogni materia dalle più ardue questioni religiose e politiche alla minuta amministrazione dei beni della Chiesa, dalla ansiosa cura delle singole anime al patetico familiare racconto dei suoi lunghi e quasi continui patimenti morali e fisici[37]. Ma il riferire alcuna di queste lettere gioverà meglio d'ogni discorso a descriverne l'importanza e a dipingere lo squallore che ravvolgeva allora la storia nostra. Così la lettera seguente indirizzata all'imperatrice Costantina per ottenere alleviamento ai mali che gravavano sulla Corsica e la Sardegna, mostra qual fosse il governo dei Greci e come stesse l'Italia a strazio tra le due tirannidi dei nuovi e degli antichi oppressori. «Posciaché» egli scrive «io conosco la serenissima Donna nostra esser pensierosa della patria celeste e della vita dell'anima sua, io terrei me gravemente colpevole, se tacessi quanto per timore dell'onnipotente Iddio è da suggerire. Avendo io saputo essere nell'isola di Sardegna molti gentili, ed essi tuttavia secondo il loro mal uso, sacrificare agl'idoli, e i sacerdoti di quell'isola andare torpenti a predicare il Redentore, vi mandai uno de' vescovi italiani, che, aiutando Iddio trasse alla fede molti dei gentili. Ma egli mi ha annunciata una cosa sacrilega; che coloro, i quali colà sacrificano agl'idoli, pagano al giudice affinché ciò sia lecito loro. Dei quali essendo alcuni stati battezzati e avendo lasciati quei sacrifizi, tuttavia il giudice dell'isola, anche dopo il battesimo, esige quella paga usata dare da loro. Ed avendolo il vescovo ripreso di ciò, rispose egli, aver promesso tanto in paga dell'impiego, che nol potrebbe riavere se non a quel modo. L'isola di Corsica poi è oppressa di tanta soverchieria degli esattori e tanta gravezza d'esazioni, che gli abitatori vi possono a mala pena supplire vendendo i proprî figliuoli; ondeché lasciando la pia repubblica e' sono sforzati a rifuggire alla nefandissima gente de' Longobardi. E qual cosa più grave, qual più crudele veramente, potrebbero eglino patire dai Barbari, oltre all'esser ridotti a vendere i propri figliuoli? In Sicilia dicesi d'un cotale Stefano cartulario delle parti marittime, che coll'invadere ogni luogo, e con porre senza pronunziar giudizio i cartelli a' poderi e alle case, arreca tanti danni, tante oppressioni che s'io volessi dire tutte le opere riferitemi di lui, nol potrei compiere in un gran volume. Adunque vegga la serenissima nostra Donna tutte queste cose, e sollevi i gemiti degli oppressi. Ben
  • 60. sono io certo non essere elleno pervenute alle vostre pie orecchie; che se 'l fossero non avrebbero durato fino al presente. Suggeritele a suo tempo al piissimo Signore, affinché dall'anima sua, dall'Imperio e da' suoi figliuoli ei rimova tale e tanto gravame di peccato. E ben so ch'ei dirà forse, mandarsi a noi per le spese d'Italia quanto si raccoglie dalle suddette isole. Ma dico io: conceda meno per le spese d'Italia e tolga dal suo Imperio le lacrime degli oppressi. E perciò forse tante spese fatte per questa terra giovano meno perché con mescolanza di peccato lor si provvede. Comandino adunque i serenissimi Signori che nulla più si raccolga con peccato. E se così si attribuisca meno alle spese della repubblica, tuttavia le si gioverà più, e sarà meglio non provvedere alla vita nostra temporale che procacciare impedimento alla vostra eterna. Pensate di che animo, di che cuore, in che strazi esser debbano quei genitori che per salvarsene strappansi dappresso i figliuoli! E chi ha figliuoli ben può sapere come s'abbiano a compassionare gli altri. A me poi basti l'aver questo brevemente suggerito, affinché se rimanesse la vostra pietà ignorante di quanto succede in questi paesi, non fossi io poi del mio silenzio appresso il severo Giudice incolpato e castigato.»[38] In quella desolazione d'Italia, Gregorio conscio che il governo imperiale piuttosto era d'aggravio che di soccorso ai mali, cercava quando poteva di concluder paci temporanee coi Longobardi per procacciare almeno a Roma e alle provincie dell'Impero qualche respiro in quella vita d'oppressione. Ma Romano esarca di Ravenna con gretta e gelosa politica gli faceva ostacolo e gli ruppe tra gli altri un accordo iniziato con Ariolfo duca longobardo di Spoleto. Ne conseguì una incursione longobarda intorno a Roma e stragi e rapine fin sotto le mura della città. Il pontefice oppresso dal gran dolore ne cadde infermo e solo riebbesi per andare incontro a nuove amarezze. Agilulfo, re dei Longobardi, volendo ricuperare alcune città ritoltegli per tradimento dai Greci, mosse rapidamente da Pavia verso Toscana, ricuperò Perugia e accostatosi anch'egli fin sotto le mura di Roma, recò ivi intorno nuovi guasti e saccheggi. Gregorio che a quel tempo spiegava ai Romani Ezechiele in un corso d'omelie, sopraffatto dalle calamità del suo popolo, non ebbe forza di seguitare. «Da ogni lato» sclamava «udiam gemiti; città distrutte, castella rase, campi devastati,
  • 61. la terra mutata in un deserto. Altri vediam tratti prigioni, altri mutilati, altri uccisi.» E di lì a poco cessando, così se ne scusava: «Non mi si faccia rimprovero s'io cesso dopo questo discorso, poiché, tutti lo vedete, le nostre tribolazioni s'accrebbero. D'ogni parte ne circondan le spade, da ogni parte temiamo un pericolo imminente di morte. Altri ci tornano innanzi colle mani mozzate, d'altri ci si annunzia che son captivi, d'altri che spenti. M'è necessario oramai trattener la lingua da questa esposizione.»[39] Intanto ch'egli tentava d'alleggerir le sventure della patria e soffriva per esse nell'anima col doppio dolore di cristiano e di cittadino, i dignitari imperiali affaticandosi di scalzare l'autorità sua a Costantinopoli, l'accusavano d'esser caduto negli inganni del Duca di Spoleto e d'aver con ciò ingannato l'Imperatore. Gregorio indignato si difese, e scrivendo aperto ed austero all'Imperatore stesso: «Se la schiavitù di mia terra» diceva «non crescesse ogni dì, io pur tacerei del disprezzo e della derisione fatta di me. Ma questo mi duole che mentre mi si dà taccia di mentitore si strascina Italia più e più sotto al giogo de' Longobardi. Io dico al mio piissimo signore: pensi egli di me ogni male; ma intorno all'utile della repubblica e alla liberazione d'Italia, non dia facile le pie orecchie a ciascuno ma più creda ai fatti che alle parole. Contro ai sacerdoti poi non si sdegni nella sua terrena potestà il signor nostro sì prontamente; ma in considerazione di colui onde essi sono servi, comandi loro in modo da mostrar la dovuta riverenza.... Di quanto ebbi a soffrire dirò brevemente. Primo, mi fu guasta la pace ch'io senza spesa della repubblica avea fatta co' Longobardi in Toscana; poi, guasta la pace, si tolsero dalla città di Roma i soldati, e gli uni rimasero uccisi da' nimici gli altri collocati a Narni o a Perugia; e per tener Perugia si lasciò Roma. Fu peggio la venuta d'Agilulfo, quando io ebbi di miei occhi a vedere i Romani a guisa di cani colle funi al collo ire ad esser venduti in Francia. Noi, la Dio grazia, sfuggimmo, racchiusi nella città, dalle costoro mani; ma allora fu cercato d'incolparci che mancasser frumenti nella città, dove pure, com'io esposi altra volta, non si possono a lungo serbare. Nè di me duolmi; che fidato, il confesso in mia coscienza, purché salvi l'anima mia, mi tengo apparecchiato ad ogni cosa. Duolmi sì dei gloriosi uomini Gregorio prefetto e Castorio maestro de' militi, i quali
  • 62. fecero ogni cosa fattibile e durarono nell'assedio durissime fatiche di vigilie e guardie, e tuttavia poi furono colpiti dalla grave indignazione de' signori. Ond'io ben veggo aver ad essi nociuto non le azioni loro ma la mia persona; che dopo essersi con me affaticati con me ora son tribolati. E quanto a ciò che mi si accenna del terribile giudicio dello onnipotente Iddio, prego io per lo stesso onnipotente Iddio che mai più nol ripeta la pietà de' miei signori. Perché noi non sappiamo quale abbia ad essere quel giudicio; e dice Paolo egregio predicatore: Non giudicare anzi tempo, finché non venga il Signore il quale illuminerà i nascondigli delle tenebre e manifesterà i consigli dei cuori. Questo io dico brevemente perché, indegno peccatore più m'affido nella misericordia di Gesù che nella giustizia della vostra pietà. E Iddio regga qui di sua mano il mio piissimo signore e in quel terribil giudicio lo trovi libero d'ogni delitto; e faccia poi piacere me, se è d'uopo, agli uomini; ma in cotal modo che io non offenda la sua eterna grazia.»[40] Del resto nè calunnie nè ostacoli lo trattennero dal negoziar nuove tregue coi Longobardi studiandosi così di sollevar le campagne specialmente da quelle guerre devastatrici. Regnava allora sui Longobardi Agilulfo già duca di Torino principe di gran valore e conciliante d'animo, chiamato al trono da Teodelinda allorché rimasta vedova di re Autari, i nobili, al dire di Paolo Diacono[41] la lasciarono arbitra del regno invitandola ad eleggersi fra i duchi longobardi un successore all'estinto. Questa principessa, donna d'alte virtù, bavarese di nascita, cattolica di fede, esercitò una grande e salutare influenza nelle cose del regno e sui consigli del marito, e fu spesso mediatrice di pace. Dalle lettere di Gregorio apparisce sovente com'egli la tenesse in gran pregio e sperasse per lei di condurre al cattolicesimo i Longobardi. Riuscì in parte all'intento. Per le persuasioni di Teodelinda par che Agilulfo s'inducesse a lasciar l'arianesimo a quel modo che in Inghilterra le persuasioni di Berta aiutarono la conversione di Etelberto. Certo dopo Agilulfo i Longobardi a poco a poco, sebbene non senza molta resistenza, incominciarono a tenere una sola fede con gli Italiani e il fatto avea grande importanza perché valeva a scemare le divisioni tra i due popoli e n'aiutava la fusione alla quale peraltro fu sempre impedimento la coesistenza dell'Impero in Oriente.
  • 63. Verso quel tempo per cura di Teodelinda sorse la cattedrale di Monza a cui fu data in offerta la corona ferrea che servì da quel tempo a incoronare i re d'Italia e dopo aver cinta la fronte a Carlomagno e a Napoleone, apparve in un giorno di dolore solenne dietro al feretro di Vittorio Emanuele rinnovatore del regno italico. Quando nacque ad Agilulfo un figliuolo (A. D. 603), fu battezzato secondo il rito cattolico. Gregorio che afferrava bene la utilità di quell'evento, ne mandò lieto rallegramenti e lodi a Teodelinda. «Quello che mi mandaste in iscritto dalle contrade genovesi,» così le diceva Gregorio, «mi fece partecipe del gaudio vostro col farmi noto che per la grazia di Dio onnipotente vi fu concesso un figliuolo, e, quel che torna a lode della eccellenza vostra, ch'egli fu ascritto alla fede cattolica. Nè altro era da aspettarsi dalla cristianità vostra se non che avreste procurato di munir del sussidio della giustizia cattolica colui che v'era dato per dono divino, affinché il Redentore conoscesse in voi una serva fedele, e alimentasse nel suo timore il nuovo re alla nazione dei Longobardi. Perciò prego l'onnipotente Iddio ch'egli custodisca voi nella via de' suoi mandati e faccia crescer nell'amor suo l'eccellentissimo figliuol mio Adaloaldo per tal modo ch'egli già grande infra gli uomini anche per sue buone opere divenga glorioso dinnanzi agli occhi del nostro Iddio. «Quanto a ciò che scrisse la eccellenza vostra che io dovessi sottilmente rispondere all'abbate Secondo, figliuol mio carissimo, chi mai, se infermità nol contrastasse, vorrebbe indugiarsi a soddisfare la domanda sua e il desiderio vostro il quale, vedesi, riuscirebbe utile a molti? Se non che mi opprime tale infermità di podagra, che non pur m'è negato il dettare, ma a stento posso levarmi a discorrere. Ciò sanno i legati vostri apportatori di queste lettere, i quali mi trovarono infermo al venire e mi lasciano in pericolo grande e dubbio della vita. Ma se l'onnipotente Iddio vorrà ch'io guarisca, a quanto egli mi scrisse risponderò sottilmente. «.... All'eccellentissimo figliuol mio Adaloaldo re, mando alcune reliquie, cioè una croce col legno della santa croce del Signore, ed una lezione del Santo Vangelo inclusa in una teca persica. E alla figliuola mia, sua sorella, mando tre anelli, due con giacinti uno con onice, le
  • 64. quali cose prego sien date da voi a loro affinché per mezzo della eccellenza vostra riesca loro grato l'affetto mio. «Nel mandarvi con amor paterno il debito saluto, chieggovi che al figliuol nostro eccellentissimo il re vostro sposo rendiate grazie per la fatta pace, e che per l'avvenire secondo l'uso vostro, lo esortiate con ogni maniera alla pace. Così tra le molte buone opere vostre potrete trovare innanzi al cospetto di Dio la mercé usata ad un popolo innocente che poteva perir nel dissidio.»[42] Queste lettere scelte non senza esitazione tra molte d'ugual valore, possono in qualche modo mostrar la luce che viene alla storia d'Italia da questo singolare epistolario. Ma l'ampia mente di Gregorio, le ispirazioni del suo ministero, la larghezza cristiana della sua carità, non gli consentivano di restringere nella sola Italia l'opera sua, onde le sue lettere sono fonte di storia non pure italiana ma universale. La storia d'Europa si chiarisce mirabilmente per le lettere scritte nelle Gallie e in Ispagna, notevolissime tra le prime quelle dirette alla famosa Brunichilde[43], e tra le seconde quelle dirette a Leandro quel vescovo di Siviglia che indusse il re Recaredo e i suoi Visigoti ad abbandonar l'arianesimo. Del pari le lettere dirette a Costantinopoli, ad Alessandria ed altrove in Oriente e in Affrica, descrivono lo stato dei paesi più lontani e le loro relazioni con Roma. Quali poi fossero le relazioni tra Gregorio e la Inghilterra, e qual parte egli avesse alla conversione di quel paese, è famoso al mondo. Beda il venerabile raccogliendo le tradizioni inglesi ne ha lasciato un racconto notissimo ripetuto per tutto il medio evo. Egli narra come Gregorio non ancora pontefice veduti in Roma alcuni schiavi inglesi, colpito dall'angelica bellezza loro, udendo ch'essi erano idolatri, concepisse il pensiero di convertir l'Inghilterra alla fede. Ottenutane licenza ei s'avviava missionario a quelle contrade, ma appena mosso, ecco il popolo romano a sollevarsi e costringere il papa a richiamarlo. Questo racconto della cui verità non apparisce traccia nelle opere di Gregorio, riflette non solo l'affettuosa venerazione che nutrivasi per lui in Inghilterra qualche secolo dopo la sua morte, ma puranco l'affettuosa sollecitudine che nelle lettere di Gregorio traluce continua per quella missione[44]. L'infiammato ardore di carità che lo ispira su tale argomento mi sforza
  • 65. a varcare i limiti di questo lavoro, e uscendo dalla storia particolare d'Italia raccolgo qua e là qualche frammento in cui Gregorio parla di questa impresa a lui cara, e nel compiacersi della riuscita, coi gravi e dolci ammonimenti la dirige al suo termine. «Ma,» egli scrive ad Eulogio vescovo Alessandrino, «poiché io so che voi tanto vi rallegrate nel bene operato da voi quanto in quel che è operato dagli altri, rendovi cambio del favor vostro e v'annunzio non dissimili cose. Imperocché perfidiando finora nel culto de' tronchi e delle pietre la nazione degli Angli che vive nel più remoto angolo del mondo, a me collo aiuto delle orazioni vostre entrò nell'animo ch'io dovessi mandar colà un monaco del monastero a predicare colla grazia di Dio. Il quale con mia licenza fatto vescovo dai vescovi di Germania, anche col conforto loro fu condotto laggiù in fin del mondo a quella gente, e pur ora ci son pervenute scritte notizie di sua salute e dell'opera sua. E tra quella gente splendono di tanti miracoli ed egli e gl'inviati con lui, che sembrano imitar le virtù insigni ch'essi vanno sponendo degli apostoli. Nella festa della Natività del Signore occorsa in questa prima indizione, ci annunzia il fratello e convescovo nostro che oltre a diecimila Angli furono battezzati. La qual cosa io vi narro affinché sappiate ciò che parlando operate tra il popolo Alessandrino, e pregando operate ai confini del mondo. Le orazioni vostre sono dove voi non siete e dove siete appariscono le opere sante.» Nel seguito di questa lettera così notevole per giusta compiacenza e per l'umile fede che ne traspare, si fa cenno d'una grave questione ch'egli ebbe in Oriente con Giovanni il Digiunatore patriarca costantinopolitano, intorno al titolo di vescovo universale ch'egli rifiutava per sé e non voleva riconoscere in altri. Ma una tale questione che originò molte lettere della raccolta importantissime per la storia della Chiesa, trasmoda troppo la cerchia di questo libro. È necessità tralasciarla e concludere queste citazioni, forse già troppo lunghe, coi brani di un'altra lettera scritta ad Agostino l'apostolo d'Inghilterra: «Gloria negli eccelsi a Dio e pace in terra agli uomini di buona volontà. Come il morto grano di frumento recò molto frutto cadendo a terra affinché non regnasse solo nel cielo, così noi viviamo per la morte sua, ci confortiamo per la sua infermità, pel suo patire
  • 66. siam tolti al patire, per l'amor suo cerchiamo in Britannia i fratelli che ci erano ignoti, per sua grazia troviamo quelli che noi ignoranti cercavamo. Chi varrà a dir quanta gioia sia nata quì in cuore di tutti i fedeli a udir che la nazione degli Angli per la grazia dell'onnipotente Iddio e le fatiche della fraternità tua, scacciate le tenebre dell'errore s'è circondata della luce della santa fede, che già con mente franca essa calpesta gl'idoli a cui prima soggiaceva insana per terrore; a Dio onnipotente si piega pura nel cuore, dalle prave opere è trattenuta per le regole della santa predicazione, ai precetti divini inchina l'animo e sollevasi coll'intelletto, infino a terra umiliasi coll'orazione per non giacer colla mente a terra? Di chi è questa opera se non di colui che dice: Il Padre mio opera fino ad ora ed opero anch'io?[45].... Or tu godi pure perché le anime degli Angeli pe' miracoli esteriori son tratti alla grazia interiore, ma temi che fra queste maraviglie che sono operate l'infermo animo non si levi a presunzione, e mentre esaltasi fuori ad onore non cada internamente per vanagloria... Imperocché ai discepoli del vero non deve arrecar gaudio se non quel bene che hanno comune con tutti e nel quale non hanno fine alla letizia. Resta dunque, o fratello carissimo, che tra ciò che tu per opera di Dio fai esternamente, sempre all'interno ti giudichi sottilmente, e che sottilmente osservi ciò che sei tu stesso e quanta grazia sia in quella gente per la cui conversione ottenesti perfino il dono di far miracoli. E se ti ricorderai d'aver mancato talora innanzi al Creatore nostro o colla parola o coll'opera, sempre ti richiamerai ciò a memoria affinché il ricordo della colpa reprima la insorgente vanità del cuore. E quanto di operar miracoli ti sarà o ti fu concesso, stimalo donato non a te ma a coloro per la cui salute ti si concede.... Molto adunque vuolsi premer giù l'animo tra i segni e i miracoli affinché esso non cerchi la propria gloria ed esulti nel gaudio privato della sua esaltazione. «Le quali cose io dico perché desidero umiliar l'animo di chi m'ascolta, ma tuttavia abbia anche la sua fiducia l'umiltà tua. Imperocché io peccatore tengo speranza certissima che per la grazia dell'onnipotente nostro Creatore e Redentore Dio e Signore Gesù Cristo, già i peccati tuoi sono rimessi e perciò sei eletto affinché per te si rimettano i peccati altrui. Nè avrai afflizione d'alcun peccato in avvenire tu che ti sforzi di far gaudio in cielo per la conversione di molti. Lo stesso
  • 67. Creatore e Redentore nostro, parlando della penitenza degli uomini, afferma: Io vi dico che si farà maggior gaudio in cielo per un peccatore penitente, che per novantanove giusti a cui non fa d'uopo pentirsi[46]. E se per un sol penitente è così grande gaudio nel cielo, qual gaudio crederem noi che si faccia per tanto popolo convertito dall'error suo, il quale venendo alla fede condannò col pentirsi il male che fece? In tanto gaudio di cielo e d'angeli ripetiam dunque quelle parole angeliche che premettemmo: “Gloria negli eccelsi a Dio e pace in terra agli uomini di buona volontà.”»[47] L'anno 604, nel giorno 14 di marzo, chiudeva la santa vita Gregorio Magno e col cessare del suo epistolario la storia d'Italia perde la guida sua più luminosa attraverso que' secoli. Altre opere di Gregorio hanno pregio storico per le allusioni che vi si trovano a fatti contemporanei o recenti, e principale tra queste opere è il libro dei Dialoghi. In questo libro singolare, uno di quelli che più hanno affascinata la fantasia del medio evo, Gregorio descrisse le vite e i miracoli di San Benedetto e d'alcuni altri Italiani in fama di santità vissuti intorno al suo tempo e i più d'essi o conosciuti da lui o da persone a lui note. È una raccolta di leggende strane e fantastiche narrate con ferma fede e con ferma fede ripetute per secoli, ed è maraviglioso insieme e caratteristico di que' tempi e di questa nostra natura umana il trovar tanta puerile credulità in uomo di genio così mirabile. Ma queste leggende riescon preziose alla storia sparse come sono di fatti reali e d'allusioni a luoghi ad usi a monumenti non ancora scomparsi, a personaggi che vissero e operarono in quella età momentosa[48]. Colla morte di Gregorio le testimonianze contemporanee e dirette sulla storia d'Italia nei tempi longobardi cessano quasi del tutto. Il documento di maggior valore è l'Editto di re Rotari (A. D. 643), che con le aggiunte fattevi dai re successivi raccoglie in sé tutta la legislazione longobarda. Rotari prefisse all'Editto un prologo il quale nella scarsità delle memorie serve molto alla storia essendo riferita in esse con diligenza la serie dei re longobardi coi nomi di loro famiglie ed una accurata genealogia per dieci generazioni della famiglia dello stesso Rotari che era degli Arodi.
  • 68. Finché Rotari non le raccolse, nessuno aveva scritto le leggi dei Longobardi. Esse scendevano tramandate colla parola viva da generazione a generazione e il somigliante accadeva per la memoria di loro genealogie e di loro imprese che circonfuse di leggende erano affidate al canto. Verso il 670 un Longobardo tentò come seppe di ricavare da quelle saghe alquanti cenni intorno alla provenienza del suo popolo, e questo lavoro eletto Origo Langobardorum s'aggiunse ab antico nei codici al prologo dell'Editto di Rotari e parve quasi confondersi in quello[49]. Prima di questi tentativi esisteva una storia dei Longobardi compilata da quell'abbate Secondo di Trento († 612), che levò al fonte battesimale il fanciullo Adaloaldo e si trova nominato qui sopra nella lettera di Gregorio Magno alla Regina Teodelinda, ma di questa storia, che sembra essere stata importante, riman la sola menzione negli scritti di Paolo Diacono a cui siam giunti oramai[50]. Il continuatore di Prospero d'Aquitania il quale condusse la sua continuazione fino al 671 ed un magister Stefanus che verso il 698 compose una rozzissima poesia in lode di re Cuniperto sono le sole fonti contemporanee che abbiamo oltre la Origo e l'Editto, e provenienti da scrittori di origine latina. I Longobardi stentarono sopra ogni altro popolo germanico ad avvicinarsi alla cultura latina e vi si avvicinarono sol quando la loro dominazione era presso al tramonto. Però, come osserva il Wattenbach, «i grammatici che malgrado la contrarietà dei tempi avevano sempre continuata l'opera loro, trovarono a poco a poco discepoli tra i Longobardi e quando la costoro signoria si appressò alla fine, già avevano educato al popolo straniero il suo storico che, come Giordane, alla caduta del regno ne serbò almeno la memoria.»[51] Questo storico fu Paolo Diacono, e di lui, insigne tra gli storici dell'antico medio evo italiano devesi ora trattar di proposito[52]. Paolo Diacono ci ha lasciato egli stesso memoria di sé qua e là ne' suoi scritti, e in essi possiamo seguir le traccie della sua vita che fu certo notevole. Nasceva da stirpe antica ed egli ne risalisce la storia intessuta di leggende. Leupchis, lo stipite ch'egli menziona del suo casato, scese nel Friuli con Alboino al tempo della prima invasione longobarda e quivi morì lasciando cinque figliuoli che poco appresso presi in una incursione degli Avari furon tratti via dalla patria. Durava
  • 69. da lungo la lor prigionia quando Lopichis un d'essi, pervenuto alla virilità potè scampar colla fuga. Dopo un lungo vagar solitario alla ventura tra stenti immani e pericoli, un dì sulle Alpi mentre considerava incerto il suo cammino, ecco presentarglisi innanzi d'improvviso un lupo e farglisi guida per la via sconosciuta. Poi a un tratto sparitogli dagli ocelli misteriosamente il lupo, una visione gli venne a soccorso nel sonno e gl'indicò la rimanente strada fino al Friuli. Quivi trovò la deserta casa dov'era nato, e riconosciuto dai suoi parenti potè ristorarla e fondare in essa la sua famiglia. Da Lopichis derivò Arechis e da lui Warnefrit, il quale unitosi ad una Teodelinda, n'ebbe alquanti figliuoli. Un d'essi, nato per quanto si congettura tra il 720 e il 725 all'incirca, fu il nostro Paolo Varnefrido o, come più universalmente è chiamato. Paolo Diacono. Paolo ebbe a maestro nelle lettere il grammatico Flaviano nipote ad un altro grammatico di nome Felice. Nelle scuole studiò la lingua greca non senza profitto come è da credere malgrado la modestia colla quale egli accenna a questo ramo del suo sapere. Non è ben sicuro in quale luogo Flaviano gl'impartisse l'insegnamento suo, ma par probabile ch'ei fosse educato in Pavia alla corte del re dove per questi grammatici la cultura latina schiudevasi un varco. Certo Paolo trovavasi in corte ai tempi del re Ratchis (A. D. 744-749), perché ci narra d'avere egli stesso veduto quel re mostrare dopo un convito la tazza famosa che Alboino fe' far col teschio di Cunimondo re dei Gepidi. Com'è noto, Alboino, ucciso in guerra Cunimondo di cui poscia sposò la figliuola Rosemunda, soleva ai solenni conviti ber nel suo teschio ridotto ad uso di coppa. Un giorno a Verona grave di vino oltre il dovere, il tiranno offrì la tazza orrenda alla regina invitandola a ber lietamente col padre. L'atroce ingiuria vendicata più tardi ferocemente par così enorme a Paolo che nel narrarcela esclama: «Affinché ciò ad alcuno non apparisca impossibile, dico la verità innanzi a Cristo, io stesso un dì di festa vidi il re Ratchis che tenea in mano questa coppa mostrandola a' convitati suoi.» Questo episodio che s'introduce qui ad esempio della feroce barbarie de' primi Longobardi, bene ci aiuta a seguire la storia della vita di Paolo e non è il solo per cui lo vediamo trattare familiarmente coi
  • 70. principi del suo tempo. Lo scritto più antico che ci rimane di Paolo (A. D. 763), è un carme sulle sei età del mondo, di cui le strofe recano acrosticamente il nome di Adelperga pia figlia del re longobardo Desiderio e moglie di Arichi duca di Benevento. Questa principessa che aveva avuto Paolo a maestro, gli rimase sempre amica e lo invitò più tardi ad aumentare e continuare la storia romana di Eutropio. Pare che egli componesse l'epitaffio in versi per la regina Ansa madre di Adelperga il cui cadavere fu ricondotto in patria dalla Francia dove Ansa era andata con Desiderio quando l'armi di Carlo Magno fransero il regno dei Longobardi. I versi della iscrizione che dallo stile pare sicuramente esser di Paolo, spirano una malinconia profonda e attestano l'affetto che l'autore portava alla stirpe sua longobarda. Non si sa in quale anno egli ricevesse i sacri ordini nè quando entrasse nel chiostro, ma il Waitz tiene per non improbabile ch'egli si rendesse monaco a Montecassino quando Ratchis balzato dal trono vi trovò un rifugio. Quivi la solenne pace del monastero presto pigliò tanto impero sull'animo di Paolo, che mai forse non si sarebbe indotto a lasciarla se gravi casi non l'avessero chiamato fuori. Nel 776 i Longobardi da breve conquistati si rivoltarono in varî luoghi contro a' Franchi e più vastamente nel ducato del Friuli. Se Paolo non s'immischiò in questa rivolta certo vi prese parte il fratel suo Arechis, il quale tratto prigioniero in Francia ebbe confiscate tutte le sostanze sue. Da questo fatto dee trarre origine una leggenda intorno a Paolo nata verso il secolo decimo e largamente diffusa nei secoli posteriori. A voler seguire questa leggenda, Carlo Magno sospettando Paolo complice in una congiura, l'avrebbe cacciato in esilio e confinatolo nell'isoletta di Tremiti donde egli qualche anno appresso avrebbe potuto fuggire per miracolo, rifugiarsi a Benevento e di là a Montecassino. Ma tutto questo racconto è fantastico. Per contrario quando già Carlo era venuto a Roma e avea dato prova di temperata mitezza nelle cose di Stato e mostravasi protettore delle lettere, vediamo Paolo rivolgersi al monarca vincitore. In versi ei gli chiede che sia reso il fratel suo alla famiglia da sei anni giacente in una miseria di cui dipinge lo squallore con gran vivezza di colorito e gran calore d'affetto. A far più efficace la intercessione, Paolo lasciò il monastero e valicate le Alpi si recò in corte di Carlo. Questi lo accolse con molto onore e lo trattenne più a
  • 71. lungo ch'ei non avrebbe voluto. Dalle rive della Mosella il desiderio del monaco tornava alla dolce pace gustata tra i maestosi silenzî delle rupi cassinesi: «Sebbene,» egli scrive all'abate suo Teodemaro, «uno spazio vasto di terra mi separi dal consorzio vostro, me congiunge a voi un tenace affetto che non può mai disciogliersi, nè il riferir per lettera e la brevità di queste pagine bastano a dirvi l'amor che mi crucia ad ogni momento per voi e pe' miei seniori e fratelli. Imperocché quando mi sovvengono alla mente gli ozî occupati solo in opere divine, e la grata dimora della cella mia, e il pio religioso affetto vostro, e la santa caterva di tanti soldati di Cristo intesa al culto divino, e di ciascun fratello gli esempi fulgidi per virtù diverse, e i dolci colloqui sulle perfezioni della superna patria, io tremo attonito e languisco, nè so trattener le lacrime tra i sospiri che m'escono dal profondo del petto. M'aggiro tra cattolici e dediti al culto cristiano, tutti m'accolgono bene, tutti mi si mostrano benigni per amore del padre nostro Benedetto, e pei meriti vostri. Ma al paragone del cenobio vostro il palazzo m'è carcere, al paragone di tanta quiete che si trova fra voi il viver qui m'è tempesta. Solo pel corpo frale son tenuto via da codesta patria, con tutta l'anima mia sono con voi. E ora mi pare d'essere ai vostri troppo soavi concenti, ora seder nel cenacolo a saziarci più colla lettura che col cibo, ora a considerar le opere di ciascuno negli uffici diversi, ora a indagar lo stato degli aggravati per vecchiezza o per male, ora a logorar le soglie dei santi care a me come un paradiso.» E chiudeva la lettera esprimendo la speranza di raggiunger presto i fratelli suoi, ma l'indugio al ritorno non fu così breve. Appunto in quel tempo Carlo adunando alla sua corte da ogni paese tutti coloro nei quali splendeva ancor qualche raggio della ormai spenta cultura, studiavasi di ravvivare intorno a sé la luce della civiltà romana mentre si preparava a far rivivere nell'ordinamento politico il nome di Roma e l'autorità dell'Impero. Paolo Diacono non poteva rimanersi estraneo a quest'opera di civiltà e si lasciò indurre a prendervi parte. Di ciò avanza un chiaro monumento nei versi che Pietro da Pisa gli scrisse in nome di Carlo magnificando le doti e la scienza di Paolo e paragonandolo agli scrittori più grandi della antichità. «La figliuola mia,» dice Carlo in que' versi «deve andare sposa in Grecia ed è mio desiderio che Paolo ammaestri nella lingua
  • 72. greca coloro che dovranno accompagnarla a Costantinopoli.» Paolo verseggiando in risposta accetta l'incarico ma rifiuta modesto le lodi regali ed anche nega d'aver tentata la conversione del re di Danimarca Sigfrido, attribuitagli da Carlo in altri versi di Pietro da Pisa. Verso quel tempo Paolo compose l'epitaffio d'Ildegarde moglie di Carlo Magno († 783) e delle sorelle e figliuole di lui. Inoltre, sempre ad istanza di Carlo, condusse a termine una pregevole raccolta di omelie, abbozzata già a Montecassino la quale, come già altri osservò, venne in grande aiuto all'ignoranza quasi universale in quei tempi del clero[53]. Nè si limitarono a tanto le fatiche letterarie del nostro monaco cresciuto oramai in fama tra i letterati dell'età sua. Fece un estratto del trattato De verborum significatione di Festo Pompeio, serbando così ai posteri almeno in parte un documento che ancora è prezioso ai filologi e agli studiosi della legislazione romana. Pregato da Angilramno vescovo di Metz, compose la storia dei vescovi Metensi e aprì egli primo oltre l'Alpi, la serie di quelle storie episcopali che hanno tanto giovato in ogni paese alla storia della chiesa cristiana[54]. In quest'opera narrò diffusamente la vita di santo Arnulfo stipite della casa carolingia e colse al volo la propizia occasione per celebrare le glorie e le virtù del monarca che gli si mostrava così benigno. In corte dovette Paolo incontrarsi e si strinse di calda intima amicizia con uno dei maggiori uomini di quella età, parente a Carlo, Adalardo abate di Corvey. Pur questa amicizia recò frutti letterari, e, a richiesta dell'amico, Paolo si diè ad emendare il testo delle lettere di Gregorio il Grande del quale anche dettò una vita, ma colto da infermità potè solo compiere una breve parte del suo lavoro che mandò ad Adalardo con una soave lettera riboccante d'affetto. Pare che Paolo mettendo a profitto quegli anni di dimora oltralpe visitasse gran parte di Francia e i monasteri più famosi in essa. Ma nè le attrattive di quel bel paese bastarono a fargli dimenticare la cara patria, nè i dolci legami delle nuove amicizie a fermarlo per sempre in corte di Carlo. Nota il Wattenbach che forse la nimicizia tra Carlo e Arechis principe di Benevento, sempre crescente finché scoppiò in guerra aperta, potè da ultimo rattristargli la dimora in Francia sebbene il re gli rimanesse sempre amico. Inchina altri a credere che Paolo sul
  • 73. cadere del 786 tornasse in Italia collo stesso Carlo. Conghietture probabili entrambe ma non sicure. Certo è solo che intorno al 787 Paolo dettava da Montecassino una bella iscrizione per Arechis morto in quell'anno, e con quel pio tributo suggellava l'amicizia fedele onde s'era legato al marito d'Adelperga sua discepola. L'affannoso desiderio del monaco toccava alfine la cima sua. Dopo così lungo aggirarsi tra i rumori del mondo e il fasto delle corti, egli poteva adesso rigoder quella pace profonda verso cui s'affannano certe anime con tanto più ardore quanti più trovano contrasti a raggiungerla. Dalla vetta di quel monte venerando per pie memorie, dove Benedetto aveva deposto un seme tanto fecondo di civiltà, quel monaco solitario sciolto alfine d'ogni cura mondana poteva levarsi dalla contemplazione degli eventi umani alla contemplazione serena di Dio. Così in quei riposi tranquilli nacquero gli ultimi due lavori a cui consacrò la rimanente vita[55], un commentario alla regola monastica e quella storia dei Longobardi che gli ha assicurata la fama presso i posteri. La nascita di Paolo Diacono e i casi di sua vita sembravano destinarlo all'ufficio di storico. Nato in Italia da stirpe longobarda quando il regno longobardo si avvicinava alla sua caduta, amante del popolo da cui traeva l'origine, amico ai suoi principi, e d'altra parte educato da maestri italiani alle tradizioni doppiamente latine della antichità classica e della Chiesa, Paolo Diacono era insieme italiano e longobardo. Da ciò quella specie di patriottismo che unisce in lui le due razze e par che simboleggi tra esse una fusione che non potè mai compiersi intera e solo si compì in parte quando il popolo oppressore soggiacendo ai Franchi scese alquanto più vicino agli oppressi. Già Paolo rifacendo l'opera d'Eutropio aveva narrata la storia di Roma, ed ora mutato per dir così il titolo del suo lavoro, nelle vicende del popolo longobardo narrava il proseguimento di quella storia. Come s'è già veduto, i popoli germanici ignari di lettere affidavano la notizia di loro genealogie e di loro imprese alla tradizione che le tramutava in canti e in leggende. Ricavare da queste leggende la vita del popolo ch'esse celebravano, era l'ufficio di chi metteva mano alla storia quando le imprese accumulate e i primi raggi della civiltà penetrati ispiravano quasi inconsciamente il desiderio d'una narrazione più certa e più duratura. Da ciò quell'intrecciarsi continuo dei fatti reali coi leggendari
  • 74. che dà un carattere così spiccato alla storia dei Longobardi i quali anche, per loro indole rude ma cavalleresca, spesso condussero imprese da leggenda piuttosto ispirati da vaghezza di mostrarsi prodi che da ragione di Stato. Bene Cesare Balbo con l'usata acutezza sua ha notato che fin dai tempi di Autari e di Teodelinda «possono dirsi incominciati in Italia i tempi, benché il nome non peranco, della cavalleria; tempi più piacevoli all'immaginazione che all'effetto, più ammirabili ne' romanzi che nelle storie; tempi non senza virtù, ma di virtù sprecata.»[56] Nè v'ha per fermo romanzo cavalleresco delle età posteriori che narri alcun racconto più ricco d'avventurosa poesia di questo che ci è narrato da Paolo: «.... Dopo queste cose re Autari inviò legati in Baviera per chiedere in matrimonio la figlia del re Garibaldo, e questi accoltili benignamente promise di dare ad Autari la figlia sua Teodelinda. Ciò nel tornare riferendo i legati ad Autari, egli desideroso di veder cogli occhi suoi la sua sposa, presi con sé alcuni pochi ma scelti Longobardi e conducendo quasi come seniore un suo fedelissimo, senza indugio trasse in Baviera. I quali introdotti secondo l'usanza dei legati al cospetto di re Garibaldo, posciaché colui ch'era venuto con Autari quasi come seniore ebbe fatti i saluti e le parole d'uso, Autari ignoto a tutta quella gente, fattosi più presso a re Garibaldo gli disse: ‘Il signor mio Autari re qui mi ha propriamente inviato a veder la figliuola vostra sua sposa, affinché io possa sicuramente annunziare al signor mio quale ne sia la bellezza.’ E udendo ciò il re e fatta venir la figliuola, Autari contemplatala tacitamente e vedendola di belle forme e compiacendosene in ogni cosa, disse al re: ‘Poiché tale vediamo essere la persona della figliuola vostra che bene dobbiamo desiderarla per nostra regina, noi ameremmo, se piace alla podestà vostra, che ella ci desse di mano sua la coppa del vino come dovrà fare appresso con noi.’ E avendo il re conceduto che ciò si facesse, ella presa la coppa del vino, prima propinò a colui che pareva esser seniore. Poscia avendola pôrta ad Autari ch'ella ignorava esser lo sposo suo, questi, dopo aver bevuto, nel render la tazza, senza che altri lo notasse col dito le toccò la mano, e accostò la fronte e il volto alla sua destra. Ella suffusa di rossore narrò il fatto alla nutrice. A cui la nutrice disse: ‘Se questi non fosse lo stesso re e il tuo sposo, certo non avrebbe osato
  • 75. toccarti. Ma tacciamo frattanto che non lo sappia tuo padre: per fermo egli è persona degna e di tenere il regno e d'associartisi in matrimonio.’ Era allora Autari florido d'età giovanile, di bella statura, biondo di crine e di nobilissimo aspetto. Coloro preso commiato dal re, ripigliando la via della patria mossero in fretta a' confini dei Norici. Imperocché la provincia dei Norici abitata dal popol de' Bavari, ha la Pannonia da oriente, da occidente la Svevia, da mezzogiorno l'Italia e da tramontana il corso del Danubio. Autari adunque essendo già arrivato presso a' confini d'Italia e avendo con sé i Bavari che lo riaccompagnavano, levossi quanto potè sul cavallo che inforcava, e con tutta forza infisse nell'albero che gli era più prossimo la scure che tenea in mano e ve la lasciò infissa con queste parole: ‘Di cotali ferite suol fare Autari.’ E avendo ciò detto, allora i Bavari che l'accompagnavano intesero ch'egli era lo stesso re Autari.»[57] Nè solo per fatti somiglianti apparisce in forma così leggendaria la storia dei Longobardi. Il racconto di rivolgimenti politici gravissimi mostra il vero della osservazione del Balbo intorno alla tendenza cavalleresca che si veniva manifestando allora in Italia e improntava del suo carattere molte azioni reali di quel popolo. Questa tendenza si riflette come in uno specchio nell'anima ingenua ed immaginosa di Paolo diacono ed è gran fortuna pei posteri. Ispirato da essa egli narra la storia delle cose avvenute quali la voce viva delle tradizioni gliele riferisce e non sciupa queste ultime sfoggiando una vana erudizione o una critica non concessa ai suoi tempi. Così per lui rientriamo davvero nella età longobarda e i suoi personaggi sono ritratti con un vigore di movimento e di colorito che ci aiuta a maraviglia per intenderli e per rifarci nella mente que' tempi de' quali egli solo ci ha lasciato un largo e durevole ricordo. Dalle prime mitiche origini longobarde egli scende fin quasi ai tempi di Desiderio e di Adelchi di cui non tratta, o che la morte gli rompesse a mezzo il racconto o che gli fosse troppo arduo narrar la conquista del suo popolo compiuta da quel Carlo che lo aveva tanto onorato. Longobardi, Greci, Romani da Alboino a Liutprando ci ritornano ancor vivi dinnanzi. Tra la gran folta del popolo tutti quei papi e re e gran baroni, e gli aderenti loro e i nemici, e monaci e guerrieri e santi e donne eroiche ed abbiette tutti risorgono e si muovono nel libro di Paolo. Battaglie aperte e congiure, splendori
  • 76. di corti e spelonche di romiti, virtù e delitti, sacrilegi e miracoli, si seguono e s'intrecciano in un contrasto pieno di vita. Scegliere esempi dalle narrazioni di Paolo è difficile, massime quando è necessità limitarsi: valga perciò questo solo episodio che narro in gran parte colle parole stesse di Paolo. Dopo il glorioso regno di Rotari il legislatore e l'altro assai breve di Rodoaldo, fu chiamato al trono Ariperto figlio ad un fratello di Teodelinda il quale regnò nove anni di cui quasi nulla ricorda la storia. Alla sua morte due figli suoi Godeperto e Pertarito si divisero il regno e il primo pose stanza a Pavia l'altro a Milano. Questa divisione, nuova presso i Longobardi, mostra come gli animi fossero divisi intorno alla elezione e si potessero male accordare. Infatti indi a breve pur tra i fratelli sorse dissenso, e Godeperto istigato da mali consiglieri, spedì il duca di Torino a Grimoaldo duca di Benevento, principe dei più potenti d'Italia e per le qualità sue personali riputatissimo. Godeperto offriva una sua sorella in isposa al beneventano e in cambio gli chiedeva aiuto contro Pertarito, ma il messaggero fattosegli traditore offrì invece a Grimoaldo la corona regia e l'esortò a trar partito dalle discordie di que' fratelli per farsi signore d'Italia. Grimoaldo si recò in Lombardia, e quel da Torino inteso sempre nel suo proposito, eccitando sospetti vicendevoli tra i due alleati, adoperò così scaltro che al primo loro abboccarsi Grimoaldo uccise di mano sua Godeperto. All'annunzio del fatto Pertarito, sentendosi forse mancare a un tratto ogni appoggio, abbandonò Milano a così gran fretta che si lasciò dietro la regina e il figliuol Cuniperto i quali furono confinati entrambi a Benevento mentre egli vagava. Grimoaldo intanto sposò la sorella dell'ucciso principe, fatto non senza esempio nella storia longobarda ma pur molto strano, e nel 662 fu confermato re a Pavia. Le vicende dello sbandito re Pertarito lungo l'esilio ci sono così narrate dallo storico nostro: «Confermato dunque Grimoaldo nel regno sul Ticino, non molto dopo si tolse in moglie la figliuola di re Ariperto che già eragli stata promessa e di cui egli avea ucciso il fratello Godeperto. L'esercito beneventano che l'aveva aiutato a impadronirsi del regno rimandò con
  • 77. gran doni alle sue case. Tuttavia trattenne solo alquanti di esso a star seco concedendo a loro possedimenti larghissimi. «Il quale posciaché seppe che Pertarito fuggendo era arrivato in Scizia e dimorava presso del Kan, a quel medesimo Kan re degli Avari mandò dicendo per suoi ambasciatori, che se ricoverasse Pertarito nel regno suo, non potrebbe mantener più quella pace che s'era mantenuta fino ad allora tra i Longobardi e lui. Udendo ciò il re degli Avari chiamato Pertarito dissegli ch'egli andasse pure in qual parte gli piaceva ma che gli Avari non avean da contrarre nimicizie coi Longobardi. E Pertarito in udir ciò si rivolse all'Italia per tornarsene a Grimoaldo perché aveva udito ch'egli era clementissimo. Pervenuto adunque alla città di Lodi, prima di sé mandò a re Grimoaldo, Unulfo un fedelissimo uom suo che gli annunziasse la sua venuta. Unulfo quindi presentandosi al re gli annunziò che Pertarito veniva a mettersi nella sua fede. La qual cosa udendo colui promise sicuramente ch'egli non patirebbe alcun male poiché veniva alla fede sua. In questa venendo Pertarito, entrato presso Grimoaldo, mentre voleva buttarglisi a' piedi, il re clemente lo trattenne e lo sollevò all'amplesso suo. A cui Pertarito: ‘Io son tuo servo, gli dice; sapendoti cristianissimo e pio, mentre potea viver tra i pagani, m'affidai alla tua clemenza e ti venni innanzi.’ A cui il re col solito suo giuramento così promise dicendo: ‘Per colui che mi fe' nascere, posciaché tu venisti alla mia fede, in niuna cosa tu patirai male, ed io così ordinerò le tue cose che tu possa vivere onoratamente.’ Quindi assegnandogli ospizio in una casa spaziosa gli disse di riposarsi dopo il travaglio del viaggio, e impose che gli si somministrasse largamente dal denaro pubblico il vitto e ogni cosa necessaria. Ma poiché Pertarito fu andato alla casa apparecchiatagli dal re, subito cominciarono torme di cittadini pavesi ad accorrer quivi o per vederlo, o, quelli che già lo conoscevano, per salutarlo. Però dove non giungono le male lingue? Imperocché tosto alcuni adulatori maligni recatisi al re gli sussurrano che s'ei non toglierà prestamente Pertarito di vita, egli stesso perderà in breve e regno e vita, asseverando che perciò tutta la città accorreva a lui. Udito ciò Grimoaldo troppo credulo e dimentico delle promesse, s'accende subito al pensiero d'uccider Pertarito e fa consiglio del come ucciderlo l'indomani poiché l'ora era omai troppo tarda. In sul vespro gli invia
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