Unit-1-Introduction to Psychology Scope
- 2. What is Psychology? The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical, state, mental state, and external environment.
- 3. What is Psychology? The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical, state, mental state, and external environment. • Scientific study requires several things: 1. Theoretical framework 2. Testable Hypotheses 3. Empirical evidence
- 4. What is Psychology? The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical, state, mental state, and external environment. • Behavior and mental processes include overt, observable instances but also include subtle kinds of instances, like brain activity.
- 5. What is Psychology? The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical, state, mental state, and external environment. • Humans and may other creatures included in the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
- 6. What is Psychology? The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external environment. • Physical state relates primarily to the organism’s biology - most especially the state of the brain and central nervous system
- 7. What is Psychology? The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external environment. • Mental state does not have to be conscious - can study mental states in many creatures without their conscious awareness - and can be studied in terms of brain activity.
- 8. What is Psychology? The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external environment. • All organisms function in an environment that is constantly presenting them with problems and challenges that must be solved.
- 9. What is Psychology? The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external environment. • Most people think of psychology as the study of differences between people, but it also includes the study of similarities between people.
- 12. www.whatispsychology.biz 1. STRUCTURALISM: In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first “psychological” laboratory in Germany. He is widely viewed as the founder of psychology. He attempted to uncover the structure of consciousness by breaking down mental processes into their most basic components. This was done through a process called introspection. Wundt’s approach became known as structuralism.
- 13. www.whatispsychology.biz FUNCTIONALISM William James argued that consciousness cannot be broken down into elements. He was concerned with ongoing conscious experience and the functions of mental processes. His views gave rise to another branch of psychology - functionalism
- 14. www.whatispsychology.biz BEHAVIOURISM Behaviourists held the view that only overt behaviour can be studied scientifically. They advocated the use of strict experimental procedures in psychology. Supported by B. F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson John B. Watson
- 15. www.whatispsychology.biz GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Gestalt psychology – founded by Max Wertheimer Focused on studying mental processes and behaviours as ‘wholes’ rather than trying to separate them into discrete functions or parts. Held the view that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
- 16. www.whatispsychology.biz PSYCHOANALYSIS While other theorists tried to explain varying aspects of conscious experience, Sigmund Freud argued for the role of the unconscious and other internal processes in human behaviour and mental disorders. His work formed the foundation of psychoanalytic theory
- 17. www.whatispsychology.biz HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY Humanistic psychologists argued that humans are not helplessly controlled by unconscious or environmental forces – we have free will, goals, aspirations, and other positive motives which should be studied. Influenced by Carl Rogers.
- 19. 1. BIOLOGICAL: Scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states, very closely related to neuroscience.
- 20. THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE: originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This perspective emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior and to treat people suffering from mental illnesses.
- 21. 3. Behavioral Perspective: Behavioral psychology is a perspective that focuses on learned behaviors. Today, the behavioral perspective is still concerned with how behaviors are learned and reinforced. John Watson founded behaviorism in the early 1900's. Watson emphasized the scientific study of observable behaviors rather then the study of subjective mental process.
- 22. 4. Humanistic Perspective: During the 1950s, a school of thought known as humanistic psychology emerged. Influenced greatly by the work of prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, this perspective emphasizes the role of motivation on thought and behavior. 5.
- 23. . COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: During the 1960s, a new perspective known as cognitive psychology began to take hold. This area of psychology focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem solving, language and decision-making
- 25. FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY 1. Experimental Psychology: a general title applied to a variety of psychologists who are trained in designing and conducting research in specific basic areas like learning, sensation and perception, human performance, and motivation and emotion. A research oriented doctoral degree (Ph.D.) is usually needed.
- 26. 2. Biopsychology: Take a comparative and ontogenetic perspective in the experimental analysis of basic psychological processes as they relate to the many ways in which animal species adapt, survive, reproduce and evolve.
- 27. 3. Developmental Psychology: Concerned with growth and development from conception till death. All aspects of the animal or human organism (physiological, biological, physical, cognitive, emotional, social, cultural) may be studied.
- 28. 4. Social Psychology: study the ways in which the social context affects the behavior of the individual and groups in the real world and the laboratory. Social psychologists focus on topics such as social roles, attitude formation and change, affiliation, interpersonal attraction and interaction, conformity, and group processes.
- 29. 5. Industrial / Organizational Psychologists: are concerned with the relation between individuals and work. They are employed in business and industry, in government, and in colleges and universities, and may perform a variety of jobs. An industrial/organizational psychologist working in industry may study how work is organized; suggest changes to improve the satisfaction of employees, the quality of the organization's services, and productivity; consult with management on the development of effective training programs for employees; design programs for the early identification of management potential; administer career counseling and pre retirement counseling programs; develop affirmative action programs; recommend changes in job definition; design a system of performance evaluation.
- 30. 6. Educational Psychologists: are concerned with a range of activities from initial design through development and evaluation of both materials and procedures for education and training. Such positions exist in public schools, in the military, in private research and development companies, and in industrial concerns. They may deal with analyzing education and training needs, with developing materials for instruction in various media, with designing the best conditions for instruction, and with evaluating the effectiveness of instructional programs.
- 31. 7. Clinical Psychologists: are concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disturbances. After graduate preparation in an accredited university or school of professional psychology, supervised postdoctoral experience, and licensure or certification by the state, some clinical psychologists enter independent practice/consulting roles. Others find themselves responsible for a complete range of psychological services in public settings. Their responsibilities range from administering and scoring psychological tests, to engaging in therapy, to supervising the training of graduate students in the delivery of mental health services, to administering a community mental health program. Some clinical psychologists obtain faculty positions in a college or university where they perform research and train graduate students. Others serve as adjunct (or part-time) faculty, while maintaining independent clinical practices. Many serve as consultants.
- 32. 8. Counseling Psychologists: are concerned with counseling, teaching, consulting research, and/or administration. In their work, they are particularly concerned with the role of education and work in an individual's functioning, and with the interaction between individuals and the environments in which they live. Typically, counseling psychologists work with normal or moderately maladjusted persons, individually or in groups. This work includes use of traditional counseling interview methods, interest, ability and personality tests, and educational and occupational information.
- 33. 9. Cross-cultural psychology Is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior. Learn more about what cross-cultural psychology is and who should study it. 10. Forensic Psychology: It is defined as an intersection between psychology and the criminal justice system. It is applied to the criminal justice system to evaluate the psychology of the defendants.
- 34. 11. Environmental psychology: is an interdisciplinary field focused on the interplay between humans and their surroundings. The field defines the term environment very broadly including all that is natural on the planet as well as social settings, built environments, learning environments and informational environments.
- 36. 1. CASE HISTORY: An in-depth study of one person. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject’s life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior. The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger population.
- 37. 2. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: Naturalistic observation is a method of observation, commonly used by psychologists, behavioral scientists and social scientists, that involves observing subjects in their natural habitats. Researchers take great care in avoiding making interferences with the behavior they are observing by using unobtrusive methods. Objectively, studying events as they occur naturally, without intervention.
- 38. 3. SURVEY METHOD: Survey is a method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior.
- 40. 4. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. An experiment is a study of cause and effect. It differs from non-experimental methods in that it involves the deliberate manipulation of one variable, while trying to keep all other variables constant.
- 41. Parts of a Simple Experiment: The experimental hypothesis: a statement that predicts that the treatment will cause an effect. The experimental hypothesis will always be phrased as a cause- and-effect statement. The independent variable: the treatment variable that is manipulated by the experimenter. (stimulus) The dependent variable: the response that the experimenter is measuring. (response) The control group: made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to a group but do not receive the treatment. The measures takes from the control group are then compared to those in the experimental group to determine if the treatment had an effect. The experimental group: made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to the group and then receive the treatment. The scores of these participants are compared to those in the control group to determine if the treatment had an effect.
- 42. For example: Hypothesis: an aspirin a day reduces the likelihood of a heart attack. Independent variable: Aspirin Dependent Variable: the number of heart attacks. The experimental group: would take an aspirin each day The control group: would take a placebo, such as a sugar pill, that resembles an aspirin but has none of the effects attributed to aspirin. After a few months or years of pill-taking, the number of heart attacks would be measured as the dependent variable. If the aspirin-takers (experimental group) had a significantly smaller number of heart attacks than the placebo-takers (control group), then the research hypothesis (aspirin-taking reduces heart attacks) would be supported.
- 43. 5. CORRELATION: Correlation studies are used to look for relationships between variables. There are three possible results of a co relational study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and no correlation. The correlation coefficient is a measure of correlation strength and can range from –1.00 to +1.00. Positive Correlations: Both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation. Negative Correlations: Indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation.