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User-Centric and
Information-Centric
Networking and Services

User-Centric and
Information-Centric
Networking and Services
Access Networks, Storage and
Cloud Perspective
Edited by
M. Bala Krishna

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Krishna, M. Bala, author.
Title: User-centric and information-centric networking and services : access
networks, storage and cloud perspective / M. Bala Krishna.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2019. | Includes
bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018046536 | ISBN 9781138633322 (hb ; alk. paper) | ISBN
9781315207650 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Computer networks. | Information networks.
Classification: LCC TK5105.52 .K75 2019 | DDC 004.6--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018046536
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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v
Contents
List of figures vii
List of tabLes xi
Preface xiii
editor xvii
contributors xix
contributors biog r aPhy xxi
chaP ter 1 centric-based ne t working systems 1
M. BA LA KR ISHNA
chaP ter 2 naming and addres sing in
information-centric ne t working 25
G. AK HIL AND SA M AR SH A ILENDR A
chaP ter 3 information-centric exchang e
mechanis ms for iot interoPer abLe
dePLoyment 71
DANIEL CORU JO, CAR LOS GU IM AR ÃES, JOSÉ
QUEV EDO, RU I FER R EIR A AND RU I L. AGU IAR
chaP ter 4 information-centric ne t working future
interne t Video deLiVery 141
JOR DI ORTIZ, PEDRO M ARTINEZ-J ULIA AND
ANTONIO SK AR META

vi Contents
chaP ter 5 stor ag e-centric ne t working 197
M. BA LA KR ISHNA AND DANIEL CORU JO
chaP ter 6 cLoud -centric ne t working using
VirtuaLiz ation and resource sharing 229
M. BA LA KR ISHNA, DANIEL CORU JO, DIOGO
GOMES, JOÃO PAULO BAR R ACA AND HELDER
MOR EIR A
abbre Viations 267
inde x 273

vii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Classification of centric-based networking systems 4
Figure 2.1 Traffic flow in legacy networks 30
Figure 2.2 Traffic flow in ICN networks 30
Figure 2.3 A possible hierarchical naming mechanism 51
Figure 2.4 A flat name and its possible correspondent hybrid name 59
Figure 3.1 NPSN signaling for rendezvous-based operation as in [YY] 85
Figure 3.2 NPSN signaling for standalone publish operation 86
Figure 3.3 Solution overview 90
Figure 3.4 Interoperability signaling between IP[HTTP] and NDN 94
Figure 3.5 Interoperability signaling between PURSUIT and NDN 95
Figure 3.6 Evaluation scenario 96
Figure 3.7 Total exchanged information 98
Figure 3.8 Fetching time 98
Figure 3.9 Detailed FIXP delay. (FIXPΔ1: Conversion from IP[HTTP]
Request to NDN Interest; FIXPΔ2: Conversion from NDN Data
to IP[HTTP] Response; FIXPΔ3: Conversion from PURSUIT
Start_Publish to NDN Interest; FIXPΔ4: Conversion from NDN
Data to PURSUIT Publish_Data) 100

viii List of figures
Figure 3.10 Discovery scenario involving multiple services, consumers and
gateways 103
Figure 3.11 Case 1: Communicate with (sub)sets of sensors 104
Figure 3.12 Case 2: Extending discovery to other protocols using gateways 104
Figure 3.13 Case 3: Gateway replication 105
Figure 3.14 Case 4: Discovery consistency across gateways 105
Figure 3.15 Client rediscovers a known service over Bluetooth/Zeroconf
using the EID 115
Figure 3.16 Discovery consistency across a chain of gateways 116
Figure 3.17 Information-centric exchange mechanisms for IoT
interoperable deployment scenario 117
Figure 3.18 PURSUIT-CoAP-NDN: Consumer in PURSUIT requesting
information from sensor in NDN via polling mechanisms 120
Figure 3.19 NDN-CoAP-PURSUIT: Consumer in NDN requesting
information from sensor in PURSUIT via polling mechanisms 121
Figure 3.20 PURSUIT-MQTT-NPSN: Consumer in PURSUIT requesting
information from sensor in NDN via publish/subscribe
mechanisms 121
Figure 3.21 NPSN-MQTT-PURSUIT: Consumer in NDN requesting
information from sensor in PURSUIT via publish/subscribe
mechanisms 122
Figure 3.22 Fetching time for a single request 124
Figure 3.23 Fetching time for a single request (reference values) 125
Figure 4.1 Architecture envisioned 153
Figure 4.2 Overview of the experimentation architecture. It shows how
the CCN network we used in our experiments was built,
including CCN routers and CCN/HTTP Adapter Server and
client instances 158
Figure 4.3 CCN entities and relations 159
Figure 4.4 DASH/CCN network exchange sequence 160
Figure 4.5 Sequence diagram 164
Figure 4.6 Northbound API interactions 165
Figure 4.7 Results of 79 kbps transmission with 48 bytes limited network
packet size 168

ix
List of figures
Figure 4.8 Visual result frame 603 with a bit rate of 79 kbps 169
Figure 4.9 Evaluation scenario 172
Figure 4.10 NOCACHE time spent by chunk 173
Figure 4.11 NOCDN time spent by chunk 174
Figure 4.12 CDN time spent by chunk 175
Figure 4.13 Source videos’ bandwidth consumption 176
Figure 4.14 Average, min, and max time per experiment 179
Figure 5.1 Classification of storage-centric systems 200
Figure 5.2 Classification of storage-centric networking 201
Figure 5.3 Architecture of storage and its relevant sub-system model
in SCN 205
Figure 5.4 Power-aware, load management and sensing in storage-centric
systems 208
Figure 6.1 ETSI NFV-MANO overall architecture 235
Figure 6.2 SDN architecture 253

xi
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Tabular summary of naming schemes on various factors 66
Table 3.1 Signaling size regarding each network architecture (for a single link) 97
Table 3.2 Signaling overhead on each network architecture (for a single link) 125
Table 4.1 Experimentation with 38 kbps bit rate 167
Table 4.4 PSNR 5 second timeout study with 38 kbps bit rate 169
Table 4.7 Streaming client experimentation results 176
Table 4.8 Per chunk experimentation results 177
Table 5.1 Mapping techniques used in storage systems 212
Table 5.2 Security and privacy aspects in storage systems 216

xiii
Preface
User-centric networking (UCN) extensively uses centralized and
distributed systems. With extensive research and advancements in
information-centric networking, various user-centric systems are
being evolved and functionally adapted in homogeneous and hetero-
geneous systems. UCN is established and controlled by a single user
or a set of users in the network. User-centric nodes are selected based
on attributes such as node profile, location, connectivity factor, buffer
size, network processing speed, and traffic conditions.The connection
models such as fixed user-centric model and location-based user-
centric model enhance the features of centric-based service applica-
tions. UCN aware push service uses the content delivery architecture
and pre-cached features for multimedia services in mobile devices and
efficiently uses the channel bandwidth.
Information-centric networking (ICN) is modeled using informa-
tion, priority, and application service requirements. ICN applies the
data aggregation and data fusion methods to collect the data and
forwards it to the data storage node or service node. Security layer

xiv PrefaCe
encrypts the private and confidential node information in the net-
work. ICN is classified as follows:
• Content-centric networking (CCN): Network established
based on the type of information and priority generated by
the user nodes
• Service-centric networking (SCN): Network established
based on the set of services that include the information,
query, services, device type, and so on
This book provides state of the art and novel approaches for user-
centric and information-centric networking and services, covering
current and emerging topics, so that it can be an excellent reference
book for developers, researchers, academicians, and graduate students.
This book comprises contributions from prominent research-
ers and academicians working in the area of user-centric networks,
information-centric networks, storage-centric cloud, and access net-
works. This book aims to enlighten readers in the emerging areas of
user-centric and information-centric networking.
Chapter 1 explains the features of centric-based networking systems
(CNS) that operate in centralized and distributed modes, enhance the
content delivery rate, and reduce the operational and economic cost
of the system. This chapter classifies the CNS based on parameters
such as user preference, information type, content type (centralized
or distributed), address range, network type, network modes (device-
centric or address-centric), data factor (aggregation or dissemination),
and service types.
Chapter 2 explains the naming and addressing schemes used in
ICN. Naming approaches used in routing, security, and privacy are
explained in this chapter.Various naming schemes such as flat naming,
hierarchical naming, and hybrid naming based on primary and sec-
ondary parameters are explained in this chapter. Naming and address-
ing schemes in the mobile scenario are explained in this chapter.
Chapter 3 explains the information-centric exchange mechanisms
for IoT interoperable deployment. Named publish subscribe network-
ing with named data and protocol, ICN exchange mechanisms based
on architecture, address translation, signaling adaptation, and content
adaptation are described in this chapter. IoT interoperable deploy-
ment, scalability, and management are explained in this chapter.

x v
PrefaCe
Chapter 4 explains the information-centric networking for future
internet video delivery. Internet video streaming requirements based
on demand, live, and dynamic adaptive streaming and evolution of
video transmission techniques are highlighted in this chapter. IoT
video transport, SDN for information-centric video distribution, pol-
icies, and regulations that affect ICN are explained in this chapter.
Chapter 5 explains the classification of storage-centric networking.
Attributes, models, and hierarchy of storage systems are explained in
this chapter. Storage-centric systems based on thermal power, dif-
ferentiated services, load management, and compressive sensing are
described in this chapter. Storage virtualization, security, and privacy
for SDN and wireless networks are explained in this chapter.
Chapter 6 explains the cloud-centric networking using virtualiza-
tion and resource sharing. Multicloud using optimal network function
is highlighted in this chapter. Virtualization operations and enhance-
ments for supported services are explained in this chapter. Resource
sharing based on invitation, shared aspects, and centralized and dis-
tributed approaches are explained in this chapter. Security challenges
based on SDN and NFV are elucidated in this chapter.
I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to all authors,
co-authors, and the publishing team. Firstly, I am deeply indebted to
the active authors and researchers, who shared the vision of this book
“User-Centric and Information-Centric Networking and Services:
Access Networks, Storage and Cloud Perspective” and contributed
to high-quality chapters. I sincerely thank authors for their tireless
effort in bringing this book to a noble and presentable form. Secondly,
I thank various technical societies for their kind support. Thirdly, I
thank the CRC Press editorial team, especially Richard O’Hanley,
Stephanie Place, Rachael Panthier, and Kiruthiga Sowndar for their
patience, guidance, support, and encouragement during the initial,
progressive, and final phase of this book. Finally, I thank my family
members for their warm support and encouragement.
M. Bala Krishna
University School of Information and Communication Technology
(USICT)
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University
New Delhi, India

x vii
Editor
M. Bala Krishna (Bala Krishna Maddali) earned his Bachelor of
Engineering (BE) degree in Computer Engineering from Delhi
Institute of Technology (presently Netaji Subhas University of
Technology, and formerly Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology),
University of Delhi, Delhi, India, and Master of Technology (MTech)
degree in Information Technology from University School of
Information Technology (presently University School of Information
and Communication Technology), Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha
University, Delhi, India. He had earned Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
degree in Computer Engineering from JMI Central University,
New Delhi, India. He had earlier worked as senior research associate
and project associate in Indian Institute Technology, Delhi, India, in
the areas of digital systems and embedded systems. He had worked
as faculty member and had handled projects related to networking
and communication. He is presently working as Assistant Professor in
University School of Information and Communication Technology,
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, New Delhi, India.
His areas of interest include computer networks, wireless networks,
advances in mobile computing and communications, cognitive radio

x viii editor
and software-defined networks, security in communication networks,
and the Internet of Things. He has publications in international jour-
nals, conferences, and book chapters. He has contributed as the cor-
responding co-editor for an international book titled as Advances in
Mobile Computing and Communications: Perspectives and Emerging
Trends in 5G Networks. He is an IEEE senior member and has served
as the Workshop Co-Chair and Tutorial Chair/Co-Chair for IEEE
conferences. He has organized the IEEE and ACM workshops.
He is a Technical Program Committee (TPC) member for IEEE
conferences.

xix
Contributors
M. Bala Krishna
University School of Information
and Communication
Technology
Guru Gobind Singh
Indraprastha University
New Delhi, India
Daniel Corujo
Department of Electronics,
Telecommunications and
Information Technology
University of Aveiro
Aveiro, Portugal
Antonio Skarmeta
Department of Information and
Communications Engineering
Computer Science Faculty
University of Murcia
Murcia, Spain
Carlos Guimarães
Aveiro, Portugal
Diogo Gomes
Instituto de Telecomunicações
Universidade de Aveiro
Aveiro, Portugal
G. Akhil
Cisco Systems Inc.
Bangalore, India
Helder Moreira
Aveiro, Portugal

x x Contributors
João Paulo Barraca
Aveiro, Portugal
José Quevedo
Departamento de Eletrónica,
Telecomunicações e
Informática
Aveiro, Portugal
Jordi Ortiz
University of Murcia
Murcia, Spain
Pedro Martinez-Julia
National Institute of Information
and Communications
Technology (NICT)
Tokyo, Japan
Rui Ferreira
Aveiro, Portugal
Rui L. Aguiar
Telecommunications
and Information Technology
University of Aveiro,
Aveiro, Portugal
Samar Shailendra
TCS Research & Innovation
Bangalore, India

x xi
Contributors Biography
M. Bala Krishna (Bala Krishna Maddali) earned his Bachelor of
Engineering (BE) degree in Computer Engineering from Delhi
Institute of Technology (presently Netaji Subhas University of
Technology, and formerly Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology),
University of Delhi, Delhi, India, and Master of Technology (MTech)
degree in Information Technology from University School of
Information Technology (presently University School of Information
and Communication Technology), Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha
University, Delhi, India. He had earned Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
degree in Computer Engineering from JMI Central University,
New Delhi, India. He had earlier worked as senior research associate
and project associate in Indian Institute Technology, Delhi, India, in
the areas of digital systems and embedded systems. He had worked
as faculty member and had handled projects related to networking
and communication. He is presently working as Assistant Professor in
University School of Information and Communication Technology,
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, New Delhi, India.
His areas of interest include computer networks, wireless networks,
advances in mobile computing and communications, cognitive radio
and software-defined networks, security in communication networks,
and the Internet of Things. He has publications in international
journals, conferences, and book chapters. He has contributed as the

x xii Contributors biograPhy
corresponding co-editor for an international book titled as Advances
in Mobile Computing and Communications: Perspectives and Emerging
Trends in 5G Networks. He is an IEEE senior member and has served
as the Workshop Co-Chair and Tutorial Chair/Co-Chair for IEEE
conferences. He has organized the IEEE and ACM workshops.
He is a Technical Program Committee (TPC) member for IEEE
conferences.
Daniel Corujo is a doctoral researcher at the University of Aveiro,
Portugal, where he received his PhD in 2013, and a group coordinator
at the Telecommunications Institute, in Aveiro, where he is coordinat-
ing the telecommunications and networking group.He has fulfilled dif-
ferent research and coordination roles in several national academic and
industrial projects, as well as international ones, under the scope of the
EU FP7,such as DAIDALOS,OneLab2,4WARD,MEDIEVAL and
OFELIA.He has over 70 published conference and journal articles,and
is a regular TPC member in several conferences and magazines. He has
multiple contributions to different standardization organizations, such
as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the
Internet EngineeringTask Force (IETF).He is author of the first IETF
RFC on ICN (RFC 7476), and of two upcoming RFC’s of the ICN
Research Group. He was, until 2017, secretary of the IEEE ComSoc
Portugal chapter.He lectures network and computer science classes and
coordinates several MSc and PhD theses at the Universidade de Aveiro.
He was also an adjunct lecturer at the Escola Superior de Tecnologia e
Gestão de Águeda, in Águeda, Portugal.
Antonio Skarmeta received an MS degree in computer science from
the University of Granada and a BS (with honors) and PhD in com-
puter science from the University of Murcia, Spain. Since 2009, he has
been full professor in the same department and university. Skarmeta
has worked on different research projects in national and international
networking, security and Internet of Things (IoT), participating in
research projects like Euro6IX, ENABLE, DAIDALOS, SWIFT,
SEMIRAMIS, SMARTIE, SOCIOTAL and IoT6. His main
interests are the integration of security services, identity, IoT and
Smart Cities. He has been head of the research group ANTS since
its creation on 1995. He is also advisor to the vice-rector of research

x xiii
Contributors biograPhy
at the University of Murcia for International Projects and head of
the International Research Project Office. Since 2014, he has been
Spanish national representative for the MSCA within H2020. He has
published over 200 international papers and is a member of several
program committees. He has also participated in several standardiza-
tion projects for the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the
International Organization for Standards (ISO) and the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
Carlos Guimarães received his computer and telematics engineer-
ing MSc in 2011 from the electronics, telecommunication and
informatics department at the University of Aveiro, Portugal. He
is currently pursuing his PhD degree in computer science of the
Universities of Minho, Aveiro, and Porto (MAPi), in the area of
future internet architectures. More specifically, he has been focusing
on the study of interoperability mechanisms between future internet
architectures (such as information-centric networks) and the current
internet architecture, as a way to promote the initial roll-out of such
architectures.Since 2010,he has also been a researcher and developer
in the Telecommunications and Networks–Av group at Instituto
de Telecomunicações–Pólo de Aveiro, Portugal (IT-Aveiro), work-
ing in the areas of software-defined networks, information-centric
networks, mobility management and media-independent handover
mechanisms. He participated in EU FP7 MEDIEVAL and EU FP7
OFELIA. He has also contributed to IT-Aveiro internal projects
such as ODTONE and AMazING.
Diogo Gomes graduated with a degree in computers and telemat-
ics engineering from the University of Aveiro in 2003 with first
class honors and received a PhD at the same university, focusing
on resource optimization for broadcast networks in 2009. He’s cur-
rently an auxiliary professor at the University of Aveiro. Over the last
10 years, has participated in several EU-funded projects such as IST-
Mobydick, IST-Daidalos, IST-Akogrimo, IST-C-MOBILE, ICT-
C-Cast, ICT-Onelab2 and ICT-Medieval, where besides conducting
research on QoS, IP mobility, multicast/broadcast and service and
application development, he has been deeply involved in the deploy-
ment of prototypes and demonstrations. His recent research interests

x xiv Contributors biograPhy
are related to knowledge extraction and context storage in Internet
of Things (IoT) scenarios using machine learning techniques and big
data repositories.
G. Akhil is currently working as a network consultant at Cisco
Systems, Inc. He has obtained his bachelor’s and master’s degrees
from International Institute of Information Technology–Bangalore
(IIIT-B). Akhil has worked with organizations such as Nokia and
Cisco on 5G research. His current areas of research include ICN, 5G,
IOT, SDN and segment routing.
Helder Moreira graduated with a degree in computers and telematics
engineering from the electronics, telecommunications and informatics
department at the University of Aveiro in 2016. His MSc disserta-
tion was developed under the Smart Lighting project at Instituto de
Telecomunicações, on sensor data integration and management of
smart environments, under the supervision of Professor João Paulo
Barraca and engineer Nuno Lourenço, from Think Control. After
graduation, he worked at ThinkControl for several months, and later
joined the University of Aveiro as a researcher, where he is currently
participating in life-PAYT and smart green homes (SGH) projects.
Additionally, he has also started doctoral studies, following his main
interests in security, privacy and the Internet of Things (IoT).
João Paulo Barraca received a PhD degree in informatics engineer-
ing in 2012 from the University of Aveiro, where he developed work
focused on the integration of social structures into self-management
network functions. He is currently an invited assistant professor at
the University of Aveiro, in areas related to programming, network-
ing and security. Most of his research is conducted through Instituto
de Telecomunicaçöes (IT), with which he has been associated since
2003, and he acts as coordinator of the Aveiro Telecommunications
and Networking Group (ATNoG). During this time at IT, he has
published works in the areas of networking and software for com-
puter systems. He has also acted as reviewer for several conference
papers and journals, mostly international. He has participated exten-
sively in both nationally and internationally funded projects, includ-
ing FP7 IST Daidalos, IST WIP, IST S(o)OS, IST-Onelab, IST

x x v
Prose, CAPES DEVNF and FCT CRUISE. He is also a member
of the telescope manager consortium for the Square Kilometre Array
(SKA) telescope, overseeing tasks related to the cloud computation
infrastructure (LINFRA) for the software management components.
José Quevedo graduated in 2009 from the Havana University of
Technologies José Antonio Echeverría (CUJAE), Havana, Cuba,
where he studied telecommunications and electronics engineering.
Upon graduation, he was a junior professor at the CUJAE, where he
also acted as information security officer of network infrastructure and
worked. He is currently pursuing his PhD at the MAP-tele doctoral
program in telecommunications at Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro,
Portugal, and also working as a researcher in the Telecommunications
and Networks–Av group at Instituto de Telecomunicações–Pólo de
Aveiro (IT-Aveiro). His current research focuses on information-
centric networking (ICN) approaches for supporting Internet of
Things (IoT) scenarios. His work has been disseminated in different
publications tackling the challenges of exposing ICN to the complex-
ity commonly associated with IoT scenarios, ranging from discovery
to interoperability and mobility. He has also supported IT-Aveiro
projects such as SeLF-ICN and AMAziNG.
Jordi Ortiz received a BS (2008) and an MSc (2009) in computer sci-
ence from the University of Murcia, Spain. Since 2007, Ortiz has been
a full-time researcher associated with international projects such as
DAIDALOS, SCALNET, SMARTFIRE, OPENLAB, GEANT
3 & 4, STORK2 and ANASTACIA among others. His main fields
of interest are identity federation, video streaming, Software Defined
Network (SDN) networks and Internet of Things (IoT) networks.
He has published international papers and serves as technical program
committee member at some conferences and for journals.
Pedro Martinez-Julia received a BS in computer science from
the Open University of Catalonia. As well, he received an MS in
advanced information technology and telematics and a PhD in com-
puter science from the University of Murcia, Spain. He is currently a
full-time researcher with the National Institute of Information and
Communications Technology (NICT), Tokyo. He has been involved

x x vi Contributors biograPhy
in EU-funded research projects since 2009, leading several tasks and
activities, and participating in the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) for the stan-
dardization of new network technologies. He has published over 20
papers in peer-reviewed conferences and journals. His main expertise
is in network architecture, control and management, with a particular
interest in overlay networks and distributed systems and services. He
is a member of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Rui Ferreira received his computer and telematics engineering MSc
in 2008 from the electronics, telecommunication and informat-
ics department, University of Aveiro, Portugal. Since 2008, he has
been a researcher in the Telecommunications and Networks group
at Instituto de Telecomunicações, carrying out research work in the
areas of network privacy, identity management, and security. As part
of his work, he participated in EU-funded projects FP7 SWIFT and
FP7 PROSE, as well as other internal research and development proj-
ects in associated areas. Currently he is pursuing a PhD in the topic of
security and privacy in name resolution systems, studying the security
and privacy implications of name assignment in computer networks at
the various layers of the network stack and introducing techniques for
enhancing name resolution systems.
Rui L. Aguiar received his degree in telecommunication engineer-
ing in 1990 and his PhD in electrical engineering in 2001 from the
University of Aveiro.He is currently a full professor at the University of
Aveiro,teaching in the networking area,and was previously an adjunct
professor at the INI, Carnegie Mellon University. He was a visiting
research scholar at Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Brazil, for
three years. He is coordinating research nation-wide at the Instituto
de Telecomunicações, in the areas of networks and multimedia. He is
leading the Technological Platform on Connected Communities, a
regional cross-disciplinary, industry-oriented activity on smart envi-
ronments. His current research interests are centered on the imple-
mentation of advanced wireless networks and systems, with special
emphasis on 5G networks and the Future Internet. He has more than

x x vii
450 published papers in those areas, including standardization contri-
butions to Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
and Internet EngineeringTask Force (IETF).He has served as techni-
cal and general chair of several conferences,from IEEE to Association
of Computing Machinery (ACM) and International Federation for
Information Processing (IFIP) and is regularly invited for keynotes
on 5G and future internet networks. He sits on the TPC of all major
IEEE ComSoc conferences. He participated extensively in national
and international projects, of which the best example is his position
as chief architect of the IST Daidalos project, and he has extensive
participation in industry technology transfer actions. He is currently
associated with the 5G Infrastructure Public Private Partnership (5G
PPP) Infrastructure Association and is the current chair of the steering
board of the Networld2020 European Technology Platform (ETP).
He is senior member of IEEE, Portugal ComSoc Chapter Chair,
and a member of ACM. He is associate editor of Wiley’s Emerging
Telecommunications Technologies (ETT) and Springers’ Wireless
Networks journals and has helped with the launch of Elsevier’s ICT
(Information & Communications Technology) Express. He is a char-
tered engineer and has acted as a consultant to several major operators,
as a technology advisor to bootstrap several SMEs, and as an expert
serving several public bodies, both on the societal and on the judiciary
branches. He currently sits on the advisory board of several EU proj-
ects and research units.
Samar Shailendra is currently working as a scientist at TCS
Research and Innovation. He is also a visiting faculty member at
Indian Institutes of Information Technology (IIIT), Bangalore. He
has more than 10 years of industry and academic experience. He has
obtained his MTech and PhD from Indian Institutes of Technology
(Delhi and Guwahati, respectively). Dr. Samar has worked with
various research and software industries in the past such as Novell
Software and Infosys Technologies. Dr. Samar is a former vice chair of
M2M Work Group at Telecommunication Standards Development
Society, India (TSDSI), an Indian SDO. He has published in various
international journals, as well as conference papers, and has filed sev-
eral patents. He has been invited as a guest speaker at IIT Guwahati

x x viii Contributors biograPhy
and Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO)
India, among others. He has also been a keynote speaker at various
IEEE international conferences. His current areas of research inter-
est include software-defined networking (SDN), information-centric
networking (ICN), the Internet of Things (IoT), robotics commu-
nication, fog computing, offloading, and multipath communication.

1
1
CentriC-Based
networking systems
M. BA L A K R ISH NA
1.1 Centric-Based Networking Systems
1.1.1 Introduction
Centric-based networking systems (CNS) integrate the services of
wired and wireless communication networks to provide secure and reli-
able services to end users. CNS operates in centralized and distributed
modes to enhance the content delivery rate and reduce the operational
and economic cost of the system. Centric systems support efficient data
delivery services based on resource scheduling and service types. CNS
classification is based on parameters such as user preference, infor-
mation type, content type (centralized or distributed), address range,
network type, network modes (device-centric or address-centric), data
Contents
1.1 Centric-Based Networking Systems 1
1.1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.2 Classification of Centric-Based Networking 2
1.1.3 User-Centric Networking 3
1.1.4 Information-Centric Networking 6
1.1.5 Service-Centric Networking 8
1.1.6 Content-Centric Networking 10
1.1.7 Network-Centric Networking 13
1.1.8 Storage-Centric Networking 15
1.1.9 Address-Centric Networking 16
1.1.10 Device-Centric Networking 17
1.1.11 Conclusion and Future Directions 18
References 18

2 USER-CENTRIC AND INFORMATION-CENTRIC
factor (aggregation or dissemination), and service types. CNS compo-
nents and their features are explained as follows.
1.1.2 Classification of Centric-Based Networking
User-centric networking (UCN) builds an accessible network struc-
ture [1] with pre-defined rules to achieve the trade-off between the
user requirements and quality of data rendered by active devices. The
framework applies the content negotiation and iterative ranking tech-
niques. The primary aspect of UCN improves the content quality
value in terms of user scores (satisfaction levels). Information-centric
networking (ICN) aims [2] at instantaneous control, processing, and
correlation of large-scale information from the authenticated IoT
devices. ICN systems ensure data availability and accessibility with
minimum contention using different levels of confidentiality, security,
and privacy in the system.
Current networks are confined to create end-to-end connectivity
and restrict the network architecture to adapt to new service require-
ments and functionality. Service-centric networking (SrCN) [3]
defines the “service” as the semantic information to handle the data
representation, transmission, and storage in large-scale networks.
A service-centric approach addresses the practical issues related to
channel contention, caching, and payload transcoding. The services
are categorized based on information type, query size, device type,
user attributes, and application specification.
Content-centric networking (CCN) [4] supports the device mobil-
ity, maps the named-base and networking topologies, utilizes the home
domain routers as proxies, and verifies the sources of data contents.
CCN receivers seamlessly resend the interested data packets after the
handover process and avoid the need for location updates, and the prox-
ies update the users with the link to web pages.
Network-centric networking (NCN) [5] is a combination of wired
and wireless devices that emphasize the role of handoff and location
update in the network. NCN defines the collaborative and logical
connections between (i) the physical and virtual network groups, (ii)
service and application overlays, and (iii) implement wide-range of use
cases to support the high-speed data, voice, multimedia, and internet
services. NCN implements fixed topology based on the demands of

3
CentriC-based networking systems
access points (APs) and base stations (BSs). Network coordination,
resource management, and link management aim to balance the load
at different servers and BSs.
Storage-centric networking (SCN) [6] enhances the abstraction of
distributed storage units located within the coverage area. In large-
scale sensor networks, the data storage and retrieval operations per-
formed at local (sensor level) and external storage systems (server
level) depend on the node queries. Cluster head nodes (CHs) and the
BS coordinate with local storage systems, and the data archiving sys-
tems apply lossless local data aggregation techniques to enable the fast
and uniform data flow in the system. SCN is a step-wise approach
that securely disseminates voluminous and multi-dimensional data to
distributed storage units and provides access to authentic users.
In address-centric networking [7], the physical or IP addresses
between the source and destination nodes with shortest route path
indicate the end-to-end connectivity. Since the intermediate routers
do not perform data aggregation task, the network traffic, latency,
and resource consumption increase. However, the device-centric
systems [8] modify the existing data contents (as a version) based
on the requirements of the target device. A device-centric network
(DCN) is based on link stability of data intensive nodes and smart
devices with limited storage. DCN systems are enabled with location-
based middleware services to track the devices. After the registration,
the mobile devices reactively pull the data query from the server or
the server proactively pushes the data updates to the mobile device.
Configured routers, APs, and intermediate nodes enhance the con-
nectivity between the data-centric nodes in the network. Figure 1.1
illustrates the classification of the centric-based networking system.
This chapter elucidates the functional aspects of each centric system
in the network.
1.1.3 User-Centric Networking
User-centric networking (UCN) applies pre-defined rules to improve
data accessibility per user requirements [1] and defines the trade-off
between user requirements and data rates. User-centric nodes are
selected based on the node location, connectivity factor, buffer size,
and network processing aspects. The quality and quantization steps

Centric-based
Networking
and
Services
Informaon-Centric
Networking
User-Centric
Networking
Data
Storage-Centric
Networking
Address-Centric
Networking
Network-Centric
Networking
Device-Centric
Networking
Desktop
PC
Main
Frame
Computer
Wired
Network
Wireless
Network
Cellular
Network
Laptops
Tablets
Mobile
Phones
Service-Centric
Networking
Content-Centric
Networking
Centralized
Distributed
Figure
1.1
Classification
of
centric-based
networking
systems.

5
are evaluated to select the nodes yielding high scores. The adaptive
user-centric model coordinates with content negotiation, content real-
ization, and proxy servers to establish the decision logic to select the
significant content versions and manage the user preferences. A UCN-
aware throughput-based pricing scheme [9] modifies the decision rules
based on content size and quality acceptable to the device type. The
content delivery architecture with pre-cache feature supports multi-
media services and utilizes the maximum channel bandwidth. UCN
nodes [10] consider neighborhood density and location-based services
to identify the active nodes in the network. The nodes are periodically
verified and authenticated based on previous successful transactions.
This approach eliminates malicious attacks in the network. Host
nodes update the UCN status based on global information retrieved
from the adjoining networks. The UCN-aware push [11] technique
schedules the content delivery using unicast and multicast features
of users, and the pre-cached multimedia services efficiently use the
channel bandwidth. UCN identity management [12] is based on audit
authority and access rules. The basic features of user-centric systems
are given as follows:
• Content Adaptation: Device-centric and autonomic feature
converts the existing data as per the specifications of target
mobile device.
• Application Specific: UCN uses the application-specific and
cooperative attributes of neighboring centric-based systems.
• Quality of Service: QoS and perceptual preferences are the
primary attributes of UCN.
• Cost-effective: UCN cost-effective systems are based on node
co-operations in real-time applications.
Social network analysis [13] using the UCN approach addresses the
issues related to user interests, improves the data dissemination qual-
ity, and reduces the network delays. Preference-based analysis [14]
with service configurations maximizes the user satisfaction levels,
and infrastructure network resources efficiently handle the applica-
tion workload. UCN considers the small cell BS as the dynamic group
[15] that uses the cache-aided cooperative transmission, and evalu-
ates the constraints related to cache coverage, delay, and throughput.
Content popularity is based on content probability distribution at

respective channels. For the centralized emergency systems, the user
authentication [16] and data retrieval are reduced by considering the
identity-based signature.
1.1.4 Information-Centric Networking
Machine processing and information generating systems create the
interoperable cluster of machines and humans known as information
of networks. ICN [17] smoothens the large information flow based
on device connectivity and interaction with servers. ICN provides
the persistent and location independent services to the named data
objects. The network based on information, efficient resource man-
agement, and application services facilitates user queries. Information
naming avoids the host-centric approach [18] that requires the users
to specify the contents and server lists. ICN considers the content-
centric bandwidth allocation and content delivery add-ons in the
system. The traffic control autonomous systems use publish/subscribe
mechanisms to address the stranded queries. The internet security
protocols and filters increase the information retrieval rate and com-
munication in large-scale networks.
Cache characterization and allocation techniques [19] compare the
functionalities of optimal and opportunistic caching. The impact of
the new user request is monitored and leads to subsequent requests
from adjacent nodes, and the object reference for space and time is
stored. This method evaluates the future temporal locality of user
requests. Congestion aware caching in ICN [20] enables the node to
identify the traffic flow and save the active downloads. The request
popularity is represented as the exponential weighted average. When
the router restarts, the previous counters of popular requests are set
to zero, and the cache-based policies are updated as per the network-
centric parameters. This model decouples the local searching and tar-
get searching of user requests.
ICN uses the content names [21] for smart home environments
functioning as location independent in energy-efficient multi-cast
system. This system supports one-one, one-to-many, many-to-one,
and many-many sources to consumer communications using the
extendable global namespaces with the root node represented as the

7
logical component of unique identifier. ICN (i) ignores the identity of
data origin and targets the data content; (ii) reduces the load, retrieval
delays, and data contents cached from the source nodes; and (iii)
addresses the services required by the IoT users. Name-based rout-
ing and lookup-based resolution fastens the content discovery mecha-
nisms in the receiver-driven data retrieval model.
Device naming and classification in ICN [22] facilitates the human
intervention to control and schedule the information management
rules. This technique simplifies the actions of sensors and actuators.
ICNs avoid direct connection with the end devices and support oppor-
tunistic data forwarding using multiple paths with similar contexts.
This approach efficiently handles the connection inconsistencies and
decouples the content source, publisher, and user nodes. ICN uses
immutable data objects with specific names and properties such as
streams of sensor data, collective name, and a sequence number that
is easily identifiable. The devices enable the pull services when the
content source has abundant information that matches the interests
of participants, whereas the push model enables the participants with
information that matches the interests of participants.
ICN [23] controls and categorizes the user information based on
the service type. The service-oriented information is shared with
the global users irrespective of their locality, migration of service,
and device mobility. ICN aims at network load reduction in query-
response and condition-based multicast communication in large-scale
IoT networks. The security layer supports the private and confidential
information in the network. ICN efficiency is based on data aggrega-
tion and data fusion that collects the data and forwards it to the data
storage node or service node.
Logical virtualizations of a service-oriented ICN system [24]
enable the service providers to share the virtual resources with
mobile virtual network operators, and facilitate services to end-to-
end devices. The information sharing between multiple SPs and
MVNOs improves the fair resource sharing with low capital and
operational expenditures. The resource allocation supports flexible
data rates with associated users utilizing the shared bandwidth. The
association indicator derived from the percentage of radio resource is
shared with the active users. The cache model rewards the alleviated

bandwidths utilized by the nodes, and addresses the content
request rate and average data rate. This technique improves the
in-network caching and energy consumption rate of active nodes in
the network. In ICN-based D2D, the content caching is significant
[25] since the devices depend on BS, SPs, and MVNOs. The virtual
network avoids the CSI exchange between the spectral resources
and backhaul network. The virtual MNOs and users directly share
the contents based on the distribution indicator factor that controls
the bandwidth.
1.1.5 Service-Centric Networking
Service-centric platforms [3] provide end-to-end information abstrac-
tion by (i) considering the most frequently refreshed web-pages; (ii) the
quantities of encoded, transmitted information; and (iii) modifications
applied to the transmitted data. The object-oriented approach distin-
guishes [26] the user services and contents as interests and exchanged
data messages. The service entities are defined at different locations
as per the requests of corresponding routers. Object-oriented service
entities (OSEs) consist of processing servers to identify and separate
the data and functions invoked (such as requesting the web pages
with specified content) by users. OSEs encapsulate the service-centric
functions and the data objects with same naming schemes. The ser-
vice data cached on network elements adjacent to the mobile device is
based on service calls and matches with request contents. Information
transmission is categorized as private information exchange, web-
cache service, and the push-based multicast transfer. Multiple service
objects are rendered using (i) routing header information delivered to
adjacent servers and (ii) message delays that are varied based on access
costs of data objects.
The decentralized, probabilistic, and Ant Colony Optimization–
based model [27] reduces the necessity of a complete network map of
participant nodes.The service selection is based on matching names of
current user requests to avoid the session dependency of subsequent
requests.The optimal decisions are based on the distributed probabil-
ity of service names and bandwidth to balance the load and mini-
mize the network congestion. The pheromone value with the highest

9
probability is always selected to establish the “fast-paths with best
matching faces.” The content-centric routing services integrate the
selection and name-based routing schemes by monitoring the content
names of next hops and interest packets.
The service-centric approach [28] considers the delay tolerance
in do-it-yourself systems and hosts the network services. The
“anywhere” cacheable service and migrated contents handle the
unpredictable service disruptions and link failures. The service
instances are treated as self-contained objects that exist in two states
as follows: (i) static objects stored in memory and (ii) instantiated
mode, currently processing the user requests. The individual
services initiated by publishers as requested by subscribers are
executed as unikernal virtual machines. The service execution
gateway components connect the clients and application servers
and execute the services of clients. The forwarding node cache,
enroute the user requests, and the edge gateway node (proxy) send
the requests to adjoining network. Brokers use direct or hop-
by-hop store and forward techniques to transmit the messages.
The service caching and synchronization allow the movement of
priority service requests between the edge networks using service
execution gateway nodes.
Small cell massive deployment with restricted radio frequencies
in limited regions results in handover issues and degradation of the
performance of large macro cells in 5G networks. The SCN-based
mobility management model [29] applies the cloud-based network-
centric model that uses the local information and handles the
handover decisions. The user equipment receives the current location
updates toward the destination. The application program interfaces
collect the available radio frequencies and interference rates, and
forward the call accordingly.The service-centric approach enables the
application server to schedule the information in the mobile network
and receive the future location information to assign the calls to the
next BS. The users subscribe and send their IDs to the cloud-based
driving navigation system that evaluates the arrival rate based on node
mobility, and notifies the neighboring BS to initiate the handover
within the coverage region. The route updates obtained as a service
decrease the handover latency.

The service-centric heterogeneous cloud model [30] collaborates
with the internet SPs and network SPs for optimal services that:
1. Improve the bandwidth/cost performance of distributed data
centers
2. Have on-demand negotiation to map the cache contents in
the user neighborhood to increase the delivery rate
3. Reduce access delays by interconnecting the deployed services
4. Configure the over-the-top (OTT) priorities and integrate
the content delivery and application delivery network control-
lers to offload the network traffic
5. Configure the additional functions that satisfy the hardware
heterogeneity and lightweight virtualization as demanded by
the cloud services
The functional entities include the orchestrator to identify the avail-
able services, measure the constraints, and establish the service graphs
to enhance the deployment policies. The execution zones monitor
and evaluate the runtime functional aspects of service instances and
coordinate with the computational resources. The deployment rep-
licas indicate the subset of available service instances as configured
by the execution zones to meet the service requirements. The service
resolution subsystem logically approves the optimal service paths to
address the client queries in multiple domains. The locators contain
the networking address and further DNS map the location of physical
devices. The out-of-band entity enables the service replicas by using
standard IP address–centric connections.
1.1.6 Content-Centric Networking
Content-centric networking (CCN) systems [31,32] apply unique
naming of data contents as entities (integrity and validity) that are
easily retrieved by users and preserve the physical location of data
servers. The caching frequency and popularity of cached contents at
servers affect the system performance. The fairness of content cach-
ing [31] is improved by evaluating the contents number, cache size,
average overlay path-length between the source and consumer nodes,
level of content diffusion, and the cache replacement policies of the
network. The performance of content overlay significantly depends on

11
cached contents with intermediate popularities, but not on the most
popular data contents. The traffic control model using fair bandwidth
sharing [32] considers the data packets as a query response of user
interests represented by the same name. The data content name struc-
ture includes the chunk name (with sequence number or label) for
representing the data packets, whereas the object name enlists the
common prefixes with version numbers of data chunks related to the
corresponding named objects such as audio-video files, documents,
and voice call. Caching in content networking aims at offloading the
data traffic flows using one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-one
communication between the content sources and the consumers. This
technique achieves the trade-off between the distributed memory
capacity and the per-flow bandwidths.
The growing demands of high data rates in internet services
increase the operational and control overheads of application serv-
ers. The web resources apply (i) add-on features to provide the
security and location updates, (ii) low convergence time to sustain
the link disruptions, and (iii) multi-stage addressing techniques to
update the routing table. Content-centric networking (CCN) [4]
applies the named data for initiating the receiver-driven commu-
nication and emphasizing the in-network caching. CCNs do the
following: (i) efficiently map the name-based physical topology, (ii)
support the receiver-driven communication that allows the users
only to send the interested data packets, (iii) apply publish/subscribe
mechanism using “names” to identify the desired data that match
the content queries, (iv) broadcast the matching name prefixes to
content routers, update the forwarding information base (FIB) and
pending interest table (PIT), and (v) cache the required data to con-
tent store (CS) and coordinate with intermediate nodes to forward
data toward the consumer nodes. The PIT tracks the forwarded data
until the matched contents arrive at the consumer successfully, and
the newly arriving contents at PIT entries replace the unmatched
and timeout contents. CCN supports device mobility management
by coordinating with the home domain routers that function as the
proxy node and reduce the resource consumption with new domain
routers. The content routers in the new domain receive the broadcast
of name prefixes that are handled by the mobile source node of the
home domain. This defines the prefix updates of route paths that

are tunneled between the mobile content source (MCS) in home
domain and content routers (CRs) of the new domain.
The content-centric approach [33] explores the content delivery
network for high data rates, and filters the redundant information in
the network. The performance of a content delivery network depends
on the coordination of the basic delivery network model, content pro-
viders, and network operators. A content delivery network does the
following: (i) deploys the servers, (ii) expands the server content list as
per the user demands, (iii) collaborates with multiple internet SPs and
network operators, and (iv) reduces the communication gaps between
different content delivery network systems.
CCN [34] enables the routers to retransmit the dropped and pend-
ing data packets periodically. The lifetime of interest lists in the pend-
ing table is enhanced by the entry time for keeping the upstream
alive, and until the request data is received. The pending interests
are periodically retransmitted to consider the timeout requests of
consumers. Content objects [35] match the identical data contents
(frequently repeated words, phrases, songs, or pictures) from the
distributed information among the neighboring servers. The com-
posite information is derived using limited resources. Content secu-
rity [36] is achieved by using the name sequence with implicit digest
and public signatures. The forwarding NACKs verify the status of
the next forwarding node, and the NACKs reduce the drawbacks of
flooding. The progressive role of content sources in internet systems
requires the autonomous content and cache systems [37] to coordi-
nate and improve the peer business relations.The global performance
of content-centric networks is achieved through multi-dimensional
distributed cache systems based on (i) cache decision policies that
coordinate with resources located at different places, (ii) the cache
allocation matching the user requests, reducing the pending interests,
and (iii) global stabilization of cache configurations. Content peering
among the autonomous internet SPs exchange the cache summary,
locally available messages, and share the most recent interest copies.
The cache savings and cost minimization depend on the accuracy of
the arrival time request. Cache synchronization is based on timely
updates and achieves the uniform allocation of cache resources.
The crowd source–based CCN [38] meets the demands of mobile
participant nodes by balancing the human intelligence and server

13
capacity. The social networking characteristics such as content shar-
ing with community groups aggregate the interesting contents and
readily diffuse the information to the sensor network. The mobile
devices registered at the application entity (access points) act as con-
tent sources to participate in the task. The participants with simi-
lar interests join the task and forward the shared data contents. The
task initiator node evaluates the user participation in the group, and
the feedback is sent to the cloud server. The user equipment com-
municates with the service initiation using cellular and social group
communication.
1.1.7 Network-Centric Networking
Network-centric networking (NCNs) [5] decentralizes the sparse and
structured wireless mesh networks using real and virtual resources as
overlay services and establishes the end-to-end connectivity. NCN is a
combination of wired and wireless networks that support high-speed
connectivity in multimedia and internet services. Network-centric
systems evolved from centralized to distributed mode include the
broad participation of wireless sensors, actuators, personal computers,
mobile phones, smart objects, RFIDs, and satellite systems. SPs and
network operators control the network deployment, operational strat-
egies, link management, and service pricing schemes. SPs separate
the core capital network services with access and edge networking
services operated from different locations.
The network-centric network aims for optimal coverage [39] to
balance the load and resource allocation at each radio access point.
Deployment strategies include the decision logic models such as Semi-
Markov Decision and joint radio resource management schemes that
evaluate the network performance in terms of resource blocking cost,
network throughput rate, and financial gain. The deployment model
considers the (i) logical partition of cellular regions into finite con-
centric rings, (ii) enable the mobile users to use identical radio condi-
tions for signal-to-noise ratio evaluation (SNR measurements based
on path loss and Rayleigh fading), (iii) placement of BS in overlapping
regions of two radio access points (using WiMAX and UMTS tech-
nologies), (iv) effects of intra-cellular interference and inter-cellular
interference, and (v) evaluation of the orthogonality and path loss of

users in multiple adjacent rings to improve the traceability of mobile
users. The cell blocking cost depends on call arrival rates, state transi-
tion probability, and the sojourn times (expected time for each user to
associate with the corresponding cell). The calls are directed toward
the cell that increases the network revenue and directly impacts the
rewards offered to respective users.
The network-centric collaborations indicate the similarity of infor-
mation, trust relations, and interaction frequency of social group
members. PopCore, the network-centric collaborative platform [40],
uses Facebook data to derive useful information related to favorite
items. The duplicated and uncategorized web pages related to indi-
viduals are considered to understand the behavior of social group
members. The network algorithms are applied to (i) randomly select
the liked itemsets from a friend’s profile of users, (ii) select the most
liked items, (iii) select the most liked items of social groups mem-
bers, (iv) provide most-recent to recent-past (current last week) user
information, (v) yield similarity scores for the most liked and disliked
items, and (vi) measure the interaction strength that indicates the
strong association of a user’s views for selected items.
The network-centric situational awareness system [41] aims to opti-
mize network performance and improve the quality of experience
(QoE) for end users that are further evaluated as subjective feedback
of services such as data speed as well as the quality of audio and video
files. The surrounding, target, location, and responsiveness model
addresses the end-to-end video communication in wireless ad hoc net-
works. Human factors such as observing, understanding, and recalling
event levels define the relevance and user responsiveness, and further
update the network. The surrounding awareness and location indicate
user responsiveness to environmental changes. The information fusion
depends on the rate of packet loss and signal delays of streaming vid-
eos in the physical communication channel. NCNs with situational
awareness define the object functions that address the resource alloca-
tion issues as required by the end users in emergency situations.
The characteristics of NCNs are categorized as follows:
• Network-centric systems provide a unique IP address for the
connected devices such as sensors, actuators, and RFIDs to
select the shortest route between the communicating entities.

15
• NCN classifies the user’s performance based on sensing the
environment and defines the autonomous actions specific to
a user. The traffic flow and scheduling are varied as per the
social emergence and network requirements.
• The decentralized networking allows the sensor nodes to
actively control the services, vary the packet delivery rate, and
coordinate with the BSs to manage the resources.
• In social networking, the collaborative filters provide use-
ful recommendations to choose the online products; movie,
audio/video albums, books, and so on.
1.1.8 Storage-Centric Networking
Storage-centric networks are based on location and the storage type
used in the network. Data storage systems manage the flow of data
in centralized, distributed, and zone-based modes to support multi-
ple user queries in the large-scale network. SCN uses the core router,
access router, and end-point routers to implement the tree-based
topology and recursive-based topology in the network. Sensor storage
capacities depend on the rechargeable batteries embedded in the sen-
sor system, and the storage capacity of sensing devices [6] depends on
battery energy levels.Adaptive designs enable the sensor nodes to pro-
actively sense, perform local actions, and store the current events. The
secure sensor nodes buffer the events of physical environment based
on the user query and naming services of the network.Storage systems
use the current database server as the resource monitor to identify the
(i) active neighbors, (ii) existence of reliable route paths between the
source and destinations nodes, and (iii) number of duplicate messages
currently present at the sensor nodes. This ensures the availability of
current information at the local data center.The message frequency is
varied based on the ratio of incoming user queries, with the regular
updates stored at respective local databases. BS depends on the ratio
of received replies, selects the number of active storage nodes, and
periodically broadcasts the sensor messages.The data chunks received
within the time limit are verified with the node and stream IDs. The
valid data chunks are sent to local files that are stored in the virtual
directory of BS. The nodes track the successfully sent data chunks at
these local files and delete the current data from the storage.

Stream-oriented data storage systems [42] decouple the data pro-
cessing from storing the data. The adaptable application-specific poli-
cies are used for distinct storage areas in the system. The sensor nodes
modify the sensing time intervals and frequency to maintain the
current energy at threshold levels and update the BS. This technique
enables the sensor nodes to (i) sustain the bandwidth limitations, (ii)
be active in the sense-aggregate-send loop, and (iii) retain the data
until it is transmitted to the BS. In large-scale sensor networks, the
data updates are flooded to the storage systems since the sensor nodes
dynamically vary their active and sleep schedules. This requires the
data dissemination [43] and topological variance between the tree-
based and grid-based structures. In the network, the sensing zone and
storage zone [44] reduce message replications and ensure reliable data
rates with the quality of information at the storage centers. The stor-
age manager nodes use the linear coefficient of data packets to yield
the encoding vectors and distribute the data packets.
1.1.9 Address-Centric Networking
Address-centric [7] networks require high location accuracy and
facilitate the end-to-end connectivity using the shortest route path
between the source and the destination nodes. This method does
not consider the data aggregation to be performed at the sensor
level and directly transmits the data to sink nodes. This creates data
redundancy that is further avoided by the data-centric approach. The
source sends identification information to the sink node, whereas in
a data-centric approach the source sends distinct information to the
sink node. IP subnet addressing modes [45] increase the deployment
cost of the sensor network. The subnet nodes coordinate with the
home and foreign access routers, server nodes, and end-user nodes.
In static networks, the routers periodically update the routing tables,
whereas in Mobile IP, the Care of Addresses (CoAs) is updated based
on the foreign network of the mobile device. Increases in IoT sensors
[46] and 5G networks with a unique addressing scheme escalate the
complexity of channel distribution. The complexity in the address-
centric network is due to the locator module using multicast routing
addresses. Openflow switches in software-defined networks [47]
use IP addressing schemes to update the flow tables with IP source

17
and port address. This approach considerably increases the flow at
switches, but doesn’t monitor the redundant data at switches.
1.1.10 Device-Centric Networking
The network-centric approach coordinates between the gateway and
router nodes. Device-centric systems enable the mobile network
operators [8] to configure the resources as per user demands.
While coordinating with the component-based system, a device-
centric cloud-based platform facilitates the content services [48] to
mobile devices. This technique supports the reusable components in
network architecture. Service intra-organization of connected devices
secures the ecosystem. Device-centric architecture [49] supports the
database deployment using multiple transmit signals in the cellular
network. The control plane using high power nodes as microwave
transmissions is separated from the data plane. Low-power nodes in
the data plane consider millimeter wave transmissions.
High data rates and increasing traffic volumes in 5G networks
require low latency and application-specific deployment (with user
equipment connected to at least one BS within the coverage area).
Due to random mobility, the links are sustained by a cloud-based
device-centric system [50] using radio access virtualization. This
technique continuously tracks the intensity and beam width of the
user equipment. User plane virtualization for downlink is supported
by the hyper-transceiver system to improve the quality of service. This
model supports multipoint transmission and proactive dynamic point
selection to connect the devices in short-range communication.
In large-scale heterogeneous networks, the operational and eco-
nomical costs reduce the cellular offloading by lowering the device-
to-device radio links [51]. The connection establishment with faster
delivery rate archives (i) call offloading, (ii) sharing of game and multi-
media features, (iii) context-aware services, and (iv) security alerts and
notifications in social groups. DCN uses the network knowledge and
supports the distributed traffic in peak hours [52] to enable the user
equipment to utilize the services based on previous sessions. A device-
centric system with link management decisions uses the coordinated
multiple heterogeneous devices to configure the femto APs [53] in a
single-tier cellular network with multiple BS. A device-centric system

with secure deployment and operations [54] supports the device-aware
constraints such as risk context identification to secure the system.
1.1.11 Conclusion and Future Directions
Centric systems consider the attributes of user, data, information, stor-
age, service, and network with device-specific and address-specific
features in communication network. This chapter classifies the centric
systems and highlights the features and functionality of each cen-
tric system. User-centric systems consider the trade-offs between user
preferences and quality of information received from the network. The
information-centric system aims at data availability based on contexts,
and is further classified as service-centric or content-centric network.
Network-centric networks define the collaborative topology as per the
policies of SPs and network operators. The network deployment is
based on rules specified by the business model. The link management
and traffic scheduling schemes are adequately controlled and coordi-
nated by the BSs and APs. Storage-centric networks aim at reducing
the complexity of data processing, storing the data with minimum
replica and reducing the data loss due to disruptive communication.
The address-centric networks use IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to define
the shortest route paths. Device-centric networks enable deployment,
resource management, and link management as per user demands.
Future extension of this chapter includes the features of fog comput-
ing, edge computing, and multi-access edge computing in centric-
based networking systems.
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different content

laundry people because it was so over-run with vermin that they
would not wash it.
One of the inmates—a woman—who was doing hard work at
scrubbing every day, asked me whether she couldn't have a pair of
boots.
'Surely,' I said, putting her off for the time, 'nobody here goes
without boots?'
A second and a third time when I came across her scrubbing the
floors she pleaded for boots. She raised her skirt from the wet stone
floor, and showed two sloppy pieces of canvas on her feet, and that
was all she had in the way of boots.
Crooks went on to relate that he walked along the corridor and saw a
female officer. There's a woman over there who has asked me three
times to get her a pair of boots, he said.
She drew her skirt round her and said, Oh, why do you worry about
these people; they are not our class.
Worry about them! Crooks rejoined. What do you mean by our
class? We are here to see these people properly clothed. I do not
want to quarrel, but that woman must have a pair of boots to-day.

CHAPTER XIV
THE MAN WHO FED THE POOR
Chairman of the Poplar Board of Guardians—Bumbledom
Dethroned—Paupers' Garb Abolished—Two Presidents of the
Local Government Board Approve Crooks's Policy.
This, then, was the state of the workhouse when Crooks went on the
Board. It was soon evident that a strong man had arrived. He whom
some of the Guardians at first described as a ranter from the Labour
mob soon proved himself the best administrator among them.
Within five years of his election he was made Chairman. The Board
insisted on his retaining the chair for ten consecutive years. During
that time he wrought out of the shame and degradation he found in
the workhouse a system of order and decency and humane
administration that for a long time made the Poplar Union a model
among Poor Law authorities, and one frequently recommended by
the Local Government Board.
Of course he made enemies. Some of the old Guardians whom he
had turned out of public life nursed their resentment in secret. Others
joined them, including contractors who had fared lavishly under the
old régime. Presently a Municipal Alliance was formed, and though it
could do nothing against Crooks at the poll, since the ratepayers
would persist in placing him at the top, it found other methods of
attacking him, of which more hereafter.
One of the first things he aimed at was a change in the character
both of officers and of Guardians. He saw no hope for the poor under
the old rulers. At each succeeding election his opposition brought
about the defeat of the worst of them.

The officers could not be dealt with so publicly. Some of the officers
in the infirmary, addicted to drunkenness, were able to defy the
Guardians for an obvious reason. It was one of their duties to take
whisky and champagne into the infirmary for the delectation of some
of the Guardians, whom a billiard table often detained into the early
hours. Crooks and Lansbury raised such indignation in the district as
to make it impossible for this state of things to continue.
In 1894 the Master and Matron resigned. Gradually the old school of
workhouse officials who had run the place as they liked were weeded
out. A more intelligent, more sympathetic, better disciplined staff
grew up in their place. Bumbledom was dethroned. The sick were
nursed better. The inmates were clothed better. All, both old and
young, were fed better.
The tell-tale pauper's garb disappeared altogether. When the old
people walked out they were no longer branded by their dress. They
wore simple, homely garments. They all rejoiced in the change save
a few like the old woman Crooks came across one afternoon on her
day out. She was looking clean and comfortable, and he asked how
she liked the new clothes.
Not at all, Mr. Crooks. Nobody thinks you come from the workhouse
now, so they don't give you anything.
His greatest reform had reference to the food. Skilly went the way
of greasy water. Good plain wholesome meals appeared on the
tables.
And became more expensive, say the critics.
Yes, Crooks retorts; but to economise on the stomachs of the poor
is false economy. If it's only cheapness you want, why don't you set
up the lethal chamber for the old people? That would be the
cheapest thing of all.
Let us see what he actually gave these people to eat, since for
feeding the poor he was afterwards called to the bar of public
opinion.

First he developed the system of bread-baking in the workhouse, in
order to get better and cheaper bread than was being supplied under
contract from outside. Under the direction of one or two skilled
bakers, the work provided many of the inmates with pleasant and
useful occupation. They made all the bread required in the
workhouse for both officers and inmates, all the bread required in the
children's schools, all the loaves given away as out-relief.
Instead of being likened to india-rubber, as it used to be in the old
days, the bread now came to be described by the Daily Mail as equal
to what could be obtained in the best restaurants in the West-End.
Yet they were making this bread in the workhouse cheaper than it
was possible to buy ordinary bread outside.
And then, for the benefit of the infirm old folk, Crooks persuaded the
Guardians to substitute butter for margarine, and fresh meat for the
cheap stale stuff so often supplied. He held out for milk that had not
been skimmed, and for tea and coffee that had not been adulterated.
He even risked his reputation by allowing the aged women to put
sugar in their tea themselves, and the old men to smoke an
occasional pipe of tobacco.
Rumours of this new way of feeding the workhouse poor reached the
austere Local Government Board. First it sent down its inspectors,
and then the President himself appeared in person. And Mr. Chaplin
saw that it was good, and told other Boards to do likewise. He issued
a circular to the Guardians of the country recommending all that
Poplar had introduced. More, he proposed that for deserving old
people over sixty-four years of age the supply of tobacco, dry tea,
and sugar be made compulsory.
This humane order of things, you may be sure, did not commend
itself to all Guardian Boards; and when later there came further
instructions from headquarters that ailing inmates might be allowed
medical comforts, the revolt materialised. A deputation of
Guardians went to Whitehall to try to argue the President into a
harder heart. Crooks and Lansbury were there to uphold the new

system. Mr. Walter Long had succeeded Mr. Chaplin then. He listened
patiently to ingenious speeches in which honourable gentlemen tried
to show that it was from no lack of love for the poor they had not
carried out the new dietary scale, but——
Gentlemen, Mr. Long interrupted at last, am I to understand you
do not desire to feed your poor people properly?
Then all with one accord began to make excuse. It was the difficulty
of book-keeping, they said. It appeared they were prepared to stint
the poor rather than add to the book-keeping.
From that day an improved dietary scale was introduced into our
workhouses. The man who fed the poor in Poplar saw the workhouse
poor of the kingdom better fed in consequence.
What kind of food was it that Poplar dared to give to the poor? Those
luxuries for paupers down at Poplar, about which the world was to
hear so much, what were they? A working-man had appeared, and
after years of unwearied well-doing had got rid of skilly and greasy
water, substituting, with the approval of two Presidents of the Local
Government Board, the following simple articles of food.
Observe the list carefully, for the kinds and quantities of food here set
out were precisely those supplied to the able-bodied inmates during
the outcry that arose over paupers' luxuries at the time of the Local
Government Board Inquiry in 1906. The list is the official return of
the food supplied in one week to each inmate.
A MAN'S DIET FOR A WEEK.
(Cost, 4s. 2d.)
Breakfasts Bread 3½ lbs.
Butter 3½ ozs.
Coffee 7 pints.
Dinners Mutton 13½ ozs.
Beef 4½ ozs.

Bacon 3 ozs.
Irish stew 1 pint.
Boiled pork 4½ ozs.
Bread 14 ozs.
Potatoes and greens 4½ lbs.
Suppers Bread 3½ lbs.
Butter 3½ ozs.
Tea 7 pints.
A WOMAN'S DIET FOR A WEEK.
(Cost, 4s.)
Breakfasts Bread 2⅝ lbs.
Butter 3½ ozs.
Coffee 7 pints.
Dinners Mutton 12 ozs.
Beef 4 ozs.
Bacon 3 ozs.
Irish stew 1 pint.
Boiled pork 4 ozs.
Bread 1¾ lbs.
Potatoes and greens 3 lbs.
Suppers Bread 2⅝ lbs.
Butter 3½ ozs.
Tea 7 pints.
When you read down that list and think of the scare headlines that
appeared in London daily papers during the Inquiry—Splendid
Paupers, Luxuries for Paupers, A Pauper's Paradise—you may
well ask, Are we living in bountiful England? Or have we fallen upon
an England of meagre diet and mean men, an England that whines
like a miser when called upon to feed on homely fare its broken-down
veterans of industry?

Dickens is dead, else would he have shown us Bumble reincarnated
in the editors of certain London newspapers.

CHAPTER XV
TURNING WORKHOUSE CHILDREN INTO
USEFUL CITIZENS
A Home for Little Ins-and-Outs—Technical Education for
Workhouse Children—A Good Report for the Forest Gate Schools
—Trophies won by Scholars—The Children's Pat-a-Cakes.
After he had fed the old people and clothed the old people, and in
other ways brought into their darkened lives a little good cheer,
Crooks turned his care upon the workhouse children.
The Guardians' school at Forest Gate lay four miles from the Union
buildings at Poplar. With five or six hundred children always under
training in the school there still remained varying batches of
neglected little people in the workhouse. The greater number of
these belonged to parents who came into the House for short periods
only.
These little ins-and-outs were getting no schooling and no training
save the training that fitted them for pauperism. What to do with
them had long been a perplexing problem. If they were sent to
Forest Gate one day their parents in the workhouse could demand
them back the next day and take their discharge, even though they
and their children turned up at the gates for re-admission within the
next twenty-four hours.
When Crooks proposed the simple expedient of sending these
children to the surrounding day-schools everybody seemed amazed.
The idea had never been heard of before. The London School Board
of the day did not take kindly to it at all. It poured cold water on the
project at first. The neighbouring schools were nearly all full, and the
Board thought it would hear no more of the matter by suggesting

that if the Guardians could find vacant places they were at liberty of
course to send the children.
Crooks framed an answering letter that it was the School Board's
duty to find the places, and that, come what would, the Guardians
were determined to send the children to the day schools.
Soon places were found for all. The little people who, through neglect
and idleness in the workhouse, had been getting steeped in
pauperism, were now dressed in non-institution clothes, and they
went to and from the neighbouring schools, playing on the way like
any other children.
That was the beginning of a system destined to have a far-reaching
effect on Poor Law children all over the country. Other Unions, faced
with the same problem, seeing how well it had been dealt with at
Poplar, went and did likewise.
The Labour Guardian did not rest there. The children were a great
deal better for coming in daily contact with the outside world, but
much of the good work was undone by their having to spend every
night in the workhouse. He wanted to keep them away altogether
from its contaminating influence. He persuaded the Guardians to
purchase a large dwelling house about a quarter of a mile away from
the workhouse. This became a real home for the children. There they
are brought up and regularly sent to the public day schools outside,
entirely free from workhouse surroundings.
So long as the mark of the workhouse clings to children, so long,
says Crooks, will children cling to the workhouse. That is what makes
him so keen in getting rid of the institution dress and of everything
else likely to brand a child.
He helped to banish all that suggested pauperism from the Forest
Gate School. The children were educated and grew up, not like
workhouse children, as before, but like the children of working
parents. With what result? Marked out in their childhood as being
from the workhouse, they often bore the stamp all their life and

ended up as workhouse inmates in their manhood and womanhood.
Under the new system, they were made to feel like ordinary working-
class children. They grew up like them, becoming ordinary working-
men and working-women themselves; so that the Poor Law knew
them no longer.
If I can't appeal to your moral sense, let me appeal to your pocket,
Crooks once remarked at a Guildhall Poor Law Conference. Surely it
is far cheaper to be generous in training Poor Law children to take
their place in life as useful citizens than it is to give the children a
niggardly training and a branded career. This latter way soon lands
them in the workhouse again, to be kept out of the rates for the rest
of their lives.
How far the principle was carried out at Forest Gate may be judged
from the report made by Mr. Dugard, H.M. Inspector of Schools, after
one of his visits. Thus:—
There is very little (if any) of the institution mark among the
children.... Both boys' and girls' schools are in a highly
satisfactory state, showing increased efficiency, with increased
intelligence on the part of the children.... They compare very
favourably with the best elementary schools.
In all that related to games and healthful recreation Crooks agreed in
giving the scholars the fullest facilities. The lads were encouraged to
send their football and cricket teams to play other schools. The girls
developed under drill and gymnastic training, and became proficient
swimmers.
In fact, the scholars at Forest Gate began to count for something.
They learnt to trust each other and to rely upon themselves. They
grew in hope and courage. They learnt to walk honourably before all
men. In consequence, thousands of them have become merged in
the great working world outside, self-respecting men and women.
I met Crooks looking elated one evening, and he told me he had just
come from the Poor Law schools' swimming competition at

Westminster baths.
There were three trophies, he said. The first, the London Shield,
was for boys. Poplar won that with 85 marks, five more than the next
best. The second, the Portsmouth Shield, was for girls, with a
Portsmouth school competing. Our Poplar girls won that with 65
marks, the two next schools getting only 35 each. The third trophy,
the Whitehall Shield, for the school as a whole with the highest
number of marks, was also won by Poplar. I feel as pleased as
though I'd done it myself.
The best administration in an out-of-date building is always
hampered. Forest Gate belonged to the old order of Poor Law schools
known as barrack buildings. Although the Guardians made the very
best of the school, there were structural defects that hindered the
work seriously. It was therefore decided to build cottage homes at
Shenfield in Essex, where a special effort is being made to train the
girls as well as the boys in rural pursuits in order to keep them out of
the overcrowded cities.
The Parliamentary Committee on Poor Law Schools that sat in 1896
invited Crooks to give evidence. Many of the things he urged were
included in the Committee's recommendations. Among them was the
extension of the full benefit of the Education Act and the Technical
Education Acts to all Poor Law children.
The wine and spirit dues that provide the technical education
grants, he told the committee, might be said to belong to Poor Law
children by right, because it is always being urged that it is owing to
drunken parents that these children get into the workhouse. I don't
believe it, but there is the claim.
At that time the Poor Law schools received no benefits in the way of
scholarships or technical education grants. It was largely due to his
advocacy that the scholars were at last given the same opportunities
as other children. One of the great moments of his life was when he
opened a letter from the headmaster at the Hunslet Poor Law school,
telling him that in consequence of what you have done, one of our

boys has just taken a County Scholarship—the first Poor Law child to
benefit under the Technical Education Acts.
Crooks would like to go much further. Until Poor Law children are
taken entirely away from the control of Guardians he will never be
satisfied. Why should the authority that looks after workhouses for
the old and infirm be entrusted with the task of training the young?
The two duties lie as far apart as East from West. He would place
these children wholly under the education authority.
No matter where, he is always ready to put in a word for Poor Law
children on the least opportunity. It was news to his colleagues on
the London County Council when, in the course of a debate in the
summer of 1894, he told of his own experience in a Poor Law school.
He seems to have made a deep impression by his speech on that
occasion, judging by the following comment made shortly afterwards
by the Municipal Journal;—
Those who heard Mr. Crooks's speech in the Council Chamber,
when the subject of the training of Poor Law children came up
on a side issue, will not readily forget it. One of the daily papers,
in its admiration the next day, declared it to be the best speech
heard at the Council. Be that as it may, the speech, coming
spontaneously with the pent-up indignation of a soul that had
suffered sorely from a pernicious system, was a marvellous one,
producing a marvellous effect. Councillors in the front benches
turned round and visitors in the gallery stretched forward to
catch a glimpse of the short dark figure on the Labour bench
pleading so powerfully for the children of the poor.
Nor had he been in the House of Commons long before his voice was
heard there on behalf of workhouse children. Speaking in a debate in
1903 on the various methods of dealing with these children, he said:
—
At one time there was no stronger advocate of boarding-out than
myself. It is an ideal system in theory, but its success by practical

application has yet to be proved. Many requests are made by
country people to be allowed to adopt children on charitable
grounds, but when inquiries come to be made into the incomes
of these people the Guardians generally find it is hoped to make
a profit out of the children. I have visited a village where a
widow boarded four children—two more than the law allows. For
these children she was paid sixteen shillings a week. She lived in
a district where the labourer's wages were only eleven shillings.
In regard to another case I personally investigated, I asked how
the boy was getting on.
Oh, all right; but he is growing so big and eats such a lot that I
wish you would take him away and send me a smaller boy.
The boarded-out children, so far from losing the pauper taint,
are more frequently known by the name of the Union from which
they come than by their own names. In fact, in some villages, I
found boarding-out a staple industry. Boarding-out is all right in
good homes; the difficulty is to find good homes.
Not long after he made this speech, there was an outcry in a section
of the Press over an amazing example of extravagance at Poplar. It
appeared in the form of a letter from a correspondent. The
correspondent—who turned out to be a member of a firm of
contractors—waxed virtuously indignant over the Guardians' tenders
because they included, he alleged, supplies of luxuries for paupers.
The so-called luxuries for the most part proved to be medical
comforts ordered by the doctor for the ailing. Among the other items
was 1 cwt. of pat-a-cake biscuits, and these were singled out
specially as a specimen of how the workhouse inmates were
pampered.
I met Crooks in the Lobby of the House of Commons at the time of
the outcry, and asked what he thought of it all.
Perfectly true, he said. We in Poplar are guilty of the great crime of
inviting tenders for the supply of a few pat-a-cakes; but our horrified

critics are in error in assuming that the pat-a-cakes are for the
workhouse inmates. They are for the children. We order 1 cwt. for
the half-year, which I believe works out at the rate of a cake for each
child about once a week. There's extravagance for you! Isn't it
scandalous? Just imagine our kiddies in the workhouse school getting
a whole pat-a-cake to eat!
That's not the worst of it. Those youngsters of ours, not content
with getting an occasional pat-a-cake, have actually been overheard
to sing the nursery rhyme on the subject. We shall be having a Local
Government Board inspector sent down to stop it if it leaks out. You
should hear the little ones holding forth!
Pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake, baker's man,
Bake me a cake as fast as you can!
Prick it, and pat it, and mark it with T,
And put it in the oven for Tommy and me.
The youngsters lie awake at nights, wondering when their turn will
come again to have a farthing pat-a-cake. One of the little girls came
running up to me in the playground the other day, exclaiming: 'Oh,
Mr. Crooks, what do you think? I had a pat-a-cake for tea last
Sunday. They promised it to us the day before, and I was so pleased
when I went to bed that night that I nearly forgot to go to sleep.'

CHAPTER XVI
ON THE METROPOLITAN ASYLUMS BOARD
Mr. Chaplin's Humane Circular to Poor Law Guardians—Crooks
Appointed a Member of the Metropolitan Asylums Board—
Chairman of the Children's Committee—His Knack of Getting His
Own Way—Reorganising the Labour Conditions of the Board's
Workmen.
We have seen that the policy of Poor Law reform which Crooks was
carrying out at Poplar won the good-will of the Local Government
Board. Soon after Mr. Henry Chaplin took his seat in Lord Salisbury's
Cabinet of 1895 he sent for Crooks, and the two spent a whole
morning discussing the weak points in our Poor Law system. Mr.
Chaplin made many notes during the conversation, and at parting
good-naturedly remarked that Crooks had given him enough work to
occupy the next two or three years.
Shortly afterwards, the Minister and the Labour man made a personal
investigation of Poplar and other East-End workhouses and
infirmaries. The visit to each institution was a surprise one. When the
two men entered the children's ward of the Mile End workhouse, they
found the nurses absent and the children screaming. In about half a
minute Crooks had all the children laughing.
What's the secret of your magic? asked the President of the Local
Government Board.
It comes natural when you are used to them, said Crooks.
As already shown, Mr. Chaplin declared emphatically for the Poplar
policy. His notable circular to Poor Law Guardians, for which as
President of the Local Government Board he will perhaps be best
remembered, gave the support of the Government of the day to that

policy of humane administration of the Poor Law which Crooks had
established at Poplar. It laid down three principles which the Labour
man had urged upon the President at their first meeting:—
1. Children to be entirely removed from association with the
workhouse and workhouse surroundings.
2. Old people of good character who have relatives or friends
outside not to be forced into the workhouse, but to be given
adequate out-relief.
3. Old people in the workhouse of good behaviour to be provided
with additional comforts.
Mr. Chaplin further showed his confidence in the Labour Chairman of
the Poplar Guardians by inviting him to become one of the Local
Government Board's representatives on the Metropolitan Asylums
Board. The work meant a heavy addition to Crooks's public duties,
with the London County Council and the Poplar Guardians demanding
so much of his time. There was no hesitation, however, in accepting
the new office when he found it afforded further opportunities to
serve the afflicted poor and help neglected children. Mr. Chaplin's
successor at the Local Government Board, Mr. Walter Long, twice re-
nominated Crooks to the same position.
Although the Asylums Board comes but little before public notice,
except in times of epidemic, it has far-reaching powers. It is the
largest hospital authority that any country can show. It has fourteen
infectious disease hospitals with accommodation for nearly seven
thousand people. It maintains six thousand imbecile patients in four
asylums. It looks after the welfare of several hundred boys on a
Thames training-ship, and of some two thousand children in various
homes.
The members, or managers, as they are called, are all nominated
either by London Boards of Guardians or by the Local Government
Board. An indirectly elected body is the last that expects to see a
representative of Labour. Imagine, therefore, the amazement of this

somewhat select company when, in May, 1898, a Labour man walked
into their midst as the nominee of a Conservative Cabinet Minister.
He was eyed at first with suspicion. The suspicion soon changed to
curiosity. The Labour man never spoke. The managers expected a
torrent of loud criticism, and here was immovable silence. For the
first five months Crooks never opened his mouth at the Board
meetings.
What's your game? asked a friendly member in an aside one
afternoon.
I'm learning the business, was the quiet reply. This is an old
established Board with notions of its own, and it's not going to be
dictated to by new-comers. But you wait, my friend, and you'll find
before long I'll be getting my own way in everything here.
So it proved. During the two or three years that he was Chairman of
the Children's Committee and of a special committee that reorganised
the hours and wages of the Board's large staff, he never lost a single
recommendation he brought before the Board.
How is it, Mr. Crooks, that whatever you ask this Board for you
always get? he was once asked by Sir Edwin Galsworthy, for many
years the Board's Chairman.
Crooks returned the sally that it was because he was always right.
His real secret was—convert the whole of your committee. A majority
vote in committee never satisfied him. Nothing short of the support
of every single member would suffice. Many times in committee has
he adjourned the discussion rather than snatch a bare majority.
Let's take it home with us, he would say jocularly from the chair.
Perhaps after a week's thought you'll all come back converted to my
view. If not, then you must come better prepared to convince me
that I am wrong than you are now.
The difficult and delicate work of reorganising the Labour conditions
of the Board's workmen and attendants was at last brought to a

triumph. He came out of the chair with the goodwill of the whole
staff and of the entire Board of Managers. His colleagues included
large employers of labour, eminent medical men, and retired army
and navy officers. All agreed that he had settled for them Labour
difficulties which had created nothing but confusion and perplexity
before.
Working on his invariable rule that it pays best in every department
of work to observe fair conditions, he scored a signal success on the
very body where before his coming Labour members were regarded
as revolutionaries. As at Blackwall Tunnel, he gained his points
without losing the trust or friendship of the employers of labour.
The task put his administrative ability to a test which only able
statesmen can stand. The rare faculty he has of obtaining the
maximum of reform out of existing agencies carried him safely over
every shoal.
Crooks is every inch an Englishman as well as every inch a Labour
member. He applies his Labour principles on typical English lines;
hence his success among all bodies of Englishmen, no matter what
their party or class.
Few men have higher ideals or feel more deeply the injustice of much
in our present-day social system, but Crooks recognises that the only
way to get reform is to put your hand to the plough with things as
they are, and not wait for the millennium before getting to work.
He sees the crooked things of this life as keenly as anyone, but
because the things cannot be put wholly straight in his own day he
does not hold aloof. He does what he can in the living present to put
them as nearly straight as existing machinery makes possible,
trusting that the next or some succeeding generation will continue
the work until the things are put perfectly straight at last.

CHAPTER XVII
A BAD BOYS' ADVOCATE
Efforts on behalf of Diseased and Mentally-deficient Children—
Altering the Law in Six Weeks—Establishing Remand Homes for
First Offenders—London's Vagrant Child-Life—Reformatory and
Industrial Schools—The Boy who Sat on the Fence—Theft of a
Donkey and Barrow—Lads who want Mothering.
Soon the call of the children reached his ears again.
He had barely finished reorganising the labour conditions on the
Asylums Board when he undertook a great task in the interests of the
two thousand children who had just been placed under the Board's
care. These children were all sufferers from some physical or mental
trouble, and it was because they required special treatment that a
Parliamentary Committee had recommended that they be transferred
from the London Guardians to the Asylums Board.
A comprehensive scheme had to be framed by the Board for looking
after its new charges. Crooks gave three hard years to these
children's well-being. During that time, as Chairman of the Children's
Committee, he wrought some remarkable changes in the lot of the
diseased and mentally-deficient little people handed over to the
Board's keeping.
New homes were set up in the country and at the seaside for the
afflicted and convalescent children. The little people's meals were
made pleasant, their clothes deprived of the institutional taint. They
were free to be merry, and their laughter was better medicine than
the doctor's.
The sad lot of the mentally-deficient children, some of them little
better than imbeciles, appealed greatly to the strong, clear-brained

Labour man from Poplar. There were three or four hundred of these,
all from London workhouses, the sight of whom so often reminded
Crooks of the idiot boy who slept in his dormitory when he, as a
child, was an inmate at Poplar.
The Asylums Board was not allowed to keep these mentally-deficient
boys and girls after sixteen years of age. The children had thus to be
sent away only half trained, often direct to the workhouse again,
from which they never emerged unless to be taken to an institution
more hopeless still.
Crooks conceived the idea that if the Board kept these luckless little
people until they completed their twenty-first year it might be
possible to give them such a training as would enable them to look
after themselves outside, and live useful lives, instead of being a life-
burden to the State and of no use to anyone. The Local Government
Board agreed, and the managers now train these youthful charges till
they reach manhood and womanhood.
The experiment has already justified itself. Many a youth and maid
who would have been left in mental darkness all their lives have by
this longer period of training gained a glimmering of light. Their
limited intelligence has been sufficiently developed to enable them to
assist at earning their own living and to look after themselves.
Other children under the Board's care might be said to suffer from an
excess rather than from a lack of intelligence. On the Asylums Board
they are known as remand children. In the police courts they are
known as first offenders. They consist of boys and girls who, having
been charged before a magistrate with offences which render them
liable to be sent to an industrial or a reformatory school, get
remanded for inquiries.
At one time, pending the inquiries, these youthful offenders used to
be detained in prison. When Crooks joined the Asylums Board they
had been transferred to the workhouse. The influence for evil was
little better in the one place than in the other. The one introduced
them to criminality, the other to pauperism.

These children want keeping as far as possible from both prison and
workhouse, argued Crooks with his colleagues. We ought to put
them in small homes and give them school-time and playtime, like
other children, until their cases come before the magistrate again.
So two or three dwelling-houses were taken in different quarters of
London and adapted as Remand Homes. Crooks headed a deputation
from the Asylums Board to the London magistrates at Bow Street to
urge them in future to commit all remand children to the Homes. The
magistrates were sympathetic enough, but showed it was their duty
to carry out the law, and that the law clearly laid it down that
youthful offenders under remand must be sent to the workhouse.
We'll alter the law, then, was Crooks's reply. For I'm determined
these youngsters shall no longer be sent to the workhouse.
In the record time of six weeks the law was altered. It sounds
miraculous to those who know the ways of Whitehall. Crooks's
resource proved more than equal to red-tapeism.
First the Asylums Board wrote to the Home Office. Then the Home
Office sent the usual evasive reply. The correspondence would have
gone on indefinitely had not Crooks waited on the Home Secretary in
person.
As the Labour man expected, Mr. Ritchie knew nothing about the
matter, the Home Office officials having settled it without consulting
the Secretary of State. Always willing to co-operate in anything that
promised to keep children away from the workhouse, Mr. Ritchie
asked Crooks what he had to suggest. The visitor pointed out that
the Juvenile Offenders' Bill was at that very moment before
Parliament, and that the insertion in that measure of an additional
clause of half a dozen lines only would keep remand children away
from the workhouse for all time. The Home Secretary seized the idea
at once, and Crooks's suggestion became law the following month.
The first of the Remand Homes was opened at Pentonville Road for
the convenience of children charged at the police courts of North

London and the East-End. Sometimes as many as fifty young
offenders, boys and girls, can be seen there at the same time.
Instead of loafing about the workhouse, as before, and becoming
inured to pauper surroundings, they are now taught as in a day
school. They have play in the open air and recreation indoors in the
way of games and books. Moreover, the girls are taught to sew and
knit, the boys instructed in manual work. Though seldom there more
than a fortnight before being taken back to the police court, they go
away cleaner, better informed, not without hope. And the magistrates
now feel justified in sending about 80 per cent. of them back to their
parents.
A visit to this Remand Home at Pentonville will teach you disquieting
truths about the vagrant child-life of London. These wayward
youngsters tell their tales with startling frankness.
That bright-faced lad of twelve—why is he here?
Stealing, he answers us.
What did you steal?
Some stockings outside a shop.
Why?
To get money for sweets.
Where did you sell the stockings?
In a pub.
Have you ever stolen before?
Yes.
How often?
A good many times, but never been caught before.
Two of the oldest lads approached, and we questioned them.

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