When not every response to climate change is a good one: Identifying principles for sustainable adaptation

review article

When not every response to climate change is a good
one: Identifying principles for sustainable adaptation
SIRI ERIKSEN1,*, PAULINA ALDUNCE2, CHANDRA SEKHAR BAHINIPATI3, RAFAEL D’ALMEIDA
MARTINS4, JOHN ISAAC MOLEFE5, CHARLES NHEMACHENA6, KAREN O’BRIEN7, FELIX
OLORUNFEMI8, JACOB PARK9, LINDA SYGNA7 and KIRSTEN ULSRUD7

1
Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, Norwegian University of Life Sciences,
P.O. Box 5003, No-1432, Aas, Norway
2
Department of Environmental Sciences and Renewable Natural Resources, University of Chile, Sta. Rosa 11.315, La Pintana,
Santiago, Chile; Department of Resource Management and Geography, Melbourne School of Land and Environment,
University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
3
Madras Institute of Development Studies (MIDS), 79, Second Main Road, Gandhi Nagar, Adyar, Chennai 600 020, India
4
Center for Environmental Studies (NEPAM), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Cid. Univ. Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, SP 13083-867,
Brazil
5
Department of Environmental Science, University of Botswana, Private Bag 00704, Gaborone, Botswana
6
Council for Scientific & Industrial Research, Meiring Naude Road, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
7
Department of Sociology and Human Geography, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1096, Blindern, Oslo 0317, Norway
8
Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research, PMB 05, Ojoo, Ibadan, Nigeria
9
Green Mountain College, One Brennan Circle, Poultney, VT 05764, USA

Climate adaptation has become a pressing issue. Yet little attention has been paid to the consequences of adaptation policies
and practices for sustainability. Recognition that not every adaptation to climate change is a good one has drawn attention to the
need for sustainable adaptation strategies and measures that contribute to social justice and environmental integrity. This article
presents four normative principles to guide responses to climate change and illustrates the significance of the ‘sustainable
adaptation’ concept through case studies from diverse contexts. The principles are: first, recognize the context for vulnerability,
including multiple stressors; second, acknowledge that differing values and interests affect adaptation outcomes; third, integrate
local knowledge into adaptation responses; and fourth, consider potential feedbacks between local and global processes.
We argue that fundamental societal transformations are required in order to achieve sustainable development pathways and
avoid adaptation funding going into efforts that exacerbate vulnerability and contribute to rising emissions. Despite numerous
challenges involved in achieving such change, we suggest that sustainable adaptation practices have the potential to address
some of the shortcomings of conventional social and economic development pathways.
Keywords: adaptation; climate change; environmental change; sustainable development; transformation; vulnerability

1. Introduction coming century regardless of reductions in green-
house gas emissions, mainly due to thermal
Climate adaptation has become a more visible inertia of oceans and the long atmospheric life-
and pressing issue in recent years. In part this time of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
can be attributed to the recognition that the gases (Matthews and Caldeira, 2008). However,
climate system will undergo changes in the it has also been reluctantly acknowledged

B *Corresponding author. E-mail: siri.eriksen@umb.no
CLIMATE AND DEVELOPMENT 3 (2011) 7–20 doi:10.3763/cdev.2010.0060
# 2011 Earthscan ISSN: 1756-5529 (print), 1756-5537 (online) www.earthscan.co.uk/journals/cdev

8 Eriksen et al.

that emission reductions are unlikely to decrease addition to climate variability, extremes and the
at the rate and magnitude necessary to risk of disaster (Eakin, 2006; Reid and Vogel,
prevent climate change that is dangerous to 2006; Schipper and Pelling, 2006; Ziervogel
many (Parry et al., 2009; Schellnhuber, 2009). et al., 2006; O’Brien et al., 2008).
Adaptation is thus increasingly considered as Developed countries are committed to the goal
essential to reducing vulnerability to dangerous of jointly mobilizing USD30 billion for the period
climate change. 2010 – 2012 (and an additional USD100 billion a
Yet, although adaptation can potentially year by 2020) to address the climate-related chal-
reduce the negative impacts of climate change, lenges of developing countries, and much of this
little attention has been paid to the consequences will go to adaptation (ENB, 2009). The increase in
of adaptation policies and practices for sustain- attention to and resources for adaptation suggests
ability. In some cases, what seems to be a success- that it is critical to ‘get adaptation right’ in order
ful adaptation strategy to climate change may in to solve, rather than exacerbate, problems. Con-
fact undermine the social, economic and sequently, it is important to understand what it
environmental objectives associated with sus- means to sustainably adapt to climate change,
tainable development. Strategies or policies that or what is referred to in this article as ‘sustainable
make sense from one perspective, or for one adaptation’. Sustainable adaptation is defined
group, may at the same time reduce the liveli- here as adaptation that contributes to socially
hood viability or resource access of other and environmentally sustainable development
groups. Likewise, an eagerness to reduce climate pathways, including both social justice and
risk through specific technologies or infrastruc- environmental integrity.
tural changes may sometimes lead to the This article presents and discusses the concept
neglect of other environmental concerns, such of sustainable adaptation to climate change and
as biodiversity (Næss et al., 2005; Eriksen and identifies four normative principles to guide
O’Brien, 2007; Eriksen and Lind, 2009). Hence, responses to climate change. We illustrate the
adaptation can have unintended negative principles of sustainable adaptation and their sig-
effects both on people and on the environment. nificance through case studies from diverse con-
A recognition that not every adaptation to texts. In the conclusions, we discuss the
climate change is a good one has drawn attention possibilities and limitations for achieving sustain-
to the need for sustainable adaptation strategies able adaptation in practice. We suggest that
and measures, and for qualifying what types of despite numerous challenges, attention to prin-
adaptation are desirable or not (Eriksen and ciples for sustainable adaptation can contribute
O’Brien, 2007). There is also an increasing recog- to socially and environmentally sustainable
nition of the potential of climate adaptation to responses to climate change.
address some of the mistakes and shortcomings
of conventional social and economic develop-
ment pathways that have contributed to social 2. Climate change adaptation and
inequity, poverty and environmental problems sustainable development
(Ulsrud et al., 2008). It is particularly important
to identify the synergies between adaptation Adaptation to climate change has been described
and sustainable development because urgent from a wide range of perspectives, and many
and overwhelming poverty problems in the adjectives have been used to modify the term
world are far from satisfactorily addressed, and (autonomous, involuntary, planned, passive,
environmental problems other than climate reactive or anticipatory, etc.). In terms of
change also threaten people’s livelihoods and climate change, adaptation has been defined as
quality of life. Indeed, most individuals and com- the process or adjustments through which
munities are adapting to multiple stressors, in people reduce the adverse effects of climate on

CLIMATE AND DEVELOPMENT

Identifying principles for sustainable climate adaptation 9

their health and well-being, and take advantage development initially focused on the close
of the opportunities that their climatic environ- connection between environmental problems,
ment provides. Other definitions have argued poverty, inequity and basic human needs.
more forcefully that adaptation includes the However, the concept of sustainability has been
reduction of vulnerability (Smit et al., 2000; criticized as a vague policy term rather than an
Debels et al., 2009). Leary (1999) and Burton academic concept subject to rigorous analysis. It
et al. (2002) referred to climate adaptation as a has been accused of being malleable to suit any
wide range of behavioural adjustments that interest, or a ‘rhetorical cover for business-
households and institutions make (including as-usual politics’ (Cohen et al., 1998, p. 353),
practices, processes, legislation, regulations and distracting attention from any fundamental
incentives) to mandate or facilitate changes in changes in systems. There have, however, been
socio-economic systems, aimed at reducing vul- many calls for ‘strong sustainability’, which
nerability to climatic variability and change. involves changing current modes of develop-
Nelson et al. (2007) defined adaptation as the ment, questioning calls for continued economic
decision-making process and the set of actions growth and appealing for a less managerial
undertaken to maintain the capacity to deal approach to human– environment relations
with current or future predicted change. These (Adams, 2009).
definitions are summarized in the Intergovern- Cohen et al. (1998) argued that it is precisely in
mental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defi- forging the links between climate change and sus-
nition of adaptation: the adjustment to tainable development, in terms of focusing rigor-
practices, processes and systems in order to ame- ous analysis and policy efforts on the political,
liorate negative effects and take advantage of social and ethical dimensions, that action in
opportunities associated with climate change both areas can be achieved. According to Robinson
(IPCC, 2007). and Herbert (2001), climate change can be made
Debates on climate change adaptation have more relevant to policy by contextualizing it
taken place largely outside of the broader dis- within a sustainable development framework.
course on sustainable development (Bizikova They argue that mitigation and adaptation can
et al., 2010). Although sustainable development contribute to a range of sustainability goals, at
has been included as a theme in many of the the same time that sustainable development pol-
assessments by the IPCC (Munasinghe and icies can contribute to emission reductions. As
Swart, 2000; Yohe et al., 2007), little attention with debates about sustainable development, the
has been paid to the identifying principles that climate change problem raises questions about
create synergies between adaptation and sustain- the underlying development pathways causing
able development. Cohen et al. (1998) pointed both environmental problems and poverty
out that although climate change is one of the (Adams, 2009). The issues of climate change and
most important symptoms of an unsustainable sustainable development thus converge in the
economic system, the climate change and sus- call for fundamental changes to development
tainable development fields have been separated pathways. A critical point is the recognition of
by differences in discourse. For example, climate alternative development paths, and ‘how much
change has been largely constructed as an choice we have about what kind of world we will
environmental problem that can be solved by end up in’ (Robinson and Herbert 2001, p. 146).
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, with little
attention to its social, cultural, political and
ethical dimensions (O’Brien et al., 2010). This 3. Key principles for sustainable adaptation
effectively bypasses the complex, context-specific
and multidimensional challenges of sustainable An underlying premise for the concept of sustain-
development. The concept of sustainable able adaptation is that many responses to climate


10 Eriksen et al.

change will create social and environmental reduce global greenhouse gas emissions and
externalities, including trade-offs and negative facilitate a rapid transition to low-emission econ-
consequences. Sustainable adaptation thus con- omies suggests that adaptation measures should
siders the wider effects of adaptive responses emphasize low-emission solutions. Responses to
on other groups, places and socio-ecological climate change can thus be seen as a means for
systems, both in the present and in the future. promoting alternative development pathways,
Sustainable adaptation can be distinguished such as transitions to low-carbon economies,
from adaptation in general in that it qualifies organic agriculture and horticulture, agrofores-
actions in terms of their effects on social justice try, ecological sanitation, water harvesting,
and environmental integrity; that is, adaptation water purification by the use of solar energy,
is sustainable only if it contributes (and at the alternative modes of transport, decentralized
very least does not seriously erode) these two fea- renewable energy supply, recycling or participa-
tures. This qualifying of adaptation is a response tory plant breeding (Ulsrud et al., 2008; Winkler
to concerns that adaptation has often been oper- and Marquand, 2009).
ationalized in practice through changes in tech- Sustainable adaptation differs from a reformist
nology, institutions and managerial systems view of sustainable development, and from an
(Klein et al., 2007), rather than challenging interpretation of adaptation as a mere adjustment
current development paths, including the of current practices and development paths. For
social, economic and political structures that example, development paths that contribute to
underlie many contemporary problems. inequity and poverty, or are based on fossil
Sustainable adaptation can be considered fuel-intensive consumption patterns, are inevit-
necessary in response to three problems high- ably called into question by the concept of sus-
lighted in the vulnerability literature. First, tainable adaptation. The types of responses that
climate change is a global problem that affects contribute to social equity and environmental
both current and future generations, and integrity will depend on the context, and there-
responses must be sensitive to both spatial and fore vary between people and places, and over
temporal consequences. Adaptations taken to time. Hence, ‘sustainable adaptation’ does not
benefit one sector or group may undermine the suggest that a specific technology or practice
security and well-being of others, such as by influ- can be identified that will be viable in all places
encing resource access and the integrity of ecosys- or at all times. Instead, practices need to change
tems that many people depend upon for their as the context changes, forming part of the new
livelihoods (Eriksen et al., 2005). Second, wide- and dynamic development paths required to
spread poverty makes many individuals, house- reduce both vulnerability and greenhouse gas
holds, communities and states vulnerable to emissions.
even small shocks and stressors. The tendency The question then arises as to what character-
of poor people to be highly vulnerable to istics or conditions should be looked for when
climate change is often used as a justification for assessing adaptation responses? How can the
implementing adaptation; however, whether or concept of sustainable adaptation be realized?
not the proposed adaptation measures will actu- Four main principles are presented here, and ela-
ally assist poor groups is seldom assessed. Since borated on through case studies that illustrate
not any and every adaptation intervention how adaptation can be formulated in different
reduces poverty and inequality (and some contexts. The challenges in using such an
poverty reduction measures may aggravate vul- approach are also discussed. As with all responses
nerability), sustainable adaptation measures to climate change, it is important to consider the
need to specifically target links between vulner- vested interests, the mismatches between the
ability and poverty (Eriksen and O’Brien, 2007; scales of action and issues of power relations,
Eriksen et al., 2007). Third, the need to drastically the prioritization of certain types of knowledge



and the lack of systems perspective in the process combination with infrastructure, climate-related
of decision-making. These factors are, however, extreme events, such as heavy rainstorms and
likely to become more visible if the principles flooding, will continue to have effects on liveli-
are included in adaptation planning. hoods and long-term vulnerability. A large pro-
portion of inhabitants in the case study area
are older people (40% are above 50 years of
3.1. Key principle 1: recognize the context for age), levels of education are low and very few
vulnerability, including multiple stressors are engaged in the formal sector (9%), most
working as artisans, farmers and traders. House-
Individuals, groups and regions are experiencing hold sizes are large: close to 80% of the house-
many types of stressors, besides environmental holds have more than four people. At the same
change, that together create a context for vulner- time, houses are old (more than half are older
ability (Eakin, 2006; Ziervogel et al., 2006; Lei- than 30 years) and many are constructed in
chenko and O’Brien, 2008; Eriksen and Lind, materials that do not withstand rainstorms
2009; Tschakert and Dietrich, 2010). Recognizing and flooding. Poor waste collection leads to
the role of multiple stressors in influencing this blocked drainage systems. In some parts the
context for vulnerability involves acknowledging situation is made even more precarious due to
that despite good intentions, some adaptations sparse vegetation, meaning that any heavy
may not improve social equity and environ- rainfall results in flooding (Ijaiya and Umar,
mental integrity. The underlying social, econ- 2004). Hence, key conditions generating vulner-
omic, institutional and cultural conditions that ability include poverty, overcrowding and social
contribute to a wider context for vulnerability inequity.
thus need to be understood, in order to identify A number of socio-environmental changes
direct and indirect consequences of adaptation create the conditions described above. These
efforts, and to be sensitive to the spatial and include the marginalization of urban dwellers in
temporal effects of such efforts. In terms of terms of infrastructure, services and income
social and environmental consequences, sus- opportunities; rapid urbanization; physical devel-
tainable adaptation thus places a greater opment on environmentally sensitive lands such
emphasis on how the structural and contextual as wetlands, slopes and floodplains that exacer-
factors that create vulnerability, such as bates environmental degradation; and flooding
chronic poverty and unequal terms of trade, risks (Olorunfemi and Raheem, 2007; Olorun-
influence the outcomes of adaptation measures. femi, 2008; Mehrotra et al., 2009; Gbadegesin
This first principle of sustainable adaptation et al., 2010). Extensive damage to properties
thus holds that responses should be sensitive and livelihoods contribute to the endemic
to the wider context in which climate change poverty in most parts of Kwara State. For instance,
is experienced. increasingly frequent and severe floods have
damaged electricity facilities in some areas for
months, disrupted trading, and washed away
3.1.1. Case study: addressing the vulnerability crops in suburban areas. Traders, artisans and
context of poor communities affected by floods women farmers are among the most vulnerable
and rainstorms in the city of Ilorin, Nigeria groups.
The importance of this principle is illustrated by In order to develop measures that contribute to
the case of poor, urban and semi-urban areas of sustainable adaptation, it is necessary to address
Ilorin, the capital city of Kwara State in the structural and contextual factors that create
Nigeria. There are multiple stressors that gener- vulnerability, such as those described above.
ate vulnerability in these areas, and unless Measures also need to include an understanding
socio-economic dimensions are tackled in of how livelihood dynamics form part of the


12 Eriksen et al.

vulnerability context. For example, support from for adaptation. For example, linking democratiza-
friends and relatives and personal savings explain tion and empowerment efforts with those of
how a large proportion of disaster victims cope adaptation can potentially address differing and
with its immediate impacts. Sustainable adap- often conflicting adaptation interests (Eriksen
tation measures must be sensitive to the need to and Lind, 2009). The second principle involves
sustain such support networks. At the same recognizing differential interests and potential
time, however, measures would also need to value conflicts, and identifying how these may
address the vulnerability context in the long influence outcomes, particularly for the most
term by complementing household mechanisms vulnerable.
and addressing some of the structural processes.
This could be achieved, for example, by facilitat-
ing livelihood diversification and formal 3.2.1. Case study: including the adaptation
support systems that could relieve the stress on interests of vulnerable groups in local government
social networks in times of disasters. This first policy in Durban, South Africa
principle of sustainable adaptation involves The case of Durban, exposed to both flooding and
broadening responses to recognize, and where coastal erosion, illustrates how important it is to
possible address directly, the context in which develop institutions (and how these institutions
climate change is experienced. This context conceive climate change) that focus on social
includes stressors such as the marginalization of equity and vulnerability in order to achieve sus-
urban dwellers in terms of infrastructure, services tainable adaptation. In particular, prioritizing
and income opportunities, as well as physical the needs of vulnerable groups in both develop-
developments that threaten environmental ment and climate policy processes is critical.
integrity and exacerbate flood risk. Before the democratic transition in 1994,
environmental concern at the local level was
low in South Africa. The process of democratiza-
3.2. Key principle 2: acknowledge that tion resulted in a development agenda that
different values and interests affect focused on the need to address the social inequity
adaptation outcomes created by the Apartheid regime, but with little
connection to climate change (Roberts, 2008;
Values and interests play an important yet seldom Carmin et al., 2009). In the beginning, any
discussed role in climate change responses, and climate change action was also largely discon-
they influence the adaptation strategies that are nected from concerns about adaptation and vul-
prioritized by different groups (O’Brien, 2009). nerability; for example, the Cities for Climate
Recognizing potential value conflicts can help Protection campaign initiated in 2000 largely
to identify how adaptation responses taken by focused on developing mitigation-related pol-
one group may affect the vulnerability context icies (Roberts, 2008). Although important as a
of other groups. Strong vested interests within first step, the campaign failed to generate an insti-
particular adaptation strategies may act as a tutional framework, knowledge about climate
barrier to sustainable types of adaptation. For change and adaptation, or interest among gov-
example, the adaptive responses that distribute ernment agencies or the population at large
risk across market and subsistence production in (Carmin et al., 2009).
Ghana may in fact prioritize the maintenance of The situation improved when programmes
the status quo for men, at the cost of women’s self- started to focus more specifically on vulnerability
determination (Carr, 2008). Sustainable adaptation and climate protection, such as through conven-
may thus involve a more transparent political ing a vulnerability assessment. This assessment
process that creates enabling conditions and access served as an opportunity to engage different
to information that supports decision-making municipal stakeholders in climate change



discussions (Carmin et al., 2009), leading to rec- knowledge is recognized and used in decision-
ognition of the city’s vulnerability and of existing making is crucial in determining which interests
initiatives through which adaptation could be or development paths are prioritized. Different
facilitated. A second phase focused on key approaches to adaptation often reflect varying
municipal sectors such as urban infrastructure, approaches to knowledge and understandings of
human health and disaster risk reduction the local context, resulting in different diagnoses
(Roberts, 2008). of both problems and solutions. Integrating local
The case indicates that it is important not only knowledge based on the experience of living in a
to mainstream climate change responses into risky place and of observing the natural environ-
local government policies but also to consider it ment is essential for sustainable adaptation to
under a framework of social inclusion, justice climate change (Olsson and Folke, 2001; Berkes,
and sustainable development. Not only could 2007). Community-based adaptation initiatives
the interests of vulnerable groups be heard; by are increasing in response to the top-down, tech-
including vulnerable groups in the science – nical approaches promoted by the scientific dis-
policy interface understanding of the impli- course on climate change (Huq and Reid, 2007).
cations of climate change in the local context In the dominant scientific discourse, practices of
was enhanced, generating local interest and the poor have often been blamed for environ-
policy action (Vogel et al., 2007). The case also mental degradation, and resource control has
exemplifies the importance of having local cham- consequently been transferred from local popu-
pions within government structures that can lations to central governments or to private
spearhead such engagement, an observation pre- actors (Benjaminsen et al., 2006). The third prin-
viously made in other contexts such as Norway, ciple of sustainable adaptation recognizes that
Sweden and the USA (Næss et al., 2005; Lowe successful responses involve integrating local
et al., 2009; Sanchez-Rodriguez, 2009; Storbjørk knowledge with other sources of knowledge
et al., 2009). Such a dependence on individuals about climate change.
within government structures can nevertheless
be a barrier to the social inclusion of vulnerable
groups, since how (and if) processes are designed 3.3.1. Case study: building on local knowledge and
and which interests are heard are related to the ń,
capacity in risk reduction in Concepcio Chile
particular knowledge, connections and orien- The importance of existing local knowledge and
tation of an individual rather than institutiona- capacity is particularly well illustrated by the
lized and democratic adaptation policy case of Concepcion, Chile.1 Over time, vulnerable
´
processes. The second principle suggests the people have developed responses to disasters
need to ensure that representation of groups based on their knowledge and understanding of
that are vulnerable to climate variability and the conditions and environment where they
change is institutionalized in formal government ¨
live. The community of Aguita de la Perdiz con-
or development processes. It also requires that sists of mainly informal and illegal settlements,
such processes analyse and recognize different built on landslide-prone areas on the ‘Caracol
interests and potential value conflicts up front, hill’, downtown of the second largest city in
and identify how these may influence outcomes. ´
Chile, Concepcion (Mardones and Vidal, 2001;
Hauser, 2005).
Climate-related hazards, such as rainfall or
3.3. Key principle 3: integrate local knowledge cyclones, are expected to increase in frequency
into adaptation responses and magnitude because of climate change.
However, there remains substantial uncertainty
Different groups and actors produce different in the rate and behaviour of these changes (Chris-
knowledge on adaptation, and which source of tensen et al., 2007). Hence, timely and local


14 Eriksen et al.

adaptation to ‘new unknown severity and fre- sustainable adaptation for both urban and
quency of hazards’ under a changing climate rural contexts; that is, the importance of gener-
becomes imperative (Debels et al., 2009). In ating local knowledge and integrating it with
2005, the community living in this area faced other sources of knowledge in order to develop
the most severe event in 142 years when successful responses to climate change and
162.2 mm precipitation fell in 24 h. The material empower local decision-making. Local knowl-
damages were massive, with 100 out of 282 edge in disaster risk management is critical for
houses partially or completely destroyed (DMC, reducing vulnerability among the poorest, and
2005; ONEMI, 2005). What was remarkable for a can be combined with policy efforts to address
disaster of this magnitude was that there were social equity and vulnerability. Any policy inter-
no deaths reported, and only a few injuries. vention to strengthen adaptation and reduce
In-depth interviews with people affected by the risk would need to recognize community par-
flood revealed that a crucial aspect that helped ticipation in disaster prevention and response
to protect what is most important – their lives – and strategies for living with environmental
was the knowledge people had of their environ- variability (Wisner et al., 2004; Eriksen et al.,
ment and vulnerability (Aldunce et al., 2005; Pelling and High, 2005; van Aalst et al.,
forthcoming). 2008).
Recognizing and acting on an unusual level
of rainfall, the community made use of both
past experience and knowledge about which 3.4. Key principle 4: consider potential
areas would be most exposed and which feedbacks between local and global processes
people would be hardest hit. Rather than
waiting for external warning and help, people Adaptation responses may directly affect the
organized a refugee camp, evacuated vulnerable vulnerability of local populations, but every
community members and took turns to protect response can also influence – or be influenced
houses against robbery (Aldunce et al., forth- by – larger-scale processes. As Adger et al.
coming). Faced with recurrent extreme events, (2009) pointed out, vulnerability is nested and
¨
the Aguita de la Perdiz community has shown tele-connected through environmental change
itself capable of generating social learning, and feedbacks, economic linkages and global flows
the population has a high level of risk awareness of resources, people and information. The possi-
and knowledge about the physical environment bility that feedbacks and linkages can influence
and potential vulnerability. This in turn has both social justice and environmental integrity
resulted in proactive behaviour in terms of well- over both space and time raises questions
organized community participation and leader- about the sustainability of many adaptation
ship in disaster response, and improved capacity responses. For example, adaptations often have
to adapt to climate extremes. The high degree of significant implications for greenhouse gas
¨
social learning enabled people of Aguita de la emissions, water quality and access, and biodi-
Perdiz to assist neighbouring communities in versity. Likewise, adaptations can influence
their response and recovery, both during the migration, trade patterns and urbanization pro-
2005 deluge and in other disasters. The key cesses. Mitigation of climate change is particu-
role of autonomous adaptation and local knowl- larly important, as continued global warming
edge in adapting to climate variability and can overwhelm local adaptive capacity. The
change has been frequently illustrated in rural fourth principle of sustainable adaptation
contexts (Eriksen et al., 2005; Eakin, 2006; hence focuses on the need for responses to
Reid and Vogel, 2006; Ziervogel et al., 2006). recognize the interactions between local and
¨
The case of Aguita de la Perdiz shows the more global processes, which can create both positive
universal relevance of the third principle of and negative feedbacks.



3.4.1. Case study: linking adaptation with local cooling due to the artificial ice.3 At this
mitigation and transformations towards a resilient instance, local adaptation is clearly not placed
society in Norway in a global context. There is little awareness on
The importance of embedding local actions and how the effects of local adaptation responses,
adaptation in an understanding of climate through local and global linkages and feedback
change as a global concern is illustrated in the processes, in turn affect global warming.
case of snow-dependent leisure activities in Even if energy consumption is increasingly
Oslo, Norway. For local adaptation efforts to be considered in the production of artificial snow
considered sustainable there is the need to con- and ice, there are nevertheless limits to such
sider the global effects of these efforts. For forms of adaptation. The production of artificial
example, using low- rather than high-energy snow and ice can only support skating and
adaptation options would limit greenhouse gas skiing in isolated areas, while the loss of natural
emissions that contribute to global warming winter conditions and associated recreational
and increased risk elsewhere. activities could damage cultural and emotional
Winter sports and leisure activities such as attachment to the winter landscape, and poten-
skiing and skating are ingrained in the Norwegian tially lead to a loss of values around national
national identity. A warming climate has led identity.
to deteriorating snow and ice conditions, Sustainable adaptation in the case of Norway
especially since the 1970s. In the Oslo region, would involve both drastic cuts in GHG emis-
inhabited by a fifth of the country’s population2 sions to reduce future deterioration of snow con-
and where an estimated 80% use the forests ditions as well as transformation towards new
for recreation (Berg, 2004; Vaage, 2004), the types of recreation and cultural identities. In the
number of days with skiing conditions are pro- current framing of the climate change problem,
jected to decline by 40% from the 1981 –1999 however, local weather and responses are
period to 2050 (Iversen et al., 2005). A transform- treated as isolated from global changes. Such an
ation of recreational activities and ways of defin- approach may reinforce a dominant compla-
ing national identity may be required in the cency regarding Norway’s ability to adapt its
long term. way out of climate change (O’Brien et al., 2006)
However, current adaptations in the face of and stifle public and policy engagement for
warming conditions appear to focus on preser- addressing climate change. The fourth principle
ving existing activities through ‘controlling’ of sustainable adaptation – recognizing the inter-
local environmental conditions in the short actions between local and global processes –
term in the face of changing weather conditions, involves broadening responses from narrow
often in ways that involve increased energy use. short-term goals to instead helping to transform
For example, the municipal authorities and society through enhanced resilience and flexi-
sports clubs now produce large quantities of arti- bility in the face of uncertainty, accommodating
ficial snow and ice. In western Oslo, for example, diverse needs (beyond skiing), and recognition
there are now plans to construct the country’s of both positive and negative feedbacks from
biggest artificial ice rink to enable people to local measures.
skate despite warming winter conditions. Those
opposed are concerned about local increases in
traffic, noise and light pollution. Completely 4. Conclusions: practical and conceptual
absent from the debate, however, are concerns lessons regarding sustainable adaptation
about the global climate with respect to the
increased emissions that result from the energy Sustainable adaptation can be defined as a set of
used in producing artificial ice. The main climatic actions that contribute to socially and environ-
consideration in the debate was the potential for mentally sustainable development pathways,


16 Eriksen et al.

including social justice and environmental integ- of changing climatic conditions (rather than
rity. However, just as adaptation provides an ‘controlling’ specific environmental conditions),
opportunity to transform society towards sustain- while at the same time minimizing greenhouse
ability goals, adaptation actions can also exacer- gas emissions. It is important that adaptation
bate greenhouse gas emissions, vulnerability to actions do not lock people into high-emission
climate change and a number of development and soon-obsolete technologies or practices, nor
problems. In this article, we have outlined four reinforce dependency relations. Instead, actions
principles that can guide adaptation responses need to contribute to a cleaner, greener and
in a manner that supports sustainability. Sustain- more equitable society. Navigating the global
able adaptation should (1) recognize the context long-term consequences of adaptation actions is
of vulnerability, including multiple stressors, (2) complex. In the case of biofuel production, sus-
acknowledge that different values and interests tainability would entail promoting energy
affect adaptation outcomes, (3) integrate local access and livelihood options by the poor in
knowledge into adaptation responses and (4) ways that enhance adaptive capacity, while
consider potential feedbacks between local and avoiding production patterns that entrench
global processes. An underlying premise for the dependency or create vulnerability, environment
four principles is that adaptation is not neutral, and land loss problems (African Biodiversity
and not all adaptation will ‘do good’; there will Network, 2008).
be trade-offs, feedbacks and negative conse- Sustainable adaptation also calls for a strength-
quences. Assessing and understanding these ening of social resilience. The case of Concepcion´
dimensions and moving towards sustainable underscores the importance of social capital and
development pathways requires a renewed focus community empowerment as part of sustainable
on the consequences of adaptation actions, adaptation, through strong citizen participation,
whether these actions are policy driven or auton- local identity and local organization. Social
omous, or involve social development, altered capital is made up of different norms and net-
technology and practice, economic or insti- works that enable people to act collectively
tutional measures, legislation or infrastructure, (Woolcock and Narayan, 2000; Adger, 2003) and
or changes to political, structural or social enable the knowledge sharing, spreading of risk
relations. and claims for reciprocity in times of crisis. Such
The four case studies presented above illustrate networks are scale dependent and are associated
different aspects of these principles. However, no with a flexible and adaptive society (Adger,
single case illustrates a perfect or comprehensive 2003). A central challenge reflected in the cases,
example of sustainable adaptation. It is important however, is that strengthening local capacity
to acknowledge that even if applied, the four alone does not effectively reduce vulnerability.
principles alone do not guarantee sustainable Increased sustainability can only be achieved if
adaptation. This article represents a first step in local capacity is combined with measures aimed
defining sustainable adaptation, and there is at including socially marginalized groups,
clearly a need for continued reflexivity, and what making the voices of vulnerable groups heard in
Tschakert and Dietrich (2010) refer to as ‘antici- decision-making processes that affect their adap-
patory learning’. Furthermore, many gaps still tation interests and making these interests
exist between research and practice. How, then, count in the face of pressures from economic
can these principles be used to implement sustain- development, such as physical development of
able adaptation in practice? While answering this lands that currently increase climate risk and
question is beyond the scope of this article, a few reduce land rights of the poor.
reflections are offered below. The road to sustainable adaptation starts with
Sustainable adaptation is likely to entail the understanding that adaptation is a ‘process’
societal organization that is flexible in the face rather than a list of actions and measures that



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