Why Social Research

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Why Social research?
INTRODUCING RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
A Beginner's Guide to doing a
Research Project

WHY SOCIAL RESEARCH?
OVERVIEW
• What is Social Research?
• The Tasks of Social Research
• What Can You Achieve with Social
Research?
What is Social Research?
Increasingly, science and research – their approaches and results – inform public life.
They help to provide a basis for political and practical decision-making. This applies
across the range of sciences – not only to natural science and medicine, but to social
science too. Our first task here is to clarify what is distinctive about social research.
Everyday life and science
Many of the issues and phenomena with which social research engages also play a role in
everyday life. Consider, for example, one issue that is obviously highly rel-evant to
everyday life, namely health. For the most part, health becomes an explicit issue in
everyday life only when health-related problems occur or are threatening individuals.
Symptoms produce an urge to react and we start to look for solutions, causes and
explanations. If necessary, we may go to see a doctor and maybe end up changing our
habits and behaviors – for example, by taking more exercise.
This search for causes and explanations, and people’s own experiences, often lead to the
development of everyday theories (for example: ‘An apple a day keeps the doctor away’).
Such theories are not necessarily spelled out explicitly: they often remain implicit. The
question of whether everyday explanations and theories are correct or not is usually
tested pragmatically: do they contribute to solving problems and reducing symptoms or
not? If such knowledge allows the problem at hand to be solved, it has fulfilled its
purpose. Then it is not relevant whether such explana-tions apply to other people or in
general. In this context, scientific knowledge (for example, that smoking increases the
risk of cancer) is often picked up from the media.
01_Flick_IRM_Bab1410b0226_Ch-01_Part-I.indd 3 4/5/2016 10:11:32 AM

ORIENTATION
Health, health problems and how people deal with them constitute issues for social
research too. But in social science we take a different approach. Analysis of problems is
foregrounded and study becomes more systematic. This aims at break-ing up routines in
order to prevent harmful behaviors – for example, the relation between specific
behaviors (like smoking) and specific health problems (such as the likelihood of falling
ill with cancer). To achieve such an aim, we need to create a situation free of pressure to
act. For example, you will plan a longer period for analyzing the problem, without the
pressure of immediately finding a solution for it. Here, knowledge results not from
intuition, but from the examination of scientific theories. The development of such
theories involves a process of explicitly spelling out and testing relations, which is based
on using research methods (like a system-atic review of the literature or a survey). For
both aims – the developing and testing of theories – the methods of social research are
used. The resulting knowledge is abstracted from the concrete example and further
developed in the direction of general relations. Unlike in everyday life, here the
generalization of knowledge is more important than solving a concrete problem in the
particular case. Scientific research is more and more confronted with the expectation
that its results have an impact on the field that is studied or on the way a society deals
with an issue or (social) problem (see Chandler 2013; Denicolo 2013).
Everyday knowledge and problem-solving can of course become the starting
points for theory development and empirical research. We may ask, for example,
which types of everyday explanations for a specific disease can be identified in
interviews with patients.
Table 1.2 presents the differences between everyday knowledge and practices on the
one hand, and science and research on the other. It does so on three levels, namely (1)
the context of knowledge development, (2) the ways of developing knowledge and
the state of the knowledge which is produced, and (3) the mutual relations between
everyday knowledge and science.
What, then, characterizes social research in dealing with such issues? Here we may
itemize a number of characteristics, each of which is explored further in this book.
They are:
• Social research approaches issues in a systematic and above all empirical way.
• For this purpose, you will develop research questions (see Chapter 4).
• For answering these questions, you will collect and analyze data.
• You will collect and analyze these data by using research methods (see Chapters
9 and 10).
• The results are intended to be generalized beyond the examples (cases, samples,
etc.) that were studied (see Chapter 13).
• From the systematic use of research methods and their results, you will derive
descriptions or explanations of the phenomena you study.
• For a systematic approach, time, freedom and (other) resources are necessary
(see Chapter 6).

TABLE 1.2 Everyday knowledge and science
Everyday knowledge and practices Science and research
Context of
knowledge
(production)
Pressure to act
Solving of problems is the
priority:
• routines are not put to
question
• reflection in case of practical
problems
Relief from a pressure to act
Analyzing of problems is the
priority:
• systematic analysis
• routines are put to
question and broken
down
Ways of
knowledge
(production)
Intuition
Implicit development of theories
Experience-driven development
of theories Pragmatic testing of
theories
Check of solutions for problems
Use of scientific theories
Explicit development of theories
Methods-driven development of
theories Methods-based testing
of theories
Use of research methods
Concrete, referring to the particular
situations
Abstract and generalizingState of
knowledge
Role of
knowledge
Relation of
everyday
knowledge and
science
Understanding and maybe
problem-solving in concrete
contexts and situations
Everyday knowledge can be used
as a starting point for theory
development and empirical
research
Impact on social or societal
problems and their solution
Everyday knowledge is
increasingly influenced by
scientific theories and results
of research
As we shall see, there are different ways of doing social research. First, though, we can
develop a preliminary general definition of social research derived from our discussion
so far (see Box 1.1).
BOX 1.1
Definition of social research
Social research is the systematic analysis of research questions by using empirical methods
(e.g. of asking, observing, analyzing data). Its aim is to make empirically grounded statements
that can be generalized or to test such statements. Various approaches can be distinguished
as can a number of fields of application (health, education, poverty, etc.). Various aims can
be pursued, ranging from an exact description of a phe-nomenon to its explanation or to the
evaluation of an intervention or institution.

ORIENTATION
The Tasks of Social Research
We can distinguish three main tasks for social research. To do so, we use the crite-rion of
how the results of social research may be used.
Knowledge: description, understanding and explanation of
phenomena
A central task of social research originates from scientific interests, which means that the
production of knowledge is prioritized. Once a new phenomenon, such as a new disease,
arises, a detailed description of its features (symptoms, progression, frequency, etc.) on the
basis of data and their analysis becomes necessary. The first step can be a detailed description
of the circumstances under which it occurs or an analysis of the subjective experiences of the
patients. This will help us to understand the contexts, effects and meanings of the disease.
Later, we can look for concrete explanations and test which factors trigger the symptoms or the
disease, which circumstances or medica-tions have specific influences on its course, etc. For
these three steps – (a) description, (b) understanding and (c) explanation – the scientific
interest in new knowledge is dominant. Such research contributes to basic research in that
area. Here, science and scientists remain the target group for the research and its results.
Practice-oriented research: applied and participative research
Increasingly, social research is being conducted in practical contexts such as hospi-tals and
schools. Here, research questions focus on practices – those of teachers, nurses or
physicians – in institutions. Or they focus on the specific conditions of work in these
institutions – routines in the hospital or teacher–student relations, for example. The results
of applied research of this kind are also produced according to rules of scientific analysis.
However, they should become relevant for the practice field and for the solution of
problems in practice.
A special case here is participatory action research. Here, the changes initiated by the
researcher in the field of study do not come only after the end of the study and the
communication of its results. The intention is rather to initiate change during the process of
research and by the very fact that the study is being done. Take, for example, a study
of nursing with migrants. A participatory action research study would not set out merely
to describe the everyday routines of nursing with migrants. Rather, it would initiate the
process of research immediately in those everyday rou-tines. It would then feed back to
participants the information gathered in the research process.
This changes the relationship between researcher and participant. A relation which is
usually monologic in traditional research (e.g. the interviewees unfold

their views, the researchers listen) becomes dialogic (the interviewees unfold their views,
the researchers listen and make suggestions for how to change the situa-tion). A
subject–object relation turns into a relation between two subjects – the researcher and
the participant. The evaluation of the research and its results is no longer focused solely
on the usual scientific criteria (as will be discussed in Chapter 13). Rather, the
question of the usefulness of the research and its results for the participant becomes a
main criterion. Research is no longer just a knowl-edge process for the researchers, but
rather a process of knowledge, learning and change on both sides.
Basis for political and practical decisions
Since the middle of the twentieth century, social research has become more
important as a basis for decisions in practical and political contexts. In most countries,
regular surveys in various areas are common practice; reports on health, on pov-erty
and on the situation of the elderly and of youth and children are
produced, often commissioned by government. In many cases, such monitoring
does not involve extra research, but rather summarizes existing research and results
in the field. But, as the PISA studies or the HBSC study (Hurrelmann et al. 2003)
show, in areas like health, education and youth, additional studies do sometimes contrib-
ute to the basis of these reports. In the HBSC study, representative data about 11-
to 15-year-old adolescents in the population are collected. At the same time, case
studies with purposefully selected cases are included. Where data from
representative studies are not available or cannot be expected, sometimes only case
studies provide the data basis.
In many areas, decisions about establishing, prolonging or continuing services,
programs or institutions are based on evaluations of existing examples or experi-mental
programs. Here, social research not only provides data and results as a basis for decisions,
but also makes assessments and evaluations – by, for example, exam-ining whether one
type of school is more successful in reaching its goals than a different type. Therefore,
the potential for implementation of research results, and more generally the impact of
research beyond academia, become more important. Chandler (2013, p. 3) states:
The context within which that impact takes place is broad beyond academia in
the realms of society, economy, public policy or services, health, the envi-ronment
or quality of life. The outcomes or indicators of impact encompass the
individual, community or global levels and are the application of new
knowledge or understanding in the development of policy, creation of
products or services.
Table 1.3 summarizes the tasks and research areas of social research outlined above,
using the context of health as an example.

ORIENTATION
TABLE 1.3 Tasks and research areas of social research
Research area Features Aims Example Studies refer to
Basic research Development or
testing of
theories
General statements
without a specific link
to practices
Trust in social
relationships
Random sample of students
or unspecific groups
Applied
research
Development or
testing of
theories in
practical fields
Statements referring
to the particular field
Implementation of
results
Trust in doctor–
patient relations
Doctors and patients in a
specific field
Participatory
action research
Analyzing fields
and changing
them at the
same time
Intervention in the
field under study
Analysis and
improvement of
nursing for
migrants
Patients with a specific
ethnic background, for
example, who are (not
sufficiently) supported by
existing home care services
Evaluation Collection and
analysis of data
as a basis for
assessing the
success and
failure of an
intervention
Assessment of
institutional services
and changes
Improvement of
the trust
relations
between doctors
and patients in
a specific field
with better
information
Patients in a specific field
Health
monitoring
Documentation
of health-
related data
Stocktaking of
developments and
changes in the health
status of the
population
Frequencies of
occupational
diseases
Routine data of health
insurance
What Can You Achieve with Social Research?
In the areas just mentioned, we can use social research to:
• explore issues, fields and phenomena and provide first descriptions
• discover new relations by collecting and analyzing data
• provide empirical data and analyses as a basis for developing theories
• test existing theories and stocks of knowledge empirically
• document the effects of interventions, treatments, programs, etc. in an empirically
based way
• provide knowledge (i.e. data, analyses and results) as an empirically grounded
basis for political, administrative and practical decision-making.
What is social research unable to do and what can
you do with it?
Social research has its limits. For example, the aim of developing a single grand
theory to explain society and the phenomena within it, which also withstands

empirical testing, could not be achieved. And there is no one method for studying all relevant
phenomena. Moreover, social research cannot be relied upon to provide immediate solutions for
current, urgent problems. On all three levels, we have to rein in our expectations of social
research and pursue more realistic aims.
What we can aim to do is develop, and even test empirically, a number of theo-ries. They can be
used to explain certain social phenomena. We can also continue to develop a range of social
science methods. Researchers can then select the appropriate methods and apply them to the
problems they wish to study. Finally, social research provides knowledge about details and
relations, which can be employed to develop solutions for societal problems.

About the
Author
Uwe Flick is Professor of Qualitative Research in Social Science and Education at the Free University of
Berlin, Germany. He is a trained psychologist and sociologist and received his PhD from the Free
University of Berlin in 1988 and his Habilitation from the Technical University of Berlin in 1994. He has
been Professor of Qualitative Research at Alice Salomon University of Applied Sciences in Berlin,
Germany and at the University of Vienna, Austria, where he continues to work as Guest Professor.
Previously, he was Adjunct Professor at the Memorial University of Newfoundland in St. John’s, Canada;
a Lecturer in research me thodology at the Free University of Berlin; a Reader and Assistant Professor in
qualitative methods and evaluation at the Technical University of Berlin; and Associate Professor and
Head of the Department of Medical Sociology at the Hannover Medical School. He has held visiting
appoint-ments at the London School of Economics, the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales in
Paris, Cambridge University (UK), Memorial University of St John’s (Canada), University of Lisbon
(Portugal), Institute of Higher Studies in Vienna, in Italy and Sweden, and the School of Psychology at
Massey University, Auckland (New Zealand). His main research interests are qualitative methods, social
represen-tations in the fields of individual and public health, vulnerability in fields like youth
homelessness or migration, and technological change in everyday life. He is the author of Designing
Qualitative Research (Sage, 2007) and Managing Quality in Qualitative Research (Sage, 2007) and editor
of The SAGE Qualitative Research Kit (Sage, 2007), A Companion to Qualitative Research (Sage, 2004),
Psychology of the Social (Cambridge University Press, 1998), Quality of Life and Health: Concepts,
Methods and Applications (Blackwell Science, 1995) and La perception quotidienne de la Santé et la
Maladie: Théories subjectives et Représentations sociales (L’Harmattan, 1993). His most recent
publications are the fifth edition of An Introduction to Qualitative Research (Sage, 2014) and The SAGE
Handbook of Qualitative Data Analysis (editor, Sage, 2014).

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