Introduction to Data Mining

Prof. S. K. Pandey, I.T.S, Ghaziabad
Data Warehousing & Mining
UNIT – I

Prof. S.K. Pandey, I.T.S, Ghaziabad 2
Syllabus of Unit - ISyllabus of Unit - I
 DSS-Uses, definition, Operational Database.
 Introduction to DATA Warehousing. Data-Mart,
 Concept of Data-Warehousing,
 Multi Dimensional Database Structures.
 Client/Server Computing Model & Data
Warehousing
 Parallel Processors & Cluster Systems. Distributed
DBMS implementations.

Introduction –Introduction – Decision SupportDecision Support
System (DSS)System (DSS)
 A Decision Support System (DSS) is an interactive computer-
based system or subsystem intended to help decision makers use
communications technologies, data, documents, knowledge
and/or models to identify and solve problems, complete decision
process tasks, and make decisions.
 It is clear that DSS belong to an environment with
multidisciplinary foundations, including (but not exclusively):
– Database research,
– Artificial intelligence,
– Human-computer interaction,
– Simulation methods,
– Software engineering, and
– Telecommunications.

DSSDSS
• A Decision Support System (DSS) is a computer-
based information system that supports business or
organizational decision-making activities.
• DSSs serve the management, operations, and planning
levels of an organization (usually mid and higher
management) and help to make decisions, which may
be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance
(Unstructured and Semi-Structured decision problems).
• Decision support systems can be either fully
computerized, human or a combination of both.

Historical Evolution of DSSHistorical Evolution of DSS

Typical DSS ArchitectureTypical DSS Architecture
 TPS: transaction
processing system
 MODEL: representation
of a problem
 OLAP: on-line analytical
processing
 USER INTERFACE:
how user enters problem
& receives answers
 DSS DATABASE:
current data from
applications or groups
 DATA MINING:
technology for finding
relationships in large data
bases for prediction
TPS
EXTERNAL
DATA
DSS DATA
BASE
DSS SOFTWARE SYSTEM
MODELS
OLAP TOOLS
DATA MINING TOOLS
USER
INTERFACE
USER

Why DSS?Why DSS?
 Increasing complexity of decisions
– Technology
– Information:
 “Data, data everywhere, and not the time to think!”
– Number and complexity of options
– Pace of change
 Increasing availability of computerized support
– Inexpensive high-powered computing
– Better software
– More efficient software development process
 Increasing usability of computers

Operational DatabasesOperational Databases
 Operational database management systems (also referred to as OLTP
databases), are used to manage dynamic data in real-time.
 These types of databases allow you to do more than simply view archived
data. Operational databases allows to modify that data (add, change or delete
data), doing it in real-time.
 Since the early 90's, the operational database software market has been largely
taken over by SQL engines.
 Today, the operational DBMS market (formerly OLTP) is evolving
dramatically, with new, innovative entrants and incumbents supporting the
growing use of unstructured data and NoSQL DBMS engines, as well as
XML databases and NewSQL databases.
 Operational databases are increasingly supporting distributed database
architecture that provides high availability and fault tolerance through
replication and scale out ability.

FEATURES DATABASE DATA WAREHOUSE
Characteristic It is based on Operational Processing. It is based on Informational Processing.
Data It mainly stores the Current data which
always guaranteed to be up-to-date.
It usually stores the Historical data whose
accuracy is maintained over time.
Function It is used for day-to-day operations. It is used for long-term informational
requirements and decision support.
User The common users are clerk, DBA,
database professional.
The common users are knowledge worker
(e.g., manager, executive, analyst)
Unit of work Its work consists of short and simple
transaction.
The operations on it consists of complex
queries..
Focus The focus is on “Data IN” The focus is on “Information OUT”
Orientation The orientation is on Transaction. The orientation is on Analysis.
DB design The designing of database is ER based
and application-oriented.
The designing is done using star/snowflake
schema and its subject-oriented.
Summarization The data is primitive and highly
detailed.
The data is summarized and in consolidated
form.
View The view of the data is flat relational. The view of the data is multidimensional.
Differences between the Databases and Data Warehouses

FEATURES DATABASE DATA WAREHOUSE
Function It is used for day-to-day operations. It is used for long-term informational
requirements and decision support.
User The common users are clerk, DBA,
database professional.
The common users are knowledge worker
(e.g., manager, executive, analyst)
Access The most frequent type of access type is
read/write.
It mostly use the read access for the
stored data.
Operations The main operation is index/hash on
primary key.
For any operation it needs a lot of scans.
Number of
records accessed
A few tens of records. A bunch of millions of records.
Number of users In order of thousands. In the order of hundreds only.
DB size 100 MB to GB. 100 GB to TB.
Priority High performance, high availability High flexibility, end-user autonomy
Metric To measure the efficiency, transaction
throughput is measured.
To measure the efficiency, query
throughput and response time is
measured.

Concept ofConcept of
Data WarehousingData Warehousing

Why Separate Data Warehouse?Why Separate Data Warehouse?
 High performance for both systems
– DBMS— tuned for OLTP: access methods, indexing,
concurrency control, recovery
– Warehouse—tuned for OLAP: complex OLAP queries,
multidimensional view, consolidation.
 Different functions and different data:
– missing data: Decision support requires historical data
which operational DBs do not typically maintain
– data consolidation: DS requires consolidation
(aggregation, summarization) of data from heterogeneous
sources
– data quality: different sources typically use inconsistent
data representations, codes and formats which have to be
reconciled

DATA Warehousing - IntroductionDATA Warehousing - Introduction
A data warehouse is a subject-oriented,
integrated, nonvolatile, time-variant collection
of data in support of management's decisions.
- WH Inmon

Data Warehouse UsageData Warehouse Usage
 Three kinds of data warehouse applications
– Information processing
 supports querying, basic statistical analysis, and reporting using
crosstabs, tables, charts and graphs
– Analytical processing
 multidimensional analysis of data warehouse data
 supports basic OLAP operations, slice-dice, drilling, pivoting
– Data mining
 knowledge discovery from hidden patterns
 supports associations, constructing analytical models, performing
classification and prediction, and presenting the mining results
using visualization tools.
 Differences among the three tasks

Data Warehouse: Subject-OrientedData Warehouse: Subject-Oriented
 Organized around major subjects, such as customer, product,
sales.
 Focusing on the modeling and analysis of data for decision
makers, not on daily operations or transaction processing.
 Provide a simple and concise view around particular
subject issues by excluding data that are not useful in the
decision support process.

Subject-OrientedSubject-Oriented
Quotes Orders
ProspectsLeads
Operational
Data
Warehouse
Customers Products
Regions Time
Focus is on Subject Areas rather than ApplicationsFocus is on Subject Areas rather than Applications

Data Warehouse—IntegratedData Warehouse—Integrated
 Constructed by integrating multiple, heterogeneous data
sources
– relational databases, flat files, on-line transaction records
 Data cleaning and data integration techniques are applied.
– Ensure consistency in naming conventions, encoding
structures, attribute measures, etc. among different data
sources
 E.g., Hotel price: currency, tax, breakfast covered, etc.
– When data is moved to the warehouse, it is converted.

Data Warehouse—Time VariantData Warehouse—Time Variant
 The time horizon for the data warehouse is significantly longer
than that of operational systems.
– Operational database: current value data.
– Data warehouse data: provide information from a historical
perspective (e.g., past 5-10 years)
 Every key structure in the data warehouse
– Contains an element of time, explicitly or implicitly
– But the key of operational data may or may not contain
“time element”.

Time VariantTime Variant
Operational
Data
Warehouse
Current Value data
• time horizon : 60-90 days
Snapshot data
• time horizon : 5-10 years
•data warehouse stores historical
data
Data Warehouse Typically Spans Across TimeData Warehouse Typically Spans Across Time

Data Warehouse—Non-VolatileData Warehouse—Non-Volatile
 A physically separate store of data transformed from the
operational environment.
 Operational update of data does not occur in the data
warehouse environment.
– Does not require transaction processing, recovery, and
concurrency control mechanisms
– Requires only two operations in data accessing:
 initial loading of data and access of data.

Non-volatileNon-volatile
Operational Data
Warehouse
replace
change
insert
changeinsert
delete
load
read only
access
Data Warehouse Is Relatively Static In NatureData Warehouse Is Relatively Static In Nature

Data Warehouse vs. HeterogeneousData Warehouse vs. Heterogeneous
DBMSDBMS
 Traditional heterogeneous DB integration:
– Build wrappers/mediators on top of heterogeneous databases
– Query driven approach
 When a query is posed to a client site, a meta-dictionary is used to
translate the query into queries appropriate for individual
heterogeneous sites involved, and the results are integrated into a
global answer set
 Complex information filtering, compete for resources
 Data warehouse: update-driven, high performance
– Information from heterogeneous sources is integrated in advance and
stored in warehouses for direct query and analysis

Data Warehouse vs. Operational DBMSData Warehouse vs. Operational DBMS
 OLTP (on-line transaction processing)
– Major task of traditional relational DBMS
– Day-to-day operations: purchasing, inventory, banking, manufacturing,
payroll, registration, accounting, etc.
 OLAP (on-line analytical processing)
– Major task of data warehouse system
– Data analysis and decision making
 Distinct features (OLTP vs. OLAP):
– User and system orientation: customer vs. market
– Data contents: current, detailed vs. historical, consolidated
– Database design: ER + application vs. star + subject
– View: current, local vs. evolutionary, integrated
– Access patterns: update vs. read-only but complex queries

OLTP vs. OLAPOLTP vs. OLAP
OLTP OLAP
users clerk, IT professional knowledge worker
function day to day operations decision support
DB design application-oriented subject-oriented
data current, up-to-date
detailed, flat relational
isolated
historical,
summarized, multidimensional
integrated, consolidated
usage repetitive ad-hoc
access read/write
index/hash on prim. key
lots of scans
unit of work short, simple transaction complex query
# records accessed tens millions
#users thousands hundreds
DB size 100MB-GB 100GB-TB
metric transaction throughput query throughput, response

Slide 29- 27
Characteristics of Data WarehousesCharacteristics of Data Warehouses
 Multidimensional conceptual view
 Generic dimensionality
 Unlimited dimensions and aggregation levels
 Unrestricted cross-dimensional operations
 Dynamic sparse matrix handling
 Client-server architecture
 Multi-user support
 Accessibility
 Transparency
 Intuitive data manipulation
 Consistent reporting performance
 Flexible reporting

Prof. S.K. Pandey, I.T.S, Ghaziabad
28
Multi-Tiered ArchitectureMulti-Tiered Architecture
Components & Framework
Data Integration Stage

Data MartData Mart
 The data mart is a subset of the data warehouse that is
usually oriented to a specific business line or team. Data
marts are small slices of the data warehouse.
 Whereas data warehouses have an enterprise-wide
depth, the information in data marts pertains to a single
department.
 Data marts improve end-user response time by allowing
users to have access to the specific type of data they
need to view most often by providing the data in a way
that supports the collective view of a group of users.

Contd………….Contd………….
 A data mart is basically a condensed and more focused
version of a data warehouse that reflects the regulations
and process specifications of each business unit within
an organization.
 Each data mart is dedicated to a specific business
function or region.
 This subset of data may span across many or all of an
enterprise’s functional subject areas.
 It is common for multiple data marts to be used in order
to serve the needs of each individual business unit (different
data marts can be used to obtain specific information for various enterprise
departments, such as accounting, marketing, sales, etc.).

Reasons for creating a data martReasons for creating a data mart
 Easy access to frequently needed data
 Creates collective view by a group of users
 Improves end-user response time
 Ease of creation
 Lower cost than implementing a full data warehouse
 Potential users are more clearly defined than in a full
data warehouse
 Contains only business essential data and is less
cluttered.

Types of Data MartsTypes of Data Marts
 Dependent Data Mart: A dependent data mart is one
whose source is another data warehouse, and all
dependent data marts within an organization are
typically fed by the same source — the enterprise data
warehouse.

Contd…Contd…
Independent Data Mart: An independent data mart
is one whose source is directly from transactional
systems, legacy applications, or external data feeds.

Data warehouse:
i. Holds multiple subject areas
ii. Holds very detailed information
iii. Works to integrate all data sources
iv. Does not necessarily use a dimensional model but feeds dimensional
models.
Data mart:
i. Often holds only one subject area- for example, Finance, or Sales
ii. May hold more summarized data (although many hold full detail)
iii. Concentrates on integrating information from a given subject area or
set of source systems
iv. Is built focused on a dimensional model using a star schema.
Data mart vs data warehouse

Multi-Dimensional DatabaseMulti-Dimensional Database
StructureStructure

Multi Dimensional DatabaseMulti Dimensional Database
StructuresStructures
Sales volume as a function of product,
month, and region
ProductRegion
Month
Dimensions: Product, Location, Time
Hierarchical summarization paths
Industry Region Year
Category Country Quarter
Product City Month Week
Office Day

Slide 29- 37
Data Modeling for Data WarehousesData Modeling for Data Warehouses
 Example of Two- Dimensional vs. Multi-Dimensional
:
:
Three dimens ional data c ube
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
Fis cal Quarter
Qtr 1
Qtr 2
Qtr 3
Qtr 4
Reg 1
P123
P124
P125
P126
Reg 2 Reg 3
Re g io n

From Tables and SpreadsheetsFrom Tables and Spreadsheets
to Data Cubesto Data Cubes
 A data warehouse is based on a multidimensional data model
which views data in the form of a data cube
 A data cube, such as sales, allows data to be modeled and viewed in
multiple dimensions
– Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand, type), or
time(day, week, month, quarter, year)
– Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold) and keys to
each of the related dimension tables
 In data warehousing literature, an n-D base cube is called a base
cuboid. The top most 0-D cuboid, which holds the highest-level of
summarization, is called the apex cuboid. The lattice of cuboids
forms a data cube.

Cube: A Lattice of CuboidsCube: A Lattice of Cuboids
all
time item location supplier
time,item time,location
time,supplier
item,location
item,supplier
location,supplier
time,item,location
time,item,supplier
time,location,supplier
item,location,supplier
time, item, location, supplier
0-D cuboid
1-D cuboids
2-D cuboids
3-D cuboids
4-D(base) cuboid

Warehouse Database SchemasWarehouse Database Schemas
Star Schema
Snow-flake Schema
Fact constellation (Gathering/ Togetherness)
schema

Conceptual Modeling of DataConceptual Modeling of Data
WarehousesWarehouses
 Modeling data warehouses: dimensions & measures
– Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a set of
dimension tables
– Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema where some
dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a set of smaller
dimension tables, forming a shape similar to snowflake
– Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share dimension
tables, viewed as a collection of stars, therefore called galaxy
schema or fact constellation

Example of Star SchemaExample of Star Schema
time_key
day
day_of_the_week
month
quarter
year
time
location_key
street
city
province_or_street
country
location
Sales Fact Table
time_key
item_key
branch_key
location_key
units_sold
dollars_sold
avg_sales
Measures
item_key
item_name
brand
type
supplier_type
item
branch_key
branch_name
branch_type
branch

Example of Snowflake SchemaExample of Snowflake Schema
time_key
day
day_of_the_week
month
quarter
year
time
location_key
street
city_key
location
Sales Fact Table
time_key
item_key
branch_key
location_key
units_sold
dollars_sold
avg_sales
Measures
item_key
item_name
brand
type
supplier_key
item
branch_key
branch_name
branch_type
branch
supplier_key
supplier_type
supplier
city_key
city
province_or_street
country
city

Example of Fact ConstellationExample of Fact Constellation
time_key
day
day_of_the_week
month
quarter
year
time
location_key
street
city
province_or_street
country
location
Sales Fact Table
time_key
item_key
branch_key
location_key
units_sold
dollars_sold
avg_sales
Measures
item_key
item_name
brand
type
supplier_type
item
branch_key
branch_name
branch_type
branch
Shipping Fact Table
time_key
item_key
shipper_key
from_location
to_location
dollars_cost
units_shipped
shipper_key
shipper_name
location_key
shipper_type
shipper

Client/Server Computing Model &Client/Server Computing Model &
Data WarehousingData Warehousing
 The fundamental characteristic of client/server computing is
distribution of computing resources (e.g. data, compute power)
across different computers.
 The idea is to divide applications into logical segments (tasks) so
that they are then performed on platforms most appropriate.
 A client/server database system increases processing power by
separating the database management system from the application;
the client as the front-end system handling the user interface and
the server as the back-end system accessing the database, which
cooperate to run an application.

Contd….Contd….
 Data Warehousing is a continual process which
enables a corporation to assemble operational and
other data from a variety of internal and external
sources, and transform that data into consistent,
high-quality, business information, distribute that
information to the points of maximum value within
the organizations, and provide easy, flexible and fast
access for busy non-technical users.

Reasons for using client/serverReasons for using client/server
 Exploitation of centralized computing power /data
capacity
 Scalability
 Performance
 Flexibility (in order to adjust to changing demands)
 GUI on desktop
 Protection of investment, strategic software,
strategic data
 Client/server provides an integrated solution.

Parallel Processors & ClusterParallel Processors & Cluster
SystemsSystems

Loosely Coupled - ClustersLoosely Coupled - Clusters
 Collection of independent whole uni-processors or SMPs
– Usually called nodes
 Interconnected to form a cluster
 Working together as unified resource
– Illusion of being one machine
 Communication via fixed path or network connections
Cluster BenefitsCluster Benefits
 Absolute scalability
 Incremental scalability
 High availability
 Superior price/performance

Distributed DBMS implementations
What Is A Distributed DBMS?What Is A Distributed DBMS?
 Decentralization of business operations and globalization of
businesses created a demand for distributing the data and processes
across multiple locations.
 Distributed database management systems (DDBMS) are designed
to meet the information requirements of such multi-location
organizations.
 A DDBMS manages the storage and processing of logically
related data over interconnected computer systems in which
both data and processing functions are distributed among several
sites.
 Distributed processing shares the database’s logical processing
among two or more physically independent sites that are
connected through a network.

DDBMS AdvantagesDDBMS Advantages
Data located near site with greatest demand
Faster data access
Faster data processing
Growth facilitation
Improved communications
Reduced operating costs
User-friendly interface
Less danger of single-point failure
Processor independence

Distributed ProcessingDistributed Processing
Shares database’s logical processing among physically, networked independent sites

DDBMS ComponentsDDBMS Components
 Computer workstations that form the network
system.
 Network hardware and software components that
reside in each workstation.
 Communications media that carry the data from one
workstation to another.
 Transaction processor (TP) receives and processes
the application’s data requests.
 Data processor (DP) stores and retrieves data
located at the site. Also known as data manager
(DM).

Distributed DB TransparencyDistributed DB Transparency
 A DDBMS ensures that the database operations are
transparent to the end user.
 Different types of transparencies are:
– Distribution transparency
– Transaction transparency
– Failure transparency
– Performance transparency
– Heterogeneity transparency

55
Distributed Database DesignDistributed Database Design
 All design principles and concepts discussed in the
context of a centralized database also apply to a
distributed database.
 Three additional issues are relevant to the design
of a distributed database:
– data fragmentation
– data replication
– data allocation

56
Data FragmentationData Fragmentation
 Data fragmentation allows us to break a single object (a
database or a table) into two or more fragments.
 Three type of fragmentation strategies are available
to distribute a table: - Horizontal, Vertical, Mixed.
 Horizontal fragmentation divides a table into
fragments consisting of sets of tuples:
– Each fragment has unique rows and is stored at a
different node
– Example: A bank may distribute its customer table
by location

57
Contd……Contd……
 Vertical fragmentation divides a table into fragments
consisting of sets of columns
– Each fragment is located at a different node and
consists of unique columns - with the exception of
the primary key column, which is common to all
fragments
– Example: The Customer table may be divided into
two fragments, one fragment consisting of Cust ID,
name, and address may be located in the Service
building and the other fragment with Cust ID, credit
limit, balance, dues may be located in the Collection
building.

58
Data FragmentationData Fragmentation
 Mixed fragmentation combines the horizontal and
vertical strategies.
 A fragment may consist of a subset of rows and a
subset of columns of the original table.
 Example: Customer table may be divided by state
and grouped by columns. The service building in
Texas will store Customer service related
information for customers from Texas.

59
Data ReplicationData Replication
 Data replication involves storing multiple copies of a
fragment in different locations. For example, a copy
may be stored in New Delhi and another in Mumbai.
 It improves response time and data availability.
 Data replication requires the DDBMS to maintain data
consistency among the replicas.
 A fully replicated database stores multiple copies of each
database fragment.
 A partially replicated database stores multiple copies of
some database fragments at multiple sites.

60
Data AllocationData Allocation
 Data allocation decision involves determining the
location of the fragments so as to achieve the design
goals of cost, response time and availability.
 Three data allocation strategies are: centralized,
partitioned and replicated.
 A centralized allocation strategy stores the entire
database in a single location.
 A partitioned strategy divides the database into
disjointed parts (fragments) and allocates the fragments
to different locations.
 In a replicated strategy copies of one or more database
fragments are stored at several sites.

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