Module 3

• Parts of building are classified into 2 categories
• Sub structure- It is the lowest portion of the building which is
usually considered to be located below the ground level
• Transmit the load of super structure to the soil
• Super structure-Portion which is constructed above the sub
structure

• Substructure –Nothing but the foundation which is provided to
give stability to the building and to distribute the load coming
from super structure.
• Subsoil –is weak –the load –transferred to –deep strong strata-
by means of long vertical members called piles.

Purposes of foundation
1. Even distribution of load-Distributes load from superstructure over a
large area
2. Reduction of differential settlement-All non uniform load distributed
properly on subsoil by foundation ,settlement is minimized.
3. Safety against sliding and overturning- Due to lateral loads.
4. Safety against undermining-Due to flood water or burrowing
5. Firm and level surface-provide for the construction of superstructure

Bearing capacity of soils
• The maximum load per unit area which the soil or rock can carry
without yielding or displacement is termed as the bearing capacity
of soils. (The supporting power of soil without any failure is called
bearing capacity.)
• Soil properties like shear strength, density, permeability etc., affect
the bearing capacity of soil.
• Selection of suitable foundation is an important task
• Type, depth, shape and size of the foundation are to be determined.
• Load from the structure are finally transmitted to soil.
• So it is important to study strength and behavior of soil

Important in design of foundations
• It depends on :-
1. Properties of soil like cohesion ,angle of friction
2. Allowable and differential settlement
3. Position of water table
4. Physical features of foundation like type ,size shape and rigidity
5. Depth of strong strata.

• Ultimate bearing capacity is the theoretical
maximum pressure which can be supported without failure
• Allowable bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing
capacity divided by a factor of safety.
Factor of safety adopted is 2-5

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
Divided into two categories
Shallow foundation -When the depth of the foundation is less
than or equal to the width.
• Open foundation -normally constructed by way of open
excavations
Deep foundation -have depth more than width

Shallow foundation/spread
foundation
• Placed immediately below the part of the
superstructure supported by it
• Footing –often used along with foundation.
• Foundation unit constructed in masonry or concrete
under the base of the column or wall.
• Have one or more footings

Various types of shallow foundations
1) Isolated or column footing
2) Wall or strip footing
3) Combined footing
4) Continuous footing
5) Cantilever footing
6) Inverted arch footing
7) Grillage foundation
8) Raft or mat foundation

1. Isolated or column footing
• Provided for column to transfer the load safely to the soil
beneath.
• When the load on the column is less a spread is given under the
column
• This is called isolated footing.
• Simple footing-adopted for light load
• Stepped or sloped footing-adopted for medium and heavy
column loads.

2.Wall or strip footing
• Provided for through out the length of continuous structure.
• Normally adopted for load bearing walls.
• Simple or stepped

3. Combined footing
• Footing is constructed for two or more columns .
• Shape-rectangular or trapezoidal
• Centroid of the footing area coincides with centre of gravity of
the loads on footing.
• Adopted for lift well column, water tank supporting column, bus
shelter supporting columns.
• Adopted incase of two individual footing overlapping, bearing
capacity of soil less i.e. require more area, when footing
constructed near boundary.

4.Continuous footing
• Single continuous reinforced concrete slab is provided as
foundation for three or more columns in a row.
• It is more suitable to prevent the differential settlement in the
structure and for safety against earthquake

5. Strap/ Cantilever footing
• Consists of an eccentric footing for the exterior column and a
concentric column for the interior column.
• A strap or a cantilever beam connects them.
• Used when it is impossible to place a footing directly below the
column because of limitations of boundary of site or eccentric
loading conditions

6.Inverted arch footing
• Used to transmit load above an opening to the
supporting walls
• Constructed between the two walls at the base
• The end columns are to be designed to resist the
outward pressure caused by arch action.
• Commonly used for bridge piers, reservoirs tanks
and support for drainage work

8.Raft or mat foundation
• Combined footing which covers entire area beneath the structure.
• Consists of a single continuous reinforced concrete slab or
inverted beam and slab construction.
• These are adopted when
1. Load is heavy and bearing capacity is less.
2. Isolated footing of each column requires large area,
3. In highly compressible soils
4. To counteract the effect of hydrostatic pressure

Deep foundations
• Very large depth compared to width
• Various types
Pile foundation
Well foundation

Pile foundation
• Normally installed by driving by hammer or any other suitable
method
• Usually placed in groups to provide foundation for structure
• Pile group may be subjected to vertical and horizontal load or
combination of both
• Classified according to the material composition, installation
method, ground effect and their function as a foundation

Classification based on their function as a
foundation
• End bearing pile-when the top soil is soft or too
weak to support the super structure, piles are used to
transmit the load to the underlying bed rock
• Friction pile-if the bed rock is not existing at a
suitable depth below the ground surface, the load is
transferred through the friction along the pile shaft
such piles are called friction piles

• Compaction piles-Piles are used to densify loose soils
• Sheet piles-used to retain the earth or to reduce seepage flow of
water in hydraulic structures.(made up of steel timber or
concrete)
• Batter piles-inclined piles to resist the inclined forces,
constructed at ports harbors and oat jetties
• Anchor piles-provide anchorage against pulling or pushing
forces due to retaining earth

Under reamed pile
• It is a type of bored cat in situ concrete pile with large base
• The enlarged base is termed as bulb or under ream
• Have one two or more bulb

DRILLED PIERS
• They are structural members of relatively large diameter
massive structures constructed of concrete placed in pre-
excavated hole
• Called as bored piles, large diameter piers, foundation
piers

 Masonry – defined as the construction of building units like bricks, stones or concrete blocks
bonded together with mortar
 Brick masonry – brick units bonded togther with mortar
 Strecher - A brick laid with its length parallel to the direction of wall
 Header – A brick laid with its length perpendicular to the direction of wall
 Course – horizontal layer of brick or stone
 Closer – portion of a brick, either cut from a regular brick or manufactured according to required
shape, helps in preventing the joint overlapping in successive courses, may be of various types

King closer – portion of brick, cut such that the width of one
end is half that of a full brick, obtained by cutting a triangular
piece between the center of one end and the other
Queen closer – obtained by cutting a brick into two equal half
lengthwise, have half the width of the full brick
Bat – portion of brick cut along the width

Bonds – method of arranging the bricks in course so that
individual bricks are locked together
Various types of bonds are distinguished by their elevation or face
appearance
Improper arrangements will result in continuous vertical joints, their
by reduction in strength and stability

STRECHER BOND
• All bricks are lied as stretchers on the face of the wall
• length of the brick is along the direction of the wall
• Overlap is equal to half of the brick length
• Overlap is effected by staring the alternate courses with half brick bat
• Used for walls having half brick thickness, such as those used as
partition walls
• Not possible for larger thickness

HEADER BONDS
All the bricks are laid as headers on faces of walls
The width of the brick is along the direction of the wall
Can be made only when thickness of the wall is equal to one brick
Suitable for partition walls
Also used for curved brick work

ENGLISH BOND
 Most commonly used bond for all wall thickness
 Considered as strongest bond
 Alternative courses are either headers or stretchers in elevation
 No continuous vertical joints
 Every alternate header is centrally placed over the header

POSITIONING OF
DOORS &
WINDOWS
KTU syllabus based

POSITION OF DOORS AND
WINDOWS• Number of doors and windows should be kept minimum
• The location & size of building should be based on functional requirement
• For good ventilation and air circulation doors should be located in opposite
walls facing each other.
• Doors should be placed at corner of room.
• Location, size and number of windows are decided considering various
factors, like, desired daylight, desired vision of outside, privacy, natural
ventilation etc.
• For good ventilation, windows should be given in opposite walls whenever
possible
• For max daylight, windows should be located in northern side
• Sill height of windows should be located at a height of 0.75 to 1m from
floor. In case of bathrooms etc. it is located at a higher level(privacy).

1. Aesthetics• The placement of your doors will directly affect the aesthetics
of your home, and can completely change the look and feel of
any part of your home.
• handing and swing direction, as both of these factors will
change the way space can be used in the room when the door is
open.
• The position of your front door will define the entire look of
the facade of your home, just as the positioning (and size) of
your home's rear doors will affect the way they open onto your
back yard.

2. Positioning and security
• Good design will place the hinges of your front
door on the inside of your home, protecting them
from being tampered with from the outside.
• Depending on how your home's designed, you may
also need to consider how visible your front door is
from the street - in some cases, having the door
visible from the street or from a neighbour's yard
can serve as a deterrent to would-be thieves.

3. Clearance and space
• You will need an area that has enough clearance room
for a door to open and enough space to get around it if
it’s sitting at 90 degrees to the wall. The frame will need
to have enough space for the door, but also a little
clearance on all sides for swing room. Think carefully
about which way the door is to be handed, having the
handle on the wrong side could cause damage to the
walls and paintwork.
• Doors should be positioned so that they don't interfere
with each other, or open into hallways or accessways

4. Door position, ventilation and airflow
• Another important factor to think about is the airflow through
your house. Aligning doors and windows through rooms and
hallways can create a wind tunnel effect when the doors are
open. While this is very useful for effective wind ventilation, it
may also be disruptive or uncomfortable if it's too breezy. By
staggering doors, even slightly, you can break up the tunnel’s
flow and reduce the speed of a draught. This can also circulate
the air better, encouraging it to circulate throughout the room or
house instead of directly through it.
• Doors that open to the outside should also open inwards if facing
the windier side of the house. A door opening outwards in a
strong gale can put great strain on the hinges, and may even
loosen the door from the frame.

OPEN SPACE REQUIREMENTS
• As per KBR 1999( Kerala building rules)
• Exterior open spaces
Every building up to 10m height shall have
1. Minimum Front Yard Of 3m Depth
2. Minimum Back Yard Of 2m Depth
3. 1.2m And Not Less Than 1 M In Sides

Buildings above 10m height
• Front open space – 3m + 0.5m per every additional
3m above 10m
• Rear open space – 2m + 0.5m per every additional
3m above 10m
• Side open space – 1.2m/1m + 0.5m per every
additional 3m above 10m

For buildings above 4 storeys
• A minimum of 5m should be given in any one side contiguous
to front side
• Plot are less than 125sq.m.
• Front yard – 1.8m
• Rear yard – 1 m
• Side yard 0.9m in one side & 0.6m in other side
For buildings in small plots

INTERIOR OPEN SPACES
• Any habitable room not abutting on front, rear or
side open spaces, shall abut on an interior open space
with a minimum width of 2.4m
• If the total height of the residential building is less
than 7m, then the interior open space shall have 1.5m
width

SIZE OF ROOMS
• From the view of health and ventilation NBC specifies
the minimum sizes for the habitable rooms in houses
and apartments as follows
Habitable Room
• Minimum area of 9.5m2 , with minimum width 2.4m,
when there is only one room
• If there 2 rooms, minimum area for one room is 9.5m2
and of other room is 7.5m2, with minimum width of
2.4m

SIZE OF ROOMS
• Kitchen
• For kitchen cum store, minimum area is 5.5m2
with minimum width 1.8m
• For kitchen with separate store, minimum area is
4.5m2 and width 1.8m
• For kitchen cum dining room, minimum area
9.5m2, and width 2.4m

SIZE OF ROOMS
• Bathrooms & Water closet
• Bathrooms minimum size – 1.5m x 1.2m & area
1.8m2
• Water closet, minimum area 1.1m2
• Bathroom combined with water closet- Minimum
area = 2.8m2
• Minimum Width 1.2m

SIZE OF ROOMS
• Mezzanine floor
Minimum area of mezzanine floor if used as living
room is 9.5 m2 and shall not exceed one third of the
plinth area of the building

ROOF
• A roof is the uppermost part of a building whose main function is to
enclose space and to protect the same from the effects of whether
elements such as rain, wind, sun, heat and snow.
• Requirements of an ideal roof
Strength and stability
Weather resistance
Heat insulation
Sound insulation
Fire resistance
Waterproof & good drainage arrangement.
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TERMS USED
• Span: clear distance between the supports of roof
• Rise: vertical distance between top of the ridge and wall plate
• Pitch: It is the slope of the roof. It is obtained as the ratio of rise to span.
• Ridge: Apex line of sloping roof.
• Eaves: Lower edge of inclined roof surface.
• Hip: Ridge formed by joining two sloping surfaces, external angle is
greater than 180.
• Valley: Reverse of hip. Formed by the intersection of two roof surfaces,
making an external angle less than 180.
• Principal rafter: This is the inclined member running from the ridge to the
eaves.
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• Purlins: These are horizontal wooden or steel members, used to support
roofing material of a roof. Purlins are supported on trusses or walls.
• Wall plates: These are long wooden members, which are provided on the
top of stone or brick wall, for the purpose of fixing the feet of principal
rafters.
• Battens: These are thin strips of wood, called scantlings, which are nailed
to the rafters for lying roof materials above.
• Cleats: These are short sections of wood or steel, which are fixed on the
principal rafters of trusses to support the Purlins.
• Truss: A roof truss is a framework, usually of well-formed triangles,
designed to support the roof covering or ceiling over rooms.

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• The roofs should be well designed and constructed to meet the
requirements of different climates and the covering materials
available
• The roofs may be classified as follows:
1) Pitched or sloping roofs
2) Flat roofs
3) Shell roofs
4) Domes
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROOFS

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• Pitched roofs or sloping roofs are very suitable in coastal
regions where rainfall is heavy and flat roofs are suitable in
plains where rainfall is low and temperatures are high.

PITCHED ROOF OR SLOPING
ROOF
Different types of pitched roofs are,
1. Lean to roof
2. Couple roof
3. Couple close roof
4. Collar beam roof
5. Collar and tie roof
6. King post truss
7. Queen post truss
8. Mansard truss
9. Steel trusses 72

Lean to roof
• Simplest type of pitched roof.
• Consists of rafters that slope in one
direction only.
• Generally, it is used to cover the
verandah of a building and projects
from the main wall of building.
• It is suitable for spans up to 2.5 m.
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Couple roof
• In this type of roof, each
couple or pair of common
rafters is made to slope
upwards from the opposite
walls and they are supported
at the upper ends by ridge
piece or ridge board in the
middle.
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• The lower ends of the common rafters are fixed to the
wall plates embedded in the masonry on the top of the
walls.
• The use of this form of roof is not favoured as it has a
tendency to spread at the feet and thrust out the walls.
• Therefore adopted only for a height of 3.5 m.

Couple close roof• Similar to a couple roof except that the legs of common rafters are
closed by a horizontal tie known as tie beam.
• The tie beam is connected at the feet of common rafters to check their
tendency of spreading outwards and hence saves the walls from the
danger of overturning.
• Under normal conditions this type of roof can be used for a maximum
span of 4.5 m.
• However, for increased spans or greater loads the rafters have a
tendency to sag in the middle. 77

Collar beam roof
• Used for spans between 4
and 5.5 m.
• A collar of same width as
rafter is fixed to every pair
of rafters and is attached at a
height of half to one-third
of the vertical height
between the wall and ridge.
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• The collar is dovetailed with the rafter and the bolts can be
used for additional safety.
• Desirable to place collar as low as possible to provide
maximum strength to the roof.

King post truss• For spans greater than 4.8 m,
when no intermediate supporting
walls for the purlins are available,
framed structures known as
trusses are used.
• Spacing between trusses depends
on the load coming on the roof,
material of the truss, span and
location of cross walls.
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• In king post truss, the central vertical
post called as king post provide
support for tie beam.
• The inclined members are known as
struts and are used to prevent the
principal rafters from bending at the
centre.
• King post truss can be used
economically for spans 5-8 m.

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• Joint between the king post and the tie beam is an ordinary
mortise and tenon joint.
• Bridle joint is provided to connect the principal rafter with
the tie beam.

Queen post truss
• Can be used for spans 9-14 m.
• Varies from king post truss in having two
vertical members known as queen posts.
• The heads of queen posts are put apart
by a horizontal member known as
straining beam.
• The head of the queen post is made
wider to receive the principal rafter and
the straining beam.
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Mansard trusses
• Combination of king post
truss and queen post truss.
• Upper portion has the shape
of king post truss and lower
portion resembles a queen
post truss.
• The truss has two pitches.
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• The upper pitch varies from 30 to 40 degree and the lower
pitch varies from 60 to 70 degree.
• This type of truss is economical and in the span an extra
room may be provided.
• This type of truss is now rarely used because of its ugly
appearance.
• Construction of various joints is similar to that of the king
post trusses.

Steel trusses• Their use has become economical
for spans greater than 12 m.
• Various standard sizes and shapes
of rolled steel are available for the
fabrication of steel trusses.
• When large column free areas are
required.
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• T sections are best suited for use as
principal rafters, where as angle iron
or channel section is used as struts.
• The members of a truss are joined
by rivets or by welding plates known
as gusset plates.

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The relative advantage of steel trusses over timber sloping trusses are;
1. Steel trusses forming the roof are light in weight and can be
fabricated in different shapes and sizes. Suits the structural as
well as architectural requirements.
2. Steel sections made of mild steel sections are free from the
attack of white ants and dry rot.
3. These trusses are fire resistant and can be used where
fireproof construction is desired.
4. Much stronger than timber trusses and they are usually strong
in tension and compression.

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• Steel trusses are used for structures requiring large spans
such as industrial buildings, large sheds, assembly halls,
hangers and auditoriums. Timber trusses can only be used
up to minimum span of 14 m or so, whereas there is no
span restriction in case of steel trusses.
• Sections forming a steel truss can be easily machined and
shaped in the workshop and subsequently packed and
transported to site for assembling. There is no wastage in
cutting.
• Erection of steel trusses from the rolled sections is very
easy, rapid and economical.

FLAT ROOFS
• A roof which is approximately
flat is called flat roof.
• It may be constructed in RCC,
flagstone supported on rolled
steel joist, bricks, concrete or tiled
arches.
• Flat roofs are suitable in plains
where rainfall is low and
temperatures are high.
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Advantages of flat roof:
• Can be used as a terrace for playing or sleeping or for other domestic purposes.
• Construction and maintenance is simpler.
• Provides better architectural appearance to the building.
• Easier to make fire resistant.
• Good insulating properties.
• Avoids need for false ceiling.
• Construction work of upper floors can be readily taken.
• Pitched roofs need more area of roofing material than flat roofs.
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Disadvantages of flat roof
• Cannot be used for long spans without using columns and beams.
• Not suitable for heavy rainfall areas.
• Initial cost is more.
• Due to greater variations in the temperature cracks sometimes develop on surfaces of
the roof, which is difficult to repair.
• Speed of construction is slower than that of a pitched roof.
• If proper slope is not provided on the roof to drain off rainwater , pockets of water
are formed on the surface of the roof, which leads to leakage in the roof.
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Reinforced concrete slab roof
• An average of 10-13 cm thick LC terracing with some
waterproofing compound is provided over the RCC slab to make
the roof leak proof.
• At the junctions with walls, the lime terracing is taken inside the
wall for 10-15 cm depth and round shape such that water may not
accumulate.
• The lime terracing is provided with a slope(1 in 60 or 1 in 100) to
drain off the rainwater easily from the roof.
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SHELL ROOF
• Shell roofs are very useful for covering
large structures, e.g., assembly halls,
recreation centers, libraries, theaters
and factories.
• Very less quantity of materials are
required to build up a shell roof
compared to other conventional
methods of roofing for same span.
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• The design of the shell is made as thin as practical requirements
will allow, such that the dead load is decreased and the shell act as
a membrane free from large bending stresses.
• Common types of shell roof are as follows:
1. North light shell roof is used mostly in factories, workshops
and places where good daylight is desired.

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2. If good day lighting is not a requirement, long cylindrical shells
with feather edge beams may be useful.
3. Double curved shells are structurally more efficient than single
curved shells, but it presents difficulties in preparing the
centering for it.

DOMES
• A dome is a special type of shell roof of semi spherical or semi elliptical shape.
• Mainly divided into two:
1. Smooth shell domes
2. Ribbed domes
• Smooth shell domes may be divided into:
1. Domes with shells of uniform thickness
2. Domes with shells of uniformly varying thickness
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• Smooth shell domes are
constructed by brick, stone,
concrete or tile.
• Ribbed domes may be built in
steel, concrete or wood.

Selecting a right roofing
There are many things to take into account
when selecting a new roof system. These includes;
1.Pitch
2.Cost
3.Durability
4.Aesthetics
5.Architectural style
6.Types of structure you are covering

1. PITCH
It is the angle of the roof`s incline, measured in inches per
foot
Eg; a 4 in 12 pitched roof means that for every 12 inches
horizontal run there are 4 inches of rise in height
PITCHRISE
RUN

2. COST
Cost on a new roof depends mainly on 2 factors - i.e.;
material cost and labor cost
E.g.; roofing shingles come with a variety of warranties 25year,
30year and lifetime. But labor cost applied is same. Because of
this it may actually be less expensive over the life span of the
roof to install a more durable product.

3. DURABILITY
- It is a key factor in maintenance and cost.
- Roofing that is easily damaged ,may need to be repaired frequently
or possibly replaced
- Be sure to look at the warranty of various roofing materials, as it is
an indication of how long your roof will cost

4. Aesthetics
- Aesthetics are something to consider when selecting a new
roof.
- Because the roofing area may be up to 50% of the exposed
exterior of your home ,you should select roofing that coordinates
with your siding and will provide a timeless look

5, ARCHITECTURAL STYLE
IT IS SOMETHING THAT IS NOT FREQUENTLY
CONSIDERED WHEN WORKING ON A BUDGET ,
HOWEVER TO DO THE JOB RIGHT, YOU SHOULD SELECT
A ROOFING MATERIAL THAT FITS WITH STYLE OF YOUR
HOME
e.g.; wood shakes on a contemporary style home may not achieve the look and
feel you desire

ROOFING MATERIALS
WOOD SHINGLES AND
SHAKES

Terms
Thatch is roofing made of plant stalks in overlapping layers
Wheat straw, widely used in England, France and other parts of Europe
Seagrass, used in coastal areas where there are estuaries such as Scotland. Has a longer
life than straw. Claimed to have a life in excess of 60 years.
Rye straw, commonly used in a barn.
Raffia palm leaves:A well organised raffia palm leaves is mainly used as roof houses in
Nigeria especially among the Igbos.
Rice straw, commonly used in Eastern Asia.
Water reed, commonly used in Ireland for Thatching.

•MODULE 6
BASIC INFRASTRUCTURE AND
SERVICES
Basic infrastructure and services - Elevators,
escalators, ramps, air conditioning, sound
proofing (Civil engineering aspects only)
Towers, Chimneys, Water tanks (brief discussion
only).

 Elevator (Lift)
 Escalator
 Ramp
 Air conditioning
 Sound proofing

• They are sloping surfaces used to provide an easy connection between floors
• They are especially used when large number of people or vehicles have to be moved from
floor to floor
• They are usually provided at places such as garages, railway stations, stadium, town halls,
office buildings and exhibition halls
• Sometimes, they are provided in special purpose buildings such as schools for physically
handicapped children

• They should be constructed with non slippery surface
• They are given a slope of 15%
• But a slope of 10% is usually preferred
• The space required for ramp is more
• The ramp need not be straight for the whole distance
• Ramp can be curved, zigzagged or spiral

• Level landings, with a length of at least 1.1m in the direction of travel should be provided at the door
openings and where ramps change slope or direction abruptly
• Landing should be at least as wide as ramp
• Ramps and landings should be designed for a live load of at least 21.2 kg/cm2
• Minimum width of pedestrian ramp is 75 cm for heights between landings not exceeding 3.6 m
• Powered ramps, or moving walks, carrying standing passengers may operate on slopes up to 8˚ at
speeds up to 60m/min and slopes up to 15˚ at speeds up to 47 m/min

• They are powered stairs
• They are used when large number of people are required to move from floor to floor
• These stairs have continuous operation without the need of operators
• They have large capacity with low power consumption
• The escalators are in the form of an inclined bridge spanning between the floors
• Components of escalator:
1. A steel trussed frame work
2. Hand rail
3. Endless belt with steps

• At the upper end of an escalator there is a pair of motor driven sprocket wheels and a
worm gear driving machine
• At the lower end there is a matching pair of sprocket wheel
• Two precision made roller chains travel over the sprockets pulling the endless belt of steps
• Escalators are reversible in direction
• They are generally operated at a speed of 30 or 40 m/min
• Slope of stairs is standardized at 30˚
• For a given speed of travel, width of step determines the capacity of powered stairs

• Escalators should be installed were traffic is heaviest and where it is convenient for passengers
• In the design of a new building, adequate space should be allotted for powered stairs
• Structural framing should be made adequately to support them
• Escalators are generally installed in pairs
• One of them is used for carrying up going traffic
• Other one used for carrying traffic moving down
• Arrangement of escalators in each story can be either parallel or criss cross
• Criss cross arrangement is more compact

• Criss cross arrangement is preferred over parallel arrangement
• Because, it reduces walking distance between stairs at various floors to a minimum
Number of floors Speed
4-5 0.5-0.75 m/s
6-12 0.75-1.5 m/s
13-20 above1.5 m/s

• They are used in building having more than 4 storeys
• Used for providing vertical transportation of passengers or freight
• 2 types of lift:
1. Electric traction elevators
2. Hydraulic elevators

Hydraulic elevators
• They are generally used for low rise freight service which rises up to 6 storeys
• They may also be used for low rise passenger service

Electric traction elevators
• They are used exclusively in tall buildings
• Components:
1. Car or cab
2. Hoist wire rope
3. Driving machine control equipment
4. Counterweight
5. Hoistway rails
6. Penthouse
7. pit

Classification – Based on purpose
Passenger lift
Designed for the transportation of passengers
Hospital lift:
 Installed in hospitals
 Designed to accommodate
 one number of bed or stretcher along its depth
 minimum of 3 attenders
 lift operator
Goods lift:
 For the transportation of goods
 Also carry a lift attendant or other persons necessary for loading and
unloading of goods

Service lift
 A passenger cum goods lift
 Used to carry goods along with people
Fireman's lift
 It has the following standards
 Lift car area not less than 1.44 m2
 Minimum capacity 544 kg
 Doors should have automatic operation
 Minimum fire resistance of 1 hour

• Car is the load carrying element of the elevator
• A cage of light metal is supported on a structural frame, to the top of which the wire ropes are attached
• The ropes raise and lower the car in the shaft
• They pass over a grooved, motor driven sheave and are fastened to the counter weights
• The paths of both the counter weight and car controlled by separate sets of T shaped guide rails
• Control and operating machinery may be located in a penthouse above the shaft or in the basement
• Safety springs or buffers are placed in the pit, to bring the car or counterweight to a safe stop

• For elevators serving more than 3 floors, means should be provided for venting smoke and
hot gases from the hoist ways to the outer air in case of fire
• Vent may be located in the enclosure just below the uppermost floor, with direct openings to
the outside or with non combustible duct connections to outside
• Vent area should be at least 35% of the hoistway cross sectional area

Design considerations
 Key considerations that affect elevator system design are:
1. Number of floors to be served
2. Floor to floor distance
3. Population of each floor
4. Location of building
5. Specialist services within the building
6. Type of building occupancy
7. Maximum peak demand in passenger per 5 minute period

Design parameters
 There are numerous parameters which can be used to judge elevator system performance
 The principle one is based on quality of service and quantity of service
Quality of service
 It is related to time interval a passenger has to wait
 It is the expected interval between the arrival of elevators in the main floor
 For a large building, the quality of service can be categorized as:
1. Average time interval 20-25 seconds - excellent
2. Average time interval 35-40 seconds - fair
3. Average time interval 45 seconds – poor
4. Average time interval over 45 seconds – unsatisfactory

Population
 Total building population and its future projections are required for design
 Probable population density may be obtained from building owner
 In the absence of other data, an average of 1 person per 5m2 is assumed

Location of elevators
 Most efficient method of locating elevators to serve an individual building is to group
them together
 A group has a lower average interval between car arrivals than a single elevator
 Groups should be located:
1. For easy access to and from the main building entrance
2. Centrally for general ease of passenger journey
 If a building has areas which give long distance to the central group elevator, then it may
be efficient to provide an additional elevator for local areas

• It is the process of treating air so as to control simultaneously its temperature, humidity,
purity and distribution to meet the requirements of the conditioned space, such as
comfort and health of human beings and other needs of the situation

Purpose of air conditioning
• To give comfort to the residents of private building
The air conditioning in this case serves a small number of persons
• Air conditioning in commercial premises such as theatres, offices, bank, shops and restaurants
Here air conditioning is done to improve the working atmosphere and maintain comfort within
these concerns
• Air conditioning in travel by air, railway, road and water
Here air conditioning imparts facility and comfort by conditioning the quality of air in
aeroplanes, railway coaches, road cars, buses, ships etc.
• To improve the quality of products in industrial process such as artificial silk and cotton cloth.
In other industries, air conditioning helps in providing comfort working condition for workers
resulting in the increase of production

Classification
 Based on function
Comfort air conditioning
 Air inside room are created to give maximum human comfort
Industrial air conditioning
 Atmospheric conditions are created, controlled and maintained suitable for
material processing, manufacturing and storage etc. rather than comfort

 Based on air conditioning process
Summer air conditioning
 During summer temperature outside is higher
 Cycle of air conditioning operation involve: air cooling, dehumidifying, air distribution &
air cleaning
Winter air conditioning
 During winter temperature outside is lower
 Cycle of air conditioning operation involve: air heating, humidifying, air distribution &
air cleaning
Composite air conditioning
 It requires to provided for whole year irrespective of outside temperature
 Cycle of operation involves humidifying together with air distribution and air cleaning

Steps Involved
1. Sucking air through a filtering media
2. Cooling it in summer or heating it in winter
3. Dehumidification if it is to be cooled, or humidifying, if it is to be heated
4. Forcing it into the room for proper circulation
5. Used air is collected through an exhaust and mixed with some outside fresh air and sucked
again through the filtering medium, thus completing the cycle

Principle of comfort air conditioning
 Principle of air conditioning involve proper control of temperature, humidity and air velocity
1. Temperature control:
 Comfortable zone is the temperature range suitable for majority of the people
 The comfortable zone are different for summer and winter due to the clothing worn in these
two seasons
 The effective temperature zone for summer is 20-23˚C
 The effective temperature zone for winter is 18-22˚C
 A temperature of is 21-25˚C required for comfort conditions regardless of the out size
temperature

2. Air velocity control:
• Air velocity control is an important factor
• The increase in velocity results in the decrease of inside effective temperature below the outside
temperature
• Hence, velocity of air is generally taken as 6-9m/s, which is relatively considered as stiff air
3. Humidity control:
• Dry air imparts great strain for human body
• Due to this reason moisture is added to the heated air in case of winter air conditioning

• Moisture is extracted from cool air in case of summer air conditioning
• Average value of relative humidity between 40% and 60% is considered desirable
• During summer season 40-50% is comfortable
• For winter 50-60% is suggested

Systems of air conditioning
 Depending on the location of air conditioning equipment, the system of air conditioning is classified
as follow:
1. Central system
2. Self contained or unit system
3. Semi contained or unitary central system
4. Combined system
 The choice of a particular type of air conditioning system depends upon several factors:
1. Size of structure
2. Method of heating
3. Volume and type of air conditioning unit
4. Period of year for which air conditioning is required etc.

1. Central system
 In this system all the equipment's pertaining to the air conditioning are installed in a central place
 Then the conditioned air is distributed to all the rooms by ducts
 In this system maintenance is easy and requires less space for its installation
 It is economical as compared to provision of separate units of air conditioning for every room
 However, it requires ducts of large size and they occupy more space

2. Self contained or unit system
• In this system, special portable attractive cabinets which fit in with the
decorations of modern rooms are placed inside the room near ceiling or
enclosures
• The conditioned air is then directly thrown into room without the help of any
ducts

3. Semi contained or unitary central system
 In this system, every room is provided with an air conditioning unit
• The room unit obtain its supply from central system
• Such a system results in smaller size of ducts
 In another form of this system, the conditioned air is supplied from a central unit
• But heating or cooling may take place in the room itself

4. Combined system
• This system may consist of:
1. Central and self contained system
2. Central and semi contained system
3. Self contained and semi contained system

 Used to store water for daily requirements
 It has to be ensured that concrete does not crack on its water surface
 Cracking is mainly caused due to free expansion and contraction of concrete due to
temperature and swelling due to moisture effects

Classification:
 Based on placement of tank
1. Tanks resting on ground
2. Elevated tanks
3. Underground tank
 Based on shape:
1. Circular tank – Used for bigger capacities
2. Rectangular tank- Used for smaller capacities
Longer side should not be greater than 2 times smaller side

3. Spherical tank- Water pressure is evenly distributed within tank
Requires less reinforcement
Less surface area and hence less material is needed
4. Intze tank- Constructed to reduce project cost
Lower dome in this resists horizontal thrust
5. Circular tanks with conical bottom

Based on placement of tank
Elevated water tank Underground water tank Tanks resting on ground

Circular tank Intze tankSpherical tank

Rectangular tank Circular tanks with conical bottom

Concrete water tank
 Concrete tanks are most commonly used
 Imperviousness of concrete is very important
 Imperviousness depends on water cement ratio
 As water cement ratio increases, permeability increases

 To achieve Imperviousness the following thinks are done:
1. Water cement ratio should be kept as minimum as possible
 Without affecting the workability of concrete
2. Efficient compaction using vibration
3. A cement content of more than 330 kg/m3 but less than 230 kg/m3
4. A concrete mix of not less than M20 grade is normally used

5. Correct placement of reinforcement and use of small size bars
 Small size bar give better resistance against cracking
6. Care should be taken to avoid segregation and honey combing of concrete at joints to
avoid leakages
7. A minimum cover of 25mm or diameter of the main bar which ever is greater is
provided for normal conditions
 In the presence of sea water cover may be increased by 12 mm

Honey combing of concrete
Segregation

Tower as a integral part of bridge

Clock tower Transmission tower Telecommunication tower

Telecommunication tower
Types of communication tower:
1. Based on structural action
2. Based on cross section of tower
3. Based on type of material sections
4. Based on placement of tower
5. Based on number of segments

Based on structural action
A. self supporting
B. guide towers
C. Monopole towers

syllabus
• Concept of intelligent buildings.

• Reach of Technology
• Artificial intelligence & smart programs
• Building industry
• Intelligent & green buildings

• An intelligent building is in essence one that integrates various systems
( such as lighting, heating, air conditioning, voice and data
communication and other building functions ) to effectively manage
resources in a coordinate mode to maximize occupant performance,
investment and operating cost, savings and flexibility – Rnee
Vedamuthu, facility member school of Architecture & Planning, Anna
University Chennai
• Intelligent building is one which the building fabric, space, services and
information system can respond in an efficient manner to the initial
and changing demand of the owner, the occupier and be in harmony
with the environment – Agith G, Editor –in – Chife, The Master
Builder

• Intelligent building system concept system – cost of construction
is not the true cost of building
• Must include the operational and the maintenance cost through
out the its life span.
• I.B optimizes the cost over all these years by optimizing energy
use through automated control, communication and management
system
• Following features are accepted in a new intelligent building

1) High-speed fiber optic communication network for data, video and
BAS (Building Administrative System)
2) Flexible HVAC system with modular distribution and 100% outdoor
air capability to take advantage of free cooling as well as to allow
flushing of the building to dilute volatile off-gassing contaminants
3) Individually controlled HVAC terminal units allowing occupant
control flexibility through Intelligent Terminals Controllers at each
workstation
4) Advanced integrated Energy Management & Control System
(EMCS) utilizing direct digital control technology for HVAC,
Lighting, Fire Alarm and other building support systems

5) Dedicated circuit power distribution network complete with
Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) units.
6) Maximum transparency and communication capabilities
between subsystems.
7) Electrical design features tailored to Intelligent Building.
8) Generous stand by power generation
9) High efficiency filtration, energy recuperation and/or thermal
storage features to improve indoor air quality and energy
consumption performance.
10) Networked multi-user access incorporating structures password
protection

Intelligent building model
• Broadly subdivided into seven systems
1. Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC)system
2. Electrical power distribution system
3. Communication system
4. Lighting system
5. Vertical transport system
6. Security system
7. Life safety system

1)Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC)system
• This must be selected in such a way that it satisfies ventilation standard and
occupant comfort control.
• The personal environment controllers(PEC) are developed to be used in
intelligent building to provide occupants with full control over their particular
office work station environment
• It allows the occupant to control temperature ,air flow volume and direction .
• In PEC concept standard fixed position diffusers are replaced by one or more
air jet strategically located to project cold air streams downward and away
from the occupants

2)Electrical power distribution system
• It deals with major electrical components and
electrical energy monitoring
• Major elements under monitoring and control
include the emergency power generator,
Uninterrupted Power System(UPS),the Emergency
lighting System, Individual tenant power metering
units and other electrical loads

3)Communication system
• In intelligent building integrated communication is possible
• The system, that may include
I. traditional LAN based clients and servers,
II. telephones and telephone switches,
III. Videoconference devices and full range of EMCS devices for
HVAC,
IV. Security
V. Lighting and Fire alarms

LIGHTING SYSTEM
• In this system ,intelligent building must be integrated to
EMCS in order to interact with other system.
• In this buildings the occupancy mode ,during extended
hours may be controlled from local PC terminal
• The extent of lighting control distribution ,the use of
motion detectors or infrared sensors and the use of
lighting level sensors in in perimeter area ,to allow use of
natural lighting whenever possible must be in cooperated

Vertical transport system
• This system interacts with other system such as
the life safety or the security system to define the
number of elevators required, the mode of
operation, and accessible floor level
• To minimize energy consumption the number of
activated elevators may also be reduced on the
basis of time of day schedules, week or weekend
days and statutory holidays.

Life safety system
• Deals with Fire Alarms, The Emergency Lighting,
Egress lighting system and the Smoke Evacuation
System
• Interfacing of life safety system with other system is
very important to eliminate nuisance alarm or to start
the smoke evacuation system
• Also allow temporary transfer of spare emergency
power not required at the time to other non -critical
areas until such time as it is required

Security system
• It may include system like automatic access monitoring,
card access control guard tour monitoring or motion
detectors
• The card access security program may be interfaced with
the lighting and HVAC subsystem to activate necessary
lighting path and the specify room occupying mode.
• Similarly the Light Safety Fire Alarm program may be
interfaced with security to release specified locked doors
under alarm conditions

GREEN BUILDING
• “A green Building Is One Which Uses Less
Water, optimizes Energy Efficiency, conserves
Natural Resources ,generates Less waste And
Provides Healthier Spaces For Occupants, as
compared To A Conventional Building”
• New approach to save water ,energy and material
resources in the construction and maintenance
of the buildings and can reduce or eliminate the
adverse impact of buildings on the environment
and occupants

• Green buildings are eco friendly structures
• Helps the earth and people to retain nature to maximum
extent possible in three ways with reference to the
location of the building as below.
• Retain the external environment at the location of the
building
• Improve internal improvement for the inhabitants
• Preserve the environment at places far away from the
building

• When building is planned to occupy a vast area ,the site selection
should consider retention of
• Local vegetation’
• Wolf life
• Natural water courses
• Site with biodiversity should be avoided or the building should be
planned to minimize the site disturbance.
Following aspects may be considers
• LAND – landscaping and exterior design in green building shall
utilize more shaded area and local species of plants are grown

• Water – green buildings by its design and layout shall not disrupt
the natural water flows
• It should orient and stands just like tree
• Rain falling over the whole area of the building shall be harvested
in a full either to replenish the groundwater table or to be utilized
in in the services of building
• Toilets shall be fitted with low water consuming flushes
• Pluming systems should have separate lines for drinking and
flushing
• Grey water from kitchen and bath and laundry shall be treated
and reused for irrigation or in cooling towers of air condition

• ENERGY- solar energy on a building is trapped to supplement
the conventional energy
• Natural light is allowed to enter in the intermediate floors to
minimize the usage of electricity
• Sunlight is restricted y the high grown trees outside the lower
floor of the building
• High efficiency light fixtures like LED lamps make alighting apart
from saving energy
• High efficiency windows and insulation in walls, ceilings ,and
floors are used for the benefit for the better temperature control

Green buildings improve internal
improvement for the occupants
• LIGHT- in a designed green building the occupants shall
feel as if they are in outdoor location .The interior and
exterior design shall integrate blending the natural and
artificial lighting
• AIR- in the air conditioned environment a green boiling
shall be especially equipped to ensure the indoor air
quality for healthy atmosphere
• Even the nasal feeling shall be pleasant from the odors of
paints and furnishings.
• This keep the people to more productive

Green buildings preserve the
environment at places far away
from the buildings
• Building materials like cement ,sand ,steel stones, rick sand
a lot of finishing materials are responsible for about 20%
of green house gases emitted by building during its
lifetime
• Shall use the products that are non-toxic reusable, and
recyclable wherever possible
• Locally manufactured products are preferred so that the
collective material environment of the locality remains a
constant
• This also saves fuel for the transport of materials

• Green wood-stanford team has found that Hemp fibers and biodegradable
plastic e when pressed together and heated form layers and this materials is as
strong as wood
• It degrades faster
• Microbes produce methane gas when they decompose this wood substitute
and other debris thrown into landfills
• This wood creates more raw materials when it breaks down
• Another type of bacteria absorbs this gas and turns it into plastic that can e
used to create anew wooden plank
• By this cycle continuous source of raw material for this wood shall ensured

• Green cement- Bruce Constantz at Calera ,based in Los Gatos, has
developed a green method to produce both cement and aggregate
• This method removes carbon dioxide from power plant flues and
mixes the gas with sea water to produce the mineral raw material for
concrete
• For every ton of green cement Calera manufacture half ton of fly ash
from coal paints is used as a part from preventing production and
emission of carbondioxie

• Other green building material
• Renewable power plant materials like bamboo and straw ,lumber
from forest ecology blocks, dimension stone ,recycled stone,
reycled metal are some of the other materials used in green
building confiscate

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