Material Testing.doc

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INTRODUCTION
Material Testing & Soil Investigation in Construction work
1. Back ground
It would rather task to at tempt to present an exhaustive listing of the types of civil
engineering works that we encountered in our daily activities. To mention a few roads,
runways, bridge, dams, embankments canals, dykes, waterfront structures, weirs,
spillways, tunnels, buildings etc.
Such works are intrinsically interweaves with the progress of humanity. No doubt
that the proper functioning of these works is essential. On the other hand, their
malfunctioning or failure may have disastrous effects with the intention of providing a
glimpse over the possible unpleasant consequences, some failures of civil engineering
works in the past are reproduced here under some of them are cited in the literature due
to their exemplary nature, and some are encountered locally i.e. piping failure of Teton
dam, USA (seed at a1, 1961), foundation failure of transcend silo, USA (Little, 1961),
foundation failure of an oil tank, USA (Little, 1961), settlement distortion of fire arts,
Mexico city (little, 1961) Tilting of apartment buildings, Niigata, Japan (seed & Idri, 1982),
sliding of creek Dam, USA (sheared et al, 1963) upstream slide of creek dam, USA
(sheared et al, 1963), sliding of a 350m ling segment at 309 km of the recently
reconstructed embankment of the Fincha-lemlem Berha feeder road (worku, A, 2005),
Failure of the natural slope on the left side of the Addis-Dessie road at km 369 near the
town of Kombolcha (study on progress by Tefera, A. and worku,A.), Failure of a 110m
long Asphalt segment due to slope instability near karamillie (km 188) of the Hirna-
kulubi Road rehabilitation project just after Asphalt layer is laid (worku, A.) 2001....
Some of the failures cited above happened at the time, when at the stand of
geotechnical engineering was at its early and in fait stage. Some of term, however,
happened in recent years.
The catastrophes and damages of some of the types cited above could have been
avoided of adequate care taken during the design and construction of the structures, for
which proper soil investigation and material testing would have contributed a lot of course,
failure of structures can take place in the future as well however, to minimize such failure,
it is mandatory that pertinent and through soil investigation be under taken also, the
materials would have been tested in laboratory to know their quality for use to intended
purpose and met the standard specification requirement.

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Why We Test Construction Materials?
 The quality of construction material is the base of any construction industry.

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 Knowing the quality materials are used, it helps to know the quality of structure
being constructed
 Properties of soil shall be known before design
 Problems associated with the choice of materials are done with pre found
knowledge of properties of construction materials.
 In order to know a structure /building is done according to specification.
 Durability of structures is based on the quality of construction material.
 To know the service of a material in natural climate condition
 To avoid partial failure due to materials are being used below the minimum limit
of established standard specification.
The type of tests conducted on the specific construction materials in our
country.
Materials Type of Test Conducted
1.Cement - Soundness, (expansion) setting time, specific surface mortar
strength, fineness
2. Bitumen - Specific gravity, viscosity, penetration, flash point, fire point, ductility
3. Sand - Sieve analysis, silt content, organic impurity, clay lumps content,
unit weight, specific gravity chloride content, soleplate content,
soundness, fineness modulus, potential Alkaline reaction.
4. Gravel - Ditto, but Aggregate crushing value (Acv), Aggregate impact value
(AEV), 10% fines value, flakiness index, Bitumen affinity, dust
content, Procter test.
5. Base materials - CBR, Los angels Abrasion, ACV, plasticity index, Atterberg limit,
gradation
6. Fill materials - Gradation, CBR, compaction, Atterberg limit, field density,
For sub grade - CBR, swells at 100% MDD, organic matter.
Fill materials
for sub base
a. All material
b. Natural gravel
- CBR at 95% MDD and 4 days soak
- Max. Size should be layer thickness or 80mm which ever is the
lesser.
- Uniformity coefficient, plasticity index, Gradation
- Passing 2mm sieve, passing 0.075mm sieve, uniformity coefficient,
and plasticity index in dry areas, plasticity index in wet areas.
7. Hollow blocks
(solid)
- Compressive strength
8. Bricks - Compressive strength, water absorption & efflorescence.
9. Reinforcement - Tensile strength, yield strength, Elongation & size
10.Concrete -Compressive strength, water tightness, Bending flexural strength
11.Terrazzo tile - Transverse strength, wear resistant & water absorption
12.Rock
(Dimensional
stone)
- Compressive /flexural strength, Bulk density, water Absorption &
visual identification, abrasive resistance/
13.Concrete sewer
pipe
- Load bearing strength, hydrostatic pressure, permeability, water
absorption.
14.Wood purlin - Compressive strength, bending strength, moisture content on
specific gravity (density), the type of wood (classification)
15.Soils - Moisture content, RD, sand replacement, permeability, grain size
analysis, At bug limit, OMD and MDD, unconfined comparers test
direct shear test, initial, vane, CBR, consolidation etc.

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Construction materials
Materials required for construction different types of structures on different type of
construction sectors such as building, road, and dam & bridge contractions.
The specific type of construction materials used is listed below: -
1. FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION
A. Binding materials: -
a) Organic- Bituminous /Asphalt/ plastic, paints, Adhesives
b) In organic- Cement /Lime/Gypsum
B. Aggregates
- Fine aggregate
- Coarse aggregate
C. Soils
 Base materials, sub base materials
 Fill materials
 Wearing (surface) course
2. For Building construction
- Sand fine aggregate, natural stones,
- Gravel (coarse aggregate)
- Cementing material: - cement, gypsum, line
- Bitumen /asphalt/
- Bricks, building blocks
- Timber (Wood)
- Metals (ferrous & non- ferrous) i.e. Reinforcement, RHS,
- Plastics (Thermoplastic & thermosetting plastic)
- Paints
- Adhesive organic/glue/ & in organic /cement/
- Glazing materials.
The minimum amounts of samples required for testing in laboratory
Sampling it requires skill and care. The sample should be packed and tied and the
following information shall be included: -
 Client /contractor's name/
 Project name
 project location/ sample location
 Date of sampling
1. Sampling of soil /aggregate mixture/
– Shall be representative i.e. coarse and fire shall be proportional.
– The amount of sample depend up on size of the soil /aggregate./
– If the sample is soil, it should be sealed properly in order not to
loose moisture.
Nominal
max size
(mm)
50 mm 25 mm 20 mm 10 mm 2 mm
Sample
weight (kg)
100 kg 75 kg 50 kg 25 kg 10 kg
2. Sampling of fine /coarse aggregates/
It requires skill and care
 For sampling use scoop or shovel.

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 Sampling from heaps of aggregates should be removed
Take the top 15 cm surface, or penetrate the scoop 15m.
Nominal size of
Aggregates Type of test
Approximate
minimum
mass (kg)
> 25mm
4.75-25mm
< 4.75mm
Sieve analysis, abrasion,
unit weight, specific gravity
ACV,10% fines, soundness
50Kg
25 Kg
10 Kg
a. Sand
b. Gravel
Mix design for one batch 100 Kg
150 Kg
3. Sampling of concrete
- For compressive cube strength test 9 cube samples are needed.
4. Samples required for visual classification of soil and rock - minimum amounts
of sample.
Max. particle
size (mm)
4.75mm 9.5mm 38.10mm 38mm 75mm
Minimum amount
of sample
100gm 200gm 100gm 800gm 60kg
5. Hollow /solid concrete block
- Need 8 pieces of H.C.B for compressive strength test.
6. Terrazzo tile: - require 12 pieces of sample
7. Dimensional Stones: - 3 pieces of samples which shall be properly
dressed 10x10 cm or15x15cm in size.
8. Bricks: - 8 pieces of burnt bricks required.
9. Reinforcement: - require 1m length in each size.
10. Cement: - one bag for all types of test.
11. Bitumen: - about 3 kg with in a tied or sealed clean tin.
12. Concrete sewer pipe
13.Wood purlin:- need 3 pieces of 1m length.
CHAPTER ONE
SOIL
1.1 Progress of Geotechnical engineering in solving civil engineering problems
The basis of geotechnical engineering was laid down in about 1925, when
K.Terzaghi published his prominent book based on some fundamental theories derived
from fluid and solid mechanics. In the last four or five decades, geotechnical engineering
has mode an enormous stride, where at present the discipline has reached its maturity
stage so much so it is now possible to solve any complicated problem, which was once
considered unsolvable.

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Through the application of finite element method together with the advent of
computers and with the establishment of appropriate martial models, one may tackle
almost all problems dealing with foundation design, slope stability, analysis, design and
analysis of earth and rock fill dams, etc. both under static and dynamic loading conditions.
In order to make use of the state of the art material and computing models, the
availability of essential soil parameters is of paramount importance. These parameters
should be determined either in the lab, or in the field, or both.
Currently, the models listed below are used for solving different types of
geotechnical problems, for which pertinent parameters are indicated.
a) Mohr - Columb model c) Hardening soil model: -
Basic parameters are:- Basic parameters are:-
E: young's modulus E50: secant stiffness (travail test)
V: Poisson's ratio Eoed: Tangent stiffness (oedometer test)
ø: friction angle V: position's ratio
C: cohesion ø: friction angle
N : Dilatency angle C: cohesion
N: Dilatency angle
b) Jointed rock model: d) soft-soil creep model (time
dependent behavior)
Basic parameters are:- Basic parameters are:-
E: young's modulus K*: modified swelling index
V: Poisson's ratio ለ*: modified swelling index
ø: friction angle µ*: modified creep index
C: cohesion ø:
N : Dilatency angle C:
N :
The necessary parameters associated with differ consolidation,
triaxial (conventional), cyclic triaxial, resonant column tests, and field tests like
penetrometer test, dynamic sounding, and geophysical tests.
It should be emphasized, however, that the accuracy of the results
obtained from the models depends on the closeness of the parameters,
determined above, to reflect reality.
The sophistication of a soft ware alone does not warrant reliable results.
1.2 Soil investigation and sub-soil exploration
Theory
Whenever we intend to plan an engineering structure, such as a
dam, a bridge, a building, a highway, etc. it is necessary to know the details of
the soil strata existing at the proposed construction sites. The process of
exploring the site, with reference to the soil properties and other conditions of the
underground strata, is called soil-exploration.
The least details are required in a highway project, as the soil needs to be
explored only up to depth of about 3m or so more details and deeper
explorations are however, required for heavier, multi storied buildings, bridges,
dams, etc.
The details, which are generally required in a soil testing report, are: -
I. The sequence, depths and lateral extent of different soil strata, to
determine their identification, and to determine the level of bedrock, if
required.

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II. To obtain disturbed or undisturbed samples of the different soil strata, to
determine their identification, and other properties such as unit weight,
water content, relative density, unconfined compressive strength, angle of
internal friction, etc. this will, thus, include the identification of existing
weaker strata below the ground.
III. To determine the position of water table, and its likely fluctuations, and its
effect on the foundation mat'.
The above details are generally required to be explored for the
design of routine engineering structures, and are therefore, called the
general exploration. Amore detailed exploration may some times be
needed to determine other soil properties, like permeability, compressibility,
density index, pore pressures, etc, or in situ values of properties like
bearing capacity, etc, incase of heavier or complicated structures; and that
exploration is called the detailed exploration.
Necessity
In the evaluation of an area for construction of buildings or other
structures, or as sources of construction material, the soil condition must be
investigated before any detailed designs are made.
A soil investigation involves field sampling and testing, laboratory
analysis, and preparation of a report. The planning and evaluation of the
fieldwork are aided by knowledge of the mechanics of soil deposit's
formation.
Soil is the most important foundation and construction material for
pavement structures. Thus, soil investigation is an integral part of the
location, design and construction of high ways and other structures.
1.3 Extent of soil investigation
1. Introductory note
It is worthwhile to know and understand the geological nature of any
civil engineering works project. This helps to obtain modest design in order
to save life, money, time and to minimize unforeseen risks that could arise
during and after construction phases of a project. Assessment of
construction materials also needs exploration to identify the quality and
volume.
Most of the civil works case histories are associated with not faulty
designs but inadequate knowledge of the project site. Nowadays, public
awareness is getting much attention and requests for soil investigation are
drastically increasing. However, standard requirements and programming for soil
investigation is mighty deficient. In this regard, this literature attempts to highlight
minimum requirements especially for building sites exploration, and for bridges
and roads to some extent.
2. Steps in site exploration
1. Assembly of all available information: -
On dimension, column spacing, type and use of the structure, basement
requirement, any special architectural considerations of the proposed building,
and tentative location on the proposed site. Foundation regulations in the local
building code should be consulted for any special requirements.

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For bridges, the engineer should have access to type and span lengths as
well as pier loadings and their tentative location. This information will indicate any
settlement limitations and can be used to estimate foundation loads.
2. Reconnaissance of the area:
This may be in the form of a field trip to the site, which can reveal
information on the type and behavior of adjacent buildings or structures such as
cracks, notice able sages, notice able sags, and possible sticking doors and
windows.
The type of local existing structures may influence to a considerable
extent the exploration program and the best type of foundation for the proposed
adjacent structure since near by existing structures must be maintained in their
"as is" condition, excavations or construction vibrations will have to be carefully
controlled, and this can have considerable influence on the "type" of foundation
that can be used.
Erosion in existing cuts (ditches) may also be observed, but this
information may be of limited use in the foundation analysis of buildings. For high
ways, however, run of patterns, as well as soil stratification to the depth of
erosion or cut, may be observed; rock out corps may give an indication of the
presence or the depth of bedrock.
The reconnaissance may also be in the form of a study of the various
sources of information available, some of which include the following:
 Geological maps
 Agronomy maps, published by the agricultural sector.
 A real photograph investigation may require special training to interest soil
data, but the no specialist can easily recognize terrain features;
 Water and/or oil well logs or loges done on near by sites;
 Hydrological data;
 Soil manuals;
 Local and university publications. These are usually engineering experiment;
and
 Data from consulting offices dealing with soil investigation works.
3. A Preliminary site investigation: -
In this phase a few borings cone to about four are made or a test pit is dug
based on the building or structure size and load magnitude to establish the
stratification, types of soil to be expected, and possibly the location of the ground
water table in a general manner.
If the initial borings indicated that, the upper soil is loose or highly
compressible, one or more borings should be taken to rock or competent strata.
This amount of exploration is usually the extent of the site investigation for small
structures.
A feasibility exploration program should include enough site data and
sample recovery to establish on approximate foundation design and identify the
construction procedures (sheeting, bracing, tiebacks, slurry walls, rock
excavating, dewatering, etc) can represent a very significant part of the
foundation cost and should be identified as early as practical.

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It is common at this stage to limit the recovery of good quality samples to
only three or four for laboratory testing which is simply indicative. These tests,
together with field data will strength the knowledge about the site, and settlement
correlations using index properties such as liquid limit, plasticity index, and as
well as unconfined compression tests on undisturbed samples recovered during
penetration testing, are usually adequate for determining if the site is suitable.
4. A detailed site investigation: -
Where the preliminary site investigation has established the feasibility and
overall project economics, a more detailed exploration program is under taken.
The preliminary borings and data are used as a basis for locating additional
borings, which should be confirmatory in nature, and determining the additional
samples required.
Now, if the soil is relatively uniformly stratified, a rather orderly spacing of
borings at locations close in critical superstructure elements should be made
(requires the necessary location data from the client). Occasionally, additional
borings will be required to define zones of poor soil, rock outcrops, fills, and other
areas that can influence the design and construction of the foundation.
1.3.1 Methods of determining number and depth of bore holes general.
The determination of depth and number of boreholes and pits in a given
project is generally governed by the expected geological formation of the area,
the loading magnitude, sensitivity of structure and the type of foundation used.
Different authors and codes specify their own criteria as to how deep
investigations must go on. After an extensive literature survey, the following
methods of determining depth and number of soil borings are presented. It is
emphasized that each site must, with engineering judgment, be evaluated in its
own merits to come up with the most economical and safe investigation program.
There are no clear-cut criteria for determining directly the number and
depth of borings (probing) required on a project in advance for subsurface
exploration. For buildings a minimum of three borings, where the surface is level
and the first two borings indicate regular stratification, may be adequate. Five
borings are generally preferable (at building coroners and center), especially if
the site is not geologically uniform. On the other hand, a single boring may be
stuffiest for an antenna or industrial process tower base in a fixed location with
the hole made at the point.
Four or five borings with adequate number of sampling and penetration
tests are sufficient if the site soil is non-uniform. This number will usually be
enough to delineate a layer of soft clay (or a silt or peat seam) and to determine
the properties of the poorest material so that a design can adequately limit
settlements, which are the most critical among other situations.
Additional borings may be required in very uneven sites, such as mode
grounds where the soil varies horizontally rather than vertically. The geotechnical
engineer might have a tentative site plan with lay outs of building (s) and boring
positions. Often these have to be open where horizontal relocations can occur,
so the borings should be sufficiently spread and allow a few additional borings to
avoid ambiguity if required.

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In practice, the exploration contract is somewhat open as to the number
and depth of borings. Based on discovery from the first holes and accompanying
tests like standard penetration test (SPT), the investigation program can be
modified so that sufficient exploration is made to obtain reliable and adequate
data for statistical analysis and come up with safe and economically feasible
recommendations for the client. Some times the exploration, particularly at
preliminary stage, discloses that the site is totally unsuitable for the intended
construction.
Borings should extend below the depth where the stress increase from the
foundation load is significant. This value is often taken as 10 per cent (or less) of
the overburden stress. For a square footing, the vertical pressure profile shows
this depth to be about two times the width of the pad (2B). Since footing sizes are
seldom known in advance of the borings, a general rule of thumb is two times
that least lateral plan dimensions rule of the building or 10m below the lowest
building elevation.
Where the 2B is not practical as, say, for a one-story warehouse or
department store, boring depths of 6 to 15m may be adequate. On the other
hand, for important (or high-rise) structures those have small plan dimensions; it
is common to extend one or more of the borings to bedrock or to complement
(hard) soil regardless of depth. It is axiomatic that at least one of the borings for
an important structure terminates in to bedrock if there are intermediate strata of
soft of compressible materials.
Teng (1983), suggests the number of borings as follows which more or less
coincides with EBCS-7, 1995. Table 1
Project type Spacing of boreholes in meter for
Minimum
No. of
borings
Uniform
geology
Moderate
geology
Erratic
geology
Multi story
Building
45 30 15 4
1 or 2 story 60 30 15 3
Bridges piers,
towers &
Abutments
- 30 7.5 one or two
for reach
foundation
High ways and
air ports
300 150 30
Borrow pits (for
compacted fill)
150-300 60-150 15-30

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Requirements for trial pits and boring lay out according to EBCS-7, 1995
Table 2
Area of
investigation
Spacing of boreholes in m for horizontal
stratification of soil
Minimum No.
of borings.
uniform Moderate Erratic
Multi story
building
50 25 10 2*
1 or 2 story 60 30 15 2
Towers, piers
abutments
- 30 7.5
*-If supplemented with sounding tests; other wise 4.
1.3.2 Depth of borings
i) High ways and air fields: -
Minimum depth of boring is 1.5m but should extend below organic
soil, muck, artificial fill, or compressible layers such as soft clays and peat.
ii) Retaining walls: -
 Below organic soil, muck, artificial fill, or compressible layers
 Deeper than possible surface of sliding.
 Deeper than the wide of the base of the wall.
iii. Embankments and cuts: -
 Below organic soil, muck, artificial fill, or compressible layers.
 Deeper than possible surface of sliding
 Equal to the width at bottom of cuts.
iv. Structural foundation: -
1. If no preliminary soil information is available, start with one or two deep
borings to bedrock or to a depth equal to the width of the structure.
2. Analyze the above boring results and determine the number and depth
of additional borings. Borings should be carried to: -
a) Below any organic soil, muck, artificial fill, or compressible layers.
b) Sufficiently deep for establishing the bottom elevation of foundations
(footing, piles, or caissons).
c) Sufficiently deep for checking the possibility of a weaker soil,
(at a greater depth) which may settle under the sustained load.
1.3.3 Depth of exploration
I) Foundations for structures: -
Exploration is normally carried to a depth, which includes all strata
likely to be significantly affected by the structural load. It shall be taken
below all deposits that may be unsuitable for foundation purposes
including the case where weak strata are overlain by a layer of higher

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bearing capacity. The exploration shall be taken through compressible
cohesive soils likely to contribute significant settlement of the proposed
structure generally to a depth where stress increase to be significant. If
rock is found, a penetration of at least 3.0m in ore than one borehole may
be required to establish whether bedrock or a boulder is encountered.
More specifically, the following shall be considered: -
a) For structures located on sites with soil strata such as
unconsolidated fill, highly organic soft or loose soils, the depth of
exploration should extend to reach hard or dense materials of
suitable bearing capacity.
b) Where structures are located on sites with rock stratum near the
surface, the depth of exploration should extend at least 3.m in to
sound or un weathered rock stratum and 4.0m inside weathered
rock stratum.
c) For structures on footing foundations, the depth of explorations
must be three times the estimated with (least dimension) of the
footing from the base level of the footing, but not less than 1.5m.
d) For structures on mat foundations, the depth of exploration has to
be one and half times the width of mat from the base levels of the
mat.
e) For structures on piled foundation, the depth f exploration on should
exceed by at least 3.0m from where the piles are expected to be
founded.
II) Embankments: -
For embankments, the depth of exploration should be sufficient to
check possible shear failure through the foundation strata and to asses
the likely settlement due to compressible strata. In the case of water
retaining embankments, investigation should explore all strata through
which piping could be initiated or significant seepage occurs.
III) Roads: -
For roads, the depth of exploration has to be sufficient to determine
the strength, and volume change susceptibility of possible sub-grades
and the drainage conditions.
Explorations should proceed to a depth of 2.0m to 3.0m below the
proposed sub-grade level for non-compressible soils.
If the soil is compressible, the depth shall be determined based on
influence zone due axial loads.
Brahma, 1985 proposes as follows: -
Preliminary design data
The soil exploration and the preliminary design of the structure are
so intimately associated that they should be started at the same time.
Exploration made ahead of the preliminary designs often results in
inadequate information or unnecessary wastage. The preliminary
design data should include -
For buildings: -
 The size and height of building and depth of basement.

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 The approximate arrangement of columns and bearing walls.
 The approximate column and wall loads.
 The type of framing; simple span structures, continuous or rigid
frame structures, foundations for precision machinery etc.
 The type of exterior walls, where brick and glass are sensitive to
settlement where as metal panels and sidings are more flexible.
For bridges: -
 The type and length of grudge span.
 The approximate vertical and horizontal loads on the piers and
abutments.
Depth of exploratory bore holes for buildings. Table 3
Width of
buildings
in meters
No. of
story’s
Boring depth in meters
1 2 3 4 6 8 16
30 3.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 13.0 16 24
60 3.5 6.5 9.0 12.0 16.5 21 32.5
120 3.5 7.0 10.0 13.5 19.0 24 41.0
Sowers, 1970 adopted the following formula to determine depth of
exploration formula-storied buildings: -
D=C(S) 0.7
Where, D= depth of exploration (m)
C= Constant equals to 3 for light steel buildings and narrow
concrete buildings and 6 for heavy steel buildings and wide concrete
buildings.
S= number of stories
Concluding remarks: -
All concerned bodies; regulator, designers, associations, investors;
stake holders have responsibility to be abided by this natural phenomenon
which cannot be amended by phenomenon or policy makers.
Carrying out costly construction due to lack of sufficient information about
the sub soil of a project is serious issue nowadays. Huge sum of capital
budget is flowing to the construction sector. To have well constructed,
efficient, timely completed projects, a priority goes to acquiring adequate
subsurface information that can only be obtained by a proper and
standard soil investigation works.
These days, the Addis Ababa administration forces buildings above
four stories have to be investigated by adequate boring. Some times it is
necessary to consider even those with four stories as to differential
weathering of rocks which could lead to variable settlements and eventual
failure when exceeds the limit.
It would be worthwhile, if the regional Bureaus follow the same
regulations to safeguard the proper functioning of projects along with
securing life and economy of the public at large.
Table under below give a wind awareness on service cost, which
are requested by different consultants: -

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Table 3
No
Project
Name Location
Project
cost (birr)
Cost given for soil investigation
Consultant
A
Consultant
B
Consultant
C
Consultant
D
Consultant
E
1 Civil
service
office
Bahir
dar
dar6.8mil 20,000 5,000 4,000 1,500 36,000
2 Higher
court
office,
meeting
hall &
library
Bahir
dar
dar6.35mil 40,000 38,000 4,000 40,000 110,500
3 Bureau of
health
Bahir
dar
4.03 mil 18,000 5,000 4,000 1,500 36,630
4 Office
building of
IPS
Addis
Ababa
9.3 mil 87,000 30,000 6,500 10,000 36,421
5 Colleague
of
Agriculture
Woreta 38.83mil 21,000 35,000 12,000 10,00 79,322
This inequitable cost implies, in our country, there are no clear-cut criteria
and system of work established on planning for foundation investigation.
1.4. Soil Testing Practices in Ethiopia
It is not difficult to observe the importance of construction material
(soil) testing from the foregoing brief discussion. In order to carry out a given
geotechnical investigation program and deliver reliable test results, institutions
with qualified personnel and up-to-date equipment should be available.
If one examines the practice in Ethiopia, the situation is rather
bleak. The soil (material) testing institutions in the country are only very few, and
again staffed with a few qualified geotechnical & material Engineers.
The tests conducted by these institutions are limited to routine tests, which
may at times not have relevance to the design. Even essential tests like reliable
triaxial compression with volume change and pore pressure measurements are
seldom carried out. Tests on partially saturated soil samples, for instance, which
are gradually becoming routine exercise globally, are known here in Ethiopia. For
this and similar other reasons, important works, which require analyses using
sophisticated soft ware, are invariably done by institutions out side the country.
The importance of soil investigation and material testing for the proper
design, implementation, and safety of civil engineering works cannot be
overemphasized, and thus should inculcate in to the minds of local engineers.

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Unless there is a change of attitude, this unfortunate state of affairs will stay with
us for some time until disaster strikes.
1.5. Conclusion
The importance attached to soil investigation by civil engineers in this
country leaves much to be desired. This reluctance in attitude has created the
unfortunate situation that is currently prevalent. In order to move for ward and get
the benefits desired from the progress made in the field of geotechnical and
material engineering interims of modeling techniques, availability of
computational soft ware, and methods of construction material (soil) testing,
engineers and consulting firms in the field should give the necessary importance
and attention to constriction materials and soil testing
1.6 Field Investigation Techniques
Purpose: - Soil investigations are conducted for most medium to large size
buildings, high ways, bridges, dams, water control facilities, harbors and other
structure.
The main purpose is to find the allowable bearing capacity for foundations.
Investigations are also conducted to determine water resources, find aggregate
deposits, estimate infiltration and seepage rates, and to help assess land use
capabilities.
1.6.1 Information usually required in soils investigations includes depth,
thickness, and properties of each soil layer, location of ground water table, and
depth to bedrock
1.6.2. Before a field investigation carried out at the site, preliminary information
regarding soil condition can often be obtained from the following sources: -
1. Geological and agricultural soils maps. These often indicate the types of
soil and agricultural formation that cover the area being investigated.
2. Aerial photographs. Drainage patterns can be identified, and color and
tone of photos give a good indication of the type of soil that might be
encountered.
3. Area reconnaissance. The condition of other buildings in the area can give
some clue as to potential foundation problems. The depth to water level in
adjacent wells may indicate the evaluation of the ground water table.
1.6.3. Subsurface investigation of soils deposits
- Can be carried out by five main methods:
1. Geophysical methods (seismic or electrical).
Variations in the speed of sound waves or in the electrical resistively of
various soils are useful indicators of the depth to the water table and to
bedrock. Some typical seismic wave velocities are shown in table 2 - 2
2. Probing or jetting with a stream of water.
In this method, the material is washed up and left at the surface after drying.
However, it doesn't represent the soil found since the fines are washed away.
In addition, it is difficult to establish the depth at which various layers are
encountered.
3. Test pits or trenches.
This method is suitable for shallow depth only.

Material testing 16
16
4. Hand augers.
Again, this method is suitable for shallow depths only. Only disturbed or
mixed samples of soil can be obtained.
5. Boring test holes and sampling with drill rigs.
This is the principal method for detailed soils investigations, and is described
in the following sections.
Table 4
1.6.4. The number and depth of test holes depend on the structure to be built,
the type of soil, and the variation in the soil profile found. Following are typical
requirements.
1. One story buildings. Test holes are drilled 30-60m apart to a depth of 6-
10m with one deeper hole to check the deeper soils.
2. Four story buildings. Test holes are drilled 15-30m apart to a depth of 6-
10m, with some holes to a depth one half times the width of the building, and
at least one deep hole to bedrock.
3. Highways: - Test holes are drilled approximately 300m apart to a depth of
3m below sub grade level
Samples and field tests (especially for the first few holes) are taken in every
soil layer or every 1.5m, whichever is less.
1.6.5. Test holes are opened with continuous flight auger which brings the
soil up to the surface. The most common size of auger is 10 cm. The auger is
rotated by a drilling machine mounted on a truck or tracked vehicle. The
auger is removed to insert sampling tools in to the test hole. In some cases,
especially where there are granular soils below the water table, the hole does
not remain open where the auger is removed. Under such conditions, either
(1) The holes is cased, that is, a pipe is driven in and the soil is augured out
inside the pipe to the bottom, or
(2) A hollow stem auger is used, which allows sampling tools to be put down
the hollow stem of the auger to the bottom for sampling.
2.2.6. Samples taken during the soils investigations may be undisturbed or
disturbed. In undisturbed samples, the structure of the soil in the sample is as
close as possible to the structure of the soil in the field.
The main types of samples taken are: -
1. Auger samples: The sample taken from the soil is brought up by the auger
(depth is not certain); the sample is disturbed.
Seismic Wave Velocities
Velocity
Material (m/s) Ft/s
Loose, dry sand 150-450 500-1500
Hard clay, partially saturated 600-1200 2000-4000
Loose, saturated soil 1400-1800 5000-6000
Saturated soil 1200-3000 4000-10000
Weathered rock 1200-3000 4000-10000
Sound rock 2000-6000 7000-20000

Material testing 17
17
2. Split spoon. The spoon is lowered to the bottom of the hole, attached to the
drill rods, and rods, and driven in to the soil; the sample is disturbed. This
technique is used in all soils.
3. This wall sampler (shell by tube). The sampler is attached to drill rods,
lowered to the bottom of the hole, and pushed in to the soil in one smooth
motion; the sample is waxed when remove; the sample is undisturbed. This
technique is used to in clays and silts.
4. Rock cores samples are taken with diamond drill bits. soil sample are put in
to containers, closed to prevent evaporation, and labeled.
1.6.7. The methods used in field or in place testing are: -
1. Standard penetration test. The sampler, 60cm long 50mm out side
diameter, is driven by a hammer with a mass of 63.5 kg and falling 75cm. The
sampler is first driven 15cm to be sure that it is below the bottom of the test
hole, and then the number of blows required to drive it another 30 cm in
recorded as N value. This test is the most common strength the test
conducted in the field. It is used with all soils except gravels, and often used
directly for the design of foundations on granular soils. Descriptive terms for
soil conditions measured by this test are listed in Table 2 - 3. A soil sample
(disturbed) as also obtained in the spoon.
2. Vane. The vane is shoved in to soil and torque is applied until it twists. This
gives the shear strength, or cohesion of cohesive soils.
3. Core. The cone is driven through soils, with the number of blows required
for each foot or meter being recorded. This indicates the depth of fill or the
depth to layer change.
Table 5 field terms to describe soil conditions based on the standard
penetration test
N=Blows/30cm Relative condition of sand and silt soils
0-4 very loose
5-10 Loose
11-30 Medium dense
31-50 Dense
More than 50 Very dense
Consistency of clays
0-1 Very soft
2-4 soft
5-8 Firm
9-15 stiff
16-30 Very stiff
More than 3o Hard
1.6.8. The pressure meter test, widely used in Europe, is a much more
accurate and scientific field strength test than the standard penetration test.
The test is now being introduced in soils investigation in North America. It
consists of a probe that is lowered in to a test hole to a desired depth, a water
filled voltmeter, and a pressure source, usually compressed gas.

Material testing 18
18
2.2.9. Avery important part of the soils investigation is to establish the water
table elevation. This is done by measuring down the hole to the final water
surface as water fills the hole.
In granular solid, water table elevation is easy to determine since
water flows in quickly and fills the hole usually the walls of the hole cave in up
to the water table level. In clay soils or soils mixed with clay, along time may
elapse before a sufficient quantity of water seeps out of the soil to fill the hole.
Judgment is involved in a assessing the significance of water level
measurements in these soils.
It is preferable to collect water sample from the standpipe pizometers,
if at all they are erected to measure pore pressures in different soil strata, or
in a particular stratum. A commonly used standpipe pizometers, which is
erected in the field penetrating a particular stratum, to measure pore
pressures in different soil strata. it is known as Cass grand's pizometers or
porous point pizometers.
1.6.10. As the soil investigation is conducted, a field log of the test hole must
be kept. This log should include: -
1. Sample number, depth, and type
2. Field tests, depth, and results
3. Depth to layer changes
4. Field soil description
a) type of soil grants
b) Moisture conditions
c) Consistency or density
d) Seams and stratification
e) Other distinguishing features
Typical test hole log notes are shown in figure below:-
Test hole No 1 Drilling method Auger
Date 8/6/96 Depth to water
Immediate 1.2m
24 hours 1.0m
Depth soil description
SPT
Value 'N'
0 No type depth
Top soil, sandy (0-0.3m)
0.3
0.5
Loose brown moist fine
sand (0.3-1.2m)
1 Auger 1.2
1.0

Material testing 19
19
1.2
Dense silty sand 1.2-1.8m 2 split
spoon
1.2-1.8 8/12=20
1.5
1.8
2.0 Till, clayey, with some silt
moist, hard (1.8-2.8)
3 split
spoon
2.1-2.5 15/18=33
2.0
2.5
2.8
3.0
Clay, soft wet (2.8-3.6m) 1 shell by 3.1-3.6
3.5
3.6
End of test hole
Figure 1. Typical field notes
- Identification criteria to help describe soils according to the
unified system are given in below:-
-

Material testing 20
20
Course grained soils Fine grained soil
Gravel more gravel
than sand
Sand more sand
than gravel
Low compressibility CL or
Ml
High compressibility
CH or MH
Clean less than
5% pass the no.
200
GW or GP
Dirty
Over 12%
Pass the No
200
GC or GM
Clean
Less than
5%
Pass the
No.200
SW or SP
Dirty
Over
12%
Pass the
No 200
SC or SM
Identification
Dry
strength
(crushing
character
istics)
Dilatancy
(Reaction to
shaking)
Toughness
(consistency
) near plastic
limit)
Name to
slight
Quick t slow None ML
Medium
to high
None to very
slow
Medium CL
Slight to
medium
Slow to none Slight to
medium
MH
High to
very high
None High CH
Note: - well graded (W) wide range in grain sizes
 Poorly graded (P) one size range
 Clayey (C) (See opposite to tell difference b/n) clayey
and silty fines)
 Silty (M)
Figure2

Material testing 21
21
1.7 LABORATORY TESTING
The next step in a soils investigation is testing the sample.
1-7.1 Representative samples of each soil type found at the site are selected
for initial testing. Future tests on other samples may also be required. The
most common types of tests pare listed in table 1.7.2. Table 6
Laboratory tests related to a soils investigation
Test
Sample required Soils
Disturbed or
undisturbed Undisturbed Cohesive Granular
Moisture content
Grain size
Atterberg limits
Relative density (Specific
gravity)
Density (underweight)
Unconfined compression
Triaxial compression
Direct shear
Consolidation
Cane shear
Permeability
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-
x
x
-
-
x
x
1.7.3 Approximate values for soil strength may be obtained from simple field
tests, as indicated in Table ******
APPROXIMATE VALUES FOR SOIL STRENGTH
Densities of granular soils
Table 7
Description Density index Ø Approx Field identification
Very loose 0-15% < 280 Easily perpetrated by a
wooden survey stake.
Loose 15-35% 28-300 Easily penetrated by a
reinforcing rod pushed by
hand
Medium dense 35-65% 30-360 Easily penetrated by a
reinforcing rod driven with
a hammer.
Dense 65-85% 36-400 Perpetrated 25-50cm by
a hammer.
Very dense 85-100% >400 Penetrated only a few
centimeters by a

Material testing 22
22
a hammer.
Table 8 Consistencies of cohesive soils
Consistency Field identification
Approximate shear strength
Kpa Lb/ft2
Very soft
Soft
Firm
Stiff
Very stiff
Hard
Easily penetrated several centimeters by
the fist
Easily penetrated several centimeters
by the thumb.
Can be penetrated several centimeters
by the thumb with moderate effort
Readily indented by the thumb
but penetrated only with great effort
Readily indented by the thumbnail.
Indented with difficulty by the thumbnail.
<12
12-25
25-50
50-100
100-200
>200
<250
250-500
500-1000
1000-2000
2000-40000
>4000
1.8. SOILS REPORTS
The final step in a soils investigation is the preparation of a soils
report. This report includes a summary of the test program, a general
description of the soil conditions, a detailed analysis of each type of soil found
and recommendations for design (as required).
A copy of test hole logs and the soil profile is also included, these are
the only parts of the report discussed here.
The test hole logs summarize the field end laboratory information
gained about each test hole. Fig 2-9 contains typical symbols used to draw a
test hole log. Their use is demonstrated in example 2-1
A soil profile is a drawing that shows two or more test holes in
elevation, and indicates where each soil type was found. Atypical profile is
included in example 2-1
Types of sample Soil tests
S.S- Split spoon F.V- Field van
S.T-Shelby tube L.V- Lab bone
A.S- Auger sample Q.U- Unconfined compression
W.S- Washed sample Qf.- Untrained (quick) triaxial
Figure **** Typical test hole symbols and abbreviations.
Gravel Sand Silt Clay Organic Till
Sandy
Top soil
Gravel
Sand
Silty
Sand
Sandy
Silt
Silty
Clay
Sandy
Till
Water table
Bed rock

Material testing 23
23
Example-2-1
Following are results of a soils investigation:
1. TEST-HOLE LOCATIONS
Plan
N
Jvlia Ave. road
David
16m
st. 2+ m
Road
3+
23m 11m 12m
2. FIELD NOTES
Test -Hole Logs
Hole No. Depth (m) Description
1 0-0.4 Top soil
0.4-1.4 Gray, silty clay till-moist
1.4-2.0 clay, some silt, seams of sand -Wet
2.0-3.8 silty sand-saturated
2 0-0.3 Top soil
0.3-0.8 Gray, silty clay till -Moist
0.8-1.1 coarse sand, some gravel
1.1-2.4 Clay, some silt, seams of sand - Wet
2.4-5.2 silty sand - saturated
5.2 Rock
3 0-0.4 Top soil
0.4-1.2 Gray, silty clay till - Moist
1.2-1.8 Clay, some silt - Wet
1.8-2.4 brown, silty till, some sand and clay-
2.4-4.4 silty sand - saturated
Elevations
Hole No. 1 – 575.5m
Hole no. 2 – 574.7m
Hole no. 3 – 576.2m

Material testing 24
24
Field samples and Tests
Sample No Hole Depth (m) Type N
1 1 0.5-0.9 S.S 12
2 1 1.6-2.0 S.S 4
3 1 2.5-2.9 S.S 21
4 1 3.4-3.8 S.S 33
5 2 0.5-0.9 S.S 8
6 2 1.5-1.9 S.S 3
7 2 2.0-2.3 S.T -
8 2 3.0-3.4 S.S 34
9 2 4.0-4.4 S.S 60
10 3 0.5-0.9 S.S 14
11 3 1.2-1.6 S.T -
12 3 1.9-2.3 S.S 25
13 3 3.3-3.7 S.S 40
Vane shear tests were conducted in holes 1 and 3:
Hole Depth Cohesion
1 1.5 30kpa (600lb/ft2)
3 1.7 33kpa (660lb/ft2)
Water levels one day after the holes are drilled:
Hole No.1 0.8m
2 0.3m
3 1.5m
3. LABORATORY TESTS
Sample No W WL WP
Shear
strength(unconfined
compression Test)
Kpa/lb/ft2
1 21 - - -
2 47 53 21 -
3 11 - - -
4 9 - - -
5 26 - - -
6 58 55 20 -
7 40 51 26 42(850)
8 15 - - -
9 11 - - -
10 16 - - -
11 41 58 29 65(1300)
12 18 - - -
13 12 - - -

Material testing 25
25
4. TEST – HOLE LOG (Fig 3)
5. SOIL PROFILE (Fig 4)
TEST HOLE LOG
Hole No:______1_______ Site: Jullia Aver. Of David st.
Date drilled: 12-08-99 Elevation: 575.5
Depth(
m)
Description Legend Samples Standard
perpetration-N
Blows/____0___
10 20 30 40 50
No
2
type
Dep
th
N
Blo
w
130
cm
Shear st.-C(Kpa)
10 20 30 40 50
0.5 Top soil 1 0.5
0.9
1.6
2.0
2.5
2.9
3.4
3.8
12
4
21
33
o 0.5
1.0 Stiff g/ay
Silty clay
Till moist
5.5 o
1.5 2
2.0 5.5 o F,
V
o
2.5 3
3.0 5.5 o o
3.5 4
4.0 5.5 o o
Fig 3 Test-hole log

Material testing 26
26
Sand
Clay, some silt
11 3 58
9
25 18
Silty
Till
40 12
14 16
41
40
Silty sand
34 15
60 11
N 2 W
21
Gray, silty clay
Till
47 8 26
N 1 W
12
4
21
33
Elevation (m) Fig 4 soil profile
576 -
-
575 -
-
574 -
573 -
-
572 -
-
571 -
-
570 -
-
569 -
N 3 W

Material testing 27
27
1.9 Engineering properties of soil
- One of the first steps in civil engineering design is an investigation of soil
conditions at the site of the proposed structure. The engineering properties of the soil
are important as not only foundation for the project, but also as a construction material
for many structures, including wad, embankments, earth dams, and other types of carts
grading projects.
1.9.1 Soil types
Soil in the engineering field refers all unconsolidated material in the earth's crust, that
is, all material above bedrock. Soil thus includes mineral parties (e.g. sand and clay)
and organic material found in topsoil and deposits, along with the air and water that they
contain.
Mineral soil particles result from weathering of the rock that from the solid crust of the
earth.
Physical weathering: - due to action of frost, water wind, glaciers, land slides plant
and animal life, and other weathering agents breaks particles away from bed rock and
transported by wind, water, or ice, which both rounds them and farther reduces their
sizes.
Soils formed though physical weathering is called granular soils.
Chemical weathering: - occurs when flows through rocks and leaches out of the mineral
components of the rock. New soil particles formed from these minerals are called clays.
Because of their large grains sand and gravel particles are easily identified by sight in
the field. Organic rolls are also easy to classify. With silts and clays, however, individual
grains are not visible. The described below table 1 can be used to identify these soils in
the field.
 The different reactions in these simple tests can be traced to the difference in
grains.
Silt: - sit grains are coarse and are not bounded tightly together. There fore, they are
gritty, less plastic, and dull when cut. When sit grains are dried, their apparent cores
on disappears, and the sample powers easily. In the shaking test, the saturated silt
sample becomes denser when jarred, causing moisture to seep to the surface. This
phenomenon is called militancy.
Clay: - Clay contains grains, which are bonded together, and shaking it does not
result in an on crease in density. Table 9
FIELD TESTS TO IDENTIFY SILTS AND CLAYS
Test Method Result
Grittiness
Toughness
Shine
Dry
strength
Shaking
Rub particles b/ finders, or taste
Take a pat of soil, moist enough to be
plastic but not sticky, and roll it to thread
about 3mm in size in your pram. Fold and
re roll thread repeatedly until it crumbles.
Lump pieces together and knead to
measure toughness.
Stroke soil with blade
Allow soil to dry, then squeeze
Squeeze a moistened sample, open
hand, then shave or top your hand
Gritty texture-silt; smooth
texture clay
If the soil is tough or stiff,
clay content is light. If it
crumbles easily, silt content
is lich.
Dull appearance silt; shiny
appearance clay
Powders silt; hard t break-
clay. Moisture film concerto

Material testing 28
28
surface, glistens-silt; no
moisture film-clay.
1.9.2 TESTS
Moisture content of a given sample
Theory: - A soil is an aggregate of soil particles, which contain voids.
These voids may be filed with water, or with air, or both.
When all the pores are filled with water, the soil is called a saturated soil, but when
all the pores are filed with air, the soil is called a dry soil. When certain void contains
water and others contain air, the soil is called partially saturated or wet soil.
Sampling
The quantity of sample required for testing moisture content depends on the
gradation and the maximum size of putties present in the soil.
1. For water contents being determined is conduction with anther ASTM
methods; the specimen mass requirement stapled in that method shall be
used if one is provided. If no minimum specimen mass is provided in that
method, then the values given before shall apply.
2. The minimum mass of moist material selected to be representation of the
total sample; if the total sample is not tested by this method, shall be in
accordance with the following.
Maximum particle Standard sieve Recommended recommended min.
Size (100%passing) size min mass of specimen for water
Most test specimen content reported
For water content to ± 1%
Reported to ± 0.1%
__________________________________________________________________________
____
2mm or less No. 10 20g 20g*
4.75mm No.4 100g 20g*
9.5mm 3/8-in 500g 50g
19.0mm 2/4-in 2.5kg 259k
37.5mm 1 1/2 10Kg 1kg
75.0mm 3-in 50kg 5kg
Note:* To be representative not less than 20g shall be used
3. When looking with a small (less than 200g) specimen containing a relatively large gravel
particle, if is appropriate not to include this particle in the test specimen. However, any
described material shall be described and noted in the report of the results.
4. For those samples consisting entirely of in fact rock, the minimum specimen mall shall be
500g. Representative portions of the sample may be broken in to smaller particles,
depending on the sample's size the container, and balance being used, and to facilitate
drying to constant mass.
Applications and Necessity of Determining W
The moisture content of a soil plays an important role in understanding the
behavior of time-grained soil. It, in fact, is the moisture content (W) of a soil,
which changes the soil from liquid state to plastic and solid states. Its value

Material testing 29
29
also controls the shear strength and compressibility of a soil. Degree and
extent of compaction of soils in the field is also controlled by the water content
present in the soil. Density of soil (œ) is directly in fenced by the value of
moisture content (W) and such a value is used in circulating the stability of
sloped, bearing capacity of soil foundation system, active and passive earth
pressures, as well as the over burden pressure, etc.
The knowledge of moisture content of a soil sample is thus, helpful in
conducting many of the laboratory tests, such as for determination of
Atterberg consistency limits (liquid limit, plastic limit, etc) compaction feting,
shear strength testing, consolidation testing Est.
Apparatus required for aver dry sample
1. Over drying
2. Balance (with accuracy 0.01g)
3. Tin or aluminum confiners
4. Desiccators
5. glues, tongs, suitable holder
6. Knives, spatulas, sloops, quartering cloth, sample spiffs, etc
Procedure
1. Clean the container or weighing bottle with lid; dry it and weigh it.
2. Take the required quantity of crumbed soil sample, and place if loosely in
the container or the bottle. Replace the lid or the stopper, and weigh it to
record its mall as M2 gm.
3. Remove the lid and place the container with it content and the lid in the
oven, and allow it to dry at fixed temperature of 1050c to 1100c for ordinary
soils and 60-800c for soils containing loosely bound hydration water or /
and organic matter. The sample has to be dried to, it attains constant dried
mass. The drying period varies with the type and quantity of soil used. A
16-24 hours period it usually sufficient for most of the soil.
4. Aster the sample has dried to a constant mass, remove the container from
the over, replace the lid, and place it in the desiccators for cooling after
cooling, if is weighed with lid. Let this mass be recorded as M3 gm.
Note: - Conjoiners with airtight lids needs not be placed in the desiccators to
cool, unless glass-weighing bottle with a ground glass stopper in used, as
otherwise, it might become difficult to remove the lid of the container.
Such containers may hence be allowed to cool (with lid in position, of course)
in the open atmosphere, and weighed as soon as if is cooled enough to be
handled.
Precautions
I. The soil sample should be loosely placed in the bottle or the container.
II. Over heating should be avoided.
III. Dry soil sample should mot be left open to the atmosphere before
weighing, to avoid absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.
IV. Since a dry soil can absorb moisture from a wet soil in the open dried
sample should be removed from the oven before placing a new wet
sample in it.
Observation and calculation
The moisture content is calculated as: -

Material testing 30
30
W= Mass of water = Mw =M2-M2
Mass of soil solids Ms M3-M1
Where M1 = mass of container with lid
M2 = Mass of container with lid + wet soil
M3 + Mass of container with lid + dry soil
Relative density (specific gravity) of soils
1.1 Applications and Necessity of computation of G value
Specific gravity of soil grains (G) is an important property of a soil and is used
for calculating void ratio of (e), porosity (n), degree of saturation (s), it the density (p) or
unit wt. (&) and water content (w) are known.
It also gives us an idea about the suitability of a given soil as a construction
material, since a higher value of G gives more strength for roads and foundations. The
value is also used in computing the soil particle size by means of hydrometer analysis. It
is also used in estimating the critical hydraulic gradient (ic) in a soil, when piping failures
and sand boiling conditions are studied.
The oven-dried soil to be used for pouring in the cyclometer bottle shall initially
be obtained by passing the given soil through 4.75 mm sieve is used to determine
specific gravity of sand, salty or clayey solid, while 2mm sieve is used for determining G
value to be used in condition with hydrometer testing. The approximate quantity of soil
to be used shall be 200gm, and it shall be poured in pycnometer carefully t avoid its
sticking on sides in the upper potion of the pycnometer.
1.2. Apparatus: -
 Pycnometer (100ml)
 Balance (accurate to 0.01g)
 Vacuum pump
 Oven
1.3. Procedure
1. Over-dry the soil.
2. Place about 25g in the pycnometer and find the mall to within 0.01g.
3. Add water until the pycnometer is about three-fourths filled.
4. Apply a partial vacuum to the sample to remove any air.
5. Fill with water to the calibration mark on the pycnometer. Obtain the mass
of the pycnometer.
6. Record the temperature of the water in the pycnometer.
Results and calculation: -
Pycnometer No __________________
Mass of soil plus pycnometer __________g
Mass of pycnometer ___________g
Mass of soil (dry) __________g (M0)
Mass of pycnometer, soil, and water __________g (Mb)
Temperature ___________oc (TX)
Water at TX ____________ g (Mg)
relative density at TX __________ Rd= Mo
M0 + (Mg -Mb)
Note: - The value for relative density should be corrected to 20o%c if the test
temperature varies significantly.

Material testing 31
31
1.9.3 Soil classification
-For engineering purpose soils are frequently classified in to groups. Two most
common classification systems are: -
1. The modified soil classification system
2. The AASHTO system
1. The unified soil classification system
In this system, soils are usually given a two-letter designation. The first letter
indicator the main soil type and the second modifies the first. The symbols
are:
Symbol Description
G ----------------------------------------------------- Gravel
S ----------------------------------------------------- Sand
1st letter M ---------------------------------------------------- Silt
C ----------------------------------------------------- Clay
O ---------------------------------------------------- Organic
Pt ---------------------------------------------------- peat
W ---------------------------------------------------- Well graded
P ---------------------------------------------------- Poorly graded
2nd M -------------------------------------------------- Silty tines
Letter C --------------------------------------------------- Clay fines
H -------------------------------------------------- High plasticity
L -------------------------------------------------- How plasticity
Soils are divided in to three general areas: -
1. Grave grained soils, including gravels (G) and sand (s), where the second
letter indicates gradation (w.p) or type of fines (M,C)
2. Fine grained soils, including silts (M), clays [c], and organic soils (0)
depending on plasticity) , where the second letter indicates high (H) or low
(L) plasticity
3. Peaty soils (pt), which contain a larger proportion of fibrous organic
matter.
The table shown below gives the unified soils classification system. The
grin size distribution bottom and the Atterberg limits test results are required
to classify soils.

Material testing 32
32
United soil classification system
(ASTM) designation D-2487
Major
division
Group
symbols
Typical Names Classification criteria.
Gravels
50%
or
more
of
coarse
No.
4
fraction
retained
on
4.75mm
(No.4)sieve
Gravels
ninth
tines GW well graded gravels and gravel sand
mixtures, little or tines
classification
on
basis
of
percentage
of
fines
GW,
GP.
SW,
SP,GM,
GC,SM,
SC
Borderlines
classification
requiring
use
of
dual
symbols
CM= D60/D10 greater than 4
Cc= (D30)2 b/n 1 and 3
D10*D60
GP poorly graded gravels
and gravel sand mixtures, little or no
fines.
Note meeting both criteria for GW
Gravels
with
fines.
GM Silty gravels, granular
sand silt mixtures
Atterberg limits plot below
"A" liner or plasticity index
less than 4
GC Clayey gravels, gravels sand
Clay mixtures.
Atterberg limits plot above "A" line
and plasticity index greater than 7.
Sands
More
than
50%
of
coarse
(No.4)
sieve
fraction
pass
4.75mm
Gravels
with
fines.
GM clayey gravels, gravels
Sand clay mixtures
Less
than
5%
pass
75mm
sieve
more
than
12%
pass
75mm
sieve
5%
to
12%
pass
75mm
sieve
CM= D60/D10 greater than 6
Cc= (D30)2 between 1-3
D10*D60
GC Clayey gravels, gravels sand
Clay mixtures.
Not meeting both criteria for SW
Clean
sands
SW Well graded sands and gravelly
sands, little or no fines.
Atterberg limits plot below
"A" line or plasticity index
SP Poorly graded sands and gravelly
sands, little or no fines
Atterberg lines plot above
"A" line and plasticity
index greater than 7
Sand
s
with
fines
SM silty sands, sand silt mixtures
SC Clayey sand, sand clay mixtures.
Fine
grained
soils
50%
or
more
pass(
No.
250)sicee
75mm
sieve
Siys
and
clays
liquid
limit
50%
less
ML Inorganic sits, very fine sand,
Rock flour, silty or clayey fines
sands.
GL Inorganic clays of low t medium
plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy
clays, silty clays lean

Material testing 33
33
OL Organic sits and organic silty clays
of low plasticity
Plasticity chart for classification of
fine grained soils shown figure.
Sits
and
clays
liquid
limit
greater
than
50%
MH Inorganic sits mica cous or
diatomaceous fine sands or silts,
classic silts.
Note:- liquid limits of oven dried
samples are less than 75% of the
values where not dried for OL=OH
soil
CH Inorganic clays of high plasticity tat
clays
OH organic clays of medium to high
plasticity
Highly organic soils Pt Peat much and other high organic
soils
Fibrous organic matter will chart burn or glow

Material testing 34
34
Classification of soils for Engineering Purpose
2. THE AASHTO SYSTEM
This system classify soils in to seven main groups A-1 to A-7 based on generally on the
desirability of the soil as the sub grade for highway instruction. Again, grain size
distribution and plasticity values are the criteria to classify soils. The AASHTO
classification system shown below
Given the grain size and plasticity data, you must check each classification starting
from the left. The first group that the test data fit is the correct one. A-3 soils are listed to
the left of the A-2 soils to accommodate this left-to- right elimination system, not
because they are superior as sub grade material.
The A-1 soils are gravels and coarse sands with few fines and low plasticity A-3
contains clean, time sands, A-2 soils are granular soils with up to 35% fines. Sub
groups A-2-4 and A-2-5 are gravels or sands that contain either excessive amounts of
fines or fines with to high a rusticity to fit in to A-1. Subgroups A-2-6 and A-2-7 contain
more plastic or clayey fines. A-4 and A-5 and salty soils. A-6 and A-7 are clearly soils.

Material testing 35
35
AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (AASHTO STANDARD M 145)
General classification Granular mat'ls
(35% or less palling No. 2007,75nw)
Silt clay mat's more
than 35% passing No. 2007,75 nm.
A-1 A-3 A-2 A-7
Group classification
A-1-9 A-1-6 A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7 A-4 A-5 A-16 A-7-5
A-7-6
Sieve analysis, %
passing
No. 10 (20.00mm) 50max
30max 50max 51win
15max 25max 10max 35max 35max 35max 35max 36win 36win 36win 36win
Characteristics of
fraction passing No.
40 (425nm)
Liquid limit
Plasticity index. 6 max N.P
40 max
10 max
40 max
10 max
40 max
11 min
41min
11 min
40 max
10 max
41min
10 max
40 max
11 min
41min
11 min
Usual types of
significant constituent
matls.
Stone fragments
gravel and land
Fine
sand
Silty or clayey gravel and sand Silty soils Clayey
soils
General rating as sub
grade
Excellent to good Fair to poor

Material testing 36
36
Engineering properties of soils
4. Not A-2-4 as Ip is greater than 10
5. Not A-2-5 as WL is less than 41
6. A-2-6- meets as requirements
Sample is classified as A-2-6
Given the grain size and plasticity data, you must clean each classification hating from
the left. The first group that the test data fit is the correct one. A-3 soils are lilted to the
left of the A-2 soils of accommodate this left to right elimination system, not be they are
superior as sub grade material.
The A-1 soils are gravels and coarse sands with two times and low plasticity. A-3
contains clean, fine sands. A-2 soils are granular soils with up to 35% fines. sub groups
A-2-4 and A-2-5 are gravels or sands that contain either excessive amounts of times or
fines with too high plasticity to fit in to A-1. Sub groups A-2-6 and A-2-7 contain more
plastic or clayey times. A-4 and A-5 are silty soils. A-6 and A-7 are clayey soils.
1.9.4 Soil classification tests
 The two most important type of tests used in classifying soils are
1. Grain size : - to measure grain sizes
Grain sixes in soil samples are found by means of two tests.
The sieve analysis used for sands and gravels the hydrometer test
for silts and clays.
2. Plasticity:-to measure grain types.
- This measures the amount of water that a soil adsorbs, or that soil
natures before it will role like a plastic material and act like a fluid martial.
Experment
Classification of soil
project :-Siniour Location :-Tikur Abay Crusher site
Description ;-crushed
aggregate Tested by:- Group members
Remarkes:-
Tested in :-Adama university Road
laboratorey
Sieve Opening (mm) % Pass
2 36.05
0.425 31.92
0.075 27.19

Material testing 37
37
LL = 54.8
PI = 29.4
Soil Classification :- A-2-7
Meaning
Granular material containing 35% or less pasing the 0.075mm sieve.Materials as gravel and course
sand with silt contents or plasticity indexes in excess of the limitation of group A-1 and the fine
portion
containts plastic clay.
Obeservation
Before cassify the soil type must be test sieve analysis , LL & PL .
According to this test result we can easily determine the caracterstics of the soil.
Grain size analysis by sieve analysis
Objective: - To determine the grain size analysis (mechanical analysis)
The percentage of different sizes of soil particles coarser than 0.07mm (75mm) is
determined in this test.
Theory: - A sample of soil is dried so that (1) weights obtained are of soil particles only and
(2) grains are not bound together by surface tension in water film. The sample placed in
nests of sieves that are arranged in
order of size of opening (lave to small from for to bottom) then shaken by rotary and up and
down ,motion until all grains have passed through all sieves possible according to size. The
size of the sample must be large enough to be representative of the soil being tasted.
If sieving is completed dry, the parentage passing 75 mm (No -200) soil particles are
washed over the sieve to mash fine particles through.
Apparatus
- Sieves at 1 i.e 75 mm, 50mm, 38.1mm, 25.0mm, 19mm, 9.5mm,
4.75mm
- Sieves at 2 i.e 2.00, 0.810mm, 0.25, 0.14, 0.075mm
- Sieves shaver
- Balance accuracy:- 0.01gm
- Oven
- Tray
- Brush
Sampling: - Required minimum amount retained on No 10 sieve (2.00mm)
Nominal dia. of largest Approximate minimum
Particles (mm) mass of particle
9.5 500
19 1,000
25.4 2,000

Material testing 38
38
38.1 3,000
50.8 4,000
76.2 5,000
After air drying (if necessary) a representative sample must be weighted and
then separated in to two portion; one containing all particles passing No-10
sieve. The amount of dried soil sample selected for this test should be
sufficient to yield the following quantities for the sieve & hydrometer analysis.
1 .the required minimum amount retained on No 10 sieve can be .
Determined as per above table.
2. The required amount passing through No 10 sieve should be
Approximately 115 gm for sandy soils & approximately 65 gm
for silty soil & clayey soils.
Note-when the given coarse soil contains less than 5% of fines (silt & clay) it is analyzed by
dry sieving ; but when it contains the soil exceeding 5% it is analyzed by wet sieving;
wetting is adopted to break the cohesive bond between fine soil particles & the coarse soil
particles. First it has to be soaked.
PROCEDURE
1. Oven dry the sample.
2. Measure the mass of dried sample.
3. Place in the nest of sieves & shake for 5 min.
4. Measure mass retained on each sieve.
Result
Original mass of soil ________________gm.
Calculation
1. Calculate the percentage gravel, sand, and fines (clay and silt) . (gravel is larger than 4-
7mm (No 4); sand, 4.75mm t 75micro mm (No. 200); fines, smaller than 75 mm)
2. Calculate effective size (D10) and uniformity coefficient (Cu=D60/D10)
Note: - coarse sand - 4.75mm - 2mm
-Medium sand -2mm- 0.425mm
-Fine sand - 0.425mm - 0.75mm.
Coefficient of curvature Ce = D2
30
D10*D60
For well-graded sands and gravels, Ce should lie between 1 to 3, if its value is less than 1, it
will be poorly gladded.
Results of sieving
. Sieve No. Mass
Retained
%
Retained
Cumulative
% passing
Total
Experment
Particle size distribution (sieve analysis)

Material testing 39
39
project :-Senior Location :-Tikur Abay Crusher site
Description ;-crushed aggregate
Tested by:- Group
members
Remarks:-
laboratorey
A) Weight Before Washing = 6650grm.
B) Weight After Washing = 4860grm
C) A-B = 1790
Sieve Opening Weight Retained % Retained % Pass
(mm) (grm) (grm)
63.5
50 1090 16.39 83.61
37.5 1010 15.19 68.42
28 450 6.77 61.65
20 260 3.91 57.74
10 740 11.13 46.61
5 406.5 6.11 40.5
2 296.1 4.45 36.05
1.18 111.9 1.68 34.37
0.425 163 2.45 31.92
0.3 72.2 1.09 30.83
0.075 242 3.64 27.19
Pan 18.3 27.19
Total weight of soil on pan =
18.3 +
1790= 1808.3
Recommendation
This test result is not satisfactory for sub base material according to E.R.A.
specifications if we use this material can not be compacted well but it can
treated by blending.
Grain size by hydrometer Analysis
Purpose: - To determine distribution of particle sizes in a soil sample composed of tine
grained soil size.

Material testing 40
40
Theory: A known mass of soil is broken up and dispersed uniformly in a cylinder of water.
Readings are taken with a hydrometer to determine the density of the soil water mixture.
Using stokes law, if is possible to calculate the diameter D of a soil particles such that all
coarser particles have already settled a distance L (surface to center bulb) in time T, while
all finer particles that originally where at the surface are still suspension. Using the
hydrometer reading for the density of the original sample that is still in suspension. The
data give the percentage of various particle diameters, and allow plotting of a grain size
distribution curve.
Hydrometers are calibrated to read "0" in distilled water at standard temperature
at the surface of the water since
1) Pure water is not used
2) Temperature varies
3) The reading must be taken at the top of the meniscus; a correction factor must apply to
each reading. A graph is usually available in the laboratory to give the reaction factor,
which varies with the temperature.
In this test, a solution is added to neutralize the bonds between grains, and
sample is nixed in a "milk shake" apparatus to a break up chimps of grains. Then sample is
placed in a jar and mixed to ensure that the grains are distributed informally in the jar. The
jar's then set down, and the grains are allowed to settle.
Apparatus:- Hydrometer
- Hydrometer jar
-Stirring apparatus
-Sieues-2.00mm (No. 10), 75mm (No. 250)
-Balance (accurate to 0.01g) thermometer
Dispersing agent (a solution of 40g sodium hexametaphosphate in 1 L solution)
Procedure: -
1. Over dry the sample break it down in a mortar, and pass it through in 2.00mm
(No.10) sieve.
2. Place 50- 60g in break, and obtain the mass to with o.01g.
3. Add 125ml of dispersing agent. stir, rinsing am soil gains off the spatula with wash
bottle, Allow the sample to soak (which neutralize the bonds between grains)
4. Transfer to a dispersion cup while rinsing all the soil in fill the cup about halfway, and
stir for approximately one minute.
5. Transfer the soil to the hydrometer jar, rinsing the cup out with wash bottle the jar to
the 1000ml (1L) mark with water.
6. With one's hand over the end, turn the jar vigorously for one minute
7. Set the jar down immediately. Note and record the time immediately as "start" of the
test.
8. Take hydrometer and temperature readings suggested times are 1, 2,
5,15,30,60,250, and 1440 minutes after the start. Take readings at one and two
minutes to the nearest second; others, by clock, reading do not have to be exactly at
the above infernal, but times to the nearest minute must be recorded.
9. At the end of the fest, pout the sample out over the 75mm (No. 200) sieve. Wash
fines through sieve. Transfer refined material to the breaker, dry, and obtain mass.
Results:
Original mass of sample ________________________ g (M)
Hydrometer test
Washing on 75mm sieve

Material testing 41
41
Mass retained _________________________________ g
Mass passing __________________________________ g
Percentage passing ____________________________ %
Type of hydrometer 151 H ______________________ or __________ 152 H
___________
Relative density of soil ________________________ (RD)
Calculation: -
1. Percentage passing 75mm (No. 200) = mass passing/m
2. Compute the table results.
Clock
time
Elapse
d
time
T-mm
Temp
oC
Hydromete
r
reading R
Hydromet
er
correctio
n
Corrected
reading R
L K Particl
e dia.
mm
%
small
er
P
a) Find the hydrometer correction C for each reading and, adding or subtracting as
indicated, find the correct reading R
b) Find the effective depth L from
c) Find the values of K from
d) Calculate particle diameter (D=K√ L/T)
Where D= diameter of particle
K= constant depending on temperature of suspension and specific
gravity of soil particles; values of K can be obtained.
L= distance from surface of suspension to level of which density of suspension
is being measured, cm, values of L can be obtained.
T= interval of fine from beginning of sedimentation to taking or reading min.
e) Find the relative density correction factor a from
f) Calculate the percentage smaller P:
P= [(100,000/M)*G] (R-G1) -for hydrometer 151H
G-G1
-For hydrometer 152H
P= Ra/M*100
Where P= percentage of soil remaining in suspension at level at which hydrometer
measures density of suspension.
M= mass of total over- dried hydrometer analysis sample
G= specific gravity of soil particles
G1= specific gravity pf liquid in which soil particles are suspended; use numerical value
of one in both instances in equation (in the first instance, any possible variation
produces no significant effect, and in the second, the composite correction for R is
based on a value of one for G1)
R= hydrometer rending with composite correction applied
a= correction factor to be applied to reading of hydrometer 152H.
Table
Values of correction factor, a for deterrent specific gravities of soil
Specific Gravity: - Correction factor

Material testing 42
42
2.95 0.94
2.90 0.95
2.85 0.96
2.80 0.97
2.75 0.98
2.70 0.99
2.65 1.00
2.60 1.01
2.55 1.02
2.50 1.03
2.45 1.05
Atterberg limit Test /liquid limit/
1. To determine the liquid limit of a given fine grained soil
In the plastic stake, the soil grains a lot of shear strength. A plastic soil (i.e. a soil
in plastic stake) is a sticky soil and can be molded in to different shapes, and hence
used for making clay toys, etc.
The liquid limit is defined as that water content at which the soil has such small
shear strength that it flows to close a grove of standard dimensions when jarred under
an impact of 25 blows in a standard liquid limit apparatus.
The value of liquid limit of a soil coupled with the value of plastic limits directly
used for classifying the fine grained (cohesive) soils. Once a soil is classified, *it
becomes very easy to understand its behavior, there by helping in selecting a suitable
method of design, construction, and maintenance of the structures made up of, or land
resting on test soil.
The value of liquid limit and plastic limit are also used in calculating the flow index
toughness index. And plasticity index, which are useful in giving an idea about the
plasticity, cohesiveness compressibility. Shear strength, permeability, consistency and
state of cohesive (fine-grained) soils.
2. Apparatus
-Liquid limit device (check drop to be 1cm)
-Plastic limit place
-Balance (accurate to 0.0.01g)
-Evaporating dish and Petri dishes
3. Procedure
1. Air-dry the sample; break it down in a mortar, and sieve through a 425mm
(No.40) sieve.
2. Place 125-150g of the sample in an evaporating dish
3. Add small increments of water, mixing thoroughly each time with a spatula by
stirring, kneading, and chopping actions. Add water until the sample is between
plastic and liquid limits.
Take part of the sample, roll it in to a ball, and roll if on the glazed surface of a
plate. It is too wet; roll it on the rough surface of the plate to remove excess water.
4. Roll on a glazed surface limit it is a thread of about 3mm (1/8 in) diameter, break
the thread in to pieces, squeeze pieces together, and re-roll. Roll and re-roll the
thread unit if crumbles under the pressure required rolling it to a 3mm thread.
The sample is then at its plastic limit. put the thread in a Petri dish and obtain the

Material testing 43
43
mass (to within 0.01g) Record the container member and mass of the wet
sample puss container.
5. Place a part of the sample in the liquid limit cup, squeeze it down and smooth if
out with a few strokes of the spatula. The sample should be about 1cm deep at
the center.
6. Divide the sample in the cup along the center with a growing tool.
7. Lift and drop the cup by its handle, counting the drops unit the sample cones
together over a 13mm (1/2 in) length along the base of the groove.
8. If the soil comes together after 5-50 drops, take a sample of lie soil through the
center, place of in a Petri dish, and obtain the mass (to within 0.01g). Record the
number of drops, dish number, and mass of the wet sample and container (if the
sample require & more than 50 drops to come together, if is to dry; if it require
fewer than five, it is too wet.)
9. Transfer the soil to an evaporating dish wipes out the cup a little water (or allows
drying). Mix thoroughly, and test again. Repeat three or more times until there
are at least three samples taken one at 30-50 drops, one at 5-20 drops and one
is between.
10.Dry the samples obtain the mass of the dried samples, and calculate all winter
contents.
Result:-
Plastic limit
Trial No. _____________________ __________________ _____________
W ____________________ _________________
_____________
Liquid limit
Trial No ___________ _____________ ___________
_____________
Number of drops ___________ ____________ ___________
_____________
W ___________ ___________ __________
_____________
Calculation: -
1. The plastic limit is the average of values obtained in the plastic limit tests.
2. Plot the results of the liquid limits test on a graph. draw a sight line through
the test points. The liquid limit is the water contents where the test line.
Intersects the 25-drop line.
3. Index of plasticity (IP)= WL-WP
4. Precautions
I. Soil used for liquid limit and plastic limit determinations should not be over
dried prior to testing.
II. Use distilled water as for as possible, to minimize the possibility of iron
exchange between the soil and any imparities in water.
III. In the test, the grove should be closed by the flow of the soil, and not by
slippage between the soil and the cup.
IV. After mixing distilled water in the soil, sufficient time should be given to
permeate the water through out the soil mass.

Material testing 44
44
V. Wet soil taken in the crucible for moisture content determination should
not be left open in the air, even for little time before weighing. The
crucibles with soil samples should hence be placed either in a desiccators
or weightless immediately.
VI. For each test, cup and growing tool should be made clean.
VII. The cup should be filled full and leveled.
VIII. The groove should be cut carefully.
IX. The number of blows should be just enough to close the groove.
X. The number of blows should be between 10 and 20
XI. Weighing should be correctly done.

Material testing 45
45
1.9.5 Soil water
Soil is made up of soil particles, water and air. The types of water in soils, their
location; the forces governing their movement, and tests involved in flow measurement
with experiments; done in over laboratory are discussed in these section.
The types of water found in soil, see fig. may be classified as follows
1. Free water or gravitational water: - witch is found below the ground water table and is
free to flow under the dawns of gravity.
2. Capillary water: - which is brought up though the soil pores (the spaces between soil
grains) above the ground water table due to surface tension forces.
3. Attached water or held water: - Which is the water in the moisture film around soil
grains. Fig 5
Zone of partial saturation due to capillary rise
down ward percolation of
water and attached water
Capillary rise Zone of 100% saturation
Capillary rise and attached water
Capillary
zone
---------------------------------- -----------------------------------
Free or gravit Gerund
ational water ............. water
.............. Table

Material testing 46
46
 The ground water table is the surface below which all soil pores are filled with
water which is free to flow it sis the surface at which the pressure in the water is
atmospheric but below this surface the water pressure increases. Soil is sully
saturated below the water fable.
1. The climate using in wet seasons (as rain adds to the quantity) and falling in dry
seasons.
2. man made changes, such as pumping
3. Changes in the elevation of lakes and streams.
 Parched water table: - is one that is located above the true water table of
results from water's being tapped above an impermeable layer.
 Artesian water: is water under pressure that is prevented from flowing by
an impermeable layer.
 The rate of water flow through soils depends on the permeability of the
soil which is defined by Darcy's law
q= KiA where;
q= the flow of water in cm3/s.
i= the hydraulic gradient i.e. i=H (head loss)
L (length of path of flow)
A- Cross sectional area of the flow path (cm2)
K- The coefficient of permeability or average velocity of water thrush the foil
(cm/s).
 Permeability of soils varies tremendously, from very permeable gravels to
impermeable (for all practical purposes) clays. Gravels have very large grains, and
there for have large pores (spaces between grains) for water flow. Sands and silts
have much smaller grains and therefore much smaller pore spaces. Permeability is
much less for sands and silts than for gravels even though the total amount of pore
space may be similar as the individual pore spaces between grains are very small.
In clays, the pore spaces are usually filled with attached water with does not flow
leaving practically no effective pore space for water flow. There fore, clay, although
they have high void ratios, are almost impermeable.
 The coefficient of permeability for soil can be found an follows: -
1. For sand, from the constant head permeability test.
2. For tine sands and silts, from the failing head permeability test.
3. For tine sands and silts, from the falling head permeability test.
4. For clays, from the consolidation test.
5. For gravels and sands, from a field test using wells.
Only the two common laboratory tests one described here with the experiment
done in our laboratory
 Constant head permeability.
 Falling head permeability.
1.9.5.1 Permeability Test

Material testing 47
47
1. Constant head permeability test
1.1. Applications and necessity of computation of K value
Determination K value is extremely important to estimate the seepage forces which has a
direct effect on the safety of the hydraulic structures. The quantity of stored water
escaping through and beneath an earthen dam also depends on the permeability of the
embankment and the foundation soil, respectively. The likely yield of walls and tube alls is
also governed by the value of permeability of the water bearing strata. The rate of
drainage water seeping through foundation pits also does depend upon the K value of the
surrounding soil. The rate of settlement of compressible clay soils under loads also
depends upon the permeability (K)
1.2. Apparatus Required
 Permeameter
 Dynamic compaction base plate
 Static compaction flanged end plugs
 Compaction collars
 2.5 kg dynamic tanning tool
 Core cutter.
 Small horizontal sample extractor machine
 A measuring jar
 A balance to weight correct up to 1gm
 A stop wa5tch
 A water container or an constant head tank
 A meter scale
 sieve 4.75mm size
 Thermometer to measure room temperature
 Trimming knife
1.3. Preparation and placement of soil sample in the mould
The soil sample is either extracted from the cleaned surface from the specified
depth of the specified bore by using sampler extractor and sampling tube jar is
prepared in the laboratory, by using either the dynamic compaction tool or the static
compaction tool.
A. undisturbed soil specimen
The following procedure may be adopted for extracting and placing the
undisturbed soil specimen in the mould.
I. Remove the protective wax cover from the 100mm dia. core sampling tube,
containing field sample.
II. Place the core sampling tube in the sample extractor, and push the plunger to
get a cylindrical shaped specimen of 100mm dia and about 150mm length.
Trim and cut the sample to produce a sample of 85mm dia (for 100mm dia
mould) and of height equal to that of the mould (i.e. 127.3mm)
III. The above soil specimen is placed centrally over the porous disc of the plate
after laying the jali or filter paper over the disc.
IV. The vacant annular space between the mould and the specimen is filed with
an impervious material like cement slurry to block the side leakage of the
specimen. Care should be taken to prefect the porous disc, when cement
slurry is poured. This slurry should also be compacted with a small rod
temper.
V. Place the top porous plate and the jai (filter paper) over the soil specimen

Material testing 48
48
VI. Fix the washer and then the top cap to complete the assembly, making the
specimen ready for testing.
B. Disturbed soil specimen
The soil specimen here is prepared in the mould itself from the given
representative soil (passing 4.75mm sieve) either by using the dynamic compaction or the
static compaction, as described below.
I. Using dynamic compaction. About 800 to 1000gm of given soil (passing 4.75mm
sieve) if taken and mixed with a calculated quantity of water to produce soil of
known water content (W).
The mix is then left for about 24 hours in an airtight container. Now to fill and
compact this soil in the mould using dynamic compaction (rod temper), first, grease
the inside of the mould, and place it upside down on the dynamic compaction plate
and the compaction collar is fixed to the other end. The mass of wet soil required to
produce a known dry density (γd ) at a known water content (W) in filling the mould
of volume V, is then calculated by using the equation, M=γd(1+W)*V. This measured
quantity of soil is known compacted in to the mould by means of rod temper, in two
or three layers. After compaction, the collar is removed, and after placing the filter
paper or wire mesh gauge over the soil specimen, the porous base plate is fixed.
The mould assembly is then turned upside down. The compaction base plate is
detached, and the top cape is fixed.
Alternatively and preferably, if permeability is desired at maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content (OMC), then first of all proctor's maximum dry density and
optimum water content are determined.
The soil is then compacted in the mould in two layers with 2.5kg dynamic tool, with
15 blows given to each layer. After the compaction, the compaction collar is
removed, the excess soil trimmed off, and the perforated (porous) base plate is
fixed, as described in the above Para.
II. Using static compaction
About 800 to 1000gm soil is taken. to produce a removed sample of soil of a given
density and water content (W), add calculated quantity of water to this soil, as to
produce water content equal to its known values, W. to compact this soil in the
mould by static compaction, the 3cm right compaction collar is attached to the
bottom end of the mould, and 2.5cm light collar is attached to the top end of the
mould. The mould assembly is supported over the 2.5cm high end plug. The mould
assembly is supported over the 2.5cm high end pug with 2.5cm light collar resting on
the spit collar. The calculated mass of soil= [M=&d(1+w).V] is put in to the mould and
the top plug is inserted. The entire assembly is kept in a press (compression
machine), and the spit collar is removed. The sample is compacted fill the flange of
both end plugs touch the corresponding coraks. Maintain the load for limit and then
release it. The 3cmare then removed, and after putting the fine mesh gauge (Jali) or
filter paper, porous base plate is fixed over it. The mould is now turned upside down,
the plug and the collar are removed and the top late and top porous cap is fixed, to
make the sample ready for testing.
Note; Static compaction is more convenient and accurate to compact the soil at any
given density and moisture contain content, while dynamic compaction is effective to
compact the soil at maximum dry density and at optimum moisture content.
1.4. Experimental procedure

Material testing 49
49
1. Place porous stone in the bottoms of the permeameter.
2. Obtain the mass of the sand and container
3. Add sand to the permeameter, compact it to the desired density. Place
porous stone on the surface. Top the stone to level the surface and eliminate
air pockets.
4. Obtain the mass of the remaining sand
5. Attach a water supply and allow it to flow through the sample unit the rate of
flow becomes uniform.
6. Measure the length L, head H, and tube's diameter.
1.5 Precautions
I. All the possibilities of leakage at the joints must be eliminated. All the
joints and washer must be thoroughly cleaned, so that there are no soil
particles between them.
II. The grease should be applied liberally between the mould, base plate
and collar.
III. Rubber washer between top plate and top cp must be moisture with
water before placing.
IV. Porous stones (plates) must be saturated just before placing.
V. De-aired and dry tilled water should be used for precise results.
VI. In order to ensure development of laminar flow condition,
connectionless soils must be tested under low hydraulic head(H)
VII. Air must be removed before hand by operating the air relief value of
before opening the outlet of the mould.
VIII. Water should be collected only after ensuring that the soil has been
saturated and steady state conditions have reached.
IX. Water should be added to the water supply tank gradually, so as to
ensure constant head.
X. Water should be collected for sufficient time internal of 2 to 3 minutes
to have the least error.
Results: -
Mass of sand used __________________ gm
H= ______________ cm L= ___________cm Diameter = _____cm
Total flow ______________ cm3 in ________________8
Temperature ___________ 0c
Calculations: -
1. Area A= _____________cm2
2. Flow of= _____________ cm3/s
3. Density of sand= Mass = Mass =
______________=_________g1cm3
Volume = L*A
4. Coefficient of permeability
K= QL
HA
K= ______________= ___________cm/s

Material testing 50
50
2. Variable Head Method (falling head permeability test)
In less previous fine grained soils, the flow is quit below, and hence the above
described experiment of collection of water under a constant head over a given
time internal take too long a time to give accurate results. Hence, variable head
method is adopted as a better alternative.
In this method, the water level in the source reservoir (burette or standpipe) is
not dept constant by continuous addition of water as is done in constant head
method; but the water level in the source reservoir is allowed to fall, as the
seepage water goes out through the sample and overflows from the lower
container to the jar. The coefficient or permeability K is then given by equation.
K= 2.3aL log 10 H1
A.t H2
Where a = the inside area of burette or stand pope though which water is
supposed to flow in to the soil sample
t= the time infernal during which water level falls from a ht. H2 in the burette,
measured about the water level in the lower container (over flow level of the
container)
L= length (i.e. Ht.) of the soil specimen
The procedural steps involved in this test shall be as follows:
1. prepare the requisite soil specimen (undisturbed or removed), duly placed in
the permeameter moved
2. Place the permeate mould in the bottom confiner and fill the confiner with
water up to brim (overflow level),
3. Fill water in the water source (burette)
4. Connect the outlet of the burette (water source) with outlet of the mould (at
the base plate), and open the air value in the cap. Water will rise from
bottom to the top, saturating the soil sample. Water will also come out of the
air relief value at he top cover. After some time, the sample will be come
completely saturated.
5. The air value is closed. The tube is detached from the base plate outlet and
connected with the water inlet nozzle of the top cap. The water will now start
flowing from top to the bottom of the soil sample
6. Note down the time and height of water level in the standpipe and height of
its zero make able the bottom of the soil sample. The height of water level
above the base of sample will be HV.
7. Aster a certain internal of time (t), canted on the top watch, again note down
the water level in the barrette, and the height of this water level above the
base of soil specimen to indicate H2
8. The value of K can be completed by using equation.
K= 2.3aL Log10 H1
A.t H2
9. Continue recording readings for water level with each passing interval of
say 30 secs, as entered in the observation.
10. Note down the dia. of stand pope to compute its cross sectional area (a).
11. Compute the value of K as shown in tab. and find the mean vale.
S
No
H1=Ht. of water level
in burette above the base
of soil sample at the start
H2 Ht of water level
in burette. above the
base of sample at the
Constant
time
interval
J=2.3 aL 1og10 H1
At H2

Material testing 51
51
of interval.
Cm
end of internal
Cm
sec. (t)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Precautions
1. All possibilities of leakage at line joints of the permeated mould should be
eliminated. All the joints and higher should therefore be throatily cleaned, so
that there are no soil particles between them.
2. The grease shall be liberally applied between the mould, base plate and
cover.
3. Rubber washer between the top plate and top cap must be moisture with
water before placing.
4. Porous plates (stones) must be saturated just before placing.
5. Desired and distilled water should be used for precise results.
6. Air must be removed from the soil sample (mould) before starting the test by
reverse flow through the sample by opening the air release value.
7. The sample should be completely saturated before any observations are
recorded.
8. No air bubble should be present at the top to the tank throughout the
experiment.
9. Steady flow must establish before measurements started.
10.In order to ensure laminar flow conditions (for which Darcy’s low in valid)
cohesions.
1.9.5.2 CAPILLARY WATER
-Capillary water: - is water that rises in tubes or pore spaces due to surface
tension. The height that capillary water raises above the water table varies
inversely with the diameter of the tube in which it rise i.e. pore spaces in soils.
-The pore spaces in soils are similar to tubes - water lies above the ground
water table in these pores. Pore sixes very greatly in a soil, and are difficult to
estimate reliably. A value of 20% of the effective size is often used to
approximate the pore size. There fore, for a soil with an effective size at about
the No. 200 sieve size (0.075mm) the average pore size mint be 0.0075*20=
0.0015cm and the height of capillary rise might be 0.3%/o.0015= 200cm
Typical values for height capillary rise are
Sands- 0-1m
Silts - 1-10m
Clays - over 10m
This surface tension in soil water, which causes water to rise in capillarity, has
three important effects.
1. Soil is saturated for a distance above the ground levels. saturator in soils
cannot be used as an indicator of the location ground water table
2. Apparent cohesion in silts and sands it due to the surface tension forces
moisture film surrounding the soil grains. Silt grains usually stick together
found in deposits. However, this disappears when the died or fully
saturated. Sands tend to bulk when piled in a moist condition to the
surface tension forces holding the grains and resisting their movement
denser configuration.

Material testing 52
52
3. Frost heaving is a major problem since it causes many pavement
failures. The surface soil heave by an amount equal to the total
thickness of the ice losses formed.
Capillary Head Test
Introduction
There is much evidence that a liquid surface resets tensile forces because of the
attraction between adjacent molecules in the surface. This attraction is measured by
"surface tension" which is constant property of any pure liquid at a given temperature.
An example of this evidence is the fact that water will rise and remain above the
line of atmospheric pressure or phreatic line, in a very fine bore or capillary tube. This
phenomena is commonly referred to as "capillarity"
Capillarity enables a dry soil to draw water to elevations above the phreatic line; it
also enables a draining soil mass to tertian water above the phreatic line. The height of
water column, which a soil can thus support, is called "capillary head" and is inversely
proportional to the size of soil void at the air water interface /. The height of rise hc in a
capillary/ tube is
hc= Z*Ts cosø
Rr
Where æ = unit wt of the liquid
Ts = surface tension of the liquid
ø= Constant angle mode between the liquid and the tube
R = radius of the tube.
For comparing various soils and for certain drainage problems, the saturation
capillary head hcs is of much value. Since this head indicates the depth of soil below the
water table which would undergo no loss of water after a 10 wearing of this water table, it
has dialect application in design. Problems such as those involving the determination of
lateral pressure on wall retaining an earth fill. Not only is the saturation capillary head one
of the more useful capillary heads but it is also one of the easiest to measure.
Apparatus and supplies
 Special
1. Sample tube
a) Two screens
b) Two rubber stopper
c) Spring
2. Head control chamber
3. Detaining and saturating device.
4. Support frame and clamps
 General
1. Tamper
2. Supply of distilled, desired water
3. Vacuum supply
4. Balance (o. 19 sensitivity)
5. Drying oven
6. Desiccators /may not be needed/

Material testing 53
53
7. Scale
8. Thermometer (0.10c sensitivity)
9. Tubing
10.Evaporation dish
11.Funnel
12.Pinch claps
Recommended Procedure
This rest consists of increasing the tension in the pore water at the bottom of
the soil unit a bubble is drawn through the soil. The tension necessary to pull the first
bubble through is the saturation capillary head.
The steps are as follows: -
1. Measure the inside diameter of the sample container
2. Weigh the clean, dry, empty container to 0.19. Include the screens, spring and
top stopper.
3. Fill the container with dry soil to height such that the to screen, spring and
stopper fit tightly when in place. The spring should be compressed so that the
soil is dept in place when it is saturated.
4. Weigh the leaded container with top screen, spring, and stopper in place. This
weigh minus that obtained in step 2 is the weight of dry soil used.
5. Assemble the sample container as shown in the figure below with out any
stand pipe (fig 1)
6. Remove the stopper, spring and screen from the top of the soil container and
connect the head control chamber as shown in below (fig 1)
7. Measure the length of soil sample to an accuracy of 0.1 cm
8. Make certain that there is no air in the line between head control chamber and
the sample container, then open valves p and q
9. Increase the water tension by lowering the bead control chamber 2cm every
5minuts. Take a temperature observation every 15 or 20 minutes. If zero on
the scale is set at the elevation of the sample bottom, the scale reading at the
water level on the control chamber is the applied water head.
10.Lower the control chamber unit the first air bubble appears below the bottom
screen.
Calculations
The tension expressed in what head required to draw the fist air bubble through
the bottom screen is the saturation capillary head. For the setup in the above
figure the tension is the difference in elevation between the water surface in the
control chamber and the bottom of the soil, for the set up in the figure shown
below, the tension is bt 13.69
Results
Method of presentation:- The results of the preceding test can be given by simply
listen the saturation capillary head, test Temperature and the void ratio of the soil
specimen.
Discussion:- The value of saturation capillary head increases as the void ratio of
the soil is decreased.
Although the temperature of the water in the saturation capillary head test is
measured usually no attempt is made to change the head to one at any particular
temperature since the capillary head depends directly on the surface tension of
water which in tern decreases with an increase to temperature, the capillary head

Material testing 54
54
decreases with an increase temperature, the capillary head decrease with an
increase of temperature. However, the dependence of the capillary head on
temperatures not thought important enough or understood well enough to justify
attempts to correct for it.
1.9.6. SOIL STRENGH AND SETTLEMENT
The two main types of failure that occur in soils are
1. Failures due to shear, grains slide with respect to other grains.
2. Settlement failure, where a layer of soil is compressed and becomes
thinner under leading
1.9.6.1 Shear strength:-would involve discussion of both stresses developed
in pore water and combinations of shear and normal stresses.
However, for the purpose of converting routine soil evaluation and under
standing the relevance of the field tests conducted on soils, the following to
shear strength will suffice.
 Forces acting on a plane are normal forces (N) which at perpendicular to the plane,
and shear forces (s), w/h act parallel to the plane
 Stress or force per unit area is found by dividing the total force by the area w/h it
acts. Normal stress (N) and shear stress (‫)ح‬ have units of KN/m2 (kpa) shear
strength is shear visiting failure along a plane, as illustrated below: -
Sliding force.
Resisting force
Fig 6
 Shear strength in clays is due to concession between the grains, holding them
together for clays;
 T=C
 Where T= shearing resistance (kpa)
C= cohesion of soil (kpa)
 In granular soils, shear strength results from friction between the grains alone the
shearing plane. This is similar to sliding friction produced as a block slides across a
table. The shearing pressure required to cause sliding (T) varies with the mall of
block or the normal stress on the plane of failure (σ). for example
For σ =10kpa, T might be 6 kpa

Material testing 55
55
 By plotting these, stresses as shown in fig down, a failure line is obtained giving
shear stress at failure (or shear strength) corresponding to any value of
Shearing 30 - The angle that this line makes horizontal
Stress (kpa) in the angle of internal friction Ø.
20 Tan Ø= ‫ح‬ / σ
‫ح‬ = σ Tan Ø
10
Ø
10 20 30 normal stress (kpa)
Fig. 7
Summarize, shear strength in must clays in due to cohesion, and T=C, shear strength in
granular sols is due to friction and T= σ tan Ø. The cohesion C, and the friction angle, Ø,
of the soil are measured in various shear strength tests.
 Mixed soils and partially saturated or hard clays may have shear strength
developed by both cohesion and friction.
In this case; T= C+ σ tan Ø
Shear strength in soils can be measured by
 Unconfined compression test (clays only)
 Direct shear test
 Triaxial compression test
 Vane shear test (clay only)
 Field tests
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Objective
To determine the shearing strength of the soil using the direct shear
apparatus.
NEED AND SCOPE
In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining walls, slab bridges,
pipes, sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil
involved are required for the design. Direct shear test is used to predict these parameters
quickly. The laboratory report covers the laboratory procedures for determining these
values for cohesion less soils.
PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION
Apparatus
1. Direct shear box apparatus
2. Loading frame (motor attached).

Material testing 56
56
3. Dial gauge.
4. Proving ring.
5. Tamper.
6. Straight edge.
7. Balance to weigh up to 200 mg.
8. Aluminum container.
9. Spatula.
KNOWLEDGE OF EQUIPMENT:
Strain controlled direct shear machine consists of shear box, soil container, loading unit,
proving ring, dial gauge to measure shear deformation and volume changes. A two piece
square shear box is one type of soil container used.
A proving ring is used to indicate the shear load taken by the soil initiated in the shearing
plane.
PROCEDURE
1. Check the inner dimension of the soil container.
2. Put the parts of the soil container together.
3. Calculate the volume of the container. Weigh the container.
4. Place the soil in smooth layers (approximately 10 mm thick). If a dense sample is
desired tamp the soil.
5. Weigh the soil container, the difference of these two is the weight of the soil. Calculate
the density of the soil.
6. Make the surface of the soil plane.
7. Put the upper grating on stone and loading block on top of soil.
8. Measure the thickness of soil specimen.
9. Apply the desired normal load.
10. Remove the shear pin.
11. Attach the dial gauge which measures the change of volume.
12. Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values.
13. Before proceeding to test check all adjustments to see that there is no connection
between two parts except sand/soil.
14. Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear force and record the reading.
15. Take volume change readings till failure.
16. Add 5 kg normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 and continue the experiment till failure
17. Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the
experiment
DATA CALCULATION SHEET FOR DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Material testing 57
57
Normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 L.C=....... P.R.C=.........
Horizontal
Gauge
Reading
(1)
Vertical
Dial
gauge
Reading
(2)
Proving
ring
Reading
(3)
Hori.Dial
gauge
Reading
Initial
reading
div. gauge
(4)
Shear
deformation
Col.(4) x
Leastcount of
dial
(5)
Vertica
l
gauge
readin
g Initial
Readin
g
(6)
Vertical
deformatio
n= div.in
col.6 xL.C
of dial
gauge
(7)
Proving
reading
Initial
reading
(8)
Shear stre
proving rin
of the spe
(9)
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Normal stress 1.0 kg/cm2 L.C=....... P.R.C=........

Material testing 58
58
Horizontal
Gauge
Reading
(1)
Vertical
Dial
gauge
Reading
(2)
Proving
ring
Reading
(3)
Hori.Dial
gauge
Reading
Initial
reading
div.
gauge
(4)
Shear
deformation
Col.(4) x
Leastcount
of dial
(5)
Vertical
gauge
reading
Initial
Reading
(6)
Vertical
deformation=
div.in col.6
xL.C of dial
gauge
(7)
Proving
reading
Initial
reading
(8)
Shear stress =
div.col.(8)x
proving ring
constant Area of
the
specimen(kg/cm2)
(9)
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Normal stress 1.5 kg/cm2 L.C=....... P.R.C=........

Material testing 59
59
Horizontal
Gauge
Reading
(1)
Vertical
Dial
gauge
Reading
(2)
Proving
ring
Reading
(3)
Hori.Dial
gauge
Reading
Initial
reading
div.
gauge
(4)
Shear
deformation
Col.(4) x
Leastcount
of dial
(5)
Vertical
gauge
reading
Initial
Reading
(6)
Vertical
deformation=
div.in col.6
xL.C of dial
gauge
(7)
Proving
reading
Initial
reading
(8)
Shear stress =
div.col.(8)x
proving ring
constant Area of
the
specimen(kg/cm2)
(9)
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
OBSERVATION AND RECORDING

Material testing 60
60
Proving Ring constant....... Least count of the dial........
Calibration factor.......
Leverage factor........
Dimensions of shear box 60 x 60 mm
Empty weight of shear box........
Least count of dial gauge.........
Volume change.......
S.No
Normal load
(kg)
Normal
stress(kg/cm2)
load x
leverage/Area
Normal
stress(kg/cm2)
load x
leverage/Area
Shear stress
proving Ring
reading x
calibration /
Area of
container
1
2
3
GENERAL REMARKS
1. In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its weakest plane but
along a predetermined or induced failure plane i.e. horizontal plane separating the
two halves of the shear box. This is the main draw back of this test. Moreover,
during loading, the state of stress cannot be evaluated. It can be evaluated only at
failure condition i.e. Mohr’s circle can be drawn at the failure condition only. Also
failure is progressive.
2. Direct shear test is simple and faster to operate. As thinner specimens are used
in shear box, they facilitate drainage of pore water from a saturated sample in less
time. This test is also useful to study friction between two materials one material in
lower half of box and another material in the upper half of box.
3. The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of compaction,
coarseness of grains, particle shape and roughness of grain surface and grading. It
varies between 28o (uniformly graded sands with round grains in very loose state)
to 46o (well graded sand with angular grains in dense state).
4. The volume change in sandy soil is a complex phenomenon depending on
gradation, particle shape, state and type of packing, orientation of principal planes,
principal stress ratio, stress history, magnitude of minor principal stress, type of
apparatus, test procedure, method of preparing specimen etc. In general loose

Material testing 61
61
sands expand and dense sands contract in volume on shearing. There is a void
ratio at which either expansion contraction in volume takes place. This void ratio is
called critical void ratio. Expansion or contraction can be inferred from the
movement of vertical dial gauge during shearing.
5. The friction between sand particles is due to sliding and rolling friction and
interlocking action.
The ultimate values of shear parameter for both loose sand and dense sand
approximately attain the same value so, if angle of friction value is calculated at ultimate
stage, slight disturbance in density during sampling and preparation of test specimens will
not have much effect.
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST
Objective: - To determines the shear strength of cohesion less soil sample.
Sample Preparation
1) Remove the load ring and pull out the clutch.
2) Lubricate the base pedestal with petroleum jelly.
3) Place the porous stone on the base pedestal, and make certain that there is no
air trapped between the stone and the pedestal.
4) Inspect the latex membrane for holes by filling it with water and checking for
leaks, or holding it up to the light. Utilize an acceptable membrane and carefully
stretch it around and over the base pedestal. Attach rubber bands to create a seal.
5) Take the three part metal split mold, and place it around the membrane; take
care not to pinch the membrane when closing the sections together. Finally, slide
the metallic ring clamp over the mold for a tight seal.
6) Employ the vacuum pump to create a tight fit. This, in effect, removes any air
trapped between the membrane and the form. Put the membrane around and over
the sides of the mold, and stretch it out in order to eliminate wrinkles.
7) Adhere to proper mixing instructions (Synthetic Industries guidelines). A small
amount of water is introduced to facilitate better mixing of the soil and fibers.
Having completed this procedure, weigh and record the wet mass of a container
with a mixed sample of sand and fiber. The combined weight of mixture used, along
with the known volume of the cylinder will provide the relative density by formula for
the chosen percentage of fiber. The dry unit weight of soil used may be determined

Material testing 62
62
upon completion of the test.
8) Place the sand-fiber mixture into the membrane using a series of teaspoons and
tamps to achieve the desired relative density. Do NOT use a vibrator technique to
density the soil, because that may cause upward migration of the fibers.
9) Put the block on top of the sample, and pull the membrane up and over the
block. Secure it with rubber bands, while taking care to avoid wrinkles.
Experimental Procedure
1) The preparation of the specimen occurred directly within the loading machine.
Ensure that the top cap is in place over the porous stone, and that no air is trapped
between these two pieces. Using a level bubble on top of the cap, verify that the
soil specimen is level. This is very important to the axial longitudinal load.
2) In order to remove the mold from the sample, a partial vacuum must be applied
by lowering the water in the burette approximately two (2) feet below its initial level.
This lowering creates a perceived "negative" pore pressure inside the sample,
though the actual pressure is only a positive value less than atmospheric.
3) Having lowered the pressure, carefully remove the mold from around the
sample. Note that the sample is acted upon on the surfaces of the impervious
rubber membrane by an external pressure equal to the difference between
atmospheric pressure outside, and an internal pressure of whatever amount below
atmospheric the burette level has caused.
4) Using a pair of calipers, obtain the diameter of the sample to the nearest 0.5mm
by taking measurements at the top, middle, and bottom, and averaging the results.
Also, measure the length of the sample to the nearest 0.5mm, between the two
porous stones in at least three different places. From these values, compute the
initial area and volume. Record these values on Data Sheet A.
5) Place the plastic triaxial chamber cylinder on the base of the triaxial equipment.
The soil sample will be entirely enclosed in this cylinder. Carefully place the loading
head on the cylinder, and put into place all the tie rods.
6) Attach the longitudinal deformation gauge into the loading head of the triaxial
cylinder and its mounting, which will measure the movement of the loading piston
after it contacts the top cap of the soil sample when the test begins. Now place the
piston into the loading head, making sure that it is seated properly in the cap which
is, of course, on top of the soil sample. Note, the piston should be well-lubricated,
so as to move freely and have a proper fit. A sufficient length of piston should be
protruding above the top of the loading head to allow for the maximum longitudinal
deformation anticipated for this soil; e.g. z =
20% or 0.20), and the sample is six inches long, then a minimum of 1.20 inches of

Material testing 63
63
piston rod must be protruding.
7) At this time the load ring, which will measure the axial loading to the sample,
should be in place in the machine. Raise the loading table to a position where the
piston of Step 6 is just in contact with the load ring. Be sure to record the load ring
number on Data Sheet A.
8) Tighten the nuts on all the tie rods, assuring a tight fit. Make sure to perform this
tightening with great care because too much shaking might disturb the soil sample.
Once the nuts are tight, readjust the piston rod in contact with the load ring.
9) The confining pressure may now be applied to the soil sample. This will be done
by pressurizing a tank of water or glycerin. The fluid will be forced into the chamber
surrounding the sample, and the pressure on the fluid in the tank is transmitted to
the fluid in the triaxial chamber, which is in turn transmitted to the soil sample. For
example, if 30 p.s.i. of pressure is applied to the water in the tank, the water forced
into the triaxial chamber is at 30 p.s.i., and therefore the soil is subjected to a
confining pressure of 30 p.s.i. During this entire process of filling the triaxial
chamber with the pressurized fluid, the pit cock at the top of the loading head
remains open. When the triaxial chamber is completely filled with fluid, the pit cock
is closed to prevent the fluid from pouring out.
10) While Step 9 is being performed, it is imperative that the piston remain in
contact with the load ring at all times, otherwise the pressure in the triaxial chamber
will push the piston out. When the chamber is completely filled with water or
glycerin, the load ring should be adjusted to read zero. It will, in the process of
filling the chamber with water or glycerin, attain some small reading. This can be
attributed to the following: the underside of the piston rod will be acted upon by a
force equal to the chamber fluid pressure multiplied by the cross-sectional area of
the piston rod. The sample is now ready for testing. Note: A reading on the burette
must be taken both before and after the triaxial chamber is filled with pressurized
fluid to determine the initial volume change. Record this on Data Sheet A.
11) The burette may now be slowly raised to a much higher elevation and filled with
water up to the 15 ml. mark. This burette can be raised as soon as the chamber
pressure is applied. [Note: This procedure assumes a burette with numbers
increasing down the side. Adjust accordingly for burettes numbered oppositely.]
The 50 ml. mark, which is near the bottom of the burette, should be at about the
elevation of the center of gravity of the soil sample. Make sure that there are no air
bubbles in the burette at this time because erroneous volume change results will be
recorded. The burette is now capable of being raised because a partial vacuum is
no longer needed to keep the soil sample erect. This is now being done by the
confining pressure. [A side: For a burette with the numbers increasing downward,
the following is true: When a sample is decreasing in volume, the water level in the
burette will rise. This is due to the fact that water is passing from the sample into
the burette. For example, the burette reading might go from 13 ml. to 12 ml,
indicating a volume change of 1 ml. This volume change is given a negative sign.

Material testing 64
64
Conversely, if a sample increases in volume, the level of water in the burette will
decrease. This indicated that water is passing from the burette in to the sample.
For example, the burette reading might go from 25 ml. to 27 ml, indicating a volume
change of 2 ml. This is a positive volume change.]
12) Set the loading machine to a strain rate of 0.02 inches per minute. The axial
load is taken from the load ring readings. The axial deformation is to be calculated,
based upon the readings obtained from the longitudinal deformation gauge. A
reading on the strain gauge should be taken every 0.02 inches. Record these
values on the Data Sheet. Also determine the volume change by reading the
burette and record this as well. Note that this is a constant rate of strain test.
13) Continue to load the soil specimen until one of two things occurs: either failure
of the specimen is obtained, or the test is well beyond the peak stress. In loose
sands, failure is denoted by a bulging of the sample; the load ring readings remain
constant and the volume changes are relatively small. In dense sands, failure is
denoted by definite failure or fracture planes, and the load ring readings fall off after
a peak. This is a brittle failure.
14) After failure has occurred, lower the burette back to its position in Step 2, and
back off the chamber pressure to zero. Open the pit cock at the top of the loading
head and at this time the fluid in the triaxial chamber will drain back into the
reservoir tank. When all the fluid is drained, remove the tie rods, loading head, and
plastic triaxial chamber cylinder. The tested specimen is now exposed and under a
partial vacuum from the lowered burette.
15) Remove the membrane and the soil from the base pedestal, making sure that all
the sand is removed from it. Rinse all of the sand into a large evaporating dish from
the o-rings and porous stones, and thoroughly rinse the membrane to loose any
remaining particles. Drain off as much water a possible from the evaporating dish.
Record the number and tare of the evaporating dish, and then place the sample and
dish into the oven until the next lab session. At that time, remove the dried
specimen and weigh the dish and soil to the nearest 0.1 g on a triple beam
balance. Record all weights on the Data Sheet.
1) Determine the specific gravity, and the maximum and minimum dry densities.
Also determine the dry unit density and relative density of the sample.
2) Compute the strains, z 0 X 100%, and the axial load, P, by multiplying the
load ring reading by the calibration value.
3) Compute the instantaneous area of the sample, Ai, the deviator stress, p = P/Ai,
1 3, the chamber pressure.
4) 1 3 0 x 100%, and the

Material testing 65
65
initial void ratio, ei.
1) On Cartesian paper, plot the stress-strain curve for the sample by plotting the
1, as the ordinate and the unit axial z, as the abscissa.
2) On Cartesian
z, as abscissa
3) From these the peak and ultimate total axial stress drawn from the plot in Step 1,
plot Mohr's Circle of Str 1 on the
3, on the abscissa, which is the axis for the
normal stress.
4)
ordinate versus the relative density, Dd, as abscissa
ordinate and Dd as abscissa.
5) Next, plot the curve of ei abscissa 3 as variable.
This is to obtain a void ratio at zero percent unit volume strain for various chamber
pressures. These void ratios are known as the critical void ratio. The same type of
curve may be drawn with relative density and obtaining critical relative densities.
6) Finally, draw two plots from the data obtained in Step 5: one of critical void ratio
as ordinate versus chamber pressure as abscissa, and another with the critical
relative density as ordinate versus the same abscissa.
1.9.6.2 Settlement
 The amount the building or structure settles is governed by the compressibility of
the oil. Compressibility involves the rearrangement of the soil grains to a denser,
thinner layer, usually involving the squeezing out of water. When a load is placed
on the soil.
Settlement is a serious problem in some types of day
1. Clays may have a loose structure and a high void and moisture content, and
can there fore be compressed considerably.
2. Due to the extremely slow movement of water in clays, the time required for
settlement to take place may be years.
 In granular soils, the grains are usually in use contact. In any event,
and settlement usually takes place as free load is being applied and
does not lead to log term settlement problems.
 The amount and rate of compressibility or consolidation, as it is
called instantiated way are calculated from results of consolidation.

Material testing 66
66
CONSOLIDATION TEST
Objective:
To determine the stress-strain characteristics of a laterally confined sample of clay.
Equipment:
1. Porous stones
2. Dial indicator with 0.0001 in. sensitivity
3. Stopwatch
4. Triple beam balance (sensitive to 0.1 gm)
5. Sample extruder
6. Sample trimmer
7. Miscellaneous apparatus:
o Spatulas
o Watch glasses
o Volumetric flask
o Wire saw
o Evaporating dishes
Procedure:
Determine the height and diameter of the consolidation ring, and record it on Data
Sheet (A).
1. Weigh the ring and two watch glasses on the triple beam balance and record this
weight on Data Sheet (A).
2. Using the sample extruder, extrude approximately a 2.0 in. length of sample from
the sampling tube.
3. Using a wire saw cut this 2.0 in. piece from the remainder of the sample still in the
sampling tube. Recap the sampling tube and seal with a liberal coating of hot
paraffin.
4. Set the consolidation ring into the sample trimmer and place the 2.0 in. disc of soil
on top of the ring.
5. Insert the trimmer tool in its holder, and adjust it horizontally so that it just makes
contact with the vertical edges of the soil sample.
6. Rotate the sample and the ring about their vertical axis, and proceed to take a light
cut with the trimming tool. After this first cut, advance the trimming tool horizontally
for another light cut and rotate again to take the cut. Each successive cut will
reduce the diameter of the sample until it becomes 2.5 in., and will just fit into the
ring. Insert it into the ring by gently pressing the sample using a saturated porous
stone.
7. Repeat this trimming process until the sample is protruding from the lower end of
the ring by approximately 0.50 in..
8. Remove the ring and soil sample from the sample trimmer, and using the wire saw,
trim the portions of the sample which are protruding from the ends of the ring.
Perform this trimming in such a manner as to leave the two soil surfaces absolutely
flush with the top and bottom of the ring.

Material testing 67
67
9. Place the ring containing the trimmed soil sample between the same two watch
glasses from Step 2, and weigh it on the triple beam balance. Record this weight
on Data Sheet (A).
10.Take a saturated porous stone and set it into the base of the consolidometer.
11.Place the ring containing the soil into the consolidometer, and attach the clamp
ring and gasket with the six screws.
12.Take a second saturated porous stone, and center it very carefully in the ring. If
this centering is not done carefully, the stone will be in contact with the ring and the
full load will not be applied to the sample during the test.
13.Pack cotton batting around this upper porous stone, and moisten it.
14.Place the dial indicator on the supporting rods of the consolidometer, and set the
entire assembly into the loading frame following the procedure in either (A) or (B),
depending on the loading system to be used:
o (A)Lever System Loading Frame ( Note: record data on Data Sheet (B) ):
1. Adjust the sliding counterweight on the overhead beam of the lever
system until it is positioned to completely balance the weight of all the
other lever system components which come to bear on the soil
sample.
2. Hold the lower lever arm in such a position that the loading plate is
almost in contact with the top porous stone of the soil sample. Then
adjust, vertically, the position of the dial indicator so that the
maximum amount of dial run will be available during the test.
3. Move the lower lever arm until the loading plate makes contact with
the top porous stone.
4. Holding a 1/2 kg weight just above contact with the weight pan of the
lever system, record an initial dial reading, making certain to record
both the dial and counter readings, and set a stopwatch for 5
seconds before the full minute.
5. Start the stopwatch and count from the -5 second reading to zero,
and at the exact zero, apply the 1/2 kg weight to the loading pan.
6. Record the dial readings for 0 (recorded in Step 4), 1/4, 1, 21/4, 4, 61/4,
9, 121/4, 16, 201/4, 25, 301/4, 36, 421/4, 49, 56 1/4, 64, and 1440
minutes.[The odd times for the early recordings are based upon the
fact that they are the perfect squares of 0, 1/4, 1, 1 1/2, etc. minutes]
7. At the end of the 24 hour (1440 minutes) period, apply an additional
1/2 kg load, and again record dial readings for 0, 1/4, 1, 2 1/4, etc.
minutes, as in Step 6. Note that the zero reading of this step
corresponds exactly with the 1440 minute reading of Step 6.
8. At the end of the 48 hour period, apply an additional 1 kg load, and
record the dial readings for the designated times.
9. It can be stated, as a general rule, that at the end of 24 hour period, a
load is applied to the weight pan equal to the sum of all weights
previously added.
10.During the first 48 hours of loading, make certain that the cotton
batting is kept moistened. This is to ensure that the sample does not
dry.
11.When the third increment of load is applied, the batting may be
removed, and the well surrounding the top porous stone filled with

Material testing 68
68
water. This well must be kept filled with water for the duration of the
test.
12.Continue to apply a new increment every 24 hours until the total
applied loading on the pan is 16 kg.
o (B)Pneumatic Loading System ( Note: record data on Data Sheet (C) ):
1. Set the regulator (according to the calibration provided) for a
pressure of 1/8tsf., leaving the valve closed. Record an initial dial
reading, being certain to record both the dial and counter readings,
and then set a stopwatch for 5 seconds before the full minute.
2. Start the stopwatch and count from the -5 second reading to zero,
and at the exact zero, open the valve.
3. Record the dial readings for 0 (recorded in Step 1), 1/4, 1, 21/4, 4, 61/4,
9, 121/4, 16, 201/4, 25, 301/4, 36, 421/4, 49, 56 1/4, 64, and 1440
minutes. [The odd times for the early recordings are based upon the
fact that they are the perfect squares of 0, 1/4, 1, 1 1/2, etc. minutes]
4. At the end of the 24 hour (1440 minutes) period, set the regulator for
a pressure of 1/4 tsf., and again record dial readings for 0, 1/4, 1, 2 1/4,
etc. minutes, as in Step 3. Note that the zero reading of this step
corresponds exactly with the 1440 minute reading of Step 3.
5. At the end of the 48 hour period, set the regulator for 0.5 tsf., and
record the dial readings for the designated times.
6. It can be stated, as a general rule, that at the end of 24 hour period, a
pressure is applied to the sample equal to the sum of all pressures
previously added.
7. During the first 48 hours of loading, make certain that the cotton
batting is kept moistened. This is to ensure that the sample does not
dry.
8. When the third increment of load is applied, the batting may be
removed, and the well surrounding the top porous stone filled with
water. This well must be kept filled with water for the duration of the
test.
9. Continue to apply a new increment every 24 hours until the total
applied pressure is 8 tsf.
15.Depending on the nature of the problem for which the consolidation characteristics
of this clay are being obtained, one or more unloading and reloading cycles may
have to be performed. For example, the sample may be loaded to a particular
value as outlined in Steps A6-A8 or B3-B5, possibly the third or fourth increment of
loading, when, instead of applying an additional increment, one or more of the
previously applied increments will be removed and the sample permitted to
expand. These "unloading cycles" generally do not require 24 hours, often lasting
only 4 - 6 hours. Following an unloading cycle, a "reloading cycle" may be begun,
again using the 24 hour increments from before. The exact nature of these
unloading and reloading cycles will be outlined by the instructor, and will be based
upon the type of settlement analysis being contemplated.
16.When all loading and unloading cycles have been completed, remove the
consolidometer from the loading frame.

Material testing 69
69
17.Remove the ring containing the consolidated soil from the consolidometer, place it
between the same two watch glasses from Step 2, and weigh it on a triple beam
balance. Record the weight on Data Sheet (A).
18.Carefully remove every bit of soil from the ring, place it between the same two
watch glasses from Step 2, and dry the sample in the oven. Record this weight on
Data Sheet (A).
19.Using the dry weight of this consolidation sample, together with the initial wet
weight from Step 10 and the final wet weight from Step 18, both the initial and final
moisture contents may be computed and recorded on Data Sheet (A).
20.Using the sample diameter and its initial thickness (Step 1), the specific gravity of
the soil (using the Procedure of Experiment 2), the initial wet weight (Step 10), and
the dry weight (Step 19), compute the initial voids ratio and % saturation.
21.Using the sample diameter and the final thickness of the sample (computed by
deducting the total compression accumulated during the entire loading program -
Steps A5-A12 or B2-B9, inclusive, and Step 16 - from the initial thickness of the
sample from Step 1.), the specific gravity of the soil, the final wet weight (Step 18),
and the dry weight (Step 19), compute the final voids ratio and % saturation.
Computation:
1. For all loading increments where the time vs., compression readings were taken,
prepare the following plots:
a. On Cartesian coordinates, plot for each loading increment the compression
as ordinate vs. the square root of the time elapsed for each reading as
abscissa.
For example: at the very beginning of the test, the applied pressure was, of
course, zero t.s.f. The first load was applied and began to have its effect by
producing a compression pattern varying with time. The compression vs.
square root of time plot for this first loading increment will therefore be
labeled "0 to X t.s.f.", where X indicates the t.s.f. actually being applied to
the sample.
b. As a check, all of the loading increments will be plotted on semi-logarithmic
paper with compression as ordinate vs. time on the logarithmic scale. Note
that in both a. and b., a further graphical construction will be performed (top
be described later) and exactly what will be checked will be obvious then.
2. If a known amount of settlement or compression takes place in a sample of known
total thickness initially (assuming the cross-sectional area remains constant) and
known initial voids ratio, then the voids ratio at the end of the compression may be
computed. Making use of this fact then, the following plot may then be assembled:
a. Compute the voids ratio existing at the end of the loading period for the first
load increment by using the initial thickness of the sample (step 1), the initial
voids ration of the sample (step 21) and the total compression accumulated
during this first 24-hour loading period (step A6 or B3).
b. Compute the voids ratio existing at the end of each 24-hour loading period
by using the initial thickness of the sample (step 1), the initial voids ratio of
the sample (step 21) and the total compression accumulated during all
increments of loading previously applied.

Material testing 70
70
c. Plot on semi-logarithmic paper the values of the various voids ratios as
arithmetic ordinate vs. the intergranular pressure in t.s.f. effective at the end
of each 24-hour loading period, as logarithmic abscissa.
d. Determine the value of the Maximum past Consolidated Pressure to which
the soil has been consolidated under, using the Casagrande construction.
e. Using the voids ratio determined in a) and b), create a Cartesian
coordinates plot of the voids ratio as ordinate and the intergranular
pressures as abscissa. Determine the coefficient of compressibility, av, and
the coefficient of volume compressibility, mv, for each load increment.
3. Working with the plots of step 1, the following constructions will be performed:
a. Note that each of the compression vs. square root of time plots are
assembled using on lay the compressions accumulated during the particular
load increment being studied, and not the compressions accumulated from
all previously applied increments.
b. On each of the plots, establish a straight line through as many of the plotted
points as possible, and extend this line back to intersect at zero time. If, as
possible, this intersection does not agree with the first of the plotted points,
use the new "corrected zero time" as the true value.
c. Draw a smooth curve through all remaining points, and make a smooth
transition with the straight line of b.
d. Through this "corrected zero", draw a straight line having an inverse slope
15% greater than the line through the data. This can be easily done by
multiplying any value of the abscissa on the straight line through the data by
1.15, plotting the value and drawing the new line from the "corrected zero"
through this point.
e. Where this new straight line intersects the test curve, both the compression
and time (actually the square root of time) for the theoretical 90%
consolidation can be picked off.
f. Repeat b. through e. for all load increments.
g. For those plots which were made on the semi-logarithmic paper, a
somewhat different graphical construction will be applied:
1. Establish a straight line through both the early and final portions of
the data, i.e., two separate straight lines.
2. Since this plot is logarithmic, and time is on the log scale, it will not
be possible to locate a zero time point. However, assuming the early
portion of the curve to be parabolic, select a point t1 at another point
corresponding to 0.25t1, and lay off the curve an ordinate equal to the
difference between the ordinates at t1 and 0.25t1.
3. Select another point t2. At a point corresponding to 0.25t2, lay off
above the curve an ordinate equal to the difference between
ordinates at t2 and 0.25t2.
4. Repeat step 3 once again.
5. Connect the points established by lying of the "differences in
ordinates." This horizontal line represents the line of zero
compression.
6. The intersection of the two straight lines from 1 represents both the
compression and time for 100% consolidation or compression.
7. Repeat 1. - 6 for all load increments.

Material testing 71
71
4. For each of the plots of compression vs. square root of time, compute the
coefficient of consolidation using:
CV = (T90H2) / (t90)
Where:
CV = coefficient of consolidation in cm2/sec.
T90 = time factor for 90% consolidation (obtained from charts prepared from
theoretical consolidation equations)
H = average length of the longest drainage path during the particular loading
increment, in cm.
t90 = time for 90% consolidation in sec. (obtained from step 3e.)
5. For each of the plots of compression vs. log of time, compute the coefficient of
consolidation using:
CV = (T50H2) / (t50)
Where:
CV = coefficient of consolidation in cm2/sec.
T50 = time factor for 50% consolidation (obtained from charts prepared from
theoretical consolidation equations)
H = average length of the longest drainage path during the particular loading
increment, in cm.
t50 = time for 50% consolidation in sec. (obtained from steps 3g-6 and 3g-7.)
6. Prepare a plot of CV vs. log s using the values of CV computed in steps 4 and 5.
7. Compute the coefficients of permeability for each pressure increment, and plot the
values vs. log of pressure in the same manner as step 6.
8. For the plots in steps 1(a) and 1(b), determine the primary consolidation ratio, rp,
and the secondary consolidation ratio, rs, for each loading increment.

Material testing 72
72
1.9.7 Soil compaction
 Insitu soils used as bases for the construction of high way pavements or other
structures, and transported soils used in embankments or as leveling materials for
various types of construction project are usually compacted to improve their
densities and other properties. Increasing the soil's density improves its strength,
lowers its permeability, and reduces future settlement.
 The evaluation of the density reached as a result of completive efforts with rollers
and other types of compaction equipment is the most common quality control
measurement made on soils at construction sites.
 The density of the soil as compacted is measured and compared to a density
goal for that soil as previewing determined in laboratory tests
1.9.7.1 Maximum Dry density
Compaction requirements are measured in terms of the dry density of the soil. The
expected value for dry density varies with the type of soil being compacted. For
example, a clay soil may be rolled many times and not reach 2000kg/M3, whereas a
granular soil may have a dry density above this value with out any comp active
effort. Therefore, a value for the maximum possible dry density must be established
for each soil.
For any compactive effort, the dry density of a soil will vary with its water content.
A soil compacted dry will reach a cretin dry density. It compacted again with the
same compactive effort but this time with water in the soil the dry density will be
higher, since the water lubricates the grains and allows them to slide in to a denser
structure. Air is forced out of the soil leaving more space for the soil solids, as well
as the added water. With even higher water content a still greater dry density may
be reached since more air is expelled. However, when most of the air in the mixture
has been removed, adding more mater to the mixture before compaction results in a
lower dry density as the extra water merely takes the place of some of the soil
solids. This principle is illustrated
Air Air
Air
Solids
Water
Solids
Water
Solids

Material testing 73
73
Dry
density
Fig.8
The first step in compaction control is to determine the maximum dry density that can be
expected for a soil under a certain compaction effort, and the water content at which this
density is reached. These are obtained from a compaction curve. The compaction curve
is also called a moisture- density curve or a proctor curve (named after the originator of
the test). The curve is plotted from the results of the compaction test (moisture - density
test or proctor test). Dry density is plotted against water content, and a curve is drawn
through the test points. The top or the curve represents (1) the maximum dry density for
the soil with the test compactive effort, and (2) the corresponding water content, which is
called the optimum water content(wo).
To aid in drawing the moisture density curve and as an indication of the maximum
theoretically possible density, the zero air voids (ZAZ) curve can be plotted. This curve
joins points giving the maximum theoretical density of the soil at various moisture
Water
Solids

Material testing 74
74
contents, which is, with no air left in the soil - water mixture. Points on this curve can be
obtained with this equation
ZAV ρD= ρw
1+ W
RD
The following rules regarding the ZAV curve can be used to help plot the compaction
curve.
1. No point can be above the ZAV line, therefore, errors are obvious.
2. The slope of the moisture - density curve on the wet side of optimum moisture
contents, while clay soil have lower densities. The edge-to-side bonds between clay
particles resist compactive efforts to force them in to a denser structure. With granular
soils, the more well- graded soils have spaces between large particles that fill with smaller
particles when compacted, leading to a higher density than with uniform soils. Note that a
line joining the peak points of the density curves would be approximately parallel to the
ZAV curve. This is due to the fact that most soils at their max. Density still contain about
2-3% air. Because compaction equipment has become much more effective since
proctor's time, and since the loads imposed on pavements notably by airplanes have
increased tremendously, a revised test using a much higher compactive effort is now
often used called the modified compaction test (modified moisture density or modified
proctor)
Since the compatibility of soils varies considerably, the construction requirements for
roads, dams, and so forth are usually specified as a percentage or the maximum dry
density found in a laboratory compaction test for each soil type encountered on the
project. For example, a project specification might require that the soil be compacted to a
5% of the maximum dry density found by the standard compaction tests would be run on
each different soil type. If the maximum dry density from the test was 2000kg/m3 at an
optimum water content of 11%, the required field density would be 95% of 2000, or
1900kg/m3. The moisture content of the soil should be as close as possible to 11%, which
reduces the required comp active effort (for example number of passes of the roller)
Proctor (compaction) test
Purpose:- To obtain maximum dry density and OMC for a soil using standard and
modified effort.
Theory: - Compacting is defined as the process of packing the soil grains by reducing the
air voids by means of mechanical methods. The mechanical methods for compaction may
include rollers, vibratos, rammers etc.
Short duration reparative loading is the real requirement for compaction, and
this really makes it different from consolidation, which is a process of long duration
loading, resulting, removal of water from the press of a saturated soil, and causing its
consolidation by reduction in volume.

Material testing 75
75
The compaction of soil by rolling etc can be best performed, if we add
ascertain particular amount of water during compaction. As water is added to a dry soil,
the density to which it can be compact increases because of the lubricating effect of the
water. The air in the soil is reduced as the density increased, up to a point of maximum
dry density. At this point, air content con not be reduced further, and additional water
results in lower density sine the excess water must come between soil grains.
A plot of dry density Vs water content gives a moisture density cure. The
highest point on this curve is the maximum dry density for this soil at the specified
compactive effort. The zero air voids curve gives maximum theoretical dimities (no air
content) at indicated water content.
– Proctor has also suggested two standards of loading, one is known as standard or
light completion, and the other is known as heaving completion. The proctor's test
is conducted with an ordinary light hammer, while the modified test is conducted
with a heavier hammer.
– In standard proctor test the basic premise of the test is that a soil sample is
compacted in 101.6 or 152.5mm diameter mod by dropping a 24.4N hammer on to
the sample from a height of 305mm, dropping a compactive effort of 600 kN-m/m3
An alternative test, known as the modified proctor test, uses a 44.5N hammer that
is dropped 457mm. The latter produces greater compaction and, hence, greater
soil unit weight (since the hammer is heavier, drops father, and there fore exerts
greater compaction effort on the soil sample). Therefore, modified proctor test may
be used when greater soil unit weight is required.
– Three alternative procedures are provided for carrying out a standard proctor test.
1) Procedure A
(1.1) Mold- 101.6 mm diameter
(1.I) Material passing No.4 (4.75mm) sieve
(1.3) Layers Three
(1.4) Blows per layer 25
(1.5) Use tray be used if 20% or less by weight of the material is pertained on
the No. 4 (4.75mm) sieve.
(1.6)Other use- if this procedure is not specified, materials that meet these
gradation requirement may be tasted using procedures B or C.
2) Procedure B
2.1) Mold 1.1.6mm Ø
2.2) material passing 3/in (9.5mm) sieve
2.3) Layers three
2.4) Blows per layer 25
2.5) use shall be used if more than 20% by weight of the material is retained on
the No 4 (4.75mm) sieve and 20% or less by weight of the material is retained
on the 3/8 in (9.5mm) sieve
2.6) other use if this procedure is not specified use procedure C.
3) Procedure C
3.1) Mold 152.4 mm Ø
3.2) Material passing No 7/8 in (19.9mm) sieve.
3.3) layer three
3.4) blows per layer 56

Material testing 76
76
3.5) Use shall be used if more than 20% by weight of the material is retained on
the 3/8 (9.5mm) sieve and less than 30% by weight of the material is retained
on the 3/4 in (19.0mm) sieve 0
4) The 152.4mm Ø mold shall not be used with procedure A or B.
Apparatus: -
Mold: - 101.6 ± 0.4 mm over inside Ø, height of 116.4 ± 0.5mm and a volume 944±14
cm3. or 152.4±.7mm inside Ø, height 116.4 ± 0.5mm and volume 2124 ± 25cm3.
- Hammer(2.6kg and 4.89kg), sample, extruder, balances, drying over, straight edge
sieves (3in, 3/8, and No 4), soil mixer, pan, spoon, trowel etc.
Application: - Compaction of a soil results in increase its density, shear strength, and
bearing capacity. But reduces its void ratio, porosity, permeability and settlement. The
soils are therefore required to be compacted in earthen dams, embankments, and roads
and air fields etc. to inverse their strength and stability.
Procedure
1. Take about 20kg of given air dried soil
2. Sieve the soil through 19mm and 4.75mm sieve.
3. Calculate the % retained on 19mm sieve as well as on 4.75mm.
4. Use a mould as per described before (procedure A,B or C)
5. Mix the soil retained on 4.75mm sieve and the one passing the 4.75mm sieve
thoroughly, and rejects the soil retained on 19mm sieve.
6. Take about 2.5kg of this soil for 944cc mould, or 6kg for 2124cc moved for light
compaction. (For heavy compaction, take about 2.8kg and 6.5kg respectively )
7. Add water to the above soil sample to bring its moisture content to about 4%
increase grained soils, and about 8% in fine grained soils.
8. Clean dry and slightly grease the mould and base state. Measure the mass of the
empty mould with base plate (M)
9. Fit the collar on the top of the mould.
10. Fill and compact the wet soil in the mold.
i) Light compaction
-compact wet soil in three equal layers by the rammer of man 2.6kg fall height 305mm,
by giving evenly distributed 25 blows per layer for (101.6mm) lower mold , 56 blows
for larger mould (152.4mm)
ii) Heavy compaction
- Compact the wet soil in five equal layers by the rammer or mass 4.89kg and fall
height of 457mm, with each layer being given 25 blows for 101.6mm mold and 56
blows for 152.4 ø mold.
11. Remove the collar and trim off the excess soil above the top of the mould,
- While removing the collar to break the bond between the collar and the soil before
lifting if off the mold.
12. Clean the out side of mould and base plate, and measure mass of specimen plus
mould (M1)
13. Remove the soil from the mould and collect representative sample from the top,
middle and bottom, for water content determination.
14. Measure empty container (M2) and fill with the representative soil sample in it.
Measure its mass (M3) immediately= mass of wet soil will be =Mw= M3-M2.
15. Keep the crucible (container) in the oven for a To 105oc + 5 oc for 24 hours.
16. Measure the man of crucible with dry soil (M4)- compute mass of dry soil M2 = M4
-M2.

Material testing 77
77
17. Water content (w) = mass of wet soil - man of dry soil * 100
mass of dry soil
18. Repeat the above described test procedure with increased water content of about
7%, 10%, 16,%,19% , and 22% for coarse grained soils and 11%, 14%,17%,
20%,23%, ,and 26% for of water content for fine grained soils.
19. Plot a curve between various values of water content (w) obtained for various soil
samples with increasing w, and dry densities of soil sample determined by equation:-
ρd = Mass of moist soil in the mould x ( 1 )
vol.of mould 1+w
= M 2 - M (1) = ρ
V 1+w
Observation and calculations
1. Percentage of soil retained on 19mm sieve =_________
2. Percentage of soil retained on 4.75mm sieve=_________
3. Percentage of soil passing 4.75mm sieve=____________
4. Ø of mould =________________
5. Height of mould and volume=_________________
Target moisture content % 4 7 or 11 10 or 14 13 or17
Mass of wet soil + mould A(gm)
Mass of mould B(gm)
Mass of wet soil C =A - B
Bulk density W = C/V
Container No
Mass of container + wet soil
a(gm)
Mass of container + dry soil
b(gm)
Mass of container
d(gm)
Mass of dry soil b-d=
e/(gm)
Mass of moisture a - b = f
(gm)
Moisture content f/e*100 =m(%)
Dry density W/(100+m)*100 kg3
MDD = ______________
OMC =________________

Material testing 78
78
Precaution:-
i- Adequate time should be allowed for mixing the soil with water before placing and
compacting the same in the mould.
ii- Each layer of soil, after compaction, should be scored with spatula before placing
additional soil for the next layer.
iii- The mould should be placed on a solid foundation for proper application of blows and
each blow should be uniformly distributed over the surface of each layer.
1.9.7.2 FIELD DENSITY TEST
Quality control of compaction on a construction project involves measuring field
density after compaction, and comparing the results with the laboratory maximum density
value for the soil, to ascertain if the specifications have been met. Field density tests are
usually made with a nuclear dosimeter. However, older sampling methods may still be
used, especially with open graded granular materials and asphalt mixes.
Tests for determination of field density are-
1- Nuclear dosimeter
2- Cone cutter method
3- Rubber balloon method
4- Sand cone replacement method
Quality control of compaction requires that the protect meet the specified compaction
percentage. Here, two types of tests are required A moisture density test on the soil in the
laboratory and a number of tests on the compacted material in the field.
Sampling methods for determination of field density require a considerable amount of
laboratory, and the results are not readily available. After the sample is taken, its water
content must be obtained, as must be the volume of the test hole. At least 30 minutes is
required (sometimes 6-8 hours if the sample is dried in the laboratory) before jest results
are available.
The nuclear method is the main method used today. The test takes only one minute
after the surface is prepared, and the results are available immediately speed is an
important consideration when construction equipment is awaiting results before
proceeding.
In analyzing the results of the field compaction tests, it may be necessary to make
some allowance for the amount of course - sized (gravel) particles in the test sample. The
laboratory compaction test is usually made, with material passing the No.4 sieve only. If
the soil in the field contains a significant amount of gravel particles, the expected density
should be revised upward.
I) Determination of bulk density and unit weight by sand replacement method
Theory: - The density of a soil (ρ) or insitu density of soil deposit (ground) is defined as:-
ρ=M/V= water in a given volume V of the soil
Total volume of soil V
The unit wt. of soil (r) is given as:
r =ρ.g
The unit wt. which is based on total mass and total volume of a wet soil is also known as
bulk unit wt. or wet unit wt. or total unit wt, or simply as unit wt. or the soil, and may be
represented by r or rt. The value of wt wt. of a soil deposit is used to compute the value of
its dry unit wt

Material testing 79
79
rd =r where W: - is the water content
1+W
-It is also used to compute void ratio (e)
r=G*rw (1+W)
(1+e)
The value of e can be also compute the value of degree of situation (s)
S = W*G
e
The computation of e will also help in determining the value of saturated unit weight (rsat)
rsat = rw*(G+e)
1+e
I. By undisturbed soil sample from the filed by using a core cutter.
II. Disturbed soil sample from the filed by sand replacement method.
There are several methods of finding the density unit weight of soil
1. Sand come method
2. rubber balloon method
3. nuclear method
In documenting field compaction, it is necessary to determine the moisture content
of each sample in addition to in place unit weigh of the soil. The mixture content is
needed to compute the dry
APPARATUS
1. Clean sand un cemented max. particle size smaller than 2.0mm (No. 10)
sieve and less than 3% by weight passing 250Nm (No.60) sieve; the
uniform coefficient (Cu = D60) must be less than 2.0
2. Standard large sand powering cylinder
3. Cylindrical calibrated container
4. Metal fray with a central hole of about 20cm dia for large powering cylinder
and of 10cm dia for small powering cylinder. used to exult circular hole in
the ground
5. Metal fray used to collate the excaudate soil
6. Thrower or bent spoon
7. Balance with accuracy 1gm
8. Measuring jar (1000cc)
Procedure
A. Calibration of apparatus
1. Measure the internal value of the calibrating container (V1) check its volume
by its internal dimension.
2. Fill the powering cylinder with the sample up to 1cm and measure its mall
M1gm
3. Place the powering cylinder over a plane surface are a plastic sheet.
4. Open the shutter by sand release screw, and follow the sand to move out to
form come below. There is no movement of sand in the cylinder, close the
form cylinder.
5. Collect the sand carefully filed in the cone and weight. It mass be M2 gm.
(nearest up to 1gm).
6. All the sand collected above from the cone is again refilled in the pouring
cylinder. The pouring cylinder again attains a mass equal to M1 gm.

Material testing 80
80
7. Place the pouring cylinder concentrically over the top of calibrating cylinder
container.
8. Open the shutter to allow the sand to fill the container and to form the cone
above it when there is no movement of sand in the cylinder, close the
Sutter.
9. Life the powering cylinder and measure and record its mass, M3 gm.
B. Test at site
10. The pouring cylinder is again with the sand run out to form
the cone and to fill the container in step 8 above, to again achieve constant
mass M1 (gm), this may be confirmed by reweighing the powering cylinder, and
the add additional sand, if any sand is hot in transit.
11. Clean and level the ground where the field density is to be determined in
about 60cm square size.
12. Place the tray with the central hose on the prepared surface, centrally.
Excavate a hole in the soil with vent spoon, using hole in the tray to guide the
excavation. For small powering cylinder, the hole will be of about 10cm dia. and
15cm deep; while for erase powering cylinder, the hole will be of about 20cm
dia. and 25cm deep. The dia of hole in the tray will accordingly be 20cm for
large poring cylinder, and 10cm for small powering cylinder.
13. Carefully correct the soil excavated from the hole in to a tray or a container,
and measure the mass of this soil be subtracting the mass of the tray (M5 gm)
from the mass of the soil with tray (M6 gm). This mass be represented by M,
where M = M6 - M5.
Note: -In cohesion less soils, where a cylindrical hole can not be excavated due
to instability of its sides, the steep cutter may be used, which a pressed every
and carefully in to the ground soil, until its top edge is flush with the leveled
surface. Soil in excavated to a depth of about 12cm with in the core cutter by
means of suitable tools, the cutter is dept in position, till sand is powered from
the cylinder.
14. Please the powering cylinder over the evaluated note (or the core cutter, if
used in cohesion less soils), cornering it concentrically. Open the huller and
allow the sand to run out of the powering cylinder over the excavated hale core
the core cutter, of used in cohesion less soils), covering it concentrically.
Open the shutter and allow the sand to rum out of the powering cylinder to fill
the excavated hole and to form the cone above the hole remove the powering
cylinder and measure its mass M4 gm.
15. Salvage the sand from the hole for reuse after proper drying and soiling.
Precautions
1. The standard used in the test should be air dry and clean, as otherwise,
its bulk density (P') may vary considerably. The closely graded sand
gives better results.
2. The powering cylinder should not be tapped or vibrated during the sand
powering operation, and sand should be allowed to run freely.
3. Since the density of soil varies from point to point, it is necessary, to
repeat the test at several points, as to average the results.
Observation and calculations

Material testing 81
81
The density of soil deposit is seven by the equation.
ρ= (M6-M5)*(M1-M2-M3)
V (M1-M2-M4)
r= ρ .g Where ρ = density of soil in gm/cm3
r= unit wt. of soil in km/m3 g= 9.81 m/s2
V = internal volume of calibrating container
M1= initial mass of pouring cylinder filled with sand to a level
of about 1cm below the top in gm.
M2= Mass of sand released in forming the cone over a level
Surface, which is re added to the cylinder, in gm
M3= Mass of powering cylinder after release of sand for filling the calibrating
extender end forming the cone above the container, in gm.
M4= Mass of powering cylinder left /from its initial mass of M1)
While performing the test over the hole, in gm.
M5= Mass of empty tray or container used for collecting the soil
excavate from the hole, in gm.
M6= Mass of tray or container with soil collected from the excavated hole in gm.
California bearing Ratio (CBR)
Purpose: - To measure the strength and swelling potential of a soil.
Theory: - The California bearing ratio test is one of the most commonly used
methods to evaluate the strength of sub grade soil for pavement thickness
design. A soil is compacted in a mold with the standard compactive effort at its
OMC (so that it is at about 100% of its maximum density, as determined by the
standard compaction test (either using light compaction or heavy completion).
This test is also performed in lab on an undisturbed soil.) This test simulates
the prospective actual condition at the surface of the sub grade. A surcharge is
placed on the surface to represent the mass of present met mass above the
sub grade. This sample is soaked to simulate its weakest condition in the field.
Expansion of the sample is measured during soaking to cheek for potential
swelling. After soaking, the strength is measured by reading the force required
to shove a penetration piston in to the soil.
The loading of the plunger is done at a content rate of strain (i.e.
penetration) of 1.25mm/min. The values of the applied load (p) corresponding
to observed penetration valves of 0, 0.5,1.0,1.5,2.0,2.5,3.0,4.0,5.0,7.5 and 12.5
mm are usually recorded. The maximum applied load and the corresponding
penetration are recorded if the penetration stops be fore reaching the value of
12.5mm
A Load penetration curve is now plotted by taking values of penetration
on X- axis, and values of applied load on Y - axis, both on an arithmetic scale.
Curve obtained is either a st. line or a curve, which is slightly convex up ward.
Sometime, the obtained curve may be concave upward, in its initial length,
which may need to be corrected; this is between of surface irregularities or
other causes. In such cases, the zero point should be adjusted as shown in fig.
next.

Material testing 82
82
The plotted curve is used to readout the values of loads, correspondence
to penetration of 2.5mm and 5.0mm. Let these values be P1 and P2
respectively.
CBR value = Test load P1 or P2 in W*100
Standard load 13700N (forP1) or 20550N (for P2)

Material testing 83
83
For 7.5mm, 10.0mm and 12.5mm protraction standard load of 100%
CBR is 26300N, 1388N, and 3600N respectively.
Generally the CBR value for 2.5mm penetration is more than that or 5mm
penetration. of, however (BR value for 5mm penetration is found fore more than
that for 2.5mm penetration, then the test should be repeated. If the same result
is obtained again, then this other value corresponding to penetration of 5mm
may be taken as the design CBR value, which otherwise and normally will be
that higher value which would be obtained for 2.5mm penetration.
After fixing the design CBR value, the pavement thinness (stone metal in
layer) may be designed by using the standard curves available for might,
medium and heavy traffic loads.
Apparatus
 Compression machine with penetration piston is 50mm in Ø with an area
of 1962.5 mm2
 Add that is 152.4mm in Ø 177.8 high, with collar and base
 Spacer that is 61.4mm high to fit mod
 standard completion hammer
 Surcharge masses each whishing 2.27 kg
 Swear measuring apparatus
 Miscellaneous equipment immixes bow 1, scales, soiling takeover
Preparation of the Test sample
(1.a) preparation of undisturbed specimen: -
Soil sample in the mould, attach the cutting edge (cutting color) to the
bottom of the mould, and push it gently in to the ground. When the mold is
sufficiently full of soil remove it by under digging. Thin the top and bottom
surfaces, so as to obtain the required length of the specimen.
The density of the field soil may also be determined by measuring the
mass of the soil with the mould and subtraction the mass of the empty
mould, dividing by volume of soil sample in the mould.
(1.b) preparation of disturbed soil specimen
In the mould may be prepared with the given sol mixed with water at the
given moisture content (i.e. OMC) as to obtain maximum dry density, either
using light compaction or heavy compatible parameter.
The soil should page 20mm sieve but retained on 4.75mm sieve. If any
larger sized particles, (720mm) are found present in the field soil, then they
may be replaced by an amount of material passing 20mm sieve, but retained
on 4.75mm sieve.
The soil may be competed in the mould either by dynamic or static
compaction.
a) Using Dynamic compaction: - Take about 5kg of soil in a tray and record its
mass. Add water to this soil to raise water content equal to the OMC.
Mix and ram the soil thoroughly by hands to make a uniform paste. Fix the
extension collar of the mould at its upper end. insert the spacer disc in to the
mould and place it at the bottom of the mould. The central hole of the spacer
disc sill is kept at its lower side. Place a circular coarse filter paper on top of the
spacer disc.

Material testing 84
84
Now fill the soil prate in to the mould on the filter paper, in layers. compact the
soil part by using light compaction (compete the soil in 3 layers, each layer
being given 56 uniformly distributed blows of rammer) or heavy completion (the
soil will be compared in 5 layers, by giving 56 blows to each layer with layer
rammer). Remove the collar and trim off excess soil.
Turn the mould upside down, and remove the base plate and the spacer
disc. Measure the mass of the mould filled with competed soil, so as to
determine its wet density. Place a filter paper over top of compacted side (cover
side) and clamp the perforated plate on to it. Turn the sample up side down
again.
The sample mould is now ready for its placement m compression
machine, after placing the piston and annular weighs on its top surface in the
mould.
Fill the entire soil paste in to the mould fitted with base plate at the
bottom. With a rough filter paper placed on the same. Tamp the soil by hand
during filling. Place a rough filter paper and then the spacer disc on the top
compact the soil by pressing the spacer disc fill the top level of disc reaches the
top of the mould. Keep the wad for some time and then release. Remove the
spacer disc, and place a rough filter paper over the soil surface. The mould is
now ready for testing.
Testing the sample for penetration of plunger
I. Place at least two surcharge weight over the soil sample
II. Place the mould assembly on the penetration test machine (loading
machine) out the jack.
III. Seat the penetration plumper passing through the central scats of the
annular weights over the top of soil sample.
IV. Set the dial gauge of proving ring to zero value. This dial gauge will read
the applied load.
V. Also, set the penetration dial gauge to zero value.
VI. Apply the load to the pitons by raising the jail at a strain rate of 125mm/mh
VII. Record the applied load (readings of the proving ring dial gave) for
penetration
VIII. Detach the mould after the end of penetration test from the loading
machine. Take about 20gm-50gm of soil from the top 3cm layer of the
specimen and use it per determination of water content.
Observation and calculation
No Recorded item Quantity recorded
1 OWC from compact
2 Mass of empty mould
5 Mass of mould and specious compacted
4 Mass of mould sample (5)-(2)
5 volume of specimens
6 Balk density (4)-(8)
7 Dry density after the test
Static compaction
1. Dry density to be produced γd=_____________________
2. OMC to be achieved=______________________

Material testing 85
85
3. Volume of soil sample=________________________
4. Mass of wet soil to be taken for filling the mould=__
5. M=γd (1+w).v
For penetration test
1. No of surcharge used=_______________
2. water content after penetration=_____________
 Proving ring constant (PRC) = 1divn=______ N
 Least counter of penetration dial gauge= ______
S.No (2) Penetration in mm Applied load (N)
1 Divas
(2)
(2)*LC=2*0.01
(3)
Reading of proving ring
(4)
Loading N
=(4)*P.R. /
(5)
1
2
Then as descried in theory part of this test, draw graph and valves of CCR and swelling
potential of any soil sample
Percentage swell= amount of swell*100
Height of the sample

Material testing 86
86
CHAPTER TWO
AGGREGATES
Aggregates are granular minerals either in combination with various
types of cementing materials to form concretes, or alone as road bases, back
fill, e.t.c.
– Properties required in an aggregate depend on its proposed use.
However, the types of aggregates, their basic propertied, and tests used
to evaluate these properties apply to most uses.
2.1. AGGREGATE SOURCES
 Natural sand and gravel deposits
 Crushed rock
 Slag and mine refuse
 Rubble and refuse
 Artificial and procured materials
 Pulverized concrete and asphalt pavement.
 Other recycled and waste materials.
– The first two sources supply the bulk of the aggregates wed, although
the use of recycled materials is growing.
2.1.1 Natural sand and gravel deposits (Sand and gravel pits) have been
used extensively for aggregates. These consists of sand or gravel soils
which have been naturally sorted to eliminate most of the silt and clay
sizes, and then deposited in glacial formations, river deposits, or along
beaches of current and previous laves and sear.
– The initial step in the development of a pit is the stripping of top soil,
vegetation, and other vegetation, material from the surface of the
deposit.
The aggregate material is loose and is usually excavated with power
shaves or front-end levers. Often it is crushed, especially if there are
cables or boulders in the deposit. The smaller size go through the
crusher without change, whereas larger particles are broken down to the
desired size. Crushed gravel, as this is called, in a high quality
aggregate used for many purposes.
– There aggregates are often processed through washing plant, which
cleans the dust off the articles and boreholes any silt and clay
particles and alters the gradation of the aggregate in other ways.
2.1.2 Crushed rock
The properties of aggregates produced in quarries from bed rock
depend on the type of bed rock. There are three major classes of rock
Igneous, Sedimentary and metamorphic.
– Igneous and metamorphic rocks are usually very hard and make
excellent aggregates for most purposes.
– Limestone and dolomite requite common sedimentary rocks. They
are softer than igneous rocks, but are still acceptable as aggregate
for most purposes.
– Shale being composed of clay grains, weak and disintegrates easily
when exposed to the weather. It is a poor aggregate.

Material testing 87
87
– Igneous rocks: - such as granite coarse grieved
Basalt, fine-grained
Trap rock coded more quickly.
– Sedimentary rocks:- such as rime stone calcium carbonate
Dolomite- calcium carbonate & magnesium
carbonate
Shale - clay
Sand stone- quartz
Gypsum- calcium sulfate
Conglomerate- gravel
Chet- fine sand
– Metamorphic rocks: - Slate from share
Marble- from lime stone
Quartzite- from sand stone
Gneiss- from granite.
-Aggregates produced from bedrock are obtained from quarries after
stripping and opening the quarry, substantial face of rock (5-20m or
more) is exposed. Holes are derived from the surface. then dynamite is
placed in these holes to break the rock in the surface. Then dynamite is
place in these holes to break the rock in to sizes that can be transported.
The rock is then crushed to the required sizes in various types of rock
crushers.
2.2 PROPERTIES
 Important properties of aggregate are
 Gradation
 Relative density (sp. gravity) and Absorption Hardness
(resistance to wear)
 Durability (resistance to weathering)
 Shape and surface fixture
 delirious substance
 Crushing strength
Aggregate properties tests and there significance summarized below table

Material testing 88
88
AGGREGATE QUALITY
2.3 SAMPLING AND TESTING AGGREGATE
Table 1The resists discussed here reflect the properties or the aggregate
sample being tested. If this sample is not representative of the aggregates to be
used in constriction, the tests are of title use.
There fore, the accuracy of sampling is extremely important.
CAS standard A23.2-1 and ASTM standard D 75 give methods to be followed
in sampling aggregates in various locations in the field. Size of required
samples accrediting to ASTM D 75 are given in table below
To ensure that samples are as representative as possible authorities
required that specified procedures be followed. The following general rules
should be adhered to: -
1. Samples should be obtained from the final product if possible, after all
steps in processing and transportation have been completed.
Table 2 SIZE OF SAMPLES (FROM ASTM STANDARD D75)
type Nominal maximum size Approximate minimum mass
of field sample (1b and (kg))
Fine aggregate No.8.(2.36mm) 25(10)
No.4.(4.75mm) 25(10)
3/8 in(9.5mm) 25(10)
Coarse aggregate 3/8 in(9.5mm) 35(15)
1/2 in(12.5mm) 55(25)
3/4 in(19.0mm) 110(50)
Prosperity Test Significance
Fines content Washed sieve analysis
(fine aggregate)
washing test (coarse aggregate)
Atterberg limit
Strength in base courses and asphalt
mixes, economy in concrete
Fines content Washed sieve analysis (fine
aggregate)
Washing test (coarse aggregate)
Atterberg limit
mixes, drainage and frost problems in
high way bases, economy in concrete
Relative density
(specific gravity)
and absorption
Relative density Wear of surface particles, particle
breakage.
Hardness Los angels abrasion
Deval abrasion.
Durability, resistance to weathering
freezing.
Particle surface Amount of Thinner Elongated
particles
mixes.
Deleterious
particles or
substances.
Spectrographic test, sand
equivalent test.
Durability of particle
Chemical stability Receiving (concrete aggregates)
Stripping (asphalt aggregate)
Durability of concrete and asphalt.

Material testing 89
89
1 in(25.0mm) 165(75)
1 1/2 in(37.5mm) 220(100)
2 in(50mm) 25(10)
3 in(75.5mm) 330(150)
2. At least thee samples should be taken at various times from a production
or discharge operation, using the entire across section of the discharge.
These should be combined to from one sample of material.
3. Convey or belts should be stopped fore sampling templates should be
placed on both sides of the sampling location, and all material between
them cleaned off the belt for the sample.
4. Special precautions must be taken when sampling from stickpins.
Coarse material tends to roll down the side of the pile during placing.
Also, weather may alter the gradation of time aggregate on the sides of a
stockpile. A minimum of thee samples should be taker one from the top
third, one at the mild point of the pile and alone from the bottom third.
These should be combined to form the sample. A board shoved in to the
pile just above the sample locations will help prevent further
contamination of the sample.
5. A sampling tube about 30mm (1 1/4 in) in diameter should be used in
sampling tine aggregates A stockpile should be probed at least five
times send the material combined for the sample.
6. In sampling material from a truck, bag, or rail car, if may be necessary
to dig one or more trenches, 30cm (1ft) wide and deep across the width
of the container and take three samples from the bottom of the trench.
7. When taking three or more small samples to be combined for one
material, sample, the small samples should be of approximately equal
size.
8. A table or random members, or a calculator with a random number
generator, will help to ensure that there is no personal bars in the
selection of time or location for sampling. For example, three tests may
be required for every 1.6kg of a base course. Three random members
obtained are 0.218, 0.554, and 0.687. Therefore, the three samples
should be taken at 349m (0.218*1600m), 886m, and 1099m from the
beginning.
9. Requirements often specify that or certain member of samples is
required from each lot. A lot is an isolated quantity of material or
production from the same source and process. This could be one day's
production, 1km of pavement, 2000 tons of aggregate, a production turn
of a certain material, or a similar specified quality.
10.Samples must be identified with the sampler's name, the date and time,
source and location material and use, and any other pertinent
information.
11. Sample bags or other containers should be tightly woven as required,
and field or closed securely to prevent sample loss or contamination.

Material testing 90
90
Sampling of materials from pits end quarries for initial approval
requires special care.
In a pit, the face should be channeled from top to bottom to produce a
representative sample; another method is to sample each layer or stratum,
and measure each to indicate relative quantities.
Samples from a quarry face should also represent each stratum, with
its depth measured.
One representative sample is usually sufficient for initial approval of a
source; although others should be taken if appears that the quality varies.
In conducting laboratory tests, it is critical that the sample. tested be
representative of the material delivered to the lab. usually, a sample splitter
is used to obtain the test sample. The aggregate sample is spit until the
required size is obtained.
The required sample size for each laboratory test is included in the
test instructions. The table below given requirements for the most common
test save analysis as specified by ASTM for concrete aggregates.
In testing aggregates composed of significant amounts of both fine
and coarse sizes, the sample must be spit on the 4.75mm (No.4) sieve and
the two fractions sieved separately. If this is mot done, the amount of
material on the fine sieves can be too large for effective sieving. The sample
is first spit on the 4.75mm sieve, and the coarse fraction sieved on coarse
sieves down to the 4.75mm.
Material passing 4.75mm in this operation in addition to the fine sample.
This fine sample is spit down to the required size about 500g) Washed,
dried, and sieved through the fine sieve the final grain size distribution
curve, the percentage retained on each of those must be multiplied by the
ratio of the fine traction to the whole sample.
SAMPLE SIZE FOR SIEVE ANALYSIS
Table 3 (MODIFIED FROM ASTM STANDARD C)
type Nominal maximum size
Sieve size.
Size of sample
(Approximate) (gm)
Fine aggregate No.8.(2.36mm) 100
No.4.(4.75mm) 500
3/8 in(9.5mm) 1kg (minimum)
Coarse aggregate 3/8 in(9.5mm) 1
1/2 in(12.5mm) 2
3/4 in(19.0mm) 5
1 in(25.0mm) 10
1 1/2 in(37.5mm) 15
2 in(50mm) 20
3 in(75.5mm) 60

Material testing 91
91
2.4. BLENDING AGGREGATES
TO meet the gradation requirements for asphalt or concrete, it is often
necessary to blend two or more aggregates together. Chats and diagrams
are available to do this blending, but the trial and error method is simpler
and just about as taste as more complex methods.
2.4.1 Use of the trial and error method for blending
This is illustrated in the following example.
Example: Three aggregates are to be blended to meet specification
The aggregates, gradations, and the specification are
Table 4
Aggregate A Aggregate B Aggregate C specification
Passing
12.5mm
100% 100%
9.5mm 62% 100% 72%
4.75mm 8% 100% 78% 45-65%
2.36mm 2% 91% 52% 63-60%
1.18mm 0% 73% 36% 25-55%
600μm
300μm
150μm
75μm
51% 29% 16-40%
24% 24% 8-25%
4% 20% 4-12%
1% 18% 3-6%
 Most of the cases aggregate (larger than 4.75mm) will come from
aggregate A, most of the fines (smaller than 75μm from
aggregate C. To obtain a mixture that is approximately in the
middle of the specification there should be 55% passing 4.75mm
and 5% passing 75μm, or45% larger than 4.75mm, try 45%
aggregate A. (This does not all pass 4.75mm, but aggregate C
(will add some particles larger than 4.75mm.
 To obtain 5% smaller than 75μm look at aggregate C. For 18%
passing 75μmwe would use 100% aggregate C: therefore, for 5%
palling 75μmwe would use 5/18, or 28% aggregate C. As some
smaller particles than 75μm are continued in aggregate B, for
25% aggregate C.
 There fore, the fist trial blend is 45% A 25% C and the balance
30%.B.
 For aggregate A, the total used is 45%, therefore
Palling 12.5mm 0.45*10%=45%
Palling 9.5mm 0.45*62%=27.9%
Palling 4.75mm 0.45*8%=3.6% and so on.
Size
Aggregate A
Total sample
x45%
Aggregate B
Total
sample*30%
Aggregate C
Total
sample*25%
Combination
Gradation
Passing
12.5mm
100% 45% 100% 30% 100% 25% 100%
9.5mm 62% 27.0% 100%% 30% 100% 25% 72%
4.75mm 8% 3.6% 100% 30% 78% 19.5% 53-1%

Material testing 92
92
2.36mm 2% 0.9% 91% 27.3 52% 13% 41-2%
1.18mm 0% 0% 73%% 21.9% 36% 9.0% 30.9%
600μm
150μm
75μm
51% 15% 29% 7.2% 22-5%
24% 7.2% 24% 6.0% 13-2%
4% 1.2% 20% 5.% 6-2%
1% 0.3% 18% 4.5% 4-8%
The combined gradation meets the specifications. If changes were desired, a
second trial could quickly be done with changes as indicated by the results of the
fist trial mix.
2.5 Aggregate Tests and experiments done in our Lab
Sieve analysis (coarse Aggregates)
Objective;- the objective of the test is to determine the particle size distribution of coarse
aggregates.
Theory: - An aggregate, for concrete making, is any hard, inert material composed of
fragments in a wide gradational range of sizes, which is mixed with a amending material
and water to form concrete. Aggregates should be clean, sound, tough, durable and
uniform in quality. They should also be free of site, friable, thin or laminated fragments
and deleterious substances live alkali, oil, coal, humus, or other organic matter. The
sample is placed in a nest of sieves, and shaken. The amount retained on each sieves is
weighed; the percentage retained on each sieve and the cumulative percentage passing
are calculated. The resulting grain size distribution curve is compared with the
specification limits for acceptance.
Note: - grading requirement for cases and fine aggregate limits are specified in the
specification part of this thesis.
Apparatus: -Balance
– Series of sieves
– Shovel
– Sieve brush
Procedure: -
1. Bring the sample to be sieved to air dry condition and weigh it.
2. Place the sample on to asset of specified sieves.
3. Shake each sieve separating over a clean try for a period of
not lone than 2 mm in each case.
4. Repeat twice by taking suitable weight of aggregate every fine
and find the percentage passing and record in the table
Results: - Calculate the percentage panning each size and plot
the grain size distribution curve. From the curve after comparing
with the respective grading limits analysis it is formed and
whether.

Material testing 93
93
Table gradation of aggregates
Calculation
F.M=
100
(%)
ecoarse
Cummulativ

When F.M= the fineness modulus of the aggregate.
Note that the values of intermediate sieves are not included in the determination of
fineness modules.
Washed Sieve Analysis (Fine Aggregates)
Purpose: - To obtain the grain size distribution curve for a fine aggregate
Theory: - The sample is dried, placed in a nest of sinus, and shaken. The amount
retained on each sieves weighed; the percentage retained on each sieve and the
cumulative percentage passing are calculated.
The resulting grain size distribution curve is compared with the specified limits for
acceptance, note the following restrictions"
1. To ensure that the sample is lay enough to be representative, a minimum of 400 s
is required. To ensure that the sample is not too large be effective sieving, a
maximum of 600gm is required.
2. To ensure that the percentage passing 75μm is accurate, the sample is washed
over the 75μm sieve.
3. To ensure that the sample is representative, a sample splitter must be used to
obtain the test sample.
Apparatus: - Sieves 9.5mm, 4.75mm; 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600 µm, 150µm, 75 µm.
-Pan, sieve shaker, brush, balance.
Procedure: -
1. Over dry the sample split it down, and measure the mass
2. Wash. powering the each water out over a 75 µm sieve continue until the
water is clear. Return the coarse material in the sieve to the sample.
3. Dry measure the mass
4. Place the sample in nest of sieves, then shake
5. Obtain the mass retired on each sieve.
Sieve
size
(mm)
weight of
sieve ( gm)
Wt of sieve
and retired
(gm)
net
retained
(gm)
Percentage
Retained (%)
Cumulative
coarser (%)
Cumulate
use paring
(%)

Material testing 94
94
Note. Total mass passing the 75 µm sieve is the amount washed through 75
µm us the amount passing 75 µm on day sieving.
Results: - Calculate the percentage passing each size and plot the grain size
distribution curve.
Note As done for coarse aggregate fill the table and find the F.M of fine aggregate.
Bulking of sand
Objective:
– To determine the amount of surface moisture in fine aggregate by displacement
in water.
– To determine to calculate the correct volume of sand at hand..
Theory
Sand particles are very small in size (0.75 - 4.75mm) and hence of very light weight
(parsing particle). As a result, they are easily held apart by free moisture on their
surfaces and loose their inter granular physical contact.
Finer particles are more easily pushed apart than the coarser ones by surface
moisture. The apparent increase in volume of sand due to surface moisture is
technically unknown as bulking of sand.
Apparatus: - Graduate cylinder
– Sample of sand
– Small size spoon.
Procedure: -
1. Measure 400ml of wet sand and place on the cylinder (A)
2. Fill water approximately 3/4 of the cylinder.
3. Shave the (Cylinder)
4. Measure the height of fully saturated (submerged) sand (B)
5. Calculate the bulking volume.
Calculation
Bulking (%) = A-B*100
B
A= volume of partially saturated sand=400ml
B= volume is fully saturated sand.
Silt clay content of sand
Objective: - To determine the silt (finer than No 200 sieve) content in sand
Theory: - Sand is a product of natural or artificial disintegration of rocks and minerals.
If is obtained from glacial, river, lake, marine, residual and wind L 10wn deposits
however, do not provide pure sand.
The often contain other materials, such as dust, loom and clay the plycence of such
materials in sand
In using sand to move connate or matter
– Decreases the bond between the materials to be bound together hence, the
strength of the mix.
– Notably the strength but also the quality of the mix produced resulting in fast
deterioration. Therefore it is necessary that one make a test on the sit content
and cease again permissible limits.

Material testing 95
95
– According to the Ethiopian standard it is recommended to worth the sand or
reject it the silt content exceeds a value o 6%
Apparatus: - graduated cylinder or any clan jar
– Dish for towing sample of sand
– Small size spoon
– Funnel
– Clean water (top water)
Procedure
1. Take graduated cylinder or jar capacity 1000wl or greater.
2. Pour 300ml of sand to the cylinder.
3. Fill approximately 3/4 of the cylinder with water.
4. Shave the cylinder vigorously for about a minute (80± 20vevo)
5. Leave the cylinder for about an hour to allow the silt to settle on the
layer of the sand
6. Measure the amount of fines forming separate ryes on the for of the
warhead sand
Calculation
Silt content (%) = A/B*100 where
A = amount of silt deposited about the sand
B= amount of clean sand
Note: - This test should not be used for crushed rock sands.
MOSTURE CONTENT OF AGGREGATES
Objective: - The objective of this test is to determine the moisture content of fine
and coarse aggregates.
Theory: - It is well known to engineers that water cement ratio affects the
workability and strength of concrete specimens. A design water cement ratio is
usually specified based on the assumption that aggregates are inert (neither
absorb nor give water to the mix) But in most cases aggregates from different
sources do not comply with this i.e wet aggregates give ware to the mix and drier
aggregates (those with below saturation level moisture content) take water from
the mix attesting, in both cases, the design water cement ratio and therefore won
ability and strength of the mix. In order to correct for these discrepancies, the
moisture content of aggregates has be to determined.
Apparatus: - Balance
– Dish
– oven
– Trowel
Procedure: - place about one kg (it is fine aggregate 5kg) of aggregates containing
moisture in the heating dish and weight it (w)
– Now place the dish on the oven and heat about 110± 50c oven for
about 20 4± hrs.
– Weigh the dish aggregate with dish (W2)
– Empty the dish the dish or shied aggregates and weight the dish W3
Calculations: - weight of dry aggregate W2 - W3 = _______
– Moisture (by difference) W1-W2 ________
Moisture content = W1-W2

Material testing 96
96
W2-W3
Note - take average of a minimum of three sample.
-Aggregate should be turned over during drying period in order to
prevent over heating of a portion of the aggregates.
UNIT WEIGHT OF AGGREGATES
Objective: - This method is used to determine the unit weight of coarse fine and mixed
aggregates.
Theory:- unit weight can be defined as the weight of a given volume of graded aggregate.
It is thus a density measurement and is also known as bulk density. But
this alternative term is similar to bulk specific gravity which is quite a
different quantity and perhaps is not a good choice. The unit weight
effectively measures the volume that the graded aggregate will occupy in
concrete and includes both the solid aggregate particles and the voids
between them. The unit weight is simply measured by filling a container
of known volume and weighing it. Clearly however, the degree of
compaction will change the amount of word space, and hence the value
of the unit weight. Since the weight of the aggregate is dependent on the
moisture content of the aggregate, constant moisture content is required.
Over dry aggregate is used in this test.
Apparatus :- -Balance
- Tamping rod
-Measure - a cylindrical metal measure provided with handles.
-Compact weight determination
Roding procedure (applicable to aggregates of 40mm maximum size)
1. Fill the measure one- third full and level the surface with the fingers. Red the layer of
aggregate with 25 strokes of the tamping red evenly distributed over the
surface. Finally, fill the measure to over flowing and again red as above.
2.evel the surface of the aggregate with fingers or a straightedge in such a way that any
slight projection of the layer pieces of the coarse aggregates
approximately balance the larger voids in the surface below the top of
the measure.
3. In Redding the first layer, do not allow the red to strike the bottom of the measure
forcibly. In Redding the second and the third layers, use only enough
force to cause the tamping rod to penetrate the previous layers of
aggregate.
4. Weigh the measure and its contents and record the net weight of the aggregate. Divide
this weight by the volume of the measure. The result is compact unit
weight of the aggregate.
Calculation: - V- volume of container ---------------cm3
WO -Weight of sample container
W1-Weightofsamplecontainerwithfully Compacted aggregate.
- Rodded bulk density= (W1- WO)
V
Loose weight determination:-
Shoveling procedure:- (applicable to aggregates having a maximum size of 100mm or
less)

Material testing 97
97
1. Fill the measure to over flowing by means of a shovel or scrape, discharge the
aggregate from a height not exceeding 50mm above sizes of which the sample is
composed.
2. Level the surface of the aggregate with fingers or a straight edge as in the above
procedures.
3. Weight the measure and its content and record the net weight of the aggregate. Divide
this weight by the volume of the measure to get the loose unit weight.
Calculation: - V- volume of container
WO -Weight of sample container
W1- Weight of sample container filled loosely with aggregate.
Loose bulk density = =( W1- Wo)
V
Note - proper container should be taken with at least 3 samples and average
calculated.
RELATIVE DENSITY (specific Gravity) and Absorption
(Coarse Aggregates)
Purpose: - To measure the relative density (apparent, bulk; and saturated, surface
-dry) and absorption of a sample of coarse aggregate.
Theory: Aggregates are porous, not solid particles. Water is absorbed by
the particle in the pores spaces, which may be relatively shallow or may extend well
into the aggregate particle. The moisture condition of aggregate particles can be.
1. Dry -oven-dry or not moisture content.
2. Saturated, surface - dry- all pores filled with water, but no moisture film on the
surface.
3. Wet -pores saturated and surface moisture present.
For relative -density calculations, either the mass in the dry condition or the mass
in the saturated, surface - dry condition can be used. The volume can be the net volume
(that is, the volume of the particle, excluding the volume of pore space that can be filled
with water) or the bulk volume (the volume of the particle, including pores).
In this test, the particles are soaked, and then their mass is measured (1)in air, (2)
submersed, and (3) after drying in the oven, The difference between mass when dry and
mass when submerged equals the mass of water displaced by the aggregate. Since the
mass of water displaced in grimes equals the volume of water displaced in cubic
centimeters, the net volume of the aggregate can be obtained.
Apparatus:
Wire basket
Balance (accurate to 1g)
Oven
Preparation of test sample
Select by use of a sample splitter or by quartering approximately 5kg of the
aggregate from he sample. Reject a material passing No 4 sieve (4.75mm)
Procedure:
1. Wash approximately 2kg or coarse aggregate, soak for 24 hours.

Material testing 98
98
2. Pour off the water, and then roll the aggregate in a towel until the surface
moisture is removed. Wipe the lazar pieces individually. The surface moisture film, which
shines, must be removed, but the particles must not be allowed to dry out, as this means
that absorbed water is being removed.
3. Obtain the mass.
4. Place the sample in the wire basket and obtain the mass when summarized.
5. Dry the sample in the oven.
Results:-
Mass saturated, surface dry ______________ g( Mssd)
Mass submerged _________________________g (Msub)
Mass dry _______________________________g( MD
Calculations:-
Mass of absorbed water (MssD - MD) _______g MWA
Volume net (MD - MSUB) __________________cm3VN
Volume bulk (VN + MWA/gg/cm3) __________cm3 VB
Conclusions:
RDA = MD/ VN= __________________
RDB = MD / VB = _________________
RDSSD = MSSD/ VB = ____________
Absorption = MWA/MD ___________
Relative density and absorption (Fine Aggregates)
Purpose: To measure the relative density (apparent; bulk; and saturated surface -
dry) and absorption of a fine aggregate.
Theory: As with coarse aggregates, fine aggregates are porous and absorb water.
Relative density can be calculated using the mass (including or excluding the mass
absorbed water) and the net or bulk volumes (the lifter including the volume of absorbed
water) A sample of wet sand is slowly dried. The moisture film around the sand grains
holds the grains together due to surface tension in the water, film. As soon as this surface
moisture evaporates, this apparent cohesion between grains disappears. However, at that
time the absorbed water, which does not evaporate until the surface water is gone, is fill
in the aggregate and can therefore, be measured.
Apparatus:
-Pycnometer (500ml)
-Conical mold and tamper
-Balance (accuracy to 0.01g)
-Oven
Procedure:
1. Obtain and soak a sample pf about 1kg.
2. Dry the sample slowly with a hair dryer or similar apparatus. While drying
periodically fills the cane with sand lightly tamp the surface 25 times and lift the cone to
check if the sand maintains the shape of the mold.
3. Continue drying until the sand sumps when the cone is lifted. The sand is then in
saturated, surface- dry condition.
4. Place 500.0g of this sand in psychomotor. Add water to cover the sand.

Material testing 99
99
5. Roll and agitate the psychomotor to eliminate air bubbles.
6. Adjust the temperature to 23oc (± 20oc) by immersing in water.
7. Fill the psychomotor to the calibrated level.
8. Obtain the total mass.
9. Remove the aggregate from the psychomotor. Dry the sample in the oven.
Obtain the mass.
Results:
Mass of sand + water + pycnometer ____________________g (c)
Mass of dry sand _____________________________________g(A)
Mass of psychomotor filled with water
at 23oc (usually given) _________________________________gm(B)
Calculations:
Bulk relative density (RDB) = A = __________
B+500-C
Saturated, surface-dry (RDSSD) = 500 =________
Relative density B+500-C
Apparent relative density (RDA) = A =________
B+A-C
Absorption (%Abs) = 500-A *100=_______%
A
FLAKINESS INDEX (FI)
Objective:- To determine the flakiness index of aggregates and stones.
Theory; Flakiness index is one of the tests used to classify aggregate and stone. In
pavement design there are specific requirements regarding the flakiness index of
materials. For base course and wearing course aggregates the presence of flaky particles
are considered undesirable as they may cause inherent weakness with possibilities o
breaking down heavy loads.
- Aggregates are classified as flaky when they have a thickness of less than 60%
pf their mean sieve size. To elaborate a mean sieve size of the particle passing through
50mm and retained on 40mm is 50+40 /2=45.0. If the
least dimension is less than 3/5 * 45 = 136.5/5= 27mm. the material is classified as flaky.
The flakiness index of an aggregate sample is found by separating the flaky
particles and expressing their mass as a percentage of the mass of the sample. The test
is applicable to material passing a 63mm sieve and retained on a 6.3mm sieve.
Apparatus:-
- A sample divider e.g. little box
- Drying oven - with temperature of 105 ±5 oC
- Balance

Material testing 100
100
- Test sieves
- Metal trays
- A metal thickness gauge of
Table 5 particulars of sieves
Preparation of test sample
1. Reduce the sample to produce a test portion complying with table below.
2. The test sample should be washed, if necessary, and oven dried at 105+-oC to
substantially content weight.
3. Allow the sample to cool and weigh the sample to the nearest 1g.
Table 6 minimum mass of test portion
Nominal size of material Minimum mass of test portion after rejection of
oversize and undersize particles (Kg)
(mm)
50-------------------------------------------35
40-------------------------------------------15
28-------------------------------------------5
20-------------------------------------------2
14-------------------------------------------1
10-------------------------------------------0.5
Procedure
1. Carry out a sieve analysis using the sieves given above (before).
2. Discard all aggregates retained on the 63mm sieve and all aggregate passing
the 6.3mm sieve.
3. Weigh each of the individual size - fractions retained on the sieves, and store
them in trays with their size marked on the trays.
Nominal aperture size
(square hole perforated plate 450mm or 300mm diameter)
mm
63
50
37.5
28
20
14
10
6.3

101
4. From the sums of masses of the fractions in the trays (M1), calculate the
individual percentage retained on each of the various sizes. Discard any fraction whose
man is 5% of less of the mass M1. Record the mass remaining (M2).
5. Gauge each fraction using the thickness gauge. Select the gauge appropriate to
the size- fraction under test and gauge each particles of the size- fraction separately by
sand.
6. Combine and weigh all the particles passing each of the gauges (M3)
Calculation
The value of flakiness index is calculated from the expression.
Flakiness index (FI) = M3/M2 * 100%
ELONGATION INDEX
Objective:- To determine elongation index of coarse aggregate
Theory:- This method is based on the classification of aggregate particles as
elongated when they have a length (greatest dimension) of more than 1.8 of their nominal
size, this size being taken as the mean of the limiting sieve apertures used for
determining the size - fraction in which the particles occurs.
- The elongation index of an aggregate sample is found by separating the
elongated particles and expressing their mass as a percentage of the mass of the sample
tested. The test is not applicable to material passing a 6.30mm test sieve or retained on a
50.0mm test sieve.
Apparatus: - A metal lengths gauge. The gauge shall be those specified in the
length gauge column of next table.
-test sieves as per next table
- Balance
Sample for test :- the sample for this ten shall comply with the appropriate
minimum mass given for sieve analysis with due allowance for later rejection of particles
retained on a 50.0mm test sieve and passing a 6.30mm test sieve. The sample shall be
taken from the laboratory sample by quartering or by means of a sample divider. Before
testing it shall be brought to a dry condition.
Procedure:-
1. Carry out a sieve analysis in using the sieves shown in table.
2. Discard all aggregate retained on the 500.0mm and all aggregate passing the
6.30mm test sieve.
3. Weigh and store each of the individual size - fractious retained on the other
sieves in separate trays with their size marked on the tray.
NOTE: - Where the number of particles in any size - fraction is considered to be
excessive. i.e more than the appropriate mass given in table below, the fraction may be
subdivided. Under such circumstances the rest of the procedure should be suitably
modified and the appropriate correction factor applied to determine the mass of flaking
particles that would have been obtained had the whole of the original size - fraction been
gauged.
4. From the sum of the masses of the fraction in the trays (M1), calculate the
individual percentages retained n each of the various sieves. Discard any fraction whose
mass is 5% or less of mass M1. Record the mass remaining (M2)
5. Gauge each fraction as follows:
Select the length gauge appropriate to the size - fraction under test.

102
(See table below) and gauge each particles separately by hand. Elongated
particles are those whose greatest dimension prevents them from passing through the
gauge.
7. Combine and weigh all elongated particles (M3).
Calculation and reporting
Elongation index = M3/M2*100
- The elongation index shall be reported to the nearest whole number. The sieve
analysis obtained in this test shall also be reported.
Table 7 Dimensions of thickness and length gauges
Aggregate size - fraction Thickness*
gauge
width of slot
length gauge+
Gap between
pins
Minimum mass
For subdivision
BS test sieve
nominal
aperture size
100% passing
100% retained
mm
63.0
50.0
37.5
28.0
20.0
14.0
10.0
mm
50.0
37.5
28.0
20.0
14.0
10.0
6.3
mm
33.9 ± 0.3
26.3 ± 0.3
19.7 ± 0.3
14.4 ± 0.15
10.2 ± 0.15
7.2 ± 0.1
4.9 ± 0.1
mm
78.7 ± 0.3
59.0 ± 0.3
43.2 ± 0.3
30.6 ± 0.3
21.6 ±0.2
14.7 ± 0.2
kg
50
35
15
5
2
1
0.5
*This dimension is equal to 0.6 times the mean sieve size.
+ This dimension is equal to 1.8 times the mean sieve size.
Soundness Test
Purpose: - To measure the resistance of aggregates to cycles of freezing and
thawing.
Theory: - certain aggregates tend to break up when subjected to cycles of freezing
and thawing. Water soaks in to pores in the particles; freezes, expanding about 10%; and
opens the pores even wider. On thawing, more water can seep in, further widening the
crake. After a number of cycles, the aggregate may break apart, or flakes may come off of
it. This leads to disintegration of convert and to weakening of base course layers.
In the soundness test aggregates are soaked in a solution of mg504 or Na504
(magnesium or sodium sulfate). The salt solution soaks in to the pores of the aggregate.
The sample is removed from the solution drained and then dried.
During drying crystals form in the pores, just ass ice crystals form in aggregates
exposed to weathering. This soaking and drying operation is carried on for a number of
cycles. At the end of the test, the amount of material that has broken down is found, and
the percentage loss is calculated.
Apparatus:-
Saturated solution of Mg504
Containers for soaking samples
Sieves
Balance (accurate to 0.019m)

103
Procedure:-
1. Wash, dry and obtain mass of test sample (approximately) 1000gm if size rang
is 19 - 9.5mm.
2. Place in solution for 16 - 18hours.
3. Remove, drain, and place in the oven for about six hours.
4. Remove when dry cool.
5. Repeat steps 23 and 4 for rive cycles.
6. Wash the sample thoroughly - Dry.
7. Sieve the sample over an 8mm (5/16in) sieve, and measure mass retained.
Results original mass -------------------------9(A)
Final mass-----------------------------9
Loss--------------------------------------9(B)
Calculation:- % loss = B/A * 100 =-------------%
Organic Impurities in sand
Purpose: - To determine it there are organic compounds in sand that may be in
furious to concrete.
Theory: - Organic coatings on sand may retard setting of the concrete.
The amount of these impurities can be checked by adding sodium hydroxide to the
sample. The color of the sodium hydroxide solution changes, depending on the amount of
organic material in the sand. A slight color change indicates that the amount of organics is
not too injurious. However, if the color becomes dark amber, the sand should be rejected.
A standard color chart is used to measure the color change. This contains five
organic color plates: 1,2,3,4 and 5. Color 3 is the dividing color.
Apparatus:-
-300ml clear glass bottle
-Sodium hydroxide solution (3% by mass to 97% water).
-color standard
Procedure:-
1. Fill the bottle to the 130ml mark with sand.
2. Add the sodium hydroxide solution until the volume after shaking is 200ml.
3. Shake vigorously; allow standing for 24 hours.
4. Compare the color of the liquid above the sand with the standard color plate.
Results: - Record the color plate number that is closest to the color of the liquid in
the bottle. If it is 1 or 2, the sand is acceptable; if it is 4 or 5, it is not; if it is 3, it is border
line.
Aggregate impact value (AIV)
. Objective
The test is designed to evaluate the toughness of stone or the resistance of
aggregates to fracture under repeated impacts. The aggregate impact test is commonly
carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Main principle.
The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of resistance of
aggregate to impact, which has a different effect than the resistance to gradually
increasing compressive stress.

104
Required equipments
– A metal base and cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 10.2cm and
depth 5cm.
– A metal hammer of weight of 13.5 - 14.0kg with free fall from height of
38cm.
Test Procedure
i. Take required amount of aggregate specimen passing through 12.5mm sieve.
And retained at 10mm sieve.
ii. Fill the cylindrical measure in 3 layers by tamping each layer by 25 blows.
iii. Weigh the test sampleW1.g.
iv. Transfer sample from the measure to the cup of aggregate impact test in
machine and compact by tamping 25 times. Height of free fall of hammer is
38cm above the upper surface of the aggregate in the cup.
v. Subject the specimen to 15 blows.
vi. Remove the crushed aggregate and sieve on 2.36mm sieve.
vii. Weigh the crushed material passing 2.36mm sieve = W2g.
Calculation
Aggregate impact value = )
(
100
*
1
2
AIV
W
W
Note
Aggregate impact value should not exceed 40% for aggregates to be used
for road construction.
Aggregate crushing test (ACV)
Objective; in order to decide the suitability of the road stones for use in
construction.
Main principle
The strength of coarse aggregate may be assessed by aggregate
crushing test. The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of
resistance to crushing under gradually applied compressive load. To
achieve a high quality of pavement, aggregates possessing high resistance
to crushing or low aggregate crushing are preferred.
Required equipment
– A steel cylinder, 15.2cm diameter
– Base plate
– Plunger
– Compression testing machines
– Cylindrical measure of diameter 11.5cm and height 18cm
– Tamping rod and sieves.
Test procedure.
1. Take dry aggregate passing 12.5mm and retained on 10mm sieve
2. Fill the cylindrical measure in there equal layers, each layer being
sample 25 times by the tamper.
3. Weigh the test sample = W1g.
4. Place plunger on top of the specimen and a load of 40 tones is
applied at a rate of 4 tones per minute by compression machine.
5. Remove the crushed aggregate and sieve through 2.36mm size sieve.

105
6. Weigh the crushed material passing 2.36mm sieve = W2g.
7. Aggregate crushed value is the percentage of the crushed material
passing 2.36mm sieve in terms of original weight of the specimen.
Calculation
Aggregate crushing value = w2-w1
Note w2
Strong aggregates give low aggregate crushing value. The aggregate
crushing value fir good quality aggregate to be used in the base course
should not exceed 30%.
Experiment
Aggregate crushing value
(A.C.V)
project :-Senior
sample Ref
:- Location :-Tikur Abay Crusher site
Description ;-crushed aggregate Tested by:- Group members
Remarks:-
laboratory
Description Weight (gm)
W1 = weight of sample before test 2867.1
W2 = Weight of sample after test retained on (2.36mm sieve
size) 2583.5
W3 = Weight of sample passes in 2.36mm sieve 283.6
RESULT
A.C.V
w3
* 100 9.87
w1
Observation
Materials have high unit weight have good crushing value.
Recommendation
If the test result is out of the specification it can not be used for construction
purpose.

106
Because when stressed by heavy load the aggregate slowly change to dust. There
fore
aggregate before to use any construction purpose must be check for
A.C.V.
Abrasion test (Los Angles abrasion test).
Objective
Due to movement of traffic, the road stones used in the surface course are
subjected to wearing action at the top. Hence, road stones should be hard enough to
resist the abrasion due to the traffic. Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness
property of stone and to decide whether they are auditable for the different road
constriction work.
Main principles
The principle of Los-Angles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to the
relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive change.
Required equipments
– A hallow cylinder closed at both ends and having inside diameter of 70cm and length
50cm which is mounted so as to rotate about its horizontal axis.
– Abrasion charge consists of cast iron spheres of approximate diameter 46.8mm and
each weighs 390 to 445g.
Note: The numbers of spheres to be used as abrasive charge and their total Wight have
been specified based on grading of the aggregate sample.
Test procedure
I. Place specified weight of aggregate specimen (5-10kg depending on
gradation) and place the abrasive change. = w1.
II. The machine is rotated at a speed of 30 to 33 rpm for the specified number
of revolution (500 to 1000 depending on the grading of the specimen)
III. Remove (take out) the specimen under test from the machine and sieve
through sieve.
IV. Measure the weight of powdered aggregate passing through sieve mm. W2
Calculation
% Aggregate abrasion value = W2*100
W1
Note: - The Lose Angles abrasion value of good aggregates acceptable for cement
concrete, bituminous concrete and other high quality pavement materials should be less
than 40%.
RESISTANCE TO ABRASION BY USE OF THE LOS ANGLES ABRASION TESING
MACHINE DESIGNATION AASHTO T 96, ASTEM C131 Table 8

107
Description No. of Abrasive Charges
Sieve size (Square opening)
12 11 8 6
Weight and Grading of testing Sample(gm)
Passing(mm) Retained on (mm) A B C D
35.5 25 1250
25 19 1250
19 125 1250 2500
12.5 9.5 1250 2500
9.5 6.3 2500
6.3 4.75 2500
4.75 2.36 5000
Total 5000 5000 5000 5000
A. Weight of sample Before Test(gm)
B. Weight of sample After test,
(Retained on sieve No. 12 or 1.7mm)gm
C. Wear (A-B), gm (500/100rev.)
D. Percent Wear (500/100rev.)
Los Angeles Abrasion value-----------------------------------------%
TEN PERCENT FINES VALUE
Objective: - To measure the resistance of an aggregate to crushing.
Theory: - The ten - percent fines value gives a measure of the resistance of an aggregate
to crashing which is applicable to both weak and strong aggregates.
Standard ten percent fines test shall be made on aggregate passing a 14mmBS test
sieve and retained on a 10mm BS test sieve.
If required, or if the standard size of aggregate is not available, the test shall be made in
accordance with table___________ below
Table 9 particulars of BS test sieves for testing standard and non- slandered size of
aggregate.
Sample size
Nominal aperture sizes of BS test sieves complying
with the requirements of BS 410 (full tolerance)
For sample preparation
passing Retained For separating fines
Non standard mm mm mm wm
28.0 20.0 28.0 _
20.0 14.0 20.0 _
Standard 14.0 10.0 2.36 _
Non standard 10.0 6.30 1.70
6.30 5.00 1.18
5.00 3.35 _ 850
3.35 2.36 _ 600
Apparatus: - An open ended steel cylinder
- A tamping rod

108
- A balance
- BS test sieves
- A compression-testing machine. The forces, which are to be applied, may
vary from 5KN to 500KN.
Preparation of test sample:-
- The preparation of the test sample shall be as described in aggregate crushing value
test except that in case of weak materials, particular care shall be taken not to break the
particles when filling the measure and the cylinder.
Note: - Sufficient test sample for three or more tests may be necessary.
Procedure:-
1. Place the apparatus, with the test sample and the plunger in position, between the
plates of the testing machine.
2. Apply a force at as a uniform a rate as possible so as to cause a total penetration of the
plunger in 10min of about.
(a) 15mm for rounded or partially rounded aggregates (e.g. crushed graves)
(b) 20mm for normal crushed aggregates.
(c) 24mm for honey combed aggregates (e.g. some slag)
3. Record the maximum force applied to produce the required penetration.
4. Release the force and remove the crushed material by holding the cylinder over a
clean tray and hammering on the out side.
5. Sieve the whole specimen in the tray on the 2.36mm BS sieve until no further
significant amount passes in 1min.
6. Weigh the fraction passing the sieve, and express this mass as a percentage of the
mass of the test sample. Normally this percentage of fines will fall within the range 7.5 to
12.5, but if it does not, make a further test loading to a maximum value adjusted as
seems appropriate to brig the percentage fines with in the range of 7.5 to 12.5.
7. Make a repeat test at the maximum fore that gives the percentage fines with in the
range 7.5 to 12.5.
Note: - When an aggregate impact value is available, the force required for the first ten
percent fines test can be estimated by means of the following more confidently then by
the asset the dial gauge.
Required force (KN) =
.
.
.
4000
V
I
A
This value of force will nearly always give a percentage fines with in the range 7.5 to 12.5
Calculations: -
– The mean percentage fines from the two tests at this maximum force shall be used
in the following to calculate the force required to produce ten percent fines.
Force required to produce ten percent fines =
4
14

y
x
Where X= the maximum force (KN)
Y= the mean percentage fines from the two tests at X KN force.
PSV - Polished Stone Value

109
Test Procedures and Equipment
Introduction
In 1950 increased traffic flows and higher speeds on trunk roads, together with concerns about
road safety led to research into the relationship between road materials and skid-resistance.
Research at the UK Road Research Laboratory showed a significant relationship between
polishing of aggregates used in road surfaces and skid resistance. Tests were devised using an
Accelerated Polishing Machine and a friction measuring device, a Skid- Tester, to determine a
Polished Stone Value.
These developments have resulted in a simple and inexpensive procedure to determine in advance
of a road being built what its resistance to skidding will be.
Our Accelerated Polishing Machine was first made 25 years ago, and we were deeply involved
both in the development in the machine and of the test procedures based on it. More than 1000 of
these machines have been supplied throughout the world to Materials Laboratories, Consulting
Engineers and Research Institutions.
The Skid Tester was first made to a design of the UK Road Research Laboratory. We now offer
this machine. Customers may now purchase the two machines required to carry out PSV
calculations from the same company, which is also able to provide a full range of spares and
technical advice and support.
Calculation of Polished Stone Value
The Polished Stone Value of aggregate gives a measure of resistance to the polishing action of
vehicle tires under conditions similar to those occurring on the surface of a road.
The action of road vehicle tires on road surfaces results in polishing of the top, exposed aggregate
surface, and its state of polish is one of the main factors affecting the resistance to skidding.
Resistance to this polishing action is determined principally by the inherent qualities of the
aggregate itself. A later section of this memorandum gives some information about the polishing
resistant qualities of different sources of aggregate.
The actual relationship between PSV and skidding resistance wilI vary with traffic conditions,type
of surfacing and other factors. All factors together with reproducibility of the test should be taken
into account when drawing up specifications for road works which include test limits for PSV.
The PSV test is carried out in two stages - accelerated polishing of test specimens followed by
measurement of their state of polish by a friction test.
Description of the PSV Test
Full details are given in BS812Part1 14:1989. A copy of this document is essential to understand
and carry out the test.
Four curved test specimens are prepared from each sample undergoing test. Each consists of 35 to

110
50 representative chippings of carefully controlled size supported in a rigid matrix.
Fourteen specimens are clamped around the periphery of the 'road wheel' and subjected to two
phases of polishing by wheels with rubber tyres. The first phase is of abrasion by a corn emery for
three hours, followed by three hours of polishing with an emery flour. Two of the fourteen samples
are of Control stone.
The degree of polish of the specimens is then measured by means of the portable skid resistance
tester (using a special narrow slider, shorter test length and supplementary scale) under carefully
controlled conditions. Control specimens are used to condition and check the slider before the test;
also a pair of control specimens is included in each test run of fourteen specimens to check the
entire procedure and to allow for adjustment of the result to compensate for minor variations in the
polishing and or friction testing. Results are expressed as 'polished stone values' (PSVs), the mean
of the four test specimens of each aggregate.
International Use of the PSV Test - BS 812
This British Standard has been adopted and used widely throughout the world. It is the only test
with available equipment to calculate PSVs.
The Permanent International Association of Road Congresses PIARC in conjunction with RILEM
and the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), recommend the use of BS 812 to
determine Polish Stone Values.
Use of PSV in Road Construction Contracts
In the UK the Highways Agency specify PSV tests in circumstances where resistance to polishing
have been found to be important. Table 2 shows the values required for various conditions
Accelerated Polishing Machine

111
The machine consists of a road wheel, rotating at 320 rpm, to the periphery of which are clamped
14 specimen holders. A solid rubber tyred wheel is positioned vertically above the road wheel, and
loaded to exert a force of 725 N.
There are two feed mechanisms and a water supply.
The first mechanism feeds corn emery, mixed with water to the junction of the rubber and road
wheel, while the second mechanism feeds emery flour, with water, to the same location.
Road Safety and PSV
The fundamental purpose of the PSV is to enable safer roads to be built.
In the UK use of PSVs in road construction has had a major influence in reduction of accidents.
The following is an interesting example.
Elevated section of M4 experiment
This site, the elevated part of Motorway M4, was found to have a high proportion of skidding
accidents when wet. Examination of the records showed that the SFC (Sideways Force
Coefficient) of the surface was from 0.35 to 0.45 at 50 km/h. The road was resurfaced with the
highest PSV material available at the time. It had been intended to use calcined bauxite (RASC
Grade) for the entire site, but as insufficient material was available, it was decided to mix it with a
gritstone from Gilfach quarry near Neath, in South Wales, with a PSV of 71.
During the first three years after resurfacing the SFC was found to have increased to between 0.50
and 0.60 and accidents were substantially reduced.

112
Petrology and Polishing
Extensive research has shown it is not possible to predict polishing qualities of natural roadstone
from petrological data. However some indicators have emerged:
Rocks composed of minerals of widely different hardness, and rocks that wear by the pulling out
of mineral grains from a relatively soft matrix, had relatively high resistance to polishing.
Conversely rocks consisting of minerals having nearly the same hardness wore uniformly and
tended to have a low resistance to polishing.
The grit stone group is excellent, with resistance to polishing being always high, whereas the lime
stone and flint groups yield the lowest resistance. Other groups, basalt, granite and quartzite, yield
intermediate results.
Resistance to polishing of samples from the basalt group shows a wide range. Resistance is higher
when minerals of different hardness are present, and when the ground-mass is foliated or
fluxioned. The resistance is also influenced by the proportion and hardness of secondary minerals,
softer minerals giving higher resistance.
In groups of igneous rocks the petrological characteristics which most readily affect resistance to
polishing are variation in hardness between the minerals and the proportion of soft minerals. Rocks
with cracks and fractured minerals are of higher resistance, whereas finer- grained all otriomorphic
rocks tend to polish more readily.
Types of Polishing and Control Material
Four types of material are used in equipment for calculating PSVs.
Emery Corn
The first three hours of the polishing operation uses this material to remove high spots, and
condition the surface of the specimen.
Emery Flour
The second three hours of the polishing operation uses this material to polish the samples.
Control Stone
This stone is used in the polishing Machine to provide a comparison against which the results of
the aggregate under test can be measured. 2 out of 14 samples in each test are from this material.
Criggion Stone
Used in the Skid Tester for calibration purposes.

113
Skid Tester (Friction Test Machine)
The machine is based on the hod principle. It has a pendulum consisting of a tubular arm rotating
about a spindle attached to a vertical pillar. at the end of the tubular arm is a head of constant mass
with a spring loaded rubber slider. The pendulum is released from a horizontal position so that it
strikes the sample of aggregate with a constant velocity. The distance the head travels after striking
the sample is determined by the friction of the surface of the sample, which has undergone
preparation by the Accelerated Polishing Machine.
The results shown by the Skid-Tester as Polished-Stone Values are the coefficient of friction
multiplied by 100.
The Skid-Tester is calibrated by the use of Criggion Stone, which comes from a quarry in North
Wales and is acknowledged to be a material of exceptionally consistent characteristics.
Other Uses of the Skid Tester
Apart from it's key role in calculating Polished Stone Values in a laboratory
environment, the Skid Tester is a principal instrument for testing existing roads, and
is an inexpensive alternative to special purpose vehicles. In developing countries the
use of a Skid Tester usually precedes the purchase and use of an Accelerated
Polishing Machine.
Investigations of causes of road accidents often include a Skid Test Report.
The following tests also make use of a Skid Tester:
Polished Paver Value
Polished Mortar Value.
Polished mortar value determination

114
The procedure is an adaptation of the method and apparatus for measuring the PSV. A sample of
fine aggregate is mixed with ordinary Portland cement to produce a mortar with an
aggregate/cement ratio of 3.0 and a total-water/cement ratio of 0.6. Specimens of the same size as
in the PSV determination are cast so that the upper, screed, surface is subjected to the polishing
cycle. This is basically the same as for the PSV determination except for the omission of water
during the first 3 hour period and minor adjustments to the nominal rate of feed of both grades of
emery. Results are reported as 'polished-mortar values (Pmvs).
Polished-paver value determination
The polished paver-value determination makes use of the BS812 aggregate abrasion method to
polish the samples of pavers. the abrasion lap is modified by attaching a standard rubber disk, and
corn emery and emery flour abrasives are fed to the samples under test in the same way as in the
BS812 determination. The specimens are prepared to aggregate abrasion test specimen dimensions
and flat control specimens (of the same control stone as the PSV test) are also made to these
dimensions. After completion of the polishing procedure, the degree of polish is measured with the
portable skid-resistance test in a similar way to the PSV test. A flat to curved correction factor is
then applied to estimate the 'polished-paver value', a correction being applied in the same way as
the PSV test according to the level of the control specimens. The method has been published by
the British Standards Institution a draft for development (DD 155:1896). It also forms the basis of
the draft European Standard - Pr EN 1344 - 1993.
CHAPTER THREE
3. CEMENTING MATERIALS
- Cementing materials used in civil engineering construction are those materials which
solidify when mixed with water.
There many types of cementing materials and grouped in to two.
1. Inorganic cementing materials like Portland cement lime gypsum
2. Organic cementing materials like bituminous / Asphalt.
- The most important cementing materials Portland cement and bitumen this text
also discusses about the two.
3.1. Portland cement
3.1.1. Introduction
- Portland cement: - an extremely finely ground material having adhesive and cohesive
properties.
- The most important and moot costly material in the production of concrete is the cement
agent portion cement.
- Portland cement is a product of calcium carbonate (lime stone and clay) (Alumina –
silica) as raw material.
3.1.2. Basic Constituents of cement

115
- Two basic raw materials used for the manufacturing of cement are argillaceous and
calcareous materials- There materials supply following basic components, percentages of
which range within limits shown against each.
Table 1 % constituents of cement
Materials Percentage Range
Lime (cao) 60-67
Silica (sio2) 17-25
Alumina (Al203) 3-8
Iron oxide (Fe2o3) 0.5-6
Magnesia (mgo) 0.1-4
Soda and/or potash
(Na2o + k2o)
0.5-1.3
Surplus trioxide (so3) 1-3
3.1.3 Classification of cement
Cements are basically classified as
1. Natural cements:- Those obtained by calcining and grinding to fine powder lime
stone containing 20 to 40% clay. If is brown in color and sets very quickly.
- There cement has variable properties because the clay content in lime stone in
various batches cannot be ensured.
2. Artificial cement:- Those obtained by calcining and grinding to fine powder
controlled quantities of lime and clay mixed thoroughly in order to ensure a product
of homogeneous composition are of known properties. These are
 Ordinary Portland cement (opc)
 Rapid hardening or high early strength cement
 Low heat cement
 High alumina cement
 Portland pozzolona cement
 Colored cement
 Super sulphate cement
 Quick setting cement
 Blast furnace cement
 Write cement
3. Special cements: - These are
* Masonry cement
* Oil well cement
* Water proof cement
* Expansive cement
* Hydrophobic cement
3.1.4. Properties of Portland cement
Some of the more important properties and tests used to cheek the quality of Portland
cement are:-
A) Fineness:- This help given the rate of hydration because smaller particles
will absorb water faster and hydrate sooner.
B) Setting:- Tests are conducted to measure setting time

116
C) Compressive strength: - Fifty millimeter 92-m) concrete cubes are made
with standard send to measure compressive strength.
D) Tensile strength:- standard modes are used to produce samples for
measuring tensile strength. This is usually about 10 % of the compressive
strength of the cement.
E) Relative density (sp – 9r) – This is usually 3.15 for Portland cement.
3.1.5 Portland cement tests and lab experiments
Density for Hydraulic cement
Objective: - To determine the density (Specific gravity of hydraulic) cement.
Theory: - The density of cement is used in the calculation of the total operate content
and of the concrete density. The bulk and obsolete densities of cement do not differ
greatly in practice, since cement is usually well graded and must be kept dry and in any
café the precise cement density is not critical in mix design. If is there fore reasonable to
use the bulk density.
Apparatuses:-
- le chatelier’s flask- the standard flask circular in cross sections
- Kerosene free of water or naphtha.
Procedure:-
1. Fill the flask with either of the two liquids to a point on the stem between the 0 and
1mm mark.
2. Dry the inside the flask above the level of the liquid, if necessary after pouring.
Record the first reading after the flask has been immersed in the water both. The
both shall maintain the temperature of the water.
3. Introduce a quantity of cement (about 64 gm for Portland cement) weighed to the
nearest 0.05 gm in small increments at the same temperature as the liquid. A
vibrating apparatus may be used to accelerate the introduction of the cement in to
the flask and to prevent the cement from sticking to the neck.
4. Place the stopper in the flask and roll the flask man inclined position or gently whirl
it in a horizontal circle, so as to free the cement from air until no further air bubbles
rise to the surface level of the liquid will be in its final position at some point of the
upper series of graduations.
5. Take the final reading after the flask has been immersed in the water both.
Calculation: - the difference between the first and final readings represents the volume of
liquid displaced by the many
= mass of cement (gm) / displaced volume (cm3)
Where ρ = density of cement (mg/m3) or (g/cm3)
Fineness of hydraulics cement (by the No 100 and No. 200 sieves)
Objective: - to determine the fineness of hydraulic cement
Theory: - The degree of fineness of cement is a measure of the mean size of gins in
cement. Strength development in cement mortar concrete depends on the fineness of
cement. Final cements have quicker action with water and gain high early strength. How
ever the shrinkage and cracking of cement increases with fineness followed by quick
deterioration. There fore the fineness of cement has to be balanced with amount of
course ness in the cement.
Apparatus:-
- Sieves standard (150 μm No 100) or( 75 μm No 200) sieves
- Balance – capacity less than 200 gm accuracy 0.0002gm

117
- Brush – 25 or 18mm brush with 250 mm handle.
Procedure:-
1. Place a 50 gm sample of the cement on the clean dry 150mm (No 100) or 75 mm
(No 100) lime with the pan attached.
2. Sieve with a gentle wrist motion until most of the fire materials paned through and
the residue looks fairly clean. This needs only 30r 4min.
3. Tap gently the side of sieve with the handle of the brush used for cleaning the
sieve.
4. Perform the sieving over a white paper a return only material escaper from the
sieve or pan and collect on the proper to the sieve.
5. Continue the sieving operation until not more than 0.05 gm of the material passes
through in 1 min of continuous sieving.
6. Transfer the residue on the sieve to the balance pan taking care to brush the sieve
cloth thoroughly from both sides to ensure the removal of all the residue from both
sides to ensure the removal of all the residue from the sieve.
Calculation:- calculate the fineness of the samples as:
F = 100 – [(Rs * 100)/W] - when no connection is used for residue on sieve.
F = 100 – Rc – when correction is used for residue on sieve.
Rc = [(Rc * 100) /w] + c Where:-
F = Fineness of cement expressed as the percentage passing the sieve
Rs = residue from sample retained on the sieve
W= weight of sample gm
Rc = Corrected residue % and
C = sieve correction % which may be either plus or minus.
Fineness of hydraulic cement by Blaine Fineness Apparatus
Objective:- To determine the specific surface of hydraulic cement.
Theory:- If is general practice to describe the fineness of cement by a single parameter,
the specific surface area. Although cements of quite different particle size distributions
might have the same specific surface area this is still considered to be the most useful
measure of cement fineness.
- The air permeability method of determining the specific surface is based on the
relationship between the surface area of the particles in a porous bed and the rate
of fluid flow through the bed.
Apparatus:- - Blaine Air permeability Apparatus
- Permeability all
- Disk
- Plunger
- Filter paper
- Manometer liquid
Procedure:-
1. Place the cement sample at room temperature the calibration of the air permeability
apparatus shall be made using the current standard lot.
2. Determine the bulk volume of the compacted bed of powder by the mercury
displacement method as follows:-

118
Table 2– Density of mercury viscosity of Air (η) and m at given temperature
Room
Temperature oc
Density of
mercury g/cm3
Viscosity of A Air,
η Pa.s √η
16 13.56 17.88 4.23
18 13.55 17.98 4.24
20 13.55 18.08 4.25
22 13.54 18.18 4.26
24 13.54 18.28 4.28
26 13.53 18.37 4.29
28 13.53 18.47 4.30
30 13.52 18.57 4.321
32 13.52 18.67 4.32
34 13.51 18.76 4.32
i) Place two filter paper disks in the permeability cell, pressing down the edges,
using a void having a diameter slightly smaller than that of the cell until the filter
disks are flat on the perforated metal disk, then fill the cell with mercury,
removing any air bubbles adhering to the wall of the cell.
ii) Level the mercury with the top of the cell by lightly pressing a small glass plate
against the mercury and rim of the cell.
iii) Remove the mercury from the cell weigh and record the weight of the mercury.
Remove one of the filter disks from the cell compress a trial quantity of 2.80 gm
of cement with one filter disk above and one below the sample.
iv) In to the unfilled space at the top of the cell add mercury remove entrapped air
and level of the top as before
v) Remove the mercury from the cell, weigh and record
vi) Calculate the bulk volume occupied by the cement to the nearest 0.005 cm3
V = (Wa –Wb) Where:- V-bulk volume of cement, cm3
D
Wa – grams of mercury required to fill the cell no cement being in the cell
Wb- grams of mercury required to fill the portion of the cell not occupy by the prepared
bed of cement in the cell.
D-Density of mercury at tem. of the test, gm/cm3
vii) Make at least two determination of bulk volume the bulk volume value is the average
of the two.
3. The weight of the standard sample shall be that required to preduce a bed of
cement having a porosity of 0.5 + 0.005, and shall be calculated as.
W = ρV (1-Є) where W = grams of sample required
ρ = density of test sample (3.15 g/cm3 for Portland cement)
V= bulk volume of bed cement, cm 3
Є = desired porosity of bed of cement
4. Prepare bed of cement by seating the perfected disk on the ledge in the
permeability cell inscribed or marked face down. Place a filter paper disk on the
metal disk and press the edges down with a rod having a diameter slightly smaller
than that of the cell.

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5. Weigh to the nearest 0.001 g the quantity of cement determined in 3 and place it in
the cell. Top the side of the cell lightly in order to level the bed of cement.
6. Place filter paper on top of the cement and compress it with the plunger until the
plunger collar is in contact with the top of the cell.
7. Attach the permeability cell to the manometer tube making certain that an air tight
connection is obtained and taking care not to far or disturb the prepared bed of
cement.
8. Slowly evaluate the air in are arm of the manometer U– tube until the liquid
reaches the top make and then close the value tightly start the timer when the
bottom of the meniscus of the manometer liquid reaches the second (next to the
top) mark and stop when it reaches the third (next to bottom) mark note the time
internal in seconds and the temperature of the test in 0c
9. In the calibration of the instrument make at least three determinations of the time of
flow on each of three separately prepared beds of standard sample. Only time of
flew determination need be made on each bed for determination of the fineness.
Calculation
- For Portland cement compacted on the same porosity as the standard fineness
sample
S = Ss √T - If the to of the test sample is out side of this range
√Ts
Where = S – specific surface of the test sample m2/kg
Ss – Specific surface of the standard sample used in calibration of the
apparatus m2/kg
T- Measured time interval, s, of manometer drop fro test sample
Ts – Measured time interval Ss of monometer drop for standard sample used in
calibration.
Ms – viscosity of air pa S, at the To of test of the test sample
Ms= viscosity of air pa – s at the To of test of the standard sample
- According to the Ethiopian standard ordinary Portland cement shall have a specific
surface area of not less than 2250 cm2/gm.
Soundness of cement
Objective:- To verify the soundness of a given sample of cement
Theory:- The cement is said to be unsound when the percentage of free lime and
magnesia in it is more than the specified limits. As large changes in volume of hardened
concrete may occur due to excess of these two substances, free lime (Cao) and
magnesia (Mgo) are known to react with water very slowly and increases in volume
considerably which results in cracking distortion and dis integration. The unsound non can
be measured by accelerating the slaking by application of heat using le-chatlier
apparatus.
Materials:- sample of cement fresh clean water
Apparatus:- le chatler apparatus grass plate 2 nos travel measuring cylinder electric water
both (store normal try thermometer stop watch weighting equipment.
Procedure:-

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1. Prepare a water cement paste using 0.78 the quantity of water needed for
preparing water cement paste of standard consistency
2. Place the mould on the glass rate and fill it with this paste and cover the mould
with the other glass plate.
3. Immediately immerse the whole assembly in water of 270c. – 320c To after
placing a small weight on the top of the upper glass plate and weep it there for 24
hrs.
4. Measure distance b/n the in director points after the end of 24 hrs.
5. Now sub merge the assembly again in water of To of 270c 320c and heat the water
to bring it to boiling point within 25 to 30 minutes and keep it boiling for 3 hrs.
6. Remove the assembly from water and allow it cool.
7. Measure the distance b/n the indicator points now.
Recording – Weight of cement
- Quantity of water require (p)
- Water to be added to the cement (78*p * c)
- Time at w/h sample is put in water at 27 0c – 310c
- Distance b/n indicator points after 24 hrs of immersion boiling.
Result: - expansion of cement (d1 - d2)
Then compare the results with the standard results
Precautious – All measurement should be accurately done
- While filling amount part in the mould the edges of the indicator should be kept
together.
- During boiling water level should not fall below the weight of the mould.
Normal consistency of Hydraulic cement
Objective: - To determine the amount of water required to prepare a standard cement
paste by this water we prepare a paste for d/f tests e.g. setting time, soundness, strength.
Theory: - the normal consistency of hydraulic cement refers to the amount of water
required to move a neat paste of satisfactory workability. It is determined using vicat
apparatus. This apparatus measures the resistance of the paste to the penetration of a
plunger or needle of 300 gm released at the surface of the paste.
Apparatus:- Weighing balance vicat needle apparatus with all necessary accessories
bowl with trowel and spatula electric paste mixer glass plate 15 * 15 cm, stop watch
measuring cylinder thermometer cement and water.
Procedure:-
1. Fit the plunger to the movable rod of the vicat needle apparatus
2. Weigh 650 g of cement powder one transfer in to the bowl. To start with take water
as about 24% of cement by weight i.e. 156 g or 156 ml of water.
3. Mix the water with cement to form uniform paste.
4. Transfer the paste in to the vicat mould kept on the glass plate.
5. Shake the mould to relief entrapped air.
Step 3- 5 to be completed with in 3 minutes.

121
6. Keep vicat mould with glass plate below the plunger attached to movable rod and
adjust the plunger to touch the cement paste surface of mould.
7. Release the movable rod to sink in to the paste for 30 seconds and note the depth
of penetration from the indicator.
8. Depth of penetration must be 10 + 4mm from the original surface. If not repeat step
2-7 by changing of water percentage now to 25 % and so on
Result:- Normal consistency of cement (P) is _________ % at a room T0 of ______ 0c.
Note;- For mixing matters:- After adding water in the bawl add cement to the water then
start the mixer slow speed (140 + 5 r/m) for 30 sec and then stop the mixer. For 15 sec
and during this time scrap down in to the batch any paste finally start the mixer at medium
speed (285 + 10re/m) and mix for 1 min.
Determination of Initial and final setting time of cement
Procedure:-
1. Fit the plunger to the movable rod of the vicat needle apparatus
2. Watch of cement powder and transfer in to the bows and find the quantity water as
P (norm consistency) * 650 = ---------------- g or ml of water
100
Where P is to be found with a separate normal consistency
3. Mix the water with cement to form uniform paste. Just use step watch.
4. Transfer the paste in to vicat mould kept on the glass plate and
shake the mould to relief entrapped air remove the excess by a gentle sawing motion
with a straight edged to move it smooth enough the upper surface.
Step 3 – 4 to be computed with in 3minutes
5. Keep vicat mould with glass plate below the plunger attached to movable rod and
adjust the needle to touch the cement paste surface of mould.
6. Release the movable rod to since in to the past
- Initially the needle will completely penetrate in to the paste
7. Repeat the step 5 – 6 with time interval of 15 minutes until the needle penetration
of 25 mm or less is obtained
8. When step 7 is satisfying observe stop water note time (Do not stop the watt)
Result:- Initial setting time is ______ minutes at room T0 - oc
Remark:- Initial setting the will be to the nearest 5 min.
9. Replace the needle with the circular achievement and invert the filled mould used
before so that the tests for final set are made on the face of the specimen originally
in contact with the both plate.
10.Adjust the circular attachment to touch the surface of the cement paste in the
mould and release the movable end to since in to the paste
11.Repeat the step 10 until the center needle (of circular attachment) moves an
impression while the circular cutting edge (of circular attachement0 fails to do so
time internal may be increased to 30 min.
Result:- Final setting time is ____minutes at room T0 of ____ 0c
Remark:- Final setting time will be to the nearest 15 min.
Strength test for cement
Objective:- to determine the compressive strength of 1.3 cement sand mortar cubes.
Theory: - Compressive strength test is the final cheek on the quality of cement. This test
is performed in order to determine whether the cement conforms to standard specification

122
or not. The compressive strength is measured by determining the compressive strength of
cement mortar cubes 1 part of cement to 3 part of the aggregates (sand) standard send.
Materials: - cement sand (standard sand) fresh clean water.
Apparatus: - compression testing machine cube moulds (7.06 cm cube vibrating machine
trowel, enamel trays for mixing measuring cylinder weighting balance mass/ non porous
plate.
Procedure:-
1. Take 185 gms of cement and 155 gms of standard sand and mix from dry
thoroughly.
2. Add water (p/4 + 3.00% (where p is the % of water for preparing paste of standard
consistency) to the dry mix of cement and sand and mix thoroughly for a minimum
of 3 minutes and max of 4 min to obtain a uniform color. If even in 4 minute uniform
color of the mix is not obtained reject the mix and mix there quantities of cement
sand and water to obtain a mix of uniform color.
3. Place the thoroughly cleaned and oiled (on interior face) mould on the vibrating
machine and hold if in position by clamps provided on the machine for the purpose.
4. Fill the mould with the entire quantity of mortar using a suitable hopper ached to
the top of the mould for facility of filling and vibrate it for 2 minutes at a specified
speed of 12000 + 400 minute to achieve full compaction (Do not remove the
hopper until completion of the vibrating period)
5. Remove the mould from the machine and keep it in a place with to of 27 0c + 20c
and relative humidity of 90 % for 24 hors.
6. If the end of 24 hours remove the cube from the mould and immediately submerge
in fresh clan water. The cube taken out of the water only at the time of testing.
7. Prepare at least 6 cubes in the manner explain above
8. Determine the compressive strength of the mortar at the ages of 3, 7 and 28 days.
Calculation:- P = F/A where P = applied pressure (Mpa)
F = Crushing load (N)
A = Area of specimen in contact with the load (mm2).
3.2 Bituminous Materials
3.2.1 Types of Bituminous Materials
Bituminous materials are dived from petroleum or occur in natural deposits in
different pats of the world. Based on their sources there are two main categories of
bitumen's, i.e., those which occur naturally and those which are by products of the
fractional distillation of petroleum at refinery. Refinery bitumen's are by far the greater
proportion of road bitumen used all over the world. Of the possible types falling in to
these categories, the ones that are used for highway paving purposes.
Figure-1. Commonly used types of road bitumen
Bituminous
materials

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3.2.2 Natural Bitumen
Native or natural Bitumen relate to a wide variety of materials and refer to those
bitumen that are found in nature as native asphalts or rock asphalts associated with
appreciable quantities of mineral matter.
Native asphalts are obtained from asphalt lakes in Trinidad and other Caribbean
areas, and were used in some of the earliest pavement in North America after so
fattening with petroleum fluxes. The properties depend on the insoluble materials
(organic and inorganic) the asphalt contains. Some natural asphalt is soft and
adhesive; others are very hard and brittle. Some exist on the surface of the earth in
lakes or pools, while other occurs at depth and must be mined. Rock asphalts are
natural rock deposits containing bituminous materials that have been used for road
surfaces in localities where they occur.
3.2.3 Refinery Bitumen
Bitumen artificially produced by the industrial refining of crude petroleum oils are
known under a number or names depending on the refining method used such as

124
residual bitumen, straight-run bitumen, steam-refined bitumen and as is now most
commonly accepted refinery bitumen. Petroleum crude are complex mixtures of
hydrocarbons differing in molecular weight and consequently in boiling range. Before
they can be used, crude have to be separated, purified, blended, and sometimes
chemically or physically changed. Not all petroleum crude contains a sufficient
quantity of bitumen to enable strafing reduction to specification road bitumen. Those
which do are known as asphaltic-base crude. Crude which contain high proportions of
simpler paraffin compounds, with little or no bituminous bodies present, are known as
paraffin-base crude. Some petroleum crude exhibit characteristics of both the pervious
categories and these are known as mixed-base crude.
The primary processing involved in the production of bitumen from petroleum is
fractional distillation. This is carried out in tall steel towers known as fractionating or
distillation columns. The inside of the column is divided at intervals by horizontal steel
trays with holes to allow vapor to rise up the column. In this process, parts of the
hydrocarbon materials in the crude oil are vaporized by heating them above their
boiling points under pressure. The lightest fractions of the crude remain as a vapour
and are taken from the top of the distillation column; heavier fractions are taken off the
column as side-streams with the heaviest fractions remaining as a liquid and therefore
left at the base of the column. The lightest fractions produced by the crude distillation
process include propane and butane which are gases under atmospheric conditions.
Moving down the column a slightly heavier product, naphtha, is produced which is a
feedstock for gasoline production and the chemical industry. Then there is kerosene,
which is used primarily for aviation fuel and to a lesser extent for domestic fuel.
Heavier again is gas oil, which is used as a fuel for diesel engines and central heating.
The heaviest fraction taken from the crude oil distillation process is long residue,
which is a complex mixture of thigh molecular weight hydrocarbons. Such refining
process is known as staring-run distillation, and the residue is straight-run bitumen.
 To remove high boiling temperature constituents such as those contained in the
non-volatile oils, refining is carried out, without changing them chemically by the
use of reduced pressures and steam injection in the fractionating column. This
type of distillation is known as vacuum or steam distillation, and bitumen
spruced by such means are said to be vacuum reduced or steam refined.
 On the other hand, when the objective is primarily to increase the yield of fuels,
the petroleum oil undergoes cracking distillation. In general, cracking process
consists in exposing the petroleum crude to a temperature of 475-600o
C at
pressure varying from 3 to 75 atmospheres. This process produces heavier
residues as a consequence of forming the lighter materials. These residues are
known as "cracked oil" or "Cracked asphalt" They are characterized by
relatively high specific gravity, low viscosity, and poor temperature
susceptibility. They are generally regarded as less durable or weather resistant
than straight run materials.
In a few cases, a selective solvent, such as propane, is used to treat the
topped crude to separate paraffin crude oils of high viscosity index for use in the
manufacture of lubricating oils and special products. This separation method is
based on chemical type and molecular weight rather than by boiling point as in the
usual distillation. In the process, the parasitic oils are dissolved by the solvent and
come afloat in the fractioned vessel. The residual asphalt, which is relatively
insoluble, is drawn off at the bottom.

125
These residual asphalts produced by the different methods of refining
described above are of various grades asphalt cement, depending upon the
degree to which distillates are removed as determined by the conditions of
distillations. They are further processed by air-blowing, blending, compounding,
and admixing with other ingredients to make variety of asphalt produces used in
paving, roofing, waterproofing, coating and sealing matters, and materials for
industrial applications.
3.2.4 Penetration Grade Bitumen
In the preparation of paving binders, it is common to blend two or more
different asphaltic residues to produce a material posting desirable physical
properties. Additive materials may also be used to improve properties such as
adhesion to solid surfaces and flowing characteristics. By varying the ingredients
and the amount used, it is possible to exercise considerable control over the
properties of the ingredients and the amount sued, it is possible to exercise
considerable control over the properties of the finished asphalt. The major paving
products are penetration grade bitumen (also known as asphalt cements), cutback
asphalts, and asphalt emulsions.
Penetration grade bitumen or asphalt cements are in consistency from
semi-solid t semi-liquid at room temperature. Such bitumen is graded according
their viscosity (mainly used in the US) and penetration. Penetration is the depth in
0.1mm that a specified needle is able to penetrate the samples when standard
penetration tests are carried out. They are produced in various viscosity grades,
the most common being AC 2.5, AC 5, AC 10, AC 20, and AC 40. These roughly
correspond to penetration grades 200-300, 120, 150, 85-100, 60-70, and 40-50,
respectively. The viscosity grades indicate the viscosity in hundreds of poises ±
20% measured at 60o
c (140o
F). For example, Ac2.5 has a viscosity of 250 poises ±
poises ± 50. AC 40 has a viscosity of 4000 poises ±800.
The majority of penetration grade bitumen is used in road construction, the
hard grades, 35 pens to 100pen, in macadam's where the lubricating properties
during application and bonding of the aggregate in service are more important.
During construction, asphalt cements require to be heated to varying degrees
before mixing with hot or warm aggregates and the mixed material must be laid
while hot within a few hors of mixing.
3.2.5 Liquid Bitumen
Sometimes it is uneconomical or inconvenient to use hot asphalt in road
construction. In such situations, liquid binders are preferable to handle at relatively
low temperatures and mixed with aggregates either when cold or only warmed
sufficiently to make them surface-dry. For the suitability of such construction
methods, asphalt cements are frequently modified by preparation as liquid
products. The to forms of liquid bitumen generally, are those which are prepared
by dissolving the asphalt cement in a suitable volatile solvent and known as
cutback bitumen, and those which are prepared by emulsifying the asphalt cement
in an aqueous medium and called bitumen emulsions.
3.2.6 Cutback Bitumen
Cutback bitumen is prepared by dissolving penetration grade bitumen in suitable
volatile solvents to reduce their viscosity to make them easier to use at ordinary
temperatures. They are commonly heated and then sprayed on aggregates. Upon
curing by evaporation of the solvent, the cured-out asphalt cement will be in

126
approximately the same condition as before being taken in to solution and bind the
aggregate particles together. the curing period depends on the volatility of
solvents.
Cutback bitumen are grouped into three types based on the type of solvent, which
governs the rates of evaporation and curing, namely, slow-curing (SC), medium-
curing (MC), and rapid- curing (RC). Each type of cutback bitumen is subdivided in
to several grids characterized by their viscosity limits. The viscosity is controlled by
the quantity of cutback solvent to make the various grades from very fluid to almost
semi-solid at ambient temperatures.
3.2.7 Slow-curing (SC) cutbacks:-Slow-curing asphalts can be obtained directly
as slow-curing straight-run asphalts through the distillation of cured petroleum or
as slow-curing cutback asphalts by "Cutting back" asphalt cement with a heavy
distillate such as diesel oil. They have lower viscosities than asphalt cement and
are very slow to hadean. Slow-curing asphalts are usually designated as SC-70,
SC-250, SC-800, or SC-3000, where than numbers are related to the approximate
kinematics viscosity in centistokes at 60o
C (140oF). They are used with dense-
graded aggregates and on soil-aggregate rods in warm climates to avoid dust.
3.2.8 Medium-curing (MC) Cutbacks:- Medium curing asphalt re produced by
fluxing, or cutting back, the residual asphalt (usually 120-150 penetration) with light
fuel oil or kerosene. The term medium refers to the medium volatile of the
kerosene-type diligent used. Medium curing cutback asphalts harden faster than
slow curing liquid asphalts, although the consistencies of the different grades are
similar to those of the slow curing asphalts. However, the MC-30 is a unique grade
in this series as it is very fluid and has no counterpart in the SC and RC series.
3.2.9 Rapid-Curing (RC) Cutbacks: - Rapid curing cutback asphalts are produced
by blending asphalt cement with a petroleum distillate that will easily evaporate,,
there by facilitating a quick change from the liquid form at time of application to the
consistency of the original asphalt cement. Gasoline or naphtha generally is used
as the solvent for this series of asphalts.
The grade of rapid-curing asphalt required dictates the amount of solvent to be
added to the residual asphalt cement For example, RC-3000 requires about 15
percent of distillate, whereas RC-70 requires about 40 percent. These grades of
asphalt can be used for jobs similar to those for which the MC series is used, but
where there is a need for immediate cementing action or colder climates.
3.2.10 Asphalt emulsions
Emulsified asphalts are produced by breaking asphalt cement, usually of 100-250
penetration range, in to minute particles and dispersing them in water with an
emulsifier, these minute particles have like electrical changes and therefore do not
coalesce. They remain in suspension in the liquid phase as long as water does not
evaporate or the emulsifier does not break. Asphalt emulsions therefore consists of
asphalt, which makes up about 55 percent to 70 percent by weight, up to 3%
emulsifying agent, water and in some cases may contain a stabilizer.
Two general types of emulsified asphalts are produced, depending on the type of
emulsifier used cationic emulsion, in which the asphalt particles have a positive
charge; and anionic in which they have a negative chare. Each of the above
categories is further divided in to three subgroups, based on the rapidly the asphalt
emulsion will return to the state of the original asphalt cement. These subgroups
are rapid setting (RS), medium setting (MS), and slow setting (SS). A cationic

127
emulsion is identified by caching the letter "C" in front of the emulsion type; no
letter is placed in front of anatomic and nonionic emulsions. For example, CRS-2
denotes a cationic emulsion, and RS-2 denotes either anionic or nonionic
emulsion.
The anionic and cationic asphalts generally are used in highway maintenance and
construction. Note, however, that since anionic emulsions contain negative
charges, they are more effective in adhering aggregates containing electropositive
charges such as limestone, whereas cationic emulsions are more effective with
electronegative aggregates such as those contusing a high percentage of siliceous
material.
Cationic emulsions also work better with wet aggregates and in colder weather.
Bitumen emulsions break then sprayed or mixed with mineral aggregates in a field
construction process; the water is removed, and asphalt remains as a film on the
surface of the aggregates. In contrast to cutback bitumen, bitumen emulsions can
be applied to a damp surface.
3.2.11 The Air-blown Bitumen
The physical properties of the short residue are further modified by air-blowing, Air-
blowing is a process which a soft asphalted residue is heated to a high
temperature in an oxidation tower where air id forced through the residue either on
a batch or a continuous basis, the process results in a dehydrogenation and
polymerization of the residue. The hard asphalted material produced by this
process is known as oxidized in air-blown asphalt and is usually specified and
designated by both softening point and penetration tests. If proper precautions are
not taken, the temperature can rise to the point where the physical characteristics
the product are seriously affected. However, by controlling the conditions in the
process large variety air-blown asphalts can be produced. Oxidized bitumen's are
used almost entirely for industrial applications, such as roofing, flooring, mastics,
pipe coatings, etc, but their use in road construction is limited.
3.2.12 Road Tars
Tars are obtained from the destructive distillation of such organic materials as coal.
Their properties are significantly different from petroleum asphalts. In general, they
are more susceptible to weather conditions than are similar grades of asphalts,
and they set more quickly when exposed to the atmosphere. Tars are rarely used
now for highway pavements.
3.2.13 Tests for Bituminous Materials
Several tests are conducted on bituminous materials to determine both their
consistency and their quality to ascertain whether materials used in highway
construction meet the prescribed specifications. Some of these specifications are
provided in standards of AASHTO, ASTM, and Asphalt Institute. Procedures for
testing and selecting representative samples of asphalt have also been
standardized.
Consistency Tests
The consistency of bituminous materials is important in pavement construction
because the consistency at a specified temperature will indicate the grade of the
material. It is important that the temperature at which the consistency is
determined be specified, since temperature significantly affects the consistency of
bituminous materials. As stated earlier, asphaltic materials can exist in either liquid,
semisolid, or solid stares. This necessitates for more then one method for

128
determining consistency of asphaltic materials. The property generally used to
describe the consistency of asphaltic materials in the liquid state is the viscosity,
which can be determined by conducting either the saybolt furol viscosity test or the
kinemation viscosity test. Tests used for asphaltic materials in the semisolid and
solid states include the penetration test and the float test the ring-and-ball
softening point test may also be used for blown asphalt.
Saybolt Furol viscosity Test
Saybolt Furol viscosity test is a test carried out by the Saybolt Furol Viscometer
which has a standard viscometer tube, 12.7cm (5in) long and about 2.54cm (1 in)
in diameter with an orifice of specified shape and dimensions provided at the
bottom of the tube. When testing, the orifice is closed with a stopper, and the tube
is filled with a quantity of the material to be tested. The material in the tube is
brought to the specified temperature by eating in water both and when the
prescribed temperature is reached the stopper is removed, and the time in
seconds for exactly 60 milliliters o the asphaltic material to flow through the orifice
is recorded. This time is the Saybolt Furol viscosity in units of seconds at the
specified temperature. Temperatures at which asphaltic materials for highway
construction are tested include 25 oC (77 oF), 50 oC (122 oF), and 60 oC (140 oF). It
is apparent that the higher the viscosity of the material, the longer it takes for a
given quantity to flow through the orifice.
Kinematics Viscosity Test
The test uses a capillary viscometer tube to measure the time it takes the asphalt
sample to flow at a specified temperature between timing marks on the tube. Three
types of viscometer tubes, namely Zeitfuch's cross-arm viscometer, Asphalt
Institute vacuum viscometer, and Cannon-Manning vacuum viscometer are used.
When the cross-arm viscometer is used, the test is started by placing the
viscometer tube in a thermostatically controlled constant temperature bath, and a
sample of the material to be tested is then preheated and poured into the large
side of the viscometer tube until the filling line level is reached. The temperature of
the bath is then brought to 135 oC (275 oF), and some time is allowed for the
viscometer and the asphalt to reach a temperature of 135 oC (275 oF). Flow is then
induced by applying a slight pressure to the large opening or a partial vacuum to
the efflux (small) opening of the viscometer tube. This causes an initial flow of the
asphalt over the siphon section just above the filling line. Continuous flow is
induced by the action of gravitational forces. The time it takes for the material to
flow between two timing marks is recorded. The kinematics viscosity of the
material in units of centistokes is obtained by multiplying the time in seconds by a
calibration factor for the viscometer used. The calibration of each viscometer is
carried out by using standard calibrating oils with known viscosity characteristics.
The factor for each viscometer is usually furnished by the manufacturer.
The test may also he conducted at a temperature of 60 oC (140 oF) using either the
Asphalt Institute vacuum viscometer or the Cannon-Manning Vacuum viscometer.
In this case, flow is induced by applying a prescribed vacuum through a vacuum
control device attached to a vacuum pump. The product of the time interval and the
calibration factor in this test gives the absolute viscosity of the material in poises.
Penetration Test
The penetration test gives an empirical measurement of the consistency of a
semi-solid asphaltic material in terms of the depth a standard needle penetrates

129
into that material under a prescribed loading and time. It is the bases for classifying
semi-solid bituminous materials into standard grades.
A sample of the asphalt cement to be tested is placed in a container, which in
turn is placed in a temperature-controlled water bath. The sample is then broth to
the prescribed temperature of 25oC (77oF), and the standard needle, loaded to a
total weight of 100 gm, is left to penetrate the sample of asphalt for the prescribed
time of exactly 5 sec. The penetration is given as the depth in unit of 0.1mm that
the needle penetrates the sample. For example, if the needle penetrates a depth of
exactly 20mm, the penetration is of the material is said to be 200. When carried out
at different temperature penetration test can indicate temperature susceptibility the
binder.
Float test
The float test is used to determine the consistency of semisolid asphalt materials
that are more viscous than grade 3000 or have penetration higher than 300, since
these materials cannot be tested conveniently using either the Say bolt furol
viscosity test or the penetration test.
Ring-and-ball softening point test
The ring and ball softening point test is used to measure the susceptibility of
asphaltic materials to will be adequately softened to allow a standard ball to sink
through it.
Durability tests
When asphaltic materials are used in the construction of roadway
pavements, they are subjected to changes in temperature and other weather
conditions over a period of time. These changes cause natural weathering of the
material, which may lead to loss of plasticity, cracking, abnormal surface abrasion,
and eventual failure of the pavement. This change, known as weathering, is
caused by chemical and physical reactions that take place in the material. One test
used to evaluate the susceptibility characteristics of asphaltic materials to changes
in temperature and other atmospheric factors is the thin-film oven test.
Thin-Film oven test (TFO)
This is a procedure that measures the changes that take place in asphalt
during the hot-mix process by subjecting.
Rate of curing
Tests for curing rates of cutbacks and emulsions are based on inherent
factors, which can be controlled. The test is conducted to determine the time
required for a liquid for liquid asphaltic material to increase in its consistency on the
assumption that the external factors are held constant. Volatility and quantity of
solvent for cutbacks are commonly used to indicate the rate of curing. The curing
rates for both cutbacks and emulsions may be determined from the distillation test.
Distillation test for cutbacks
Pint by heating it weighs the burner. The evaporated solvent is condensed
and collected in the graduated cylinder. The temperature in the flask is
continuously monitored and the amount of solvent collected in the graduated
cylinder recorded when the temperature in the flak reaches 190oC (374oF), 225oC
(437oF), 260oC (500oF), and 316oC (600oF). The amount of condensate collected
at the different specified temperatures gives an indication of the volatility

130
characteristics of the solvent. The residual in the dissension is the base asphaltic
material used in preparing the cutback.
Distillation test for Emulsions
The distillation test for emulsions is similar to that described for cutbacks. A
major difference, however, is that the glass flask an Bunsen burner are replaced
with an aluminum alloy still and a ring burner. This equipment prevents potential
problems that may arise from the foaming of the emulsified asphalt as it is being
heated to a maximum of 260oC (500oF). The results obtained from the use of this
method to recover the asphaltic residue and to determine the properties of the
asphalt base stock used in the emulsion may not always be accrete because of
significant changes in the properties of the asphalt due to concentration of
inorganic salts, emulsifying agent, and stabilizer. thse changes, which are due
mainly to the increase in temperature, do not occur in field application of the
emulsion since the temperature in the field is usually much less than that used in
the distillation test. The emulsion in the field, therefore, breaks either
electrochemically or by evaporation of the water. An alterative method to determine
the properties of the asphalt after t is cured on the pavement surface is to
evaporate the water at sub atmospheric pressure and lower temperatures.
General Tests
Several other tests are routinely conducted on asphaltic materials used for
pavement construction either to obtain specific characteristics for design purposes
(for example, specific gravity) or to obtain additional information that aids in
determining the quality of the material. Some of the more common routine tests are
described briefly hereunder.
Specific Gravity Test
The specific gravity of asphaltic materials is used mainly to determine the
weight of a given volume of material, or vice versa, to determine the amount of
voids in compacted mixes and to correct volumes measured at high temperatures.
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weigh if given volume of the material
to the weigh of the same volume of water. The specific gravity of bituminous
materials, however, changes with temperature, which dictates that the temperature
at which the test is conducted should be indicated. For example, if the test is
conducted at 25oC (77oF) which is usually the case and the specific gravity is
determined to be 1.41, this should be recorded as 1.41oC/ Note that both the
asphaltic material and the water should be at the same temperature.
The test is normally conducted with the dry weigh (W1) of the pycnometer
and stopper is obtained, and then the pycnometer is filled with distilled water at the
prescribed temperature. The weigh (W2) of the water and pycnometer together is
determined. If the material to be tested can flow easily in to the pycnometer, then
the pycnometer must be completely filled with the material at the specified
temperature after pouring out the water. The weigh W3 is then obtained. The
specific gravity of the asphaltic material is then given as
Gb= W3-W1
W2-W1
Where Gb is the specific gravity of the asphaltic material and W1, W2 and W3 are
in grams. if the asphaltic material cannot easily flow, a small sample of he material
is heated gradually to facilitate flow and hen poured in to the pycnometer and left
to cool to the specified temperature. The weight W4 of pycnometre and material is

131
then obtained. Water is then poured into the pycnometer to completely fill the
remaining.
Space not occupied by the material. The weight W5 of the filled pycnometer is
obtained. The specified gravity is then given as
Gb= W4-W1
(W2-W1) - (W5-W4)
Ductility test
Ductility is the distance in centimeters a standard sample of asphaltic
material will stretch before breaking when tested on standard ductility test
equipment at 25oC (77oF).
Solubility test
The solubility test is used to measure the amount of impurities in the
aphaltic material
Flash-point test
The flash point of an asphaltic material is the temperature at winch its
vapors will ignite instantaneously in the presence of an open flame
Loss-on heating test
The loss-on-heating test is used to determine the amount of material that
evaporates from a sample of asphalt under a specified temperature and time.
Test Method of penetration of Asphalt
1. Concept significance
Penetration is a measurement of hardens or consistency of bituminous material. It
is not regarded as suitable for use in connection with the testing of road for
because of the high surface tension exhibited by these materials and thy contain
relatively large amount of free carbon.
It is a vertical distance penetrated by the point of a standard needle in the
bituminous material under specifies condition of load, time and temperature. This
distance is measured in one tenth of a millimeter. This test is used for evaluating
consistency of bituminous mat's.
2. Objectives
I. To determine the consistency of bituminous material;
II. To assess the suitability of bitumen for its use blender different climatic
condition and type of construction.
1. Penetration Apparatus
2. Penetration Needle
3. Sample Container
4. Transfer Dish
5. A three-legged stand
6. Water Bath
7. Thermometer
I. Heat the sample with care, stirring when possible to local
overheating, until it has become sufficiently fluid to pour.
In no case should the temperature be railed to more than 90oC
above the expected softening point of asphalt. (In case 60/80,
temperature is approximately 140oC) do not heat samples for more
than 30 min.

132
II. Pour the sample into the sample container to a depth such that.
When cooled to temperature of test. The depth of the sample is at
least 10mm greater than the depth to which the needle is
expected to penetrate.
III. Remove the bubbles in the sample by a flame.
IV. Loosely cover container as protection against dust and allow
cooling in air at a temperature between 15 and 30oC for 1 to 1.5h.
V. Place the sample together with the transfer dish in the water both
maintained at 25± 0.1oC. Allow the sample to remain for 1 to 1.5h.
3. Procedure
I. Clean a penetration needle with toluene or other suitable solvent. Dry with
a clean cloth and insert the needle into the pentameter. Place the sample
container in the transfer dish cover the container completely with water
from the constant temperature both and place the transfer dish on stand of
the penetrometer.
II. Position the needle by slowly lowering it until its tip just makes contact with
the surface of the sample. This is accomplished by bringing the actual
needle tip into from a properly place source of light.
Note: - The positioning of the needle can be materially aided by using a
flash light.
III. Either note reading of the penetrometer dial or bring the pointer to
zero.
IV. Quickly release the needle holder for the specified period of time
(5sec).
V. Adjust the instrument to measure the distance penetrated in tenth
of a millimeter.
VI. Make at least three determinations at points on the surface of the
Sample not less than 10mm from the side of the container and not
less than 10mm apart. Use a clean needle for each determination.
I. To determine the consistency of bituminous material;
II. To assess the suitability of bitumen for its use blender different
climatic condition and type of construction.
4. Report
Report the nearest whole unit the average of three determinations whose
values do not differ by more than the following.
5. Interpretation of results
Penetration test is a commonly adopted test on bitumen to grade the
material interims of its hardness AC 80/100 trade bitumen indicates that its
penetration value lies between helps to assess its suitability for use in
different climatic conditions and types of construction. In warmer regions
lower penetration grades are proffered to avoid softening where as higher
penetration grades like 180/200 are used in colder regions so that excessive
brittleness does not over. Highest penetration grade is used in spray
application works.
Test Method for Softening point test (Ring and ball Apparatus)
1. Concept and significance

133
The softening point is the temperature at which the substance attains a
particular degree of softening. it is the temperature at which a standard ball
passes through a sample of bitumen in a mould end falls through a height of
2.5cm, when heated under water at specified conditions of test. The binder
should have sufficient fluidity before its applications in road uses. The
determination of softening point helps to know the temperature up to which a
bituminous binder should be heated for various road use applications. Ring and
ball apparatus determines softening point.
2. Objective:-To determine the softening point of bitumen /tar/.
3. Apparatus
1. Ring
2. Balls
3. Ball centering guides
4. Bath
5. Ring Holder and Assembly
6. Magnetic Stirrer
7. Thermometer
8. Automatic softening point apparatus
9. Pouring Plate (Brass or glass plate)
4. Reagent and materials
1. Bath Liquids.......... Freshly boiled distilled water for softening
points between 30 and 80oC
2. Release Agents.................... silicone grease
3. Preparation of test specimen
I. Do not start unless it is planned to complete proportion and testing
of all asphalt specimens within 6h. Heat the sample with care,
stirring when possible to local overheating. until it has become
sufficiently fluid to pour. In no case should the temperature be
raised to more than 110oC above the expected softening point of
asphalt. Don not heat samples for more than 2h.
II. Heat the two rings to the approximate pouring temperature, and
place them on the pouring plate treated with silicone grease.
III. Pour a slight excess of the heated asphalt into each ring.
IV. Remove the bubbles in the sample by a flame. Allow the specimens
to cool in ambient air for at least 30min. From the time the
specimen disks are poured. No more than 240min shall elapse
before completion of the test.
V. When the specimens have cooled, cut away the excess asphalt
cleanly with a slightly heated knife, so that each disk is flush and
level with the top of its ring.
VI. Assemble the apparatus in the laboratory hood with the specimen
ring, ball centering guides, and thermometer in position, and fill the
bath so that the freshly boiled distilled water depth will be 105 ±
3mm with the apparatus in place. Using forceps, place the two steel
balls in the bottom of the bath so they will reach the same starting
temperature as the rest of the assembly. Maintain the staring bath
temperature at 5± 1oC for15 min with the apparatus in place.

134
VII. Again using forceps, place a ball from the bottom of the bath in
each ball-centering guide.
VIII. Heat the bath from below so that the temperature indicated by the
thermometer rise at a uniform rate of 5oC/min. Operate automatic
softening point apparatus is accordance with manual.
IX. Record for each ring and ball the temperature indicated by the
thermometer at the instant the asphalt surrounding the ball touches
the bottom plate.
4. Report
Report to the nearest 0.2oC the mean of the temperatures recorded as the
softening points.
Softening point indicates the temperature at which binders possess the
sample viscosity. Bituminous mat’s does not have a definite melting point.
Rather the change of state from solid to liquid is gradual and over a wide
range of temperature. Softening point has particular significance for materials
that are to be used as joint and crack fillers. Higher softening point ensures
that they will not flow during service. In general, the higher the softening point,
the lesser the temperate susceptibility. Bitumen with higher softening point
may be preferred in warmer place.
Test method for Ductility Test
1. Concept & significance
It gives a measure of adhesive property of bitumen and its ability to stretch.
In a flexible pavement design, it is necessary that binder should form a thin
ductile film around the aggregates so that he physical interlocking of the
aggregate is improved. Binder mat's having insufficient ductility gets cracked
when subjected to repeated traffic loads and it provides pervious pavement
surface. Ductility of a bituminous mat's is ensured by the distance in
centimeters to which it will elongate before breaking when two ends of standard
briquette specimen of the matl are pulled apart at a specified speed and at a
specified temperature.
2. Objective
I. To measure the ductility of a given a sample of bitumen.
II. To determine the suitability of bitumen for its use in road construction.
3. Apparatus
1. Mold
2. Pouring Plate (Brass or glass plate)
3. Testing machine with a water bath
4. Thermometer
4. Procedure
I. Assemble the mold on a pouring plate. Thoroughly coat the surface of the
plate and interior surface of the sides a and a' of the mold with a thin layer
of silicone grease to prevent the material under that from sticking. The
plate upon which the mold is place shall be perfectly flat and level so that
the bottom surface of mold will be contact throughout.
II. Heat the sample with care, stirring when possible to local overheating,
until it has become sufficiently fluid to pour.

135
III. Pour the heated asphalt into the mold. In filling the mold. take care not to
disarrange the parts and thus distort the briquette.
IV. In filling, pour the material in a thin stream back and forth from end to end
of the mold until the mold is more than level full.
V. Let the mold containing the material cool to room temperature for a period
of from 30 to 40 min and then place it water bath maintained at the
specified temperature ± 0.1oC 30 min, Then cut off the excess asphalt with
hot knife to make the mod just level full.
VI. Place the plate and mold, with bisques specimen, tin the water both and
keep at he specified temperature ± 0.1oC for a period of from 85 to 95 min.
Then remove the briquette from the place, detach the side pieces, and
immediately test briquettes. Attach the ring at each end of the clips to the
pin in the testing machine and pull the two clips apart at uniform speed as
± 0.25 cm/min until the briquettes rupture.
Measure the distance in centimeters through which the clip shave been
pulled to produce rupture.
While the test is being made the water in tank of the testing machine shall
cover the specimen t above and below it by at least 2.5cm and shall be kept
continuously at the temperature specified within 0.5oC.
5. Report
A normal test is one in which the material between the two clips pulls
out to a point or thread has no cross sectional area. Report the average of
three normal tests as ductility of the sample.
The suitability of bitumen is judged, depending up on its type and
proposed use. Bitumen with low ductility value may get cracked especially in
cold weather.
Test Method for Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup
Bitumen by clever and open cup
The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the
application of test flame causes the vapors from the material is the lowest
temperature at which the applications of test flame causes the vapors from the
material momentarily catch fire in the form of a flash under specified conditions of
test.
At high temperatures, bituminous materials emit hydrocarbon vapors, which are
susceptible to catch fire. Therefore, the heating temperature of bituminous
materials should be restricted to aboid.
Hazardous conditions: - Flash point and fire point tests are used to determine the
temperature to which bituminous material can safely be heated.
2. Objective
To determine flash point and ire point of the bituminous material
3. Apparatus
1. Cleveland Open Cup Apparatus

136
2. Thermometers
3. Cup
4. Gas
4. Procedure
Fill the test cup with the sample so that the top of the meniscus of the
test specimen is exactly at the filling mark and place the test cup on the center
of the heater.
The temperate of the test cup and the sample shall not exceed 56oC below
the expected flash point. Destroy any air bubbles or foam on the surface of the
test specimen with a sharp knife or other suitable device and maintain the
required level of test specimen. If a foam persists the required level o test
specimen. OF a foam persists during the final stages of the test, terminate the
test and disregard any results.
Light the test flame and adjust it to a diameter of 3.2 to 4.8mm (1/8 to 3/16
in.) or to the size of the comparison bead, if one is mounted on the apparatus.
Apply heat initially at such a rate that the temperature as indicated by the
temperature measuring device increases 14 to 17oC/min. When the test
specimen temperature is approximately 56oC below the expected flash point
decrease the heat so that the rate of temperature rise during the last 28oC
before the flash point is 5 to 6oC min.
Apply the test flame when the temperature of the test specimen in
approximately 28oC below the expected flash point and each time thereafter at
a temperature reading that is a multiple of the test cup, at right angles to the
diameter which passes through the temperature measuring device.
With a smooth, continuous motion apply the test flame either in straight line or
along the circumference of a circle having a radius of at least 150± 1mm. The
center of the test flame shall move in a horizontal plane not more than 2mm
above the plane of the upper edge of the test cup and passing in one direction
only. At the time of the next test flame application, pass the test flame in the
opposite direction of the proceeding application. The time consumed in passing
the test flame across test cup in each case shall be approximately 1 ± 0.1s.
During the last 28oC rise in temperature prior to the expected flash pint, care
shall be taken to avoid disturbing the vapors in the test cup with rapid
movements or drafts near the test cup.
When foam persists on top of the test specimen during the last 28oC rise in
temperature prior to the expected flash point, terminate the test and disregard
any results.
Meticulous attention to all details relating to the test flame, size of the test
flame, and rate of temperature increase. And rate of the test passing the test
flam over the test specimen is required for proper results.
When testing materials where the expected flash point temperature is not
known, bring the material to be tested and the tests cup to a temperature no
greater than 50oC, or when the material required heating to be transferred into
the test cup bring the material to that temperature.
Record, as the observed flash point the reading on the temperature measuring
device at the time the test flame causes a distinct flash in the interior of the test
cup. The sample is deemed to have flashed when a large flame appears and
instantaneously propagates itself over the entire surface of the test specimen.

137
The application of the test flame can cause a blue halo or an enlarged flame
prior to the actual flash point. This is not a flash point and shall be ignored.
When a flash point is detected on the fist application of the test flame, the
test shall be discontinued, the result discarded, and the test repeated with a
fresh test fresh test specie men.
The first application shall be bat least 28oC below the temperature found when
the flash point was detected on the first application.
To determine the fire point, continue heating the test specimen after
recording the flash point such that the test specimen temperature increases at
a rate of 5 to 6oC/min. Continue the application of the test flame at 2oC intervals
until the test specimen ignites and sustains bring for a minimum of 5s. Record
the temperature of the test specimen to ignite. Sustain burring as the observed
fire point of the test specimen.
When the apparatus has cooled down to a safe handing temperature, less
than 60oC, remove the test cup and clean the test cup and the apparatus as
recommended by the manufacturer.
5. Report
Report the corrected flash point or fire point value, or both, as the
Method D 92 Cleveland open cup flash point or fire point, or both, or the test
specimen.
6. Calculation
Observe and record the ambient barometric pressure at the time of the test.
When the pressure differ from 101.3KPa, correct the flash point or fire point, or
both, as follows.
Corrected flash point= C 25(101.3-K)
C= Observed flash point, oC
K= Ambient barometric pressure, KPa
When ambient barometric pressure is below 101.3KPa, round up the
corrected flash point or fire point, or both the nearest 1 oC and record. When
ambient barometric pressure is above 101.3KPa, round down the corrected
flash point or fire point, or both, to the nearest
1oC and record.
The determination of flash Pont in helpful in assessing the safe limits
of heating the bitumen. The heating temperature of bitumen should be limited
well below the flash point.
Test Method for Saybolt Furol Viscosity of Bituminous Materials at
High Temperatures
Viscosity: - is the property by virtue of which it offers resistance to flow the
higher the viscosity, the slower will be the movements of the liquid the viscosity
affects the ability of the binder to speed, move in to and fill up the voids
between aggregates. It also plays an important role in coating of aggregates.
Highly viscous binder may not fill up the voids completely there by resulting in
poor density of the mix, At lower viscosity the binder doesn't hold the
aggregates together but just acts as lubricant. The viscosity of bituminous
binders falls very rapidly as the temperature rises. Since binders exhibit

138
viscosity over a wider range, it is necessary to use different methods for ht
determination of viscosity. For binders in liquid state (road tars and cut back
bituminous), the viscosity is determined as the time in seconds by 50 c.c. of the
mat’s to flow from a cup through a specified orifice under standard conditions of
test and at specified temperature.
2. Objective
To determine the viscosity of bitumen's binder
3. Apparatus
1. Saybolt Furol Viscometer and Bath
2. Displacement Ring
3. Cover
4. Saybolt Viscosity Thermometers
5. Bath Thermometers
6. Sieve, 850  m (No. 20)
7. Receiving Flask
Clean the viscometer thoroughly with xylene, remove all solvent from the
viscometer and its gallery, and dry well. Clean the displacement ring and
receiving dissension in the same manner. Xylene is a toxic and flammable
solvent all working areas shall be efficiently hooded and dept free of sparks and
open flames. If the viscometer is hot, vaporization of xylene can be reduced by
filling the tube rapidly and immediately allowing it to flow out through the orifice.
A wooden toothpick may be useful in cleaning the orifice.
Note: - The viscometer may be kept clean by filling with cylinder oil immediately
after each test and allowing the oil to remain in the viscometer for several
minutes before draining and cleaning with xylene as described above. If
desired. the viscometer may be kept filled with cylinder oil between runs,
draining and cleaning with xylene just before each test.
Set up the viscometer and bath in an area where they will not exposed to
drafts for repaid changes in air temperature, and dust or vapors that might
contaminate a sample. Place the receiving flask beneath the viscometer so that
the gradation mark on the flask is from 4 to 5 in. (100 to 130mm) below the
bottom of the viscometer tube, and so that the stream of liquid will just touch
the neck of the flask.
Fill the bath to at least 1/4 in (6 mm) above the overflow rim of the
viscometer with an appropriate bath medium for the selected test temperature
Provide adequate stirring and thermal control for the bath so that the
temperature of a test sample in the viscometer will not vary more than 0.5o F
(0.3oC) after reaching the selected test temperature.
Establish and control the bath temperature at the selected test temperature.
Standard test temperatures for measuring say bolt furol viscosities of
bituminous material are 250,275,300,325,350.400 and 450o F (121,
135,149,163,177,204, and 232oC).

139
Insert a cork stopper. Having a cord attached for its easy removal, into the
air chamber at the bottom of the viscometer the cork shall fit tightly enough to
prevent the escape of air, as evidenced by the absence of oil on the cork when
it is withdrawn later as described.
Place the displacement ring in the gallery of the viscometer.
Preheat a 1-lb (0.5kg) sample in a 16-oz (500-ml) seamless tin box of the
deep type on the electric hot plate to about 18 to 27o F (10 to 15oC) above the
selected test temperature. Use the medium temperature setting on the hot plate
for the first half hour, and the high temperature setting for the remainder of the
heating period. Avoid overheating initially because this might cause some
oxidation of the sample and alter its viscosity. Stir the sample occasionally
during the early stages of heating, but employ continuous stirring for the last
50o F (28oC). Complete the preheating in 2 h or less, and proceed immediately
with the viscosity determination. Reheating of any sample shall not be
permitted.
Preheat the 850-  m (No. 20) sieve to the selected test temperature, and
pour the geared sample through the sieve directly into the viscometer until the
level is just above the overflow rim.
Note: - 3-Just enough examples should overflow so that later removal of the
displacement ring will cause the excess to flow into the gallery without
completely filling it.
Place the cover on the viscometer over the displacement ring. and insert the
appropriate viscosity thermometer equipped with the thermometer support
though the hold in the center of the cover.
When the sample temperature remains constant, within 0.5 F (0.3oC) of the
test temperature during 1 min of continuous string withdraw the thermometer
and remove the cover from the viscometer. Immediately remove the
displacement ring. Check to be sure that the excess sample in the gallery is
below the level of the overflow rim. In addition, replace the cover on the
viscometer.
Check to be sure that the receiving flask is in proper position then snap the
cork from the viscometer using the attached cord, and start the timer at the
same instant. The elapsed time from filling the viscometer to snatches the
graduation mark on the reviving flak. Record the efflux time in seconds to the
nearest 0.1or 0.2 s.
Report values below 200 s to the nearest 0.5 s. Report values of 200 s or
higher to the nearest whole second.
The determination of time of flow of binder through the orifice give and indirect
measure of viscosity of tars & cutbacks. Higher the duration of flow, greater is
the viscosity; viscosity of binder is one of the criteria for their classification. The
viscosity of a particular agreed of road tar or cut back bitumen should fall with in
the ranges as given. Binders having very low viscosity can be advantageous is
used in exceptionally cold weather condition. High viscosity binders have to be
heated before their application.
4. Report
Report values below 200 s to the nearest 0.5 s. Report values of 200 s or
higher to the nearest whole second.

140
The determination of time of flow of binder through the orifice give and indirect measure
of viscosity of tars & cutbacks. Higher the duration of flow, greater is the viscosity;
viscosity of binder is one of the criteria for their classification. The viscosity of a particular
agreed of road tar or cut back bitumen should fall with in the ranges as given. Binders
having very low viscosity can be advantageous is used in exceptionally cold weather
condition. High viscosity binders have to be heated before.
CHAPTER FOUR
CONCRETE
Concrete is a conglomerate, stone like material composed essentially of three
materials, an admixture is added for a variety of specific purposes such as acceleration or
retardation of setting or hardening. The strength & quality of concrete depend not only on
the procedures in combining these materials & the skill involved in the placing & curing of
concrete.
In broad classification depending on cementing material used concrete can be
classified as; cement concrete & asphalt concrete.
4.1 Cement concrete is composed of; Portland cement, aggregate, & water.
Properties of fresh concrete
Workability:-Affected by the amount of water in the mix, size & shape of aggregate &
grading.
Consistency
Segregation
Bleeding

141
Properties of hardened concrete
Strength
Durability
Fire resistant
Permeability
4.2 Asphalt concrete is composed of bitumen (asphalt) & aggregate.
Properties of asphalt concrete
Stability
Flow
Striping value etc
The tests to be conducted to study these properties of concrete are broadly discussed
bellow.
4.3 TESTING OF CEMENT CONCRETE (fresh concrete)
Slump test
Objective: - To determine the consistency of concrete mixes of given proportion by slump
test.
Theory: - fresh concrete when unsupported will flow to the sides and sinking in height will
take place. This vertical settlement is known as slump. The work ability ease of (mixing
transporting, placing and compaction) of concrete depends on wetness of concrete
(consistency) i.e. water content as well as proportions of fine aggregate to coarse
aggregate and aggregate to
Materials: - Samples of concrete mixes to be tested
Apparatus:- slump cone apparatus, Tamping rod, trowel, Trays metal plate steel scale.
Procedure:-1. Put the mould on a straight and even solid table surface.
2. Moisten the frustum of a cone (test mould)
3. A sample of freshly mixed concrete (max grain 40 mm) this taken out from
the batch and w/n represents the average quality of the both has to be
placed in the root mould.
4. take care of a firm constellation during filling (use fact brackets)
5. Fill the freshly mixed concrete in a clean slump core in 4 successive layers
tamping cash layer properly (25 times) before adding another layer.
6. Strike off the excessive concrete with trowel from the top of the mould often
the final layer has been tamped
7. Remove the core immediately raising it slowly and carefully on the vertical
direction.
8. Notice the settlement in concrete cone and as soon it comes to stop,
measure the subsidence 9slump) i.e. d/f b/n the height of true slump mould
and the height of mount of the subsidized concrete coarse.
Note: - the total time taken for completion of the experiment should not exceed 3 minutes.
- Only there slump should be recorded. If shearer collapse occurs. Test be repeated
again
- Suitability of concrete mixes for various works can be adjusted by comparing the
values of slump so obtained with the standard recommendations.
Flow table Test
Objective;- the objective of the test id to determine the flow of concrete.

142
Theory:- The flow of concrete is very much related to its workability very workable
concrete has higher flow than harsh ones. Flow table test is an alternative test for
workability of concrete. If is carried cut by lifting and dropping a table with measured
amount of concrete specimen placed on its center and measuring its spread along six
symmetric diameters of the table. The result obtained is then correlated with workability of
the concrete.
Apparatus:-
1. Mold – a smooth metal carting in the form of frustum of a core 127 mm high with
254 mm bottom and 17/mm top diameter.
2. Flow table
3. Round , straight and non- metallic tamping rod- 16mm diameter and 600 mm
diameter and 600 mm n length having round tamping end.
4. measure tape
Procedure
1. immediately precedent the test wet the table top and clean it of all gritty material and
enwove the execs water
2. Firmly hold the in place centered on the fable and fill it in two racers each
approximating one half the owner of the meld. Rod each layer with is shakes is tribute
the strokes in a uniform manner our the chess- secret of the mold and punctuate in
the underlying layer
3. After the top surface hare been Eroded serine off the surface of a connect with a
frowcl or that the mold is exactly filled
4. Remove the Excel concrete which over flawed the mold and area are a of the fabric
out side the mold agar.
5. immediately remove the mold from the linarite by a seedy up ware pull. Then raise and
drip are table is fimes with is sec by revaluing the actuating can continuing at a
uniform rate
6. the diameter of the spread conferee shall be the acreage of bisymmetrically distributed
measurements
flew of the concrete shall be recorded as a parent increase in diameter of the spread
over the base diameter of the molded concrete (254m or 10 in )
caballeros
flow (%) = over of spread diameter (mm) -254 mm×100
254 mm
Compaction factor test
Objective :- To determine by compacting faintest the solvability of connate mixes of glen
proponent
Theory compared factor is adopted to fondue the covalently of comrade where the sire
of desalt exceed 40mm and the mixes are comparatively any the degree of
compacter in tries test is achieved by utterly the concerti to fall through standard
eyelet
Magentas samples of curie to be tested
Apparatus company taster apparatus trowels hand scoop impair rewhips maculae
Procedure - 1. wildcat the empty cylinder accurately and airiest its wed lit and fix it to
the Kane of the apparatus
2. Filter sample of the freshly mixed concrete of known water
cementation the upper hopper up to the dim .
3. Afar 2 mutes retire the frap door of the of the upper hopper and

143
Allow the concerti to fall that lower hopper
4. After the conferee has come to rest in the lower hopper and allow hopper
points its trap door strata so frat the concertino the cylinder this brings
concrete in to standard compact tin
5. Remove the oxen concoct above the fop of the ay ladder and after leanly all
sides proper with it
6. Refill the blinder with the same sample of concrete after fillips it in scam
layers with each layer mouthy compositely and weight it
Compaction fearer weight of partially compacted < 1.0
Weight of fully competed
Note the suitability of connate mixes the serious worries can adjudged by campanile
the values sore ceiled by complainer the vales sorrowed with the standard
recommendatrlers
- This ties is more snottily and précis with competed to the sump test
- frothy mixed concrete should be gently poured in the upper lopper and not pressed in it
-wealth’s should be reloaded to the nearest of 10 germs
-surds for stiff mix of cane
Vee –Bee consistometre test
Objection To measure directly the severability of concrete
Theory this in a good labial tartest to measles sorceries of misrule solidity shape of
confute to change slump one shape to lyrical shape in séances is known as vie bee
sere
Materials :- simpers of concrete to be tested
Apparatus: sibilant table a metal ret asset metal cone a standard iron stop with slam
disc etc
Procedure:- 1. slump test as desorbed earlier is performed paling the slump cone hide
the sheet metes cy lieder dial pot of the consist meter
2. The sans disc attached to the swivel iron is turned and placed on the tock of
the concreter in the pot
3. The electrical vibrate is then suited an and simulate messily a stop water
started
4. The vibration is continued till such a tine as the conical shape of the concrete
assumes a cylindrical shape
5 .this can be judged by observe the glass disc from tarter disappear once of
transparently immediately the stipulator is wired of
Vee Bee delve = the applied the comical shape of cheep into cy indexical shape.
- This meshed is airy suitable for deny dry concrete when slump be cannot be
measured by slump test.
- Bet her velars is too vigorous for concrete with a slump aerate than about sons
The for compressive strengths of concrete
Objective
-The mort objective of the fest is to determine the compromise striate of conceit
Theory the most common test for saddened conferee involutes tilling a sample of fresh
concrete and putting it in to special cube molds so tart when to measure the strength of
the concrete.
-the trencher of cerate specimen is affected by flacon the level water comet ratio I e as
karate gees up alone a acetic level the streets the amount of entrapped are and

144
therefore emeses the sterner of concrete gear(for each 1% of alt entrapped tree will be a
5-6 % loss of strength ) come to gaffes the hydrogen of cement and cheep the duration
of strengths by 30% and their at about 100c will have 7-day stretch nerved by 30 % and
there 28 day 15 % )this cauls for proper cure a to of about 200 c is recommended
Apparatus –mixer cubical mould (15*15*15) cm3 aviator spatula compressing strict
machine
Precedes. 1. Yes the same coherer mix for w/h workability is dat
2. Prepare cubical molds (15*15*15) cm3 and oiled term harder to easily scolding of
the concrete cubes
3. Fill the conferee in the cubical mad and vibrate horde to resole air bubbles for about 30
see
4. Smooth the surface and remove the excess commerce an the cubes molds by upping
spatula and also register mixable dare a the top of the conferee
5. Afro 2y host removes the conferee from the mold and cure in water till the required
date
6. Loot the concrete specimens to failure at, 3, 7 and 28 day’s of are busing retag move
and rondo the failure aisles
7. Calculate the stresses at the stresses at failure as in table besets
No Dart
qee(dals)
Dimensions Newest
(9m)
Volute
Cm3
Failure
Lead (lerp)
Comp
Ste (Mka)
Unit
We cut
(9m/am3)
L W H
1
2
3
As afro for ford 28 days
Note compacter by hand -when competing by hand a stand family brain used I e (steal
bar 16 mm in % 0 6 ,m : long and boll it punted at evils rued) the no of strokes pet
layer for cubical specimen is not Len than 35 stroked per lairs for 15 cm or 10 un
cubes 25 strokes pre layer the complete is filled into the mould in layers
approximating s cm depot
Compare by vibrates -when compacts by librarian each Cary is vibrated by
moans of an eclectic or pneumatic hammers or vibratory or by meme of suitable
vibrate table wail the specified If care is not taken severe segregator those place in the
mould w/h results eon street when cubes are crushed
TESTS FOR FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
Objective: the objective of the test is to determine the fissile strength of the cone ret
Throng :- This fest gives another way of estimating turnsole strength of concrete Suring
pure bending the member resisting the careen is subjected to internal actions or
stresses ( shear tensile and completive ) fire a bedding force applied down ward on a
memoir supported simply at its two reds fibers above the neutral axis are generally
subjected to compressive stresses and those below the neutral axis to tensile stresses
for this load and support “system portions of the member area the supports are
subjected to prelatic higher shear stressed than ensile than tensile steles .

145
In this test the concert member to be tested is supported as its ends and loaded at its
inferior load (loading halve at which the concrete crocus heavily) in then recorded and
used to determine the ensile stress at which the member and used to determine the
ensile stress at which the member failed I e its tensile strength
(a) center point leading
Apparatus –measuring rape
- Testing mach ire
Test specimens
-The test specimens shout have a span as nearly as practicable three times its depth as
tested The tear specimen shall be slept wet until time to test
Procedure
1. use the some mix for which the workability and comparers sterner rave been
determined.
2. relive(50*10*10)cm molds ready farthest and oil their insides to easily demitted
them later Roar curing outside the molds
3. place the concrete in the molds and vibrate it in order to remove air bubbles from
the mix
4. demand the concrete farer 14 hrs and cure it in water for fray so
5. load the specimen in bending the bending load to failure machine gradually
increasing the bending the bending load to failover
6. Record the failure load and use it to calculi the flexural stern at failure in the
table below that will be tae flexural streets if the concrete fasted
Coloration
C=0cm M= pL N ,m 1=bd3 m4 C,=Mc M pa
2 4 12 I
Where
P = failure load G =Bending strength
M = max moment L =span of specimer
I = moment of inertia O= depth of specimen
C = censorial depth B = worth of the speedier
Table computation of flexural strength for cone mar
No
Dimensions (cm) P
(kN)
M
(m 4)
I
(cm)
C
(cm)
6
(M pa)
1.
L B D
Mean

146
(B) Two –point ladies
-Apparatus –masonries tape
-seating machine
Tart specimen:-The fest specimens shall have a span as nearly as practicable three times
its teeth depth on tested the sides of the specimen shall be at vigor angles
with the top and bottom .
Procedure :-
1. pep at the procedures 1 to 4 for center point loading rest
2. Turn the test specimen an its side with respect to its position as molded and
chertier on the bearing blocks Bring the load applying blocks in contact with the
surface of the specimen at one third distance from the supports .
3. if full contact is not obtained b/n the specimen and the load applying blocks and
the spurts cap grind or shim with leather fraps the constant surfaced surface of
the specimen. Leather shims may be used only when the specimen surfaces in
contact with the blocks or supports decant from a plane by net mare then 0.38 m
m. the leather for the shims shall be of uniform 6.4 m m thickener 25 to 50 m m
width extending across the full width of the specimen .
4. Apply the load raptly up to approximately 50 % of the beveling load after which
you shall apply the load not exceed 0.105 kgf/mm2 per min
5. Record the failure load and use it to calculafe the flexural stern at failover in the
tare on the preceding papa. That will be the failure in the tabs on the preceding
apse. That will be the flexural strength of the concrete of the carafe tested.
Calculate
M = p L is the maximum moment for this lead erg
3
-All other parameters are the fame as for the center point loader and the stress resulting
are computed in the some inaner.
TESTING OF ASPHALT CONCRETE
ETERMINATION OF STRIPPING VALUE OF ROAD AGGREGATE
This test is conducted to determine the effects of moisture upon the
adhesion of the bituminous film to the bituminous film to the surface
particles of the aggregate. This test is of significant value to ascertain the
suitability of the two materials viz. bitumen (binder) and aggregates,
because one particular aggregate may be satisfactory with one binder and
unsatisfactory with another; and the same being true for the binders. The

147
specifications of ministry of transport and shipping recommend the
determinations of stripping value by the static immersion method in
accordance with IS 6241-1971.
2. Objectives
I. To determine the stripping value of aggregates used in road
construction;
II. To ascertain the suitably of road aggregates for bimanous rod
construction
3. Apparatus
I. Thermostatically controlled water bath.
II. Beakers of capacity 500 ml.
4. Procedure
The aggregate sample; the test sample consists of aggregate of size
passing 25mm sieve and retained on 12.5mm sieve.
I. Obtain the material that passes through 25mm sieve and is retained
on 12.5mm sieve.
II. Dry, clean and heat the binder and aggregates to 150-175oC
respectively and mix with 5 per cent binder by weight of aggregate.
III. After complete coating, allow the mixture to cool at room
temperature in clean dry beaker.
IV. Add distilled water to immerse the coated aggregates.
V. Cover the beaker and deep it undisturbed in thermostatic water
both at a temperature of 40oC for a period of 24 hours.
VI. Estimate the extent of stripping by visual examination while the
specimen is still under water and express as the average percent
area of aggregate surface uncoated.

148
Note: - Three samples may be tested simultaneously so as to arrive at
an average value. The stripping value is expressed to the nearest
whole number.
5. Precautions
I. The aggregates should be thoroughly dried before mixing with
binder.
II. Distilled water should be used for the test.
III. Mix-up of the two separate samples should be uniform.
6. Interoperation of results
The results of the stripping test give an indication regarding
susceptibility of aggregates to the action of water, or moisture. The
more the stripping value, the poorer are the aggregates from point of
view of adhesion. IRV has specified the maximum stripping value of
25% for aggregates to be used in bituminous road construction.
4.5 MIX DESIGN OF CEMENT CONCRETE
PROCEDURE
The procedure for selection of mix proportions given in our case is applicable to
normal weight concrete. Although the same basic data and procedural can be used in
proportioning heavy weight and mass concretes.
Step 1. Choice of slump
Table a. Recommended slumps for various types of constructions
Types of construction Sump (MM)

149
Maximum Minimum
- Reinforced foundation wall and footings 76 25
- Plain footing, caissons and substructure
walls.
75 25
Beam and reinforced wall 100 25
- Building columns 100 25
Pavements and slabs 75 25
- Mass concrete 75 25
Step 2. Choice of nominal maximum size of aggregate
Step 3. Estimation of mixing water and air content
Table b. Approximate mixing water and air content requirements for different slumps and
nominal maximum size of aggregates
Slump (mm) Water kg/m3 of concrete for indicated normal maximum sizes of
aggregate
9.5 12.5 19 25 37.5 50 75 150
Non-air entrained concrete
25 to 50 207 199 190 179 166 154 130 113
75 to 100 228 216 205 193 181 169 145 124
150 to 175 243 228 216 202 190 178 160 -
Approximate amount of
entrapped air in non air
entrained concrete percent
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.3 0.2
Air- entrained concrete
2 to 50 181 175 168 160 150 142 122 107
75 to 100 202 193 175 175 165 157 133 119
150 to 175 216 205 184 184 184 166 154 -
Mild exposure 4.5 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0
Moderate exposure 6.0 5.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.6 3.0
Extreme exposure 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 4.5 4.0
Step 4. Selection of water cement ratio
Table: c Relation ships between water cement ratio and compressive strength of
concrete.
compressive strength at 28 days
(Mpa)
Water cement ratio by mass
Non air entrained
concrete
Air-entrained
concert
40 0.42 -
35 0.47 3.39
30 0.54 0.45
25 0.61 0.52
20 0.69 0.60
15 0.79 0.70
Step 5. Calculation of cement content
Step 6. Estimation of coarse aggregate content

150
The dry mass of coarse aggregate required for a cubic meter of concrete is equal to
the value from table (d) multiplied by the dry-rodded unit mass of the aggregate in
kilograms per cubic meter.
Table (d) - Volume of coarse aggregate per unit of of volume of concrete
Nominal maximum size of aggregate
(mm)
Volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregate per
unit volume of concrete for different fineness
modulus of time aggregate
2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
9.5 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
12.5 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
19 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
25 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
37.5 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
50 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72
75 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76
150 0.78 0.25 0.83 0.81
Step 7 Estimation of fine aggregate content /see table (e) insert table (e) at the above
of this page
Table (e) - First estimate of mass of fresh concrete
Nominal max. size of aggregate
First estimate of concrete unit mass
kg/m3
Non-air entrained
concrete
Air-entrained
concrete
9.5 2280 2200
12.5 2310 2223
19 2345 2275
25 2380 2290
375 2410 2350
50 2445 2345
75 2490 2405
100 2530 2435
Step 8. Trial batch adjustment
The estimated mixing water to produce the same slump as the trial batch will be equal to
the net amount of mixing water used divided by the yield of the trial batch in m3. If the
slump of the trial batch was not correct, increase or decrease the re-estimated water
content by 2kg/m3 of concrete for each increase or decrease of 10mm in slump desired.
Experiment

151
project :-Senior Location :-Tikur Abay Crusher site
Description ;-crushed
aggregate
Tested by:- Group
members
Remarks:-
laboratory
Laboratory test result
 Nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate 50mm
 Dry mass of coarse aggregate = 1558 kg/m3
 Bulk sp. gravity of coarse aggregate = 2.68
 Absorption of coarse aggregate 2.45%
 Air dry moisture content of C.A = 1.07%
 Bulk sp. gravity of F.A = 1.81
 Absorption of F.A = 3.9%
 Air dry moisture content of F.A = 6.4%
 Fineness modules of F.A = 3.3 = 3
 Sp. gravity of cement 3.15
Solution
Step1. The slump is required to be 75 to 100mm
Step2. The estimating mixing water is 169 kg/m3
Step3. Compressive strength at 28 days 25Mpa water cement ratio by mass for non-air
entrained concrete is 0.61
Step4. Required cement content = 169 = 277 kg/m3
0.61
step5. Quantity of coarse aggregate for a fine aggregate having fineness modules of 3.0
and 50mm N. m. s is 0.72*1558 = 1122kg
Step6. mass basis
weight of fresh concrete for N. m. size = 0.5mm is 2445kg.
masses already known are water = 169kg
cement = 277kg
C.A = 1122kg
Total = 1568kg
Estimated fine aggregate is 2445kg -1568kg = 877kg
Absolute volume basis
Volume of water - 169 = 0.169 m3
1000
Solid volume of cement 277 = 0.088m3
3.15*1000
Volume of coarse aggregate 1122 = 0.42m3
2.68*1000

152
Volume of entrapped air = 0.01 * 1.00= 0.01m3
 Total solid volume of ingredients except fine aggregate is 0.686m3
 Solid volume of F.A required = 1.00 - 0.686m3 = 0.314m3
 Required weigh of dry fine aggregate
= 0.314m3 * 1,81 *1000 = 568kg
 Compared the two basis bellow
Based on estimated Based on absolute
Concrete mass (kg) volume of ingredients (kg)
Water 169 169
Cement 277 277
L.A 1122 1122
F.A 877 568
Step7. Test indicate total moisture of 6.4% the F.A and 1.07% in the C.A
The adjusted aggregate mass
CA = 1122* (1+0.0107) = 1134kg
F.A = 877 * (1+0.064) = 933kg
Surface water contributed by
Coarse aggregate = 1.07 - 2.45 = -1.38%
Fine aggregate = 6.4 - 3.9 = 2.5%
 The estimated requirement of added
169 - 1122 (-1.38) - 877 (2.5) = 163kg
100 100
 The estimated batch mass for a cubic meter of concrete
Water = 163kg
Cement = 277kg
C.A = 1134kg
F.A = 933kg
Step8. For laboratory trial batch, to produce 0.02m3 consent use
Water = 3.26 kg
Cement = 5.54kg
C.A (wet) = 22.68kg
F.A (wet) = 18.66kg
Total 50.14kg
The concrete has a measured slump 50 mm and unit mass of 2390Kg/m3. It is judged
to be satisfactory from the stand point of workability an finishing properties. The following
adjustment are made. Since the yield of the trial batch was
50.14/2390=0.021
And mix water content
3.26(add) + 0.34 (on course aggregate) + 0.84(on fine aggregate) = 4.44kg, the mixing
water required for a cubic meter of concrete with the same slump as the trial batch should
be
4.44/0.0211 = 215kg
. This amount must be increased another 8 kg to raise the slump from the measured
some to the desired 75 to 100mm range. Bringing the total mixing water to 223kg,

153
With the increased mixing water, additional cement will be required to provide the desired
water cement ratio of 0.6 the new cement content become
223/0.61 = 366
Since workability was found to be satisfactory the quantity of course aggregate per
unit volume of concrete will be maintained the same as in the trial batch.
22.68 = 1080 kg wet
0.021
Which is 1080 = 1050 kg dry
1.02
And 1059 * 1.0245 = 1085 kg saturated surface dry (SSD)
The new estimate for the mass of a cubic meter of concrete is measured unit mass of
2390 kg/m3
The amount of fine aggregate required is
2390 – (223 + 1080 + 366) = 716SSD
716/1.039 = 689 kg dry
The adjusted masses per cubic meter of concrete are
Water (net mixing ) – 223
Cement ---- 366
C.A (dry).. 1059
F.A (dry) .. 689
8. Quantities used in the nominal 0.02m3 batch are
Water . 3.26kg
Cement .. 5.54kg
C.A .. 22.68kg
F.A.. 18.05kg
Total 49.48kg
Measured slump 50 mm unit mass 2390 kg/m3 yield
49.48 = 0.0207m3 workability ok
2390
Re- estimated water for same slump as trial batch
3.260 + 0.34 +0.84 = 214
0.0207
Mixing water required for slump of 75 to 100mm
214 + 8 = 222 kg
Adjusted cement content for increased water
222 = 359 kg
0.62
Adjusted coarse aggregate requirement
22.68 = 1100 kg , OR 1100/1.02 = 1080kg dry
0.0207
The volume of ingredients other than air in the original trial batch was
Water = 4.44 = 0.0044m3
1000
Cement = 5.54 = 0.00176m3
3.15*1000
Coarse aggregate = 22.44 = 0.00837m3
2.68*1000

154
Fine aggregate = 11.36 = 0.00628m3
1.81*1000
Total = 0.0209m3
Since the yield was also 0.0201 m3, there was no air in the concrete, detectable with in
the precision of the unit mass test and significant figures of the calculations.
Determination of adjusted cubic meter batch quantities can be completed as
follows:
Volume of water = 222 = 0.222m3
1000
Volume of cement = 359 = 0.114
3.15*1000
Volume of C.A = 1080 = 0.403
2.68*1000
Total volume exclusive
Of fine aggregate = 0.739m3
Volume of fine aggregate required = 1000 - 0.739 = 0.261m3
Mass of fine aggregate = 0.261 * 1.81 * 1000 = 472
(dry basis)
The adjusted basic batch weights per cubic meter of concrete, then, are,
Water (net mixing ) = 222kg
Cement = 359kg
Coarse aggregate = 1080 kg
Fine aggregate = 472 kg
4.6 Hot – Mix Asphalt Mix Design
Introduction
Hot-Mix Defined
Hot- Mix asphalt (HMA) Consists of a combination of aggregate uniformly mixed
and coated with asphalt cement. To dry the aggregate and to obtain sufficient and asphalt
must be heated prior to mixing hence the term hot mix.
Considerations in Mix Design

155
To properly design a dense graded asphalt paving mixture for a specific application
irrespective of the laboratory procedure employed, consideration must be given to the
following desirable mix properties.
* Stability * Fatigue resistance * Workability
*Durability * Skid resistance
* Flexibility * Impermeability
Stability :- is the ability of asphalt paving mixture to resist deformation from imposed lads.
Durability:- is the property of an asphalt paving mixture that describes its ability to resist
the detrimental effects of air, water temperature and traffic.
Flexibility:- is the ability of an asphalt paving mixture to be able to bend slightly, with out
cracking, and to conform to gradual settlements and movements of the base and sub
grade.
Fatigue Resistance:- is the ability of asphalt pavement to with stand repeated flexing
caused by the passage of wheel loads.
Skid Resistance:- is the ability of asphalt paving surface, particularly when wet, to after
resistance to slipping or skidding.
Permeability:- is the resistance that an asphalt pavement has to the passage of air and
water into or through the pavement.
Workability:- is the ease with which paving mixtures may be placed and compacted.
Objectives
To determine an economical blend and gradation of aggregates ( with in the
specification limits) and a corresponding asphalt content
Schedule of samples and Tests
The following schedule of quantities id suggested.
 4 liters asphalt cement
 23 kg coarse aggregate (or rock)
 23 kg fine aggregates (or sand)
 9kg mineral filler (when required)
♣ Each sample of material should be identified by source location, project location,
and project or job number.
♣ Asphalt cement samples should be in clean, small metal containers with tight lids or
covers to prevent reheating to the entire supply each time a mix is tested.
♣ Tests should be listed in their proper and logical sequence.
Preparation of Test Mixes
1. Drying aggregates to constant weight,
2. Dry sieving aggregates in to desired size fractions,
3. Weighing aggregates for batch mixes,
4. Heating aggregate batch mixes in the oven
5. Placing aggregate batch mixes in mixing bowl,

156
6. Adding prescribed amounts of hot asphalt to batch, and
7. Mixing aggregate and asphalt together.
 Most of the time in Ethiopia we used Marshall Method of mix Design.
Marshall Method of mix Design
Out line of Method
The procedure for the Marshall method starts with the preparation of test
specimens. Preliminary to this operation the following are required.
1) That the materials proposed for use meet the requirements of the project
specifications.
2) That aggregate blend combinations meet the gradation requirements of the project
specifications,
3) That, for use in density and voids analyses, the bulk specific gravity of all aggregates
used in the blend, and the specific gravity of the asphalt cement, are determined.
- The Marshall method uses standard cylindrical test specimens of 64mm height x 102mm
diameter. These are prepared using a specified procedure for heating. Mixing and
compacting the asphalt aggregate mixtures.
Preparation of Test Specimens
A series of test specimens is prepared for a range of different asphalt contents so
that the test data curves show a well –defined “Optimum” Value.
Tests should be scheduled on the basis of ½ percent increments of asphalt
content, with at least two asphalt contents above “ Optimum” and at least two below
“Optimum.”
The equipment required for the preparation of test specimens is as follows.
 Pans
 Oven and Hot plate,
 Scoop
 Thermometers
 Balance 5kg capacity
 Mixing spoon
 Spatula
 Mechanical Mixer (optional)
 Boiling water bath
 Compaction pedestal
 Compaction mold
 Compaction Hammer,
 Mold Holder
 Extrusion Jack
 Gloves
 Marking crayons,
 The following steps are to be followed in preparing specimens.

157
a) Number of Specimens:- Prepare at least three, and preferably five, specimens for
each combination of aggregates and asphalt content.
b) Preparation of Aggregates:- Dry aggregates to constant weight at 105o C to 110oC
and separate the aggregates by dry-sieving into the desired size fraction.
c) Determination of Mixing and compaction Temperature:- The temperature to which
the asphalt must be heated to produce viscosities of 170  20 centistokes
kinematics and 280  30 centistokes kinematics shall be established as the mixing
temperature and compaction temperature, respectively.
d) Preparation of Mold and Hammer:- thoroughly clean and heat them in a boiling
water bath or on the hot plate to a temperature between 93oC and 149oC
e) Preparation of Mixtures:- Weigh in to separate pans for each test specimen the
amount of each size fraction required to produce a batch that will result in a
compacted specimen 63-5 1.3mm in height. This will normally be about 1.2kg.
f) Compaction of specimens:- place the entire batch in the mold, spade the mixture
vigorously with a heated spatula or trowel 15 time around the perimeter and ten
time over the interior.
g) Replace the collar:- place the mold assembly on the compaction pedestal in the
mold holder.
Mix Design test Procedure
In the Marshall method each compacted test specimen is subjected to the following
tests and analysis in the order listed.
 Bulk specific gravity determination
 Stability and Flow Test
 Density and Voids Analysis
See the methods of testing in chapter -1
Interpretation of Test Data
The stability and flow values and void data are prepared as follows:
1) Measured stability values for specimens that depart from the standard 63.5mm
thickness shall be converted to an equivalent 63.5mm value by means of a conversion
factor, Applicable correlation ratios to convert the measured stability values are set
forth in table.
2) Average the flow values and the converted stability values for all specimen of a given
asphalt content. values that are obviously in error shall not be included in the average.
3) Prepare a separate graphical plot for the following values as illustrated in fig.
 Stability Vs. .Asphalt content
 Flow Vs. Asphalt content
 Unit weight of Total Mix Vs. Asphalt content
 Percent Air voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA) Vs. Asphalt content.
 Percent Voids Filled with Asphalt (VFA) Vs. Asphalt content.
In each case connect the plotted values with a smooth curve that obtains the “best-fit” for
all values.

158
The test property curves, fig – have been found to follow a reasonably consistent
pattern for dense-graded asphalt paving mixes. Trends generally noted are out lined as
follows:-
♣ The stability value increases with increasing asphalt content up to a maximum after
which the stability decreases.
♣ The flow value increases with increasing asphalt content.
♣ The curve for unit weight of total mix is similar to the stability curve, except that the
maximum unit weight normally (but not always) occurs at a slightly higher asphalt content
then the maximum stability.
♣ The percent of air voids decreases with increasing asphalt content, ultimately
approaching a minimum void content.
♣ The percent voids in the mineral aggregate generally decrease to a minimum value
then increase with increasing asphalt contents.
♣ The percent voids filled with asphalt increases with increasing asphalt content.
 The design asphalt content of the a asphalt paving mix is determined by
considering test data describe above.
First. Determine the asphalt content where the percent air voids is equal to four percent.
Then, all of the calculated and measured mix properties at this asphalt content should be
evaluated by comparing them to the mix design criteria see table
Table f: Marshall Design criteria
Marshall Method Mis
criteria
Light Traffic Surface
& Base
Medium Traffic
Surface & Base
Heavy Traffic Surface &
Base
Min Max Min Max Min Max
Compaction, number
of blows each end of
specimen
35
50
75
Stabling, N 3336 5338 8006
Flow, 0.25mm 8 18 8 16 8 14
Percent Air voids 3 5 3 5 3 5
Percent voids filled
with Asphalt (VFA)
70 80 65 75 65 75
Table 2: Stability Correlation Ratios
Volume of Specimen
(cm3)
A Approximate Thickness
of Specimen (mm)
Correlations Ration
200 to 213 25.4 5.56

159
214 to 225 27.0 5.00
226 to 237 28.6 4.55
238 to 250 30.2 4.17
251 to 264 31.8 3.85
265 to 276 33.3 3.57
277 to 289 34.9 3.33
290 to 301 36.5 3.03
302 to 316 38.1 2.78
317 to 328 39.7 2.50
329 to 340 41.3 2.27
341 to 353 42.9 2.08
354 to 367 44.4 1.92
368 to 379 46.0 1.79
380 to 392 47.6 1.67
393 to 405 49.2 1.56
406 to 420 50.8 1.47
421 to 431 52.4 1.39
432 to 443 54.0 1.32
444 to 456 55.6 1.25
457 to 470 57.2 1.19
471 to 482 58.7 1.14
483 to 495 60.3 1.09
496 to 508 61.9 1.04
509 to 522 63.5 1.00
523 to 535 64.0 0.96
536 to 546 65.1 0.93
547 to 559 66.7 0.89
560 to 573 68.3 0.86
574 to 585 71.4 0.83
586 to 598 73.0 0.81
599 to 610 74.6 0.78
611 to 625 76.2 0.76
Voids filled with asphalt (VFA)
* VFA = 100 (VMA –pa) Where VFA = voids filled with asphalt percent of VMA
VMA VMA = Voids in the mineral aggregate, percent of bulk
volume
Pa = air voids in compacted mixture, percent
VMA = 100 





sb
Gmbps
6
Where = Gsb = bulk sp-gravity of aggregate
Gmb = bulk sp gravity of compacted mixture
Ps = aggregate, percent by total weight of mixture.

160
Pa = 100 Gmm - Gmb = where Pa =air voids in compacted mixture, percent of total
volume
Gmm Gmm = Maximum specific gravity of paving mixture
Gmb = bulk sp. Gravity of compacted mixture.
CHAPTER FIVE
BUILDING MATERIALS
Building materials are the major components of a building to achieve the structure safely
and to use the building for the expected use. To achieve this requirement of a building the
material of the building should achieve the standard requirement of the material. Out of
many building materials the followings are the major building material units.
5.1 Hollow Concrete block (HCB)

161
- Hollow concrete blocks are masonry units made of various ingredient cement,
aggregate such as sand gravel, crushed stone, clay, pumice and scoria and in
addition water.
- According to Ethiopian standard hollow concrete blocks are classified in to three:_
Class A, Class B, and class C Class A and B load bearing units suitable for Use as:-
- External walls pointed rendered, plastered
- The inner leaf of cavity walls or as backing to bricking to brick or stone masonry.
- Internal walls and part ions
- Panels in steel of framed and reinforced concrete framed buildings.
Class C, Non – load bearing units suitable for use as-
- Non – load bearing walls and partitions
- Non – load bearing internal panels in steel framed and reinforced concrete framed
buildings.
Test conducted on HCB:- The compressive strength of HCB
- Six full size samples shall be taken from a lot of 4000 blocks
- The minimum compressive strength of HCB according to ECD 3 301 is indicated
below.
Table 1
Class Average of 6 Units Individual Units
MPa Kg/cm2 MPa Kg/cm2
A 4.2 42 3.8 38
B 3.5 35 3.2 32
C 2.0 20 1.80 18
As like hollow concrete blocks solid concrete blocks have the following minimum
compressive strength.
Table 2
Class Average of six blocks (Mpa)
A A 12
A AA 8.4
Apparatus :-
- Test machine for compressive strength
- Apparatus for making mortar
Procedure :-
1. Measure the dimensions of each blocks for check
2. make the contact surfaces with the testing machine of each sample plane by
capping with 1.1 mortar of 2 to 3mm thickness (ESCO 4.001) the caps shall be
aged for at least 24 hrs before the samples are tested.
3. Place each sample in position such that the load is applied in the same direction as
in service and the sample is centralized b/n the pressure surfaces.
4. Increase the compressive force at the rate of 0.2 – 0.5 N/mm2 (2.5 kg/m2 until the
sample breads.
5. Record the maximum load

162
Computation of compressive strength of concrete blocks
No
Dimensions (cm)
Area (cm2)
Failure load
(Ku)
Compressive
strength
(Mpa)
L W H
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean
5.2 SOLID CLAY BRICKS
- Bricks are most widely used for the construction of structural or non structural
walls. Bricks shall be free from deep and extensive cracks. It should be well burnt
and have uniform colors and texture.
- Bricks shall be classified according to numerical value of their compressive
strength, water absorption, saturation coefficient, and efflorescence as indicated
below. (ESCD 4 001)
Table 3
-
- The method and the apparatus of measuring of compressive strength of brick is as like
the compressive strength of HCB techniques.
Absorption test for Bricks:-
There are two tests for determining water absorption percent by mass for common bunt
bricks.
b) Test by 24 Hour immersion in cold water
c) Test by 5 hour boiling water immersion
a) absorption test by 24 – hour immersion in cold water
Procedure
i) Dry the brick specimen in an over maintained it constant temperature of 1050 c-
1100 c, till it attains constant mass.
Class Minimum compressive
strength
Max water
absorption %
Max – saturating
coefficient
Maximum
unit
weight
kg/m3
Average of
fire brick
(Mpa)
Individual
brick
(Mpa)
Averag
e of five
bricks
Individual
bricks
Average
of five
bricks
Individu
al brick
A 20 17.5 21 23 0.96 0.99
B 15 12.5 22 24 0.96 0.99
C 10 7.5 No limit No limit No limit No limit 2200
D 7.5 5.0 No limit No limit No limit No limit

163
ii) Cool the brick at room temperature (270 c + 20c) and find its mass (M1)
iii) Immerse completely the brick specimen in water at room temperature (27 0c +
20c)
iv) Take out the specimen from water and wipe out all the traces of surface water
with a damp cloth so that no additional water remains. Find the mass (M2) of
the brick.
v) Compute the % water absorption from the relation.
Percent water absorption = M2- M1 x100
M1
 The average absorption of all – the specimens tested is reported as the absorption
of the lot of brick.
d) Absorption test by 5 hours immersion in boiling water
Procedure:-
i) Dry the brick specimen in an over maintained it constant temperature of 1050c
- 110 00, till it attains constant mass.
ii) Cool the specimen at room temperature (27 0c + 200c) and find its mass (M1)
iii) immerse the brick specimen at room temperature of water so that there is free
circulator of water around the brick. Stir the water off and on to remove
entrapped air. Heat the water at such a rate that is starts boiling in 1 hour.
iv) Stop heating and allow the content to cool at room temperature (270c + 50c) by
natural loss of heat for 16 19 hours. Take the specimen out of water, let the
gravitational water drain out and wipe the surface y a damp cloth.
v) Find the mass (M2) of brick
vi) Compute the water absorption percent by mass from the relation
Water absorption = M2 – M1 x 100
M1
Note: - The saturation coefficient is the ratio of absorption after 24 hours immersion in
cold water to that after 24 hrs immersion and 5 hrs boiling.
Efflorescence test for brick:-
- Efflorescence is a whitish powder of crystallization on brick missionary walls caused by
water soluble salts deposited on the surface up on evaporation of water. To overcome
effoveseuce. It is necessary to cheek types of brick; quality and quality of water used
type of mortar and particularly the type of admixture (if used).
Apparatus:-
- Trays and containers watertight shallow pans or trays made of metal or other
material that will not provide soluble salts whey in contact with distilled water
containing from brick.
- Drying room:- maintained at a temperature of 24 + 80c with relative humidity
between 30 – 70 %
- Drying oven:- that provides a free circulation of air through the over and in capable
of marinating a temperature b/n 110 + 50c

164
Preparation of samples:-
- Ten dry full size brick shall be tested
- The ten specimens shall be sorted in to five pairs so that both specimen of each
pair with have the same appearance.
- The specimens shall be tested as received except that any adhering divot that
might mistake for efflorescence shall be removed by brushing.
Procedure:-
1. Set one specimen from each of the fire pairs on end, partially immersed distilled
water to depth of approximately 1 in for 7 days in the drying room. When several
specimens are tested in the same container, the individual specimen shall be
separated by space of at least 2 in.
2. Store the second specimen, from each of the five pairs in the drying room without
contact with water.
3. At the end of 7 days inspect the 1st set of specimens and then dry both sets in
drying oven for 3 days.
Examination and rating:-
After drying, examine and compare each pair of specimens, observing the top and all
four faces of each specimen. If there is no observable difference due to efflorescence,
report the rating as “no efflorescence “. If any difference due to efflorescence is noted the
specimens shall be viewed from a distance of to if under in illumination of not less than
soft candles by an observer with normal vision. If under there conditions no
efflorescence’s is noted, report the rating is “Slightly efflorescence’s” . If a perceptiable
difference due to efflorescence is noted under these conditions report the rating as
“Efflorescence”.
Table 4
Class Efflorescence
A, B Nil to slight
C, D Efflorescence
5.3 Building stone-
- Stone is a naturally occurring material and is usually obtained from quarries for
construction purposes. It is used to construct different parts of building such as
foundation, floors, walls and lintels and to construct retaining walls bridges and tams.
Testing of stone
- The assessment of difference properties the following tests are conducted
.
1. Acid test

165
2. Attrition test
3. Absorption test
4. Crushing strength test
5. Hardness test
6. Impact test
7. Specific gravity test
1. Acid test:- this test is carried out on stone to check the weathering resistance,
especially for sand stone.
Procedures:-
i) Take about 50 to 100 gm of stone dips
ii) immerses them in solution of hydrochloric acid for 7 days
iii) Agitate the solution it intervals
iv) Take out the dips and dry them
v) Examine the edges and corners of the dips for their sharpness
- A good building stone will maintain the sharp edges and will keep its surface free from
powder. Such will have good weathering resistance. If the edges are broken and powder
is formed on the surface presence of calcium carbonate will be indicated and such stone
will have poor weathering resistance.
2. Attrition test: - The aim of this test is to determine the resistance of the stone to
abrasion specially for those stones which are to be used for path ways pavements and
roads subjected to the grinding action of the traffic.
Procedure
i) Take about 5 kg mass of crushed stone ballast of a bout 60 cm size and put it
in cylinder of daval’s testing machine.
ii) Rotate the cylinder at 30 revolution per minutes (RPM) for 5 hours
iii) Stop the machine take out the contents and sieve them through 2mm sieve.
iv) Weigh the portion retained on the sieve and calculate the loss of mass the
percent wear is given by:-
Percent wear = M1 – M 2 x 100 Where M1 = Initial mass of stone ballast (5kg)
M1 M2 = Final mass of stone ballast
4. Absorption test:- The water absorption test is carried out to determine the quality
of stone.
Procedure:-
i) Take about 500 gm of crushed stone passing through 20mm sieve and wash it
to remove all the dust particles
ii) Place these washed stone pieces in the over operating a t 105 0c for 3 days so
that all the moisture is evaporated.
iii) Take out the stone pieces from the over and cool them at room template
iv) Weigh 50- 100 gm of specimen and immerse them in distilled water for 3 days it
a temperature b/n 200c – 300c
v) Take out the specimen from the distilled water

166
% absorption = M1 – M 2 x 100 Where M1 = Initial mass of stone ballast (5kg)
M1 M2 = Final mass of stone ballast
4) Crushing strength test:-
- This test is conducted on a compression test machine. The test samples are either in
the form of cubes or cylinders which are finely dressed or finished from all sides. The
diameter or the least lateral dimensions is not less than 40 mm with ratio of height to
diameter or least lateral dimension as 1.1. The minimum number of specimens is three.
Procedure:-
1. Prepare a minimum three number of specimens which are well dressed or finished
from all sides.
2. Keep the specimens immersed in water for 72 hours at room temperature since the
specimens are to be tested under saturated condition.
3. Take out the specimen and cover the two bearing surfaces either with plaster of
pairs or 5 mm thick plywood.
4. Put the specimen in the compression testing machine and lord it gradually
increasing the lord at the rate of 14 N/mm2 per minute until the specimen breaks
down a crushes.
5. Note the failure load the crushing strength is then equal to the load it the failure
divide by the area of load bearing surface. The average of three values on the
three specimens is them the crushing strength of the stone.
Note:- A good building stone should have crushing strength greater than ten times the
stress expected in the structure.
5. Hardness test;-
Procedure:-
i) Prepare a cylindrical specimen of the stone, having a diameter of 25mm and
height of 25mm
ii) Find the mass of the specimen
iii) Place the specimen in the tests machine/ Dorr's testing machine/ and press it
with pressure of 12.5 N.
iv) Rotate the annular steel disc of the diameter machine at 28 RPM
v) Stop the machine after 1000 revolutions take out the specimen and find its
mass accurately.
vi) Determine the coefficient of hardness from the following equation.
Coefficient of Hardness = 20 - Loss of mass in gm
3
6) Impact test:-
- Impact test is carried out on impact machine to determine the thoroughly of stone.
Procedure:-
i) Prepare cylindrical specimen of stone having 25mm diameter and 25 mm
height.
ii) Place the specimen on the cast iron anvil of the impact testing machine
iii) Allow the steel hammer (weighing 20 N) of the machine to fall axially over the
specimen, in vertical direction to give blows from variable height. The height of

167
first blow is kept 1cm, that of the second blow as 2cm and that of nth blow as n
cm
iv) Note the blow number (n) at which the specimen breads compute the
toughness index from the expression.
Toughness index = n
Where: - n = nth blow of n cm height at which the specimen breaks.
7) Specific gravity test (Gt)
Procedure:-
i) Crush 500g of thoroughly washed specimen of stone to 3mm size particle
thoroughly mix and prepare samples of 50gm each.
ii) Grind each sample in an agate mortar to size will pass 150 micro sieve.
iii) Dry the sample in an over (1050c - 1100c), cool and weigh in a weighing
bottle.
iv) Clean the specific gravity bottle, wash and dry it to constant weight in the over
cool the bottle and find its mass (M1)
v) Place about 15gm of crushed specimen from weighting bottle in to the specific
gravity bottle, close the bottle with stopper and find its mass (M2)
vi) Fill the specific gravity bottle with distilled water to ¾ of its capacity and boil the
bottle with its contents for about to minutes
vii) Cool the bottles at room tempreture fill it with distilled water, put the stopped
and find its mass (M3) after clearing its outside dry.
viii) Empty the bottle wash it thoroughly fill it with distilled water put the stopped and
find its mass (M4) after cleaning its out side dry.
Compute the specific gravity (G1) and the room temperature (t0c) from the following
expressions.
Gt = M2 – M1
(M4 – M2) – (M3 – M2)
5.4 Concrete pipes: -
- concrete pipe is available in bell and spigot either non reinforced or reinforced and
(length varying from 400 mm to 1000mm and internal diameter of 100 mm to
600mm fro un – reinforced pipe and 300mm to 1200 mm for reinforced. All
following is done either with pre fabricated gaskets, mortar or asphaltic cement.
- All types and classes of concrete pipe are subjected to tests of strength
permeability absorption and hydrostatic properties.
Quality requirement (ESC D 3 326)
I) Load bearing strength
- All classes of concrete pipe small sustain with out collapse the minimum bearing load
specified in table below.
II) Hydrostatic pressure
- All closes of concrete pipes shall with stand in interval hydrostatic pressure of 1.0
kg/cm2 with out sweating or fissure.
III) Permeability
- Concrete sewer pipes shall no moist or damp spots at the end of the test period
70% the pipes sampled shall pass this test.

168
Iv) Water absorption
- The water abortion expressed 45 % of dry mass shall not exceed 45% for all classes
of concrete pipe.
Dimensions and Bearing Strength of un reinforced concrete pipe
Table 5
Nominal internal
diameter (mm)
Minimum wall
thickness
(mm)
Nominal
length (mm)
Minimum bearing load
N/M Kgf/m
100 15 14 800 1480
150 20 16 000 1600
200 25 17 500 1750
250 25 1000 18 500 1850
300 30 19 000 1900
400 40 20 000 2000
500 45 22 000 2200
600 55 25 000 2500
Table 6
Nominal internal
diameter (mm)
Minimum wall
thickness
(mm)
Nominal
length (mm)
Minimum bearing load
N/M Kgf/m
300 37 38 000 3800
400 43 38 000 3800
500 50 1000 40 000 4000
600 56 43 000 4300
800 68 49 000 4900
1000 80 60 000 6000
1200 92 72 000 7200
Reinforcement /deformed and plain bars:-
- Deformed bar is a bar that is intended for use as reinforcement in reinforcement
concrete construction. Bars are of three minimum yield levels namely as grade 40,
grade 60 and 75.
Table 7
Grade Nominal Diameter (mm)
40(300Mpa) 8,10,12,14,16,20,
60(420Mpa) 8,10,12,14,16,18,20,22,26,32,… 56,
75(520Mpa) 20,22,24,28,30, 32,38,…..56
- Tensile strength yield strength and elongation of steel bar in accordance with AASHO M
53/ASTM A 617 shall be as follows.
Table 8

169
Grade 300 Grade 420 Grade 520
Tensile strait(Mpa) >500 >620 >690
Yield strength (Mpa) >300 >420 >520
Elongating minimum (%)
10 11 9 -
14,16 12 9 -
20 12 9 7
22,24 - 8 7
30,32,38 - 7 6
42,56 - 7 6
Tensile test for steel:- the objective of this test is to determine the stress strain
relationship of steel bar.
Apparatus: - -Caliper
-Strain gauge
-Tension testing machine
Procedure:- 1) measure the diameter of test bar using caliper
2. Fit the ends of test bar in to the grips of the testing machine
3. Fit a strain gauge on to the bar to read the elongation at loading
4. Gradually apply an increasing axial tensile force to faiue on the bar and
record the loading and corresponding elongation at d/t instants.
Determine the stresses at different loadings and the resulting strains from the above and
plot stress strain curve the tensile bar.
Tensile stress = Failure load
Area
Yield stress = Yield load
Area
Strain = (change in length) x100
Original length
5.5 Terrazzo tiles:-
- Terrazzo tiles mean tiles whose wearing surface is composed of stone clips mixed
with sand, ordinary colored Portland cement and mechanically grout and dilled.
- The nominal dimensions and tolerances of terrazzo files shall be as specified
below (Ebc D3. 303)
Table 9
Thickness Breadth x Length
Nominal (mm) Tolerance, mm Nominal, mm Tolerance, mm
20 + 0.3 200 x 200 + 0.80
25 “ 250 x 250 “
30 “ 300 x 300 “
35 “ 400 x 400 “

170
- The water absorption of individual tiles shall not exceed 8 % when tested at are of 28
days. The transverse strength when tested for dry and wet condition at 28 days shall have
no individual results less than 3 Mpa for dry and 2Mpa for wet test.

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