![Department of Information Science
University of Pretoria
0002 Pretoria, South Africa
E-mail: [email protected]
The aim of this paper is to assess the impact of technology on
the private lives of people. It is approached
from a socio-ethical perspective with specific emphasis on the
implication for the information profession.
The issues discussed are the concept privacy, he influence of
technology on the processing of personal and
private information, the relevance of this influence for the
information profession, and proposed solutions
to these ethical issues for the information profession.
1. INTRODUCTION
We are currently living in the so-called information age which
can be described as an era were economic
activities are mainly information based (an age of
informationalization). This is due to the development and use
of technology. The main characteristics of this era can be
summarized as a rise in the number of knowledge
workers, a world that has become more open - in the sense of
communication (global village/Gutenberg galaxy)
and internationalization (trans-border flow of data).
This paradigm shift brings new ethical and juridical problems
which are mainly related to issues such as the
right of access to information, the right of privacy which is
threatened by the emphasis on the free flow of
information, and the protection of the economic interest of the
owners of intellectual property.
In this paper the ethical questions related to the right to privacy](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-35-320.jpg)
![public-private partnership focused on cybersecurity.
The five-point plan released Tuesday outlines a plan to
consolidate offices within its device
center, which oversees pre- and post-market activities.
As part of the plan, the FDA will require manufacturers to
ensure medical devices are capable of
being updated and receiving security patches. FDA
Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, MD, also said
the agency is contemplating forcing manufacturers to publicly
disclose known cybersecurity
issues.
[Also: California medical device manufacturer reports breach of
30,000 consumers]
The FDA also is exploring regulatory options to expedite
labeling changes and other features,
including timely implementation of post-market changes. The
current system on making those
changes is voluntary, even when safety issues arise.
“Although medical devices provide great benefits to patients,
they also present risks,” Gottlieb
said in a statement. “And we are focusing equal attention on
advancing new frameworks for
identifying risks and protecting consumers.”](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-62-320.jpg)
![under that program.
Gottlieb also outlined plans for a public-private partnership,
CyberMed Safety (expert) Analysis
Board, which complements its existing device vulnerability
coordination and response efforts.
The group, made up of a wide range of experts from clinicians
to biomedical engineers, also will
support device manufacturers and FDA on safety issues, such as
high-risk vulnerabilities and
adjudicating disputes.
Funding for CYMSAB will be included in the agency’s
requested $70 million for Fiscal Year 2019
for its digital health technology advancements.
Twitter: @JessieFDavis
Email the writer: [email protected]
Topics:
Compliance & Legal, Government & Policy, Medical
Devices, Privacy & Security, Quality and
Safety
More regional news
https://twitter.com/jessiefdavis
mailto:[email protected]
https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource-
topic/compliance-legal
https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-64-320.jpg)
![techniques in 1999, he said, and by 2008, Tulsa was
offering an entire program. Now, he said, there are “four
courses in reverse engineering, two in cyber
operations, two in offensive SCADA [supervisory control and
data acquisition], and one on malware analysis
and creation.”
Shenoi said that the potential power of offensive cyber
techniques is so great that he accepts only students
who intend to work for the government and who have records
that would qualify them for government
security clearances. He interviews all the applicants as well as
their parents. He sends 15 to 20 students a
year, he said, to work at the NSA or the CIA.
“In order for me to teach these real-world attack skills, these
students have to be trusted,” he said. “They
cannot go to work for the private sector.
“There’s no reason to teach private-sector people how to use
Stinger missiles,” he continued. Similarly, he
said, you don’t teach them to use cyber weapons.
Brumley, 39, has taught offensive cyber skills since 2009. A
self-described “patriot,” he says he discusses
ethics in his classes at Carnegie Mellon — an introductory
computer security course as well as more advanced](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-74-320.jpg)
![fighting the ballot initiative.
Two of those companies, Facebook and Uber, have been the
subjects of recent federal investigations into their privacy
and data security practices. AT&T and Verizon, meanwhile,
lobbied last year to defeat federal rules governing the way
they handle customers' web-browsing information.
But some tech companies have come to stomach the compromise
bill now advancing in the legislature, believing that
even if it does become law they can train their political
firepower on trying to change it before it takes effect on Jan. 1,
2020. Robert Callahan, the vice president of state government
affairs at the Internet Association, said the group
opposes “many problematic provisions” in the bill and the
“unprecedented lack of debate or full legislative process.”
But he stressed that the “Internet industry will not obstruct or
block [the measure] from moving forward, because it
prevents the even worse ballot initiative from becoming law in
California.”
In the past, California’s regulations have spurred other states –
and even the federal government – to adopt laws in
areas as wide ranging as email spam and climate change. This
time, privacy experts hope Congress steps in to do the
same in response to major privacy mishaps, including](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-86-320.jpg)
![Facebook’s entanglement with Cambridge Analytica, a political
consultancy that improperly accessed personal data on roughly
87 million of the site’s users.
"We haven't done much since [Mark] Zuckerberg's hearing,"
Rep. Ro Khanna, a Democrat who represents a slice of
Silicon Valley in Congress, said this week about the Facebook
executive's appearance on Capitol Hill in April, which
was prompted by the Cambridge Analytica scandal. "The people
are looking to Congress and saying, we need you to
act."
For some, like Facebook, the California bill might not actually
result in major revisions to its business practices. The
social giant maintains it doesn’t sell data, though it does allow
advertisers to tailor their campaigns on the site to
narrow categories of users, which isn’t prohibited by
California’s proposed law.
“People should be in control of their information online and
companies should be held to high standards in explaining
what data they have and how they use it, especially when they
sell data,” Will Castleberry, the vice president of state
and local public policy at Facebook said in a statement. He said
Facebook supports the bill, “while not perfect,” and
would work with “policymakers on an approach that protects
consumers and promotes responsible innovation.”](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-87-320.jpg)
![and-minorities/ 5/5
We could think about pulling back on such an ambitious project
of organizing all the world’s
knowledge, or we could reframe and say, “This is a technology
that is imperfect. It is manipulatable.
We’re going to show you how it’s being manipulated. We’re
going to make those kinds of
dimensions of our product more transparent so that you know
the deeply subjective nature of the
output.” Instead, the position for many companies—not just
Google—is that [they are] providing
something that you can trust, and that you can count on, and
this is where it becomes quite difficult.
How might machine learning perpetuate some of the racism and
sexism you write about?
I've been arguing that artificial intelligence, or automated
decision-making systems, will become a
human rights issue this century. I strongly believe that, because
machine-learning algorithms and
projects are using data that is already biased, incomplete,
flawed, and [we are] teaching machines
how to make decisions based on that information. We know
[that’s] going to lead to a variety of
disparate outcomes. Let me just add that AI will be harder and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-92-320.jpg)
![stories’ entries in the dashboards. Facebook uses these fact-
checks to adjust whether and how it shows potentially false
stories to its users.” Thousands of stories are cued up on the
website, and each organization has the capacity to control a
handful or two per day.
The procedure for selecting critical news stories seems to
consist of Facebook users flagging them as fake, in combina-
tion with automated warnings, which are based on previous
suspicious links. Once again, a lot of responsibility is put on
users flagging other users—but the details of the selection
remain protected, as mentioned above. Ananny’s report
could access neither the central “dashboard” website nor the
principles behind it, and many of the fact checkers inter-
viewed in the report are dissatisfied with various aspects of
the opaque procedure dictated by Facebook. Among other
things, they complain of not being able to flag pictures and
videos as fake.9 Among the interviewees, for example, there is
suspicion that Facebook avoids sending them false stories if
they have high advertising potential. In general, there is skep-
ticism among fact checkers regarding Facebook’s motives and
behavior around the design of the dashboard website and the
classification and selection of its content: “We don’t see main-
stream media appearing [in the dashboard]—is it being fil-
tered out?” And: “We aren’t seeing major conspiracy theories
or conservative media—no InfoWars on the list, that’s a sur-
prise.” (InfoWars is a site dedicated to conspiracy theories,
which had more than 1.4 million Facebook followers before
Facebook finally shut down the site in August 2018—see
Chapter 12).10
In the absence of a transparent process, several fact-
checkers suspect that Facebook avoids sending certain types
9 On iconic material in truth-based assertions, see Stjernfelt
(2014).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-101-320.jpg)
![added: “They’re not taking anything seriously. They are more
interested in making themselves look good and passing the
buck […] They clearly don’t care.”14 By February 2019,
Snopes quit the Facebook factchecking partnership.15
The next clause of the Facebook removal manual concern-
ing intellectual property rights does nothing more than make
explicit the company’s responsibility disclaimer—much like
Google and other tech giants. It puts all responsibility on
users, who are assumed to have made the copyright situation
clear for all posts they upload (cf. Ch. 14).
The last section of the clause, “Content-Related Requests”,
covers users’ right to delete accounts—as expected, there is
no mention of the right to ask Facebook to delete their
detailed data profiles including their general online behavior,
data purchased, etc. Also, the section does not address the
issue of how the tech giant will respond if asked by intelli -
gence agencies and police for access to user data—a touchy
subject concerning anything from relatively unproblematic
help with criminal investigations to much more debatable
help with politically motivated surveillance.
Crucial to freedom of expression, however, is the third
item: “Objectionable Content”. It features the subcategories
“Hate Speech”, “Graphic Violence”, “Adult Nudity and Sexual
13 Ingram, D. “Facebook begins ‘fact-checking’ photos and
videos”
Reuters. 03-29-18.
14 Levin, S. “‘They don’t care’: Facebook factchecking in
disarray as jour-
nalists push to cut ties” The Guardian. 12-13-18.
15 Coldewey, D. ”UPDATE: Snopes quits and AP in talks over
Facebook’s
factchecking partnership” TechCrunch. 02-01-19.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-104-320.jpg)
![Sexual predator
Subhumanity
Violent and sexual criminals
20 Andersson, M. ”Når Facebook dræber samfundsdebatten”
Berlingske.
07-25-18.
Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal
127
Other criminals (including but not limited to “thieves”, “bank
rob-
bers” or saying “all [protected characteristic or quasi -protected
characteristic] are ‘criminals’”)
Mocking the concept, events or victims of hate crimes even if
no
real person is depicted in an image
Designated dehumanizing comparisons in both written and
visual
form
Tier 2 attacks, which target a person or group of people who
share
any of the above-listed characteristics, where attack is defined
as
Statements of inferiority or an image implying a person’s or a
group’s physical, mental, or moral deficiency](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-111-320.jpg)
![Dave Willner, who worked for Facebook as a moderator fr om
2008 to 2013, processed 15,000 images per day; on an eight-
hour workday, that makes around two seconds per image.29
Since doubtful cases presumably take a little longer, the aver -
age time for most decisions is even shorter. Is there any effec-
tive, overall assurance that the many employees actually
follow the guidelines, or are they to some extent left to their
own rushed decisions and assessments based on taste? In an
interview with ProPublica, Willner’s description of how the
removal work began in 2008 points to a great deal of judg-
ment involved: “ ... [Facebook’s] censorship rulebook was still
just a single page with a list of material to be removed, such
as images of nudity and Hitler. At the bottom of the page it
said, ‘Take down anything else that makes you feel uncom-
fortable’.” This is an extremely broad censorship policy, leav-
ing a considerable amount of judgment on the shoulders of
the individual employee—and very little legal protection for
the user. Willner continues with a thoughtful remark: “‘There
is no path that makes people happy. All the rules are mildly
upsetting.’ The millions of decisions every day means that the
method, according to Willner, is ‘more utilitarian than we are
used to in our justice system. It’s fundamentally not rights-
oriented.’”30 The utilitarian attitude weighs damage against
utility. So if a number of users’ rights are violated and their
content is removed, the act can be legitimized by the fact that
a larger number of other users, in turn, experience a benefit—
for example, if they feel that a violation has been avenged.
29 Angwin, J. & Grassegger, H. “Facebook’s secret censorship
rules pro-
tect white men from hate speech but not black children” Salon
(origi-
nally appeared on ProPublica). 06-28-17.
30 Ibid.
Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-122-320.jpg)
![sphere and access their news.
In the April 2018 document, Facebook had also promised
a new appeal option for users whose content has been
blocked and their accounts suspended. In a November 2018
missive to Facebook users, Zuckerberg elaborated on the
idea. Here, he promised the long-term establishment of an
independent appeal institution in order to “[...] uphold the
principle of giving people a voice while also recognizing the
Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal
136
reality of keeping people safe.”31 We are still waiting for the
details on how that attempt of squaring the circle will work—
particularly how the board will be selected and how indepen-
dence of Facebook’s commercial interests will be granted.
Given the amount of flaggings, one can only imagine how
many staffers would have to be employed in this private
“supreme court”. Even if this idea may be a virtual step in the
right direction, such an appeal organ, of course, will still have
to function on the basis of the much-disputed detail of the
Facebook community standards.
In the same pastoral letter, Zuckerberg articulated a new
theory on the regulation of free speech. No matter where one
draws the line between legal and illegal, he claimed, special
user interest will be drawn to legal content which comes close
to that borderline. No matter whether you are prudish or
permissive in drawing the line, special fascination will radiate
from borderline posts. To mitigate this fact, Zuckerberg now
proposes a new policy: such borderline content, legal but in
the vicinity of the border, will be suppressed and have its](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-124-320.jpg)
![Facebook circulation reduced—with more reduction the
closer to the line it comes: “[...] by reducing sensationalism of
all forms, we will create a healthier, less polarized discourse
where more people feel safe participating.”32 The idea echoes
de-ranking “fake news”, only now spreading to other types of
content. Introduced in the same letter as the appeal institu-
tion, this idea begs some new unsolved questions: will people
posting borderline content be informed about the reduced
distribution of their posts? If not, a new zone of suppression
without possibility of appeal will be created. Furthermore, as
soon as this reduction is realized in the community, more
interest is sure to be generated by posts on the borderline of
the borderline—a slippery slope if there ever was one.
One might ask why there should even be detailed rules for
content removal at all. It was not an issue with the communi-
31 Zuckerberg, M. “A Blueprint for Content Governance and
Enforcement” Facebook Notes. 11-15-18.
32 ibid.
Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal
137
cation technologies Facebook is helping to replace: the tele-
phone and mail former generations relied on to “connect”
with their “friends”. The postal services of the free world do
not refuse to deliver certain letters after examining their con-
tent, and the telephone companies do not interrupt calls
based on people talking about things the phone companies
do not like. These providers of communications infrastructure
were even obliged not to censor users; they were seen as com-
panies that help communicate content, not moderate it.33 It is](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-125-320.jpg)
![straight revenue, and most students, busy with their lives, don’t
notice the royalty details. They get their
books, roll their eyes at the cash register, and get on with
things.
Wagoner noticed, though. According to an extensive article in
the Wall Street Journal, she calls the cost
of new custom books “ridiculous.” She’s also more than a little
suspicious about why students aren’t more
openly informed about the royalty arrangement: “They’re hiding
it so there isn’t a huge uproar.”
[1]
While it may be true that the Tuscaloosa University is hiding
what’s going on, they’re definitely not doing
a very good job since the story ended up splattered across the
Wall Street Journal. One reason the story
reached one of the United States’ largest circulation dailies is
that a lot of universities are starting to get in
on the cash. Printing textbooks within the kickback model is,
according to the article, the fastest growing
slice of the $3.5 billion college textbook market.
The money’s there, but not everyone is eager to grab it. James
Koch, an economist and former president
of Old Dominion University and the University of Montana,
advises schools to think carefully before](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-153-320.jpg)
![tapping into customized-textbook dollars because, he says, the
whole idea “treads right on the edge of
what I would call unethical behavior. I’m not sure it passes the
smell test.”
[2]
What Is Business Ethics?
What does it mean to say a business practice doesn’t “pass the
smell test”? And what would happen if
someone read the article and said, “Well, to me it smells all
right”? If no substance fills out the idea, if
there’s no elaboration, then there probably wouldn’t be much
more to say. The two would agree to
disagree and move on. Normally, that’s OK; no one has time to
debate everything. But if you want to get
involved—if you’re like Wagoner who sounds angry about
what’s going on and maybe wants to change it—
you’ll need to do more than make comments about how things
hit the nose.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
6
Doing business ethics means providing reasons for how things
ought to be in the economic world. This](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-154-320.jpg)
![Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
11
-reasoned arguments, by reason of their clarity, invite
counterarguments.
R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S
1. What is the difference between brainwashing and an
argument?
2. What does it mean to dispute an argument on the basis of the
facts?
3. What does it mean to dispute an argument on the basis of the
values?
4. What does it mean to dispute an argument on the basis of the
reasoning?
[1] John Hechinger, “As Textbooks Go ‘Custom,’ Students Pay:
Colleges Receive Royalties for School-Specific
Editions; Barrier to Secondhand Sales,” Wall Street Journal,
July 10, 2008, accessed May 11,
2011,http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121565135185141235.htm
l.
[2] John Hechinger, “As Textbooks Go ‘Custom,’ Students Pay:
Colleges Receive Royalties for School-Specific](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-166-320.jpg)
![W. R. Grace was portrayed in the John Travolta movie A Civil
Action as a model of bad corporate
behavior.
[1]
What not so many people know, however, is that the
corporation’s founder, the man named
W. R. Grace, came to America in the nineteenth century, found
success, and dedicated a significant
percentage of his profits to a free school for immigrants that
still operates today.
Even though questions stretch deep into the past about what
responsibilities companies and their leaders
may have besides generating profits, the academic world began
seriously concentrating on the subject
only very recently. The first full-scale professional conference
on academic business ethics occurred in
1974 at the University of Kansas. A textbook was derived from
the meeting, and courses began appearing
soon after at some schools.
By 1980 some form of a unified business ethics course was
offered at many of the nation’s colleges and
universities.
Academic discussion of ethical issues in business was fostered](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-184-320.jpg)
![thought may be studied, as well as notions of
responsibility.
R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S
1. List two basic questions belonging to the field of morality.
2. List two basic questions belonging to the field of ethics.
3. What is one basic question belonging to the field of meta-
ethics?
4. What is an example of normative ethics? And descriptive
ethics?
5. Explain the difference between a decision based on ethics and
one based on the law.
6. Explain the difference between a decision based on ethics and
one based on religion.
7. List two factors explaining the recent development and
growth of business ethics as a coherent discipline.
[1] Steven Zaillian (director), A Civil Action (New York: Scott
Rudin, 1998), film.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
23
1.3 Is Business Ethics Necessary?](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-190-320.jpg)
![most prominent financial institutions. Nor has Wall Street been
the only area engulfed in scandal;
manufacturers of products from contraceptives to military
weapons have all come under public scrutiny
recently for questionable—if not actionable—behavior.”
[1]
Slimy dealing verging on the illegal, the message is, stains the
economic world from one end to the other.
A little further into the article, the author possibly gives away
her deepest feelings about business when
she cracks that business ethics is “an oxymoron.”
What will business leaders—and anyone else for that matter—
do when confronted with the accusation of
sliminess? Possibly embrace it—an attitude facilitated by an
infamous article originally published in
the Harvard Business Review. In “Is Business Bluffing
Ethical?” the author suggests businessmen and
women should double down on the strategy of getting ahead
through deceit because if you’re in business,
then everyone already knows you’re a liar anyway. And since
that’s common knowledge, taking liberties
with the truth doesn’t even count as lying: there’s no moral
problem because that’s just the way the
business game is played. In the author’s words, “Falsehood](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-192-320.jpg)
![ceases to be falsehood when it is understood
on all sides that the truth is not expected to be spoken—an exact
description of bluffing in poker,
diplomacy, and business.”
[2]
The basic argument is strong. Ethically, dishonesty stops being
reproachable—it stops being an attempt to
mislead—when everyone knows that you’re not telling the truth.
If it weren’t for that loophole, it’d be
difficult to enjoy movies. Spiderman swinging through New
York City skyscrapers isn’t a lie, it’s just fun
because everyone agrees from the beginning that the truth
doesn’t matter on the screen.
The problem with applying this logic to the world of commerce,
however, is that the original agreement
isn’t there. It’s not true that in business everyone knows there’s
lying and accepts it. In poker, presumably,
the players choosing to sit down at the table have familiarized
themselves with the rules and techniques of
the game and, yes, do expect others to fake a good hand from
time to time. It’s easy to show, however, that
the expectation doesn’t generally hold in office buildings,
stores, showrooms, and sales pitches. Take, for
example, a car advertisement claiming a certain model has a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-193-320.jpg)
![offices and factory buildings preaching the need for oversight
and remedial classes in morality become
annoying nags. That’s especially true if the critics aren’t
directly doing business themselves. If they’re
ensconced in university towers and gloomy libraries, there may
even be a suspicion that what really drives
the call to ethics is a burning resentment of all the money Wall
Street stars and captains of industry seem
to make, along with their flashy cars, palatial homes, and
luxurious vacations.
An issue of the Cato Institute’s Policy Report from 2000 carries
an article titled “Business Ethics Gone
Wrong.” It asserts that some proponents of business ethics
aren’t only bothersome envious—their
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
26
resentment-fueled scolding actually threatens our collective
economic welfare. Business ethics, according
to the author, “is fundamentally antagonistic to capitalist
enterprise, viewing both firm and manager as
social parasites in need of a strong reformative hand.”
[3]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-196-320.jpg)
![These reforms—burdensome regulations, prying investigations,
and similar ethical interventions —
threaten to gum up the capitalist engine: “If the market
economy and its cornerstone, the shareholder-
oriented firm, are in no danger of being dealt a decisive blow,
they at least risk death by a thousand
cuts.”
[4]
There’s a problem with this perspective on the business world.
Even if, for the sake of argument, it’s
acknowledged that economic forces effectively police
commerce, that doesn’t mean business ethics is
unnecessary or a threat to the market economy. The opposite is
the case: the view that the marketplace
solves most problems is an ethics. It’s a form of egoism, a
theory to be developed in later chapters but with
values and rules that can be rapidly sketched here. What are
most valued from this perspective is our
individual welfare and the freedom to pursue it without guilt or
remorse. With that freedom, however,
comes a responsibility to acknowledge that others may be
guided by the same rules and therefore we’re all
bound by the responsibility to look out for ourselves and
actively protect our own interests since no one](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-197-320.jpg)
![values with other possibilities and molded their actions to their
decisions. The latter are doing the same
thing, just without fully realizing it. The question about whether
ethics is necessary, finally, becomes a
false one. You can choose to not understand the ethics you’re
doing (you can always drop this class), but
you can’t choose to not do ethics.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
guiding our
aspirations and actions, some form of ethics is
unavoidable for anyone acting in the economic world.
R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S
1. Why might someone believe the business world needs
exterior ethical monitoring and correction?
2. What is the argument that the business world can regulate
itself, and why is that an ethics?
3. In your own words, why is business ethics unavoidable?
[1] Sandra Salmans, “Suddenly, Business Schools Tackle
Ethics,” New York Times, August 2, 1987, accessed May 11,
2011, http://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/02/education/suddenly-
business-schools-tackle-ethics.html.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-200-320.jpg)
![[2] Albert Carr, “Is Business Bluffing Ethical?,” Harvard
Business Review 46 (January–February, 1968), 143–53.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
28
[3] Alexei M. Marcoux, “Business Ethics Gone Wrong,” Cato
Policy Report 22, no. 3 (May/June 2000), accessed May
11, 2011,http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/v22n3/cpr -
22n3.html.
[4] Alexei M. Marcoux, “Business Ethics Gone Wrong,” Cato
Policy Report 22, no. 3 (May/June 2000), accessed May
11, 2011,http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/v22n3/cpr -
22n3.html.
1.4 Facebook and the Unavoidability of Business Ethics
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E
1. Show how business ethics stretches beyond working life.
The Facebook Firing
Business ethics in some form is inescapable inside factories,
office buildings, and other places where work
gets done. The application of business ethics principles and
guidance doesn’t stop, though, when the
workday ends or outside the company door. Because our](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-201-320.jpg)
![related grievance in such a manner.”
[1]
The Reach of Business Ethics
When someone like Perez Hilton—a blogger most comfortable
deriding celebrities’ bad hair days—finds
himself wrapped in a business ethics debate, you’ve got to
figure the discipline is pretty much
unavoidable. Regardless, the Souza episode displays many of
the ways business ethics connects with our
nonworking existence, whether we like it or not:
her job. Maybe she really doesn’t care that
she got fired. Or maybe she cares but only because it means a
lost paycheck. On the other hand, it may
just have been a bad day; it’s possible that she usually gets up
in the morning eager to mount the
ambulance. It’s hard to know, but it’s certain that this—the
decision about what we want to do with our
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
30
professional lives—is business ethics. When choosing a job,
what has value? The money it provides?](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-204-320.jpg)
![terms. The rules and discussions apply to
most organizations and to individuals who could be anyone.
Should companies be allowed to pollute the
air? What counts as a firing offense? The personal level, by
contrast, fills with questions for specific people
enmeshed in the details of their particular lives. If Perez Hilton
has gotten rich dishing dirt on others, is
he allowed to assert that others must treat their employers
respectfully?
K E Y T A K E A W A Y
between professional and personal lives.
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32
R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S
1. What are two reasons business ethics decisions tend to affect
lives outside work?
2. What are two ways business ethics decisions may affect lives
outside work?
[1] “Facebook-Related Firing Sparks Legal Drama!,”
PerezHilton.com (blog), accessed May 11,
2011, http://perezhilton.com/2010-11-09-woman-fired-over-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-209-320.jpg)
![determine exactly how company policy
determines the situation should be handled) as leading to a
decision more based on morality or
more based on ethics? Explain.
o Would you categorize response D (carefully weigh her work
performance, her length of service,
and her potential benefit to the company before informing
anyone of what happened or making
any recommendations) as leading to a decision more based on
morality or ethics? Explain.
Who made your iPhone?
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
37
Connie Guglielmo, a reporter for Bloomberg news services,
begins an article on Apple this way: “Apple
Inc. said three of its suppliers hired 11 underage workers to
help build the iPhone, iPod and Macintosh
computer last year, a violation it uncovered as part of its onsite
audit of 102 factories.”
[1]
Her story adds details. The underage workers were fifteen in
places where the minimum legal age for](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-217-320.jpg)
![must set an example of integrity, eliciting trust and esteem from
those I serve. I will remain
accountable to my peers and to society for my actions and for
upholding these standards.
[2]
Q U E S T I O N S
1. The second introductory clause of the MBA Oath is “My
decisions affect the well-being of individuals inside
and outside my enterprise, today and tomorrow.”
[3]
What’s the difference between seeing this as a
positive ethical stand in favor of a broad social responsibility
held by those in business, and seeing it as
arrogance?
2. Looking at the MBA Oath, can you list a set of values that
are probably shared by those responsible for its
creation?
3. All this pledging and oathing suddenly popping up at
business schools drew the attention of
the New York Times, and soon after, an article appeared: “A
Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of
Immorality.”
[4]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-224-320.jpg)
![Many of the readers’ comments at the end are interesting. The
commenter paulnyc
writes that “most students go to MBA programs to advance their
careers and to earn more
money, pure and simple, and there is nothing wrong with it.”
[5]
o What values underlie paulnyc’s perspective?
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
41
o How is paulnyc’s vision different from the one espoused in
the oath?
4. The commenter JerryNY wrote, “Greed IS good as long as it
is paired with the spirit of fairness.
Virtually all of the major advances in science and technology
were made with greed as one of the
motivating factors. Gugliemo [sic] Marconi, Alexander Graham
Bell, Bill Gates, Henry Ford and
Steve Jobs would not have given us the life changing
technological advances of our time were it
not for personal greed. Remove that element, and your class is
destined for mediocrity.”
[6]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-225-320.jpg)
![Is it plausible to assert that JerryNY shares most of the values
of those who wrote the MBA Oath,
it’s just that he sees a different business attitude as the best way
to serve those values? If so,
explain. If not, why not?
5. Eric writes,
I would refuse to take that oath…on principle. The idea that an
individual’s proper motive
should be to serve “the greater good” is highly questionable.
This altruistic ethic is what
supported the collectivist of communism and National
Socialism. If my life belongs first and
foremost to “the greater good,” it follows that the greatest
virtue is to live as a slave. A
slave’s existence, after all, is devoted primarily for the benefit
of his master. The master can
be a plantation owner or a King or an oligarchy or a society that
demands your servitude.
The only oath I’d be willing to take is, “I swear, by my life and
my love of it, that I will never
live for the sake of another man, nor ask another man to live for
mine.”
[7]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-226-320.jpg)
![In your own words, contrast the values the MBA Oath
supporters espouse with the values the
commenter Eric espouses.
6. The commenter Clyde Wynant is skeptical. He writes this
about those who take the MBA Oath:
“Call me hyper-cynical, but I can’t help wondering if a lot of
these kids aren’t hoping that having
this ‘pledge’ on their résumé might help them look good.”
[8]
Is it unethical to take the pledge without expecting to adhere to
it simply because you think it will
help in your job search, or is that strategy just a different kind
of ethics? Explain.
7. The commenter Mikhail is skeptical. He writes, “Give me a
break…With the next upswing of the
economy, these leeches will be sucking the lifeblood out of our
collective economies like the
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42
champions they truly are!!! Yes, perhaps opportunistic parasites
every last one of them—but
really, it’s not their fault—they’re just programmed that way.”
[9]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-227-320.jpg)
![When he says business school students are programmed, what
does he mean? If someone is
programmed to be an opportunistic parasite in business, can we
blame them for what they do? If
so, how? If not, who should be blamed?
8. The commenter as is skeptical. He writes, “Don’t make me
laugh. If they are so concerned about
the ‘greater good,’ go into teaching and nursing.”
[10]
Assume the MBA Oath does stress the importance of the greater
good, and you too are going into
the economic world with that as a privileged value. How could
you respond to the argument that
you really should be doing nursing or something more obviously
serving the general good?
9. According to the Times, B-schoolers aren’t lining up for the
MBA Oath: only about 20 percent take the
pledge. How could you convince the other 80 percent to sign
on?
I.M.P. (It’s My Party)
“Look at them!” he said, his eyes dancing. “That’s what it’s all
about, the way the people feel. It’s](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-228-320.jpg)
![not about the sellout performances and the caliber of the bands
that appear here. It’s about the
people who buy tickets, having a good time.”
[11]
Ima
ge r
emo
ved
due
to c
opy
righ
t iss
ues.
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43
That’s Seth Hurwitz quoted in the Washington Post, talking
about his 9:30 Club, a small venue playing
over-the-hill bands on the way down, and fresh acts scratching
their way up.
The story’s curious detail is that even though Hurwitz calls his
company I.M.P. (It’s My Party), he doesn’t](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-229-320.jpg)
![because I wanted to be on the radio, and I had my own show, as
a high school student.” He said
he was fired “for being too progressive.”
[12]
It’s a long way from getting fired for playing music too obscure
for alternative radio to where Hurwitz is
now: putting on concerts by bands selected because they’ll
make money.
Q U E S T I O N S
1. Hurwitz is brutally honest about the fact that he’ll only
contract bands capable of turning a profit.
When he was younger and a deejay, he insisted on playing the
music he judged best no matter
how many people turned off the radio when his show came on
(an attitude that cost him the job).
o What, if anything, is Hurwitz the older concert promoter
compromising to get ahead? Is there an
ethical objection that could be raised here? If so, what? If not,
why not?
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
44](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-231-320.jpg)
![concertgoers may have such a good time that
they can’t make it in to work the next day.
o If you go to a concert on a Wednesday and are too hung over
to make it to work on Thursday,
what should you tell your boss on Friday? That you were hung
over? That your car broke down?
Something else? Justify.
o Should Hurwitz accept some responsibility and blame for
absent employees? Explain.
[1] Connie Guglielmo, “Apple Says Children Were Used to
Build iPhone, iPod (Update1),” Bloomberg,
February 27, 2010, accessed May 11, 2011,
http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=ai
EeeQNHkrOY.
[2] “The MBA Oath,” MBA Oath, accessed May 11, 2011,
http://mbaoath.org/about/the-mba-oath.
[3] “The MBA Oath,” MBA Oath, accessed May 11, 2011,
http://mbaoath.org/about/the-mba-oath.
[4] Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of
Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009,
accessed May 11, 2011,
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/business/30oath.html.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-233-320.jpg)
![Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
45
[5] paulnyc, May 30, 2009 (10:58 a.m.), comment on Leslie
Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of
Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11,
2011,
http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20
09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort
=oldest.
[6] JerryNY, May 30, 2009 (10:51 a.m.), comment on Leslie
Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of
Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11,
2011,
http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20
09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort
=oldest.
[7] Eric, May 30, 2009 (10:35 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne,
“A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of
Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11,
2011,
http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20
09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort
=oldest.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-234-320.jpg)
![[8] Clyde Wynant, May 30, 2009 (10:55 a.m.), comment on
Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an
Era of Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed
May 11, 2011,
http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20
09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort
=oldest.
[9] Mikhail, May 30, 2009 (10:35 a.m.), comment on Leslie
Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of
Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11,
2011,
http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20
09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort
=oldest.
[10] as, May 30, 2009 (10:35 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne,
“A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of
Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11,
2011,
http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20
09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort
=oldest.
[11] Avis Thomas-Lester, “A Club Owner’s Mojo,” Washington
Post, December 28, 2009, accessed May](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-235-320.jpg)
![11, 2011, http://views.washingtonpost.com/on-success/what-it-
takes/2009/12/seth_hurwitz.html.
[12] Avis Thomas-Lester, “A Club Owner’s Mojo,” Washington
Post, December 28, 2009, accessed May
11, 2011, http://views.washingtonpost.com/on-success/what-it-
takes/2009/12/seth_hurwitz.html.
Corporate culture:
The second ingredient in a
world-class ethics and
compliance program
A culture of ethics and compliance is at the core of a strong risk
management program
In a business environment where reputational threats lurk
around every corner, a strong culture of ethics and compliance
is the foundation of a robust risk management program. The
lessons learned related to scandals and organizational crises
that trace back to the early 2000s make one thing clear: without
an ethical and compliant culture, organizations will
always be at risk.
As a fundamental component of an effective ethics and
compliance program, culture is now referenced by the
U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines, which include expectations
for organizations to promote an “organizational
culture that encourages ethical conduct” and “compliance with
the law.” Furthermore, the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development’s (OECD’s) Convention on](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-236-320.jpg)
![66
Please contact one of our Enterprise Compliance Services
leaders for more information.
Nicole Sandford
Partner | Deloitte Advisory
National Practice Leader,
Enterprise Compliance Services
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 203 708 4845
[email protected]
Stamford, CT
Keith Darcy
Independent Senior Advisor to
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 203 905 2856
[email protected]
Stamford, CT
Maureen Mohlenkamp
Principal | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 212 436 2199
[email protected]
Stamford, CT
Brian Clark
Partner | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 816 802 7751
[email protected]
Kansas City, MO](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-247-320.jpg)
![Laurie Eissler
Director | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 313 396 3321
[email protected]
Detroit, MI
Nolan Haskovec
Senior Manager | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 212 436 2973
[email protected]
New York, NY
Kevin Lane
Principal | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 214 840 1577
[email protected]
Dallas, TX
Thomas Nicolosi
Principal | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 215 405 5564
[email protected]
Philadelphia, PA
Holly Tucker
Partner | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte Financial Advisory Services LLP
+1 214 840 7432
[email protected]
Dallas, TX](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-248-320.jpg)
![Additionally, feel free to reach out to our team of former
compliance officers who are located across the country and
experienced in a wide
variety of industries.
Martin Biegelman
Director | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte Financial Advisory Services LLP
+1 602 631 4621
[email protected]
Phoenix, AZ
Industry: Technology
Rob Biskup
Director | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte Financial Advisory Services LLP
+1 313 396 3310
[email protected]
Detroit, MI
Industry: Consumer & Industrial Products
Timothy Cercelle
Director | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 216 589 5415
[email protected]
Cleveland, OH
Industry: Insurance
Michael Fay
Principal | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 617 437 3697
[email protected]
Boston, MA
Industry: Investment Management](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-249-320.jpg)
![Howard Friedman
Director | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 713 982 3065
[email protected]
Houston, TX
Industry: Energy & Resources
George Hanley
Director | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 973 602 4928
[email protected]
Parsippany, NJ
Industry: Insurance
Peter Reynolds
Director | Deloitte Advisory
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 973 602 4111
[email protected]
Parsippany, NJ
Industry: Investment Management
Thomas Rollauer
Director | Deloitte Advisory
Executive Director, Deloitte Center for Regulatory Strategies
Deloitte & Touche LLP
+1 212 436 4802
[email protected]
New York, NY
Industry: Financial Services/Banking & Securities
Contacts](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-250-320.jpg)
![business.
Let‘s begin with the easiest definition: Legal issues
A legal issue arises when the law of a given jurisdiction—city,
county, state, country—has
something to say about the legal permissibility or legal
consequence of a course of action.
For example: There are federal laws that restrict the amount of
CO2 emissions that a
Foundry can send into the air. Thus, when considering what sort
of pollution control
devices a Foundry will install, the legal issue of compliance
with this law arises.
There are federal and state laws that prescribe the minimum
wage that can be paid
workers. [state minimum wages are often higher than the federal
minimum wage]. Thus, in
deciding how much to pay workers who are covered by these
laws, the legal issue of
compliance is raised.
Law is passed by legislative or administrative bodies or it is
announced by judges in
specific court decisions. The courts and executive authorities,
such as the police, are](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-285-320.jpg)
![The tourist industry extensively damaged the lagoon, obliterated
sand dunes, led to the
extinction of varying species of animals and fish, and destroyed
the rainforest which surrounds
Cancun. The construction of 120 hotels in 20 years has also
endangered breeding areas for
marine turtles, as well as causing large numbers of fish and
shellfish to be depleted or
disappear just offshore.
[1]
For all its natural beauty, environmentally, Cancun is an ugly
place. Those parts of the natural world that
most tourists don’t see (the lagoon, the nearby forest, the fish
life near shore) have been sacrificed so a few
executives in suits can make money.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-319-320.jpg)
![impossible to measure everything that has been done, or
compare the world today with what would have
been had humans never evolved (or never created an
industrialized economy), but one way to get a sense
of the kind of transformations human activity may be imposing
on the environment comes from
extinction rates: the speed at which species are disappearing
because they no longer find a habitable place
to flourish. According to some studies, the current rate of
extinction is around a thousand times higher
than the one derived from examinations of the fossil record,
which is to say, before the time parts of the
natural world were being severely trashed by developments like
those lining the coast of Cancun,
Mexico.
[2]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-325-320.jpg)
![chemist Barry Dellinger estimates that breathing the air in
Mexico’s capital for a day is about the
equivalent of smoking two packs of cigarettes.
[3]
This explains why, on the worst days, birds drop out of
the air dead, and one longer-term human effect is increased risk
of lung cancer.
Greenhouse gasses, especially carbon dioxide released when oil
and coal are burned, absorb and hold heat
from the sun, preventing it from dissipating into space, and
thereby creating a greenhouse effect, a
general warming of the environment. Heat is, of course,
necessary for life to exist on earth, but fears exist
that the last century of industrialization has raised the levels
measurably, and continuing industrial
expansion will speed the process even more. Effects associated
with the warming are significant and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-328-320.jpg)
![release sulfur compounds into the air, which
later mix into water vapor and rain down as sulfuric acid,
commonly known as acid rain. Lakes see their
pH level changed with subsequent effects on vegetation and
fish. Soil may also be poisoned.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
632
Air pollution is the most immediate form of environmental
poison for most of us, but not the only
significant one. In China, more than 25 percent of surface water
is too polluted for swimming or fishing.
[4]
Some of those lakes may have been ruined in the same way as
Onondaga Lake near Syracuse, New York.
Over a century ago, resorts were built and a fish hatchery](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-330-320.jpg)
![falling out.
[5]
Like liquid poisons, solid waste can be dangerous. Paper bags
degrade fairly rapidly and cleanly, but
plastic containers remain where they’re left into the indefinite
future. The metal of a battery tossed into a
landfill will break down eventually, but not before dropping out
poisons including cadmium. Cadmium
weakens the bones in low doses and, if exposure is high, causes
death.
At the industrial waste extreme, there are toxins so poisonous
they require special packaging to prevent
even minimal exposure more or less forever. The waste from
nuclear power plants qualifies. So noxious
are the spent fuel rods that it’s a matter of national debate in
America and elsewhere as to where they](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-332-320.jpg)
![thousand square miles of forest are disappearing
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
633
each year, lost to logging, conversion to agriculture, fuel wood
collection by rural poor, and forest
fires.
[6]
Of course, most of those tree losses can be replanted. On the
other hand, species that are driven
out of existence can’t be brought back. As already noted,
current rates of extinction are running far above
“background extinction” rates, which are an approximation of
how many species, would disappear each
year were the rules of nature left unperturbed.
Conclusion. Technically, there’s no such thing as preserving the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-334-320.jpg)
![with highly toxic materials.
environment in the United States.
R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S
1. What is an example of an ecosystem?
2. Explain one way that an ecosystem can resemble an economic
system.
3. What are some effects of smog?
4. What’s an environmental impact statement?
5. Why are the business ethics of the environment more
international in nature than many other subjects?
[1] “Cancun Tourism,” TED, Trade & Environment Database,
case no. 86, accessed June 8,
2011, http://www1.american.edu/TED/cancun.htm.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-343-320.jpg)
![Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
636
[2] Kent Holsinger, “Patterns of Biological Extinction,” lecture
notes, University of Connecticut, August 31, 2009,
accessed June 8,
2011,http://darwin.eeb.uconn.edu/eeb310/lecture-
notes/extinctions/node1.html.
[3] “Is Air Pollution Killing You?” Ivanhoe Newswire, May
2009, accessed June 8,
2011,http://www.ivanhoe.com/science/story/2009/05/572a.html.
[4] “More than 25% of China’s Surface Water Contaminated,”
China Daily, July 26, 2010, accessed June 8,
2011, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-
07/26/content_11051350.htm.
[5] The Upstate Freshwater Institute Onondaga Lake page,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-344-320.jpg)
![October 22, 2010, accessed June 8,
2011,
http://www.upstatefreshwater.org/html/onondaga_lake.html;
“2010–2011 Health Advisories: Chemicals in
Sportfish and Game,” New York State Department of Health,
2011, accessed June 8,
2011, http://static.ongov.net/WEP/wepdf/2009_AMP-
FINAL/Library/11_SupportingDocs/L11.10.11_HealthAdvisory2
010-2011.pdf.
[6] Rhett A. Butler, “World Deforestation Rates and Forest
Cover Statistics, 2000–2005,”Mongabay.com,
November 16, 2005, accessed June 8,
2011,http://news.mongabay.com/2005/1115-forests.html.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
637](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-345-320.jpg)
![cared too much since that was the street side, and visitors had
come for the ocean.
Still, one hotel developer decided to get involved. Ricardo
Legorreta who designed the Camino Real Hotel
(today named Dreams Resort) said this about his early 1970s
project: “Cancun is more water than land.
The Hotel Camino Real site was originally 70 percent water. It
had been filled during the urbanization
process. I wanted to return the site to its original status, so we
built the guest room block on solid rock
and the public areas on piles, and then excavated what was
originally the lagoon. The difference in tide
levels provides the necessary water circulation to keep the new
lagoon clean.”
[1]
Specific numbers aren’t available, but plainly it costs more to](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-347-320.jpg)
![Arctic, and two-hundred million years before that Europe was a
desert. Comparatively, human
industrialization has changed nothing.
[2]
This geological view of time cashes out as an ethical
justification for free use of the natural world for a
reason nearly the opposite of the first. The argument for free
use supported by convictions about
domination and progress borders on arrogance: it’s that the
natural world is unimportant, and any
problems caused by our abusing it will be resolved by
intelligence and technological advance.
Alternatively, and within the argument based on geological
time, our lives, deeds, and abilities are so
trivial that it’s absurd to imagine that we could seriously change
the flow of nature’s development even if](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-360-320.jpg)
![[1] Ricardo Legorreta, Wayne Attoe, Sydney Brisker, and Hal
Box, The Architecture of Ricardo Legorreta (Austin:
University of Texas Press, 1990), 108.
[2] George Will, “The Earth Doesn’t Care: About What Is Done
to or for It,” Newsweek, September 12, 2010,
accessed June 8,
2011,http://www.newsweek.com/2010/09/12/george-will-earth-
doesn-t-care-what-is-done-to-
it.html?from=rss.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
650
14.3 Three Models of Environmental Protection for Businesses
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E
1. Outline three business responses to environmental
responsibility.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-388-320.jpg)
![produce a utility-scale wind turbine that does not need subsidies
in order to compete in electricity
markets.”
[1]
The idea, in other words, is that electricity produced by this
company’s windmills will be as cheap (or
cheaper) than that produced from fossil fuels, including coal. To
reach that point, the development of very
strong yet lightweight materials has been necessary, along with
other technological advances. If they
continue, it may be that American energy consumption can
remain high, while pollution emitted from
coal-burning electricity plants diminishes. One point, finally,
that the wind turbine company web page
doesn’t underline quite so darkly is that they’ll make a lot of
money along the way if everything goes](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-392-320.jpg)
![business side, and what all the benefits are on nature’s side.
Then, even if all the costs and benefits are
confidently listed, it’s equally (or more) difficult to weigh them
against each other. According to a report
promulgated by the nonprofit Environmental Defense Fund,
North Carolina’s coal-fired electricity plants
could install smokestack scrubbers to significantly reduce
contaminating emissions. The cost would be
$450 million. The benefits received as a result of the cleaner air
would total $3.5 billion.
[2]
This seems like
a no-brainer. The problem is that when you dig a bit into the
report’s details, it’s not entirely clear that the
benefits derived from cleaner air add up to $3.5 billion. More
troubling, it looks like it’s hard to put any
price tag at all on them. Here are a few examples:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-396-320.jpg)
![power plants triggers more than 200,000
asthma attacks across the state each year and more than 1,800
premature deaths.” The word estimated is
important. Further, how do you put a dollar total on an asthma
attack or a death?
miles on an average day in the Smoky
Mountains, but now air pollution has reduced this to an average
of 22 miles.” How do you put a dollar
total on a view?
significant declines in populations of dogwood,
spruce, fir, beech, and other tree species.” What is
“significant?” What’s the dollar value of a dogwood?
[3]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-397-320.jpg)
![[4]
As for Wal-Mart, their cause is served by the free publicity of
the story when it’s distributed to almost a
million newspaper readers in the Washington, DC, area and then
projected broadly on the Internet.
Further down the line, the good publicity ended up getting cited
here. Going back to the specific
newspaper story, it finishes with a clear acknowledgment of the
public relations dynamic. These are the
article’s last lines: “Wal-Mart sees this not just as good practice
but also good marketing. ‘We hope to get
more customers,’ said Barry Friedman, vice president for
corporate affairs in Beijing. ‘We’re not doing it
solely out of the goodness of our hearts.’”
[5]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-403-320.jpg)
![Wal-Mart held a conference in Beijing for suppliers to urge
them to pay attention not only to
price but also to “sustainability,” which has become a
touchstone.
[6]
Sustainability means acting to protect the environment and the
people surrounding an operation so that
they may continue to contribute to the profit-making enterprise.
As a quick example, a logging operation
that clear-cuts forests isn’t sustainable: when all the trees are
gone, there’s no way for the company to
make any more money. Similarly in human terms, companies
depending on manual labor need their
employees to be healthy. If a factory’s air pollution makes
everyone sick, no one will be able to come in to
work.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-407-320.jpg)
![For Wal-Mart in China, one step toward sustainability involved
energy efficiency. A supplier installed
modern shrink-wrapping machines to replace work previously
done by people wielding over-the-counter
hair dryers. In theoretical terms at least, the use of less energy
will help the supplier continue to produce
even as worldwide petroleum supplies dwindle and energy costs
increase. Steps were also taken, as the
newspaper story notes, to limit water pollution: “Lutex says it
treats four tons of wastewater that it used to
dump into the municipal sewage line. That water was supposed
to be treated by the city, but like three-
quarters or more of China’s wastewater, it almost certainly
wasn’t.”
[7]
More examples of Wal-Mart suppliers making environmentally](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-408-320.jpg)
![the popular Chinese board game mah-jongg.”
[8]
In both cases, Wal-Mart is not simply abandoning its workers
(or its suppliers’ workers) once they punch
out. As stakeholders in the company, Wal-Mart executives feel
a responsibility to defend employees’ well-
being just as they feel a responsibility to bring good products to
market in the name of profit.
The fact that Wal-Mart’s recent actions in China can be
presented as examples of a corporation expressing
a sense of responsibility for the people and their natural world
that goes beyond immediate profit doesn’t
mean that profit disappears from the equation. Shareholders are
stakeholders too. And while corporate
attitudes of social responsibility may well result in an
increasingly protected environment, and while that](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-411-320.jpg)
![4. With respect to the environment, how can a cost-benefit
analysis be used to answer questions about
business and environmental protection?
5. What is practical problem with the execution of a cost-benefit
analysis strategy for responding to
environmental problems?
6. What’s the difference between a corporation guided by profit
and one guided by a sense of social
responsibility?
7. Why might a stakeholder theory of corporate decision making
be good for the environment?
[1] The Wind Turbine Company home page, accessed June 8,
2011,http://www.windturbinecompany.com.
[2] “The North Carolina Clean Smokestacks Plan,”
Environmental Defense Fund, March 2001, accessed June 8,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-414-320.jpg)
![2011, http://apps.edf.org/documents/700_NCsmokestacks.PDF.
[3] “The North Carolina Clean Smokestacks Plan,”
Environmental Defense Fund, March 2001, accessed June 8,
2011, http://apps.edf.org/documents/700_NCsmokestacks.PDF.
[4] Steve Mufson, “Wal-Mart Presses Vendors in China to Meet
Higher Standards,” Washington Post, February 26,
2010, accessed June 8,
2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
dyn/content/article/2010/02/26/AR2010022603339_pf.html.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
658
[5] Steve Mufson, “Wal-Mart Presses Vendors in China to Meet
Higher Standards,” Washington Post, February 26,
2010, accessed June 8,
2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-415-320.jpg)
![dyn/content/article/2010/02/26/AR2010022603339_pf.html.
[6] Steve Mufson, “Wal-Mart Presses Vendors in China to Meet
Higher Standards,” Washington Post, February 26,
2010, accessed June 8,
2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
dyn/content/article/2010/02/26/AR2010 022603339_pf.html.
[7] Steve Mufson, “Wal-Mart Presses Vendors in China to Meet
Higher Standards,” Washington Post, February 26,
2010, accessed June 8,
2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
dyn/content/article/2010/02/26/AR2010022603339_pf.html.
[8] Steve Mufson, “Wal-Mart Presses Vendors in China to Meet
Higher Standards,” Washington Post, February 26,
2010, accessed June 8,
2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-416-320.jpg)
![studies indicated that had the implant been tested in animals
first, the defect would’ve been discovered
and the human costs and pain avoided.
[1]
From here, it’s easy to form an argument that if significant
human suffering can be avoided by imposing on animals, then
the route should be followed. Certainly
many would be persuaded if it could be proven that the net
animal suffering would be inferior to that
caused in humans. (As an amplifying note, some make the case
that testing on humans can be justified
using the same reasoning: if imposing significant suffering on a
few subjects will later help many cure a
serious disease, then the action should be taken.)
The case of animal testing in the name of perfecting consumer
goods is less easily defended. A New York](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-431-320.jpg)
![Times story chronicles a dispute between the Perdue chicken
company and a group of animal rights
activists. The activists got enough money together to purchase a
newspaper ad decrying poultry farm
conditions. It portrayed chickens as crowded together so tightly
that they end up fiercely attacking and
eating each other. Even when not fighting, they wallow in
disease and convulse in mass
hysteria.
[2]
Though Perdue denied the ad’s claims, many believe that
animals of all kinds are subjected to
extreme pain in the name of producing everything from
cosmetics, to dinner, to Spanish bullfights. When
animals are made to suffer for human comfort or pleasure—
whether the result is nice makeup, or a tasty](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-432-320.jpg)
![5. What are the basic steps of the anthropomorphism suspicion
argument?
6. In ethical terms, how is animal suffering for research reasons
distinct from the suffering of a Spanish
bullfight?
[1] Lauren Myers, “Animal Testing Necessary in Medical
Research,” Daily Wildcat, November 6, 2007, accessed
June 8, 2011, http://wildcat.arizona.edu/2.2255/animal -testing-
necessary-in-medical-research-1.169288.
[2] Barnaby Feder, “Pressuring Perdue,” New York Times,
November 26, 1989, accessed June 8,
2011,
http://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/26/magazine/pressuring-
perdue.html.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
665](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-435-320.jpg)
![because there’s an independent value in the
existence and lives of animals.
4. The entire environmental web should be protected for its own
sake because the planet’s collection of
ecosystems is intrinsically valuable.
On a Yahoo! forum page, a student named redbeard_90 posts
the question “why should we save the
planet?” and partially explains this way: “With the entire
constant talk of ‘saving the planet’ and stopping
global warming, should we actually try to stop it? Perhaps in a
way, this is humans transforming the
planet to better suit us?”
[1]
Imag
e rem
oved](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-437-320.jpg)
![o In a newspaper column, the philosopher Jeff McMahan
appears to tentatively endorse
scottsdalehigh64’s vision. He proposes that we “arrange the
gradual extinction of carnivorous
species, replacing them with new herbivorous ones.”
[2]
If, in fact, we decided to wipe out meat-
eating animals and leave the world to plants and plant eaters,
would we be valuing most highly
ourselves? Nonhuman animals? The entire natural world?
Something else? Explain your
response.
6. An excited poster, KiRa01, announces, “Just live like there’s
no tomorrow!!!!”
With respect to the environment, justify his attitude in ethical
terms.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-445-320.jpg)
![governments to ensure that sites are
sustainable.”
[3]
Sustainability has at least two sides. On one side, there’s the
economic reality: revenue provided by
visitors pays for needed services. An example comes from the
Masai Mara park reserve in Kenya. In
villages surrounding the park, schools were forced to close
when political unrest scared away the tourists
and their money. On the other side, sustainability also means
environmental protection. According to
Steiner, there’s the possibility that “Masai Mara could be
overused to the point where it loses its value.”
Q U E S T I O N S
1. According to Steiner, “Hoteliers, travel companies, and
governments are responsible” for](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-449-320.jpg)
![Bernadette Patrick moved away from her home in Endicott, New
York, saying this about the town: “It was
very neighborly and well kept, with lots of kids and families.
Then all of a sudden it seemed like they put a
skull and crossbones on all the doors. It was like a scene from a
science fiction movie.”
[4]
The science fiction part is the large, white metal boxes attached
to Endicott homes. With tubes burrowing
down in the earth and shooting up high into the air, they’re
wired to pump air from below and jet it above.
The idea is to disperse toxic vapors rising up through the
ground. The vapor’s source is industrial solvents
poured down drains and dripped out of leaky pipes at the local
IBM factory over the course of its seventy-
five-year history.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-454-320.jpg)
![Those seventy-five years have otherwise been good ones. IBM
money and jobs drove the small town
forward. As Wanda Hudak put it, “The IBM plant paid for a lot
of college educations and cottages at Perch
Pond.”
[5]
The good feelings ended when a company IBM hired started
showing up at people’s homes to
test the air and offer to install the mechanical ventilation
systems.
Q U E S T I O N S
1. IBM is paying millions for cleanup efforts. They’re installing
air cleaners on homes and pumping
contaminated groundwater to the surface for safe disposal. An
IBM spokesman said this about
Imag](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-455-320.jpg)
![e rem
oved
due
to co
pyrig
ht iss
ues.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
672
the toxic pollution, “None of it was done intentionally, but we
still are sticking around to take
care of it. We feel obligated legally, ethically. We are not going
anywhere.”
[6]
o Make the ethical case that those who contaminated the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-456-320.jpg)
![solving problems like this one
reported by CNN:
Stockholm bogs down in rush-hour traffic. A series of bridges
connecting Sweden’s capital
creates bottlenecks that cause gridlock and air pollution, waste
millions of gallons of fuel,
hamper public transportation, and endanger pedestrians.
[7]
The solution? Swede governmental officers decided on a
congestion fee, on charging vehicles
money for entering the city at peak traffic times. The aim was to
seriously reduce the number of
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
673](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-459-320.jpg)
![makes it obvious when traffic
will be the worst, so drivers who trek in during peak hours
know they’ll pay more for what
will probably be a maddening experience. As a result, people
seem to be cutting out
unnecessary trips: bundling afterschool pickups, say, with visits
to the grocery store. In
short, Swedes are driving smarter.
[8]
When IBM protects the environment by cleaning up Endicott,
they’re losing money; when IBM
protects the environment by selling smart systems to the
Swedes, they’re profiting.
o Make the case that, ethically, IBM’s actions in Endicott are
nobler than the actions in Sweden.
o Make the case that, ethically, IBM’s actions in Sweden are](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-461-320.jpg)
![by the innocent looking blades of a prop wind turbine.”
[9]
Fatal Accident with Vulture on a Windmill
The video shows a large and calm vulture cycling slowly around
a modern wind turbine and then getting
struck by one of the spinning blades. The bird drops out of the
air. Left on the ground beside the towering
contraption, it drags and struggles to flap its broken wing.
Imag
e rem
oved
due
to c
opyr
ight
issue](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-465-320.jpg)
![Read more.”
[10]
Q U E S T I O N S
1. A vegan diet excludes all products derived from animals and
promotes plant-based eating. In this PETA
ad, what values probably underlie the strategy (is the appeal to
protect animals made in the name of
human welfare, animal welfare, or general environmental
welfare)? Justify.
2. What is anthropomorphism? How could the phenomenon of
anthropomorphism lead someone to posit
autonomous ethical dignity, and rights, in nonhuman animals
that really shouldn’t be considered worth
protecting any more than trees?
Ima](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-470-320.jpg)
![animal an right that depends on
donations, would you use the phenomenon of anthropomorphism
to boost your organization’s
revenue?
o What is an argument in favor of the strategy?
o What is an argument against the strategy?
[1] “Why Should We Save the Planet?,” Yahoo! Answers,
accessed June 8,
2011,http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=2008061019
3018AA7IQt2.
[2] Jeff McMahan, “The Meat Eaters,” New York Times,
September 19, 2010, accessed June 8,
2011, http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/19/the-
meat-eaters.
[3] James Kanter, “How Do You Measure Green Tourism?,”
New York Times, October 6, 2008, accessed June 8,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-472-320.jpg)
![2011, http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/10/06/is-there-any-
such-thing-as-green-tourism.
[4] Janet Gramza, “Life in the Plume: IBM’s Pollution Haunts a
Village,” Post-Standard, January 11, 2009, accessed
June 8,
2011,http://www.syracuse.com/spe cialreports/index.ssf/2009/01
/life_in_the_plume_ibms_polluti.html.
[5] Janet Gramza, “Life in the Plume: IBM’s Pollution Haunts a
Village,” Post-Standard, January 11, 2009, accessed
June 8,
2011,http://www.syracuse.com/specialreports/index.ssf/2009/01
/life_in_the_plume_ibms_polluti.html.
[6] Janet Gramza, “Life in the Plume: IBM’s Pollution Haunts a
Village,” Post-Standard, January 11, 2009, accessed
June 8,
2011,http://www.syracuse.com/specialreports/index.ssf/2009/01
/life_in_the_plume_ibms_polluti.html.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-473-320.jpg)
![[7] Jeffrey M. O’Brien, “IBM’s Grand Plan to Save the Planet,”
CNN Money, April 21, 2009, accessed June 8,
2011,http://money.cnn.com/2009/04/20/technology/obrien_ibm.f
ortune/index.htm.
[8] Jeffrey M. O’Brien, “IBM’s Grand Plan to Save the Planet,”
CNN Money, April 21, 2009, accessed June 8,
2011,http://money.cnn.com/2009/04/20/technology/obrien_ibm.f
ortune/index.htm
[9] C. Taibibi, “California Condors, Wind Farms on Collision
Course,” Examiner.com, August 30, 2009, accessed June
8, 2011, http://www.examiner.com/wildlife-conservation-in-
national/california-condors-wind-farms-on-collision-
course.
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
678](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-474-320.jpg)
![[10] Peta.org, “Try Bill Clinton's New Diet!,” accessed June 8,
2011,https://secure.peta.org/site/Advocacy?cmd=display&page=
UserAction&id=3315.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-475-320.jpg)
![from her private well. In 2007 Guardian...
[+]
https://www.propublica.org/article/federal-report-appears-to-
undercut-epa-assurances-water-safety-pennsylvania
http://publicherald.org/to-hell-with-us-records-of-misconduct-
found-inside-pa-drinking-water-investigations/
https://www.propublica.org/article/federal-report-appears-to-
undercut-epa-assurances-water-safety-pennsylvania
4/22/2021 Fracking Is Dangerous To Your Health -- Here's Why
https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/23/fracking-is-
dangerous-to-your-health-heres-why/?sh=6e38b6605945 3/7
Cough, shortness of breath and wheezing are the most common
complaints
of residents living near fracked wells. Toxic gases like benzene
are released
from the rock by fracking. Similarly, a toxic waste brew of
water and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-546-320.jpg)
![once again be
denied health insurance for pregnancies and a premature baby
will likely
never be granted health insurance. According to the March of
Dimes,
Medicaid expansion of health insurance to low-income citizens
helped the
percentage of babies born as preemies drop to a low level of
11.4% in 2013.]
Noise, stress and sleep deprivation
Other studies have found that the noise from the drilling itself,
the gas
compressors, other heavy equipment and the truck traffic is high
enough to
disturb sleep, cause stress and increase high blood pressure.
Longer-term](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-551-320.jpg)
![neurologic problems, also take years to develop after an
exposure.
Fracking profits go to private industry but the public—families
and
communities—bear the costs of the many health complications
from the
Map of unconventional oil and gas spills in Pennsylvania --
courtesy SNAPP partnership. Click on the...
[+]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4121783/
http://publicherald.org/to-hell-with-us-records-of-misconduct-
found-inside-pa-drinking-water-investigations/
https://energyindepth.org/national/fracking-and-health-
headlines-vs-reality/
http://publicherald.org/to-hell-with-us-records-of-misconduct-
found-inside-pa-drinking-water-investigations/
http://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/17/fracking-
and-what-new-epa-means-for-your-health/
http://snappartnership.net/groups/hydraulic-
fracturing/webapp/spills_materials.html](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-559-320.jpg)
![it’s laced with toxic chemicals, and when the water is extracted
from these wells it can’t
be put back into the environment without risk of poisoning
water supplies. So there’s
a tremendous problem of storage, of toxic water supplies, and
we really haven’t solved
that problem.
And that’s just one example. Drilling in the Arctic presents a
tremendous problem
because the Arctic, by its very nature, is at the edge of survival
and all the species
there are living at the edge of survival, so any oil spill could
push them over the edge
into extinction. So [oil companies] must have on hand all kinds
of extra capacity to
deal with the possibility of spills, and that’s much more](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-583-320.jpg)
![difficult to engineer than in
the Gulf of Mexico, where there are tens of thousands of boats
that you could hire on
short notice to bring out skimmers and booms to contain a spill.
�ere’s nothing like
that in the Arctic. Moreover, if this were to happen in winter,
there would be no way to
move equipment up there to build a relief drill. Remember, it
was a relief drill that
closed the Deepwater Horizon spill, but you can’t do that in the
middle of winter
when the Arctic [Ocean] is covered with ice.
e360: Yet despite all that, there’s profits to be made.
Klare: �ere’s profits to be made, and this is particularly
important to recognize — that
http://e360.yale.edu/feature/a_high-](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-584-320.jpg)
![service stations. And so
they’re determined to maintain their business model as long as
possible and they’re
resisting the transition to alternative fuels.
e360: North America has more than its share of so-called tough
oil and gas. �at
includes the Alberta tar sands and the shale gas fields in the
U.S. that are being
fracked. As energy extraction heats up in North America,
you’ve written that the U.S.
is in danger of becoming “a third-world petro state.” What do
you mean by that?
Klare: Consider what [happened] in the 1960s and 1970s when
U.S. and European oil
companies moved into countries like Nigeria and Angola. You
had very low
government oversight of oil company operations, little or no
environmental](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/bmgt496-week6citationsbreuninger2017britz-220921155227-b09d182c/85/BMGT-496-Week-6-Citations-Breuninger-2017-Britz-587-320.jpg)
BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz,
- 1. BMGT 496 - Week 6 Citations (Breuninger, 2017) (Britz, n.d.) (Cellan-Jones, 2014) (Davis, 2018) (Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed, 2018) (Nakashima & Soltani, 2014) (Romm, 2018) (Snow, 2018) (Stjernfelt & Lauritzen, 2019) (The cost of data security: Are cybersecurity investments worth it?, n.d.) (Walker, 2017) Bibliography Breuninger, K. (2017, December 13). Net neutrality rules are likely doomed, but the debate isn’t going away. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from CNBC: https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look-
- 2. doomed--will- consumers-pay.html Britz, J. J. (n.d.). TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges to the Information Profession. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Simmons University: http://web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html Cellan-Jones, R. (2014, May 15). US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from BBC: https://www.bbc.com/news/technology- 27421969 Davis, J. (2018, April 18). FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Healthcare IT News: https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros- cybersecurity-public-private-partnership Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed. (2018, February 13). Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Insurance Journal: https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm Nakashima, E., & Soltani, A. (2014, October 7). The ethics of Hacking 101. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from The Washington Post: https://www.washingtonpost.com/postlive/the-ethics-of- hacking-
- 3. 101/2014/10/07/39529518-4014-11e4-b0ea- 8141703bbf6f_story.html?utm_term=.e9c36c86d53a Romm, T. (2018, June 27). California is on the verge of passing a sweeping new online privacy law targeting Facebook, Google and other tech giants. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from The Washington Post: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2018/06/27/cali for nia-is-verge- passing-sweeping-new-online-privacy-law-targeting-facebook- google-other- tech-giants/ Snow, J. (2018, February 26). Bias already exists in search engine results, and it’s only going to get worse. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from MIT Technology Review: https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/02/26/3299/meet-the- woman-who- searches-out-search-engines-bias-against-women-and- minorities/ Stjernfelt, F., & Lauritzen, A. M. (2019). Chapter 11: Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal. In Your Post has been Removed (pp. 115-137). Basel, Switzerland: Springer, Cham. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25968- 6_11 The cost of data security: Are cybersecurity investments worth it? (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2021, from CloudMask: https://www.cloudmask.com/blog/the- cost-of-data- security-are-cybersecurity-investments-worth-it
- 4. Walker, M. J. (2017, November). Ethics and advanced medical devices: Do we need a new approach. Retrieved April 21, 2021, from Health Voices: http://healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics- advanced-medical- devices-need-new-approach/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 1/9 KEY POINTS Kevin Breuninger @ K E V I N W I L L I A M B I N T E R N E T Net neutrality rules are likely doomed, but the debate isn’t going away P U B L I S H E D W E D , D E C 1 3 2 0 1 7 • 4 : 0 4 P M E S T U P D AT E D W E D , D E C 1 3 2 0 1 7 • 7 : 2 5 P M E S T Net neutrality advocates say broadband internet providers would
- 5. charge more for faster speeds without the FCC protections. Opponents argue the rules are effectively price controls that stifle investment and limit consumers’ options. Federal Communications Commission Chairman Ajit Pai has said he wants to repeal the Obama-era rules. V I D E O 0 6 : 3 3 What is net neutrality? M A R K E TS C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… https://www.cnbc.com/kevin-breuninger/ https://twitter.com/KevinWilliamB
- 6. https://www.cnbc.com/internet/ https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 2/9 Demonstrators, supporting net neutrality, protest a plan by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to repeal restrictions on internet service providers during a protest outside a Verizon store on December 7, 2017 in Chicago, Illinois. Getty Images The Federal Communications Commission’s vote on “net neutrality” rules, scheduled for Thursday, holds major implications for the future of the internet — but it’s not always clear who will foot the bill. FCC Chairman Ajit Pai says he intends to repeal the rules that keep internet service providers from treating online content unequally. The regulations prohibit ISPs, such as , or , from slowing or censoring traffic to certain websites. Advocates say net neutrality is a bulwark against ISPs abusing their power by forcing or prioritizing some online content against
- 7. their competitors. Doing so would create an internet that handicaps smaller businesses and limits customers’ freedom to access whatever websites they want. “Net neutrality is actually what gives people choices,” said Evan Greer, campaign director for the pro-net neutrality activist group Fight for the Future. “If we get rid of net neutrality protections, it allows the largest, most incumbent web companies to essentially pay protection money to ISPs to solidify their monopoly status and squash competition.” Crushing that competition, she said, opens the door for fewer companies with more control to charge higher prices. “It essentially amounts to a tax on the entire economy.” Public opinion, while still largely in favor of the regulations, has narrowed in recent months. Net neutrality enjoyed strong bipartisan public support in June, but recent polling shows just a slim majority of U.S. voters still favor the rules, according to data from Morning Consult and Politico. The apparent public support for net neutrality, opponents say, is largely a matter of successful branding. “This is the brilliance of marketing,” said Roslyn Layton, a scholar at the American Enterprise Institute, a conservative think tank. “The political left tends to win on net neutrality because the framing is better,” she said.
- 8. M A R K E TS C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… https://www.cnbc.com/2017/11/28/net-neutrality-loses-support- poll-from-morning-consult-and-politico.html https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 3/9 WATCH: Father of net neutrality weighs in on battle over internet regulations p y g ,
- 9. Layton blames what she considers onerous FCC regulations, not the free market, for creating a costly and unequal internet for consumers. In a July report on the consumer impact of the rules, Layton and AEI argued that “the Open Internet rules against blocking and throttling, although seemingly consumer-centric, are powerful price controls and legal tools to compel broadband providers to deliver traffic regardless of the marginal cost to networks and frequently at zero price.” It’s not just the additional costs: A Phoenix Center study concluded that the threat of reclassifying broadband internet service under the FCC’s purview may have reduced investment from the telecommunications sector between $30 billion and $40 billion annually from 2011 to 2015. Net neutrality supporters, however, aren’t buying it. “I think that’s totally bogus,” Greer said. “If you want to talk about fees getting passed onto consumers, that’s what is going to happen if paid prioritization is allowed.” Disclosure: Comcast is the owner of NBCUniversal, parent company of CNBC and CNBC.com. V I D E O 0 3 : 5 0 ‘Father of net neutrality’ weighs in on the battle over internet regulations M A R K E TS
- 10. C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… http://www.aei.org/publication/how-title-ii-harms-consumers- and-innovators/ http://www.phoenix-center.org/perspectives/Perspective17- 02Final.pdf https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 4/9 by TaboolaSponsored Links TRENDING NOW Former police officer Derek Chauvin found guilty of murder,
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- 25. https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 7/9 by Taboola Sponsored The Motley Fool Where to Invest $1,000 The Highest Paying Cashback Card Has Hit The Market $200 bonus offer. Up to 3% cashback on Sponsored Sonovia Sponsored New Arena Drop your 30-Year Mortgage and consider this instead if you owe less than $356K. (Discover options.) With rates at near-historic lows, homeowners can lower their monthly payment and save thousands overall. Use our easy tool to run the numbers and see what your new payment could look like without any obligations.
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- 33. https://www.cnbc.com/sign-up-for-cnbc-newsletters/ https://www.nbcuniversal.com/privacy?intake=CNBC https://www.nbcuniversal.com/privacy/notrtoo?intake=CNBC https://www.nbcuniversal.com/privacy/california-consumer- privacy-act?intake=CNBC https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 Net neutrality rules look doomed -- will consumers pay? https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/13/net-neutrality-rules-look- doomed--will-consumers-pay.html 9/9 CA Notice Terms of Service © 2021 CNBC LLC. All Rights Reserved. A Division of NBCUniversal Data is a real-time snapshot *Data is delayed at least 15 minutes. Global Business and Financial News, Stock Quotes, and Market Data and Analysis. Market Data Terms of Use and Disclaimers Data also provided by M A R K E TS
- 34. C N B C T V WATC H L I ST M E N U Adobe Acrobat Downloading for conversion... Net neutrality rules look doomed -… https://www.nbcuniversal.com/privacy/california-consumer- privacy-act?intake=CNBC https://www.cnbc.com/nbcuniversal-terms-of-service/ https://www.nbcuniversal.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/market-data-terms-of-service/ https://www.cnbc.com/market-data-terms-of-service/ https://www.cnbc.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/markets/ https://www.cnbc.com/tv/ https://www.cnbc.com/watchlist/ 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 1/9 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges to the Information Profession J. J. BRITZ
- 35. Department of Information Science University of Pretoria 0002 Pretoria, South Africa E-mail: [email protected] The aim of this paper is to assess the impact of technology on the private lives of people. It is approached from a socio-ethical perspective with specific emphasis on the implication for the information profession. The issues discussed are the concept privacy, he influence of technology on the processing of personal and private information, the relevance of this influence for the information profession, and proposed solutions to these ethical issues for the information profession. 1. INTRODUCTION We are currently living in the so-called information age which can be described as an era were economic activities are mainly information based (an age of informationalization). This is due to the development and use of technology. The main characteristics of this era can be summarized as a rise in the number of knowledge workers, a world that has become more open - in the sense of communication (global village/Gutenberg galaxy) and internationalization (trans-border flow of data). This paradigm shift brings new ethical and juridical problems which are mainly related to issues such as the right of access to information, the right of privacy which is threatened by the emphasis on the free flow of information, and the protection of the economic interest of the owners of intellectual property. In this paper the ethical questions related to the right to privacy
- 36. of the individual which is threatened by the use of technology will be discussed. Specific attention will be given to the challenges these ethical problems pose to the information professional. A number of practical guidelines, based on ethical norms will be laid down. 2. ETHICS The ethical actions of a person can be described in general terms as those actions which are performed within the criterium of what is regarded as good. It relates thus to the question of what is good or bad in terms of human actions. According to Spinello (1995, p. 14) the purpose of ethics is to help us behave honorably and attain those basic goods that make us more fully human. 3. THE CONCEPT OF PRIVACY 3.1. Definition of Privacy Privacy can be defined as an individual condition of life characterized by exclusion from publicity (Neetling et al., 1996, p. 36). The concept follows from the right to be left alone (Stair, 1992, p. 635; Shank, 1986, p. 12)1 . Shank (1986, p. 13) states that such a perception of privacy set the course for passing of privacy laws in the United States for the ninety years that followed. As such privacy could be regarded as a natural right which provides the foundation for the legal right. The right to privacy is therefore protected under private law. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges
- 37. web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 2/9 The legal right to privacy is constitutionally protected in most democratic societies. This constitutional right is expressed in a variety of legislative forms. Examples include the Privacy Act (1974) in the USA, the proposed Open Democracy Act in South Africa (1996) and the Data Protection Act in England. During 1994 Australia also accepted a Privacy Charter containing 18 privacy principles which describe the right of a citizen concerning personal privacy as effected by handling of information by the state (Collier, 1994, p. 44-45). The Organization for Economic and Coordination and Development (OECD) also accepted in 1980 the Guidelines for the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flow of Personal Data (Collier, 1994, p. 41). Privacy is an important right because it is a necessary condition for other rights such as freedom and personal autonomy. There is thus a relationship between privacy, freedom and human dignity. Respecting a person's privacy is to acknowledge such a person's right to freedom and to recognize that individual as an autonomous human being. The duty to respect a person's privacy is furthermore a prima facie duty. In other words, it is not an absolute duty that does not allow for exceptions. Two examples can be given. Firstly, the police may violate a criminal's privacy by spying or by seizing personal documents (McGarry, 1993, p. 178)2 . A government also has the right to gather private and personal information from its citizens with the aim of ensuring order and harmony in society (Ware, 1993:205). The right to privacy (as an expression of individual freedom) is thus confined by
- 38. social responsibility. 3.2. Different Categories of Private Information Based on the juridical definition of privacy, two important aspects which are of specific relevance for the information profession must be emphasized. The first is the fact that privacy as a concept is closely related to information - in terms of the definition of Neethling (1996, p. 35) privacy refers to the entirety of facts and information which is applicable to a person in a state of isolation. The fact that privacy is expressed by means of information, implies that it is possible to distinguish different categories of privacy namely, private communications, information which relates to the privacy of a person's body, other personal information, and information with regard to a person's possessions. Each of these categories will be briefly dealt with. � Private communications. This category of privacy concerns all forms of personal communication which a person wishes to keep private. The information exchanged during a reference interview between the user and the information professional can be seen as an example. � Privacy of the body (Westin, 1967, p. 351). This normally refers to medical information and enjoys separate legal protection (Neethling, 1991, p. 35-36). According to this legislation a person has the right to be informed about the nature of an illness as well as the implications thereof. Such a person further has the right to privacy about the nature of the illness and can not be forced to make it known to others. The only exception is when the health, and possibly the lives of others may be endangered by the specific illness - such as the case may be where a person is HIV positive and the chance exists that other
- 39. people may contract the virus.3 This category of information is of specific importance for an information professional working in a medical library. � Personal information. Personal information refers to those categories of information which refer to only that specific person, for example bibliographic (name, address) and financial information. This type of information is of relevance to all categories of information professionals. � Information about one's possessions. This information is closely related to property right. According to this a person does have control over the information which relates to personal possessions in certain instances. For example, a person may keep private the information about the place where a wallet is kept. 3.3. The Expressed Will to Privacy 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 3/9 The following important aspect of privacy is the desire for privacy (by means of an expressed will) since this desire is important for the delimitation of privacy. In short, the desire for privacy implies that privacy will only be at issue in cases where there is a clear expression of a desire for privacy. For example, a personal conversation between two persons will be regarded as private as long as there is an expressed will to keep it private. The moment that this will is relinquished the
- 40. information is no longer regarded as private. The same applies to the other categories of personal and private information. If a person makes a private telephone number (as a form of personal information) known to a company, it is no longer regarded as private information. According to the law it can then even be seen as business information which may legally be traded in. This expressed will to privacy acts therefore as a very important guideline for the information professional regarding the delimitation of privacy. 3.4. The Relationship Between Privacy and Confidentiality (Secrecy) It is also important to distinguish between privacy and confidentiality/secrecy. The confidential treatment of information is not only applicable to the above-mentioned four categories of private and personal information - it may refer to any category of information, such as, inter al ia, trade secrets. 4. THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON THE PROCESSING OF PERSONAL AND PRIVATE INFORMATION 4.1. Definition of Information Technology Before the influence of the use of technology in the processing of personal and private information can be dealt with, it is important to briefly pay attention to the concept technology. For the purpose of this paper the definition of Van Brakel (1989, p. 240) will be used, namely: the gathering, organizing, storage and distribution of information in various formats by means of computer and telecommunications techniques based on micro- electronics.4
- 41. 4.2. The Ethical Implications for the Use of Technology in the Processing of Information Although technology has a major impact on the gathering, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information its main ethical impact relates to accessibility/inaccessibility and the manipulation of information. It creates the possibility of wider as well as simultaneous access to information. By implication, it becomes easier to access a person's private information by more people. On the other hand, a person can be excluded from necessary information in electronic format by means of a variety of security measures such as passwords. The technological manipulation of information refers, among others, to the integration of information (merging of documents), the repackaging thereof (translations and the integration of textual and graphical formats) and the possible altering of information (changing of photographic images) by electronic means. The use of technology in the processing of information can therefore not be seen as ethically neutral. Christians (199, p. 7) refers to the use of technology as a value laden process. Kluge (1994, p. 337) even comments that technology has changed the ontological status of a document with accompanying ethical implications. By this he specifically refers to the manipulation of information by means of technology. Brown (1990, p. 3) however on the other hand, indicates correctly that the ethical problems that are caused by the use of technology do not imply - as he puts it - "...that we should rethink our moral values".
- 42. The impact of the use of technology on the privacy of people manifests itself in a variety of areas. These areas include, inter alia the following: � The electronic monitoring of people in the workplace. This relates to personal information as discussed earlier. This is done by so-called electronic eyes. The justification by companies for the use of such technology is to increase productivity. Stair (1992, p. 655), however, in the discussion of this practice, clearly points out the ethical problem pertaining to the use of these technologies. According to him 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 4/9 peoples' privacy in the workplace are threatened by these devices. It can also lead to a feeling of fear and of all ways being watched - the so-called panopticon phenomenon. � The interception and reading of E-mail messages. This poses an ethical problem which relates to the private communication of an individual. It is technically possible to intercept E-mail messages, and the reading thereof is normally justified by companies because they firstly see the technology infrastructure (E-mail) as a resource belonging to the company and not the individual, and secondly messages are intercepted to check on people to see whether they use the facility for private reasons or to do their job.5
- 43. � The merging of databases which contains personal information. This is also known as databanking (Frocht & Thomas, 1994, p. 24). By this is meant the integration of personal information from a variety of databases into one central database. The problem here does not in the first place arise from the integration of the information as such. The main problems include the fact that the individual is not aware of personal information being integrated into a central database, that the individual does not know the purpose/s for which the integration is effected, or by whom or for whose benefit the new database is constructed and whether the information is accurate.6 In order to counter these problems relating to privacy and the merging of databases the American Congress passed the Computer Matching and Privacy Protection Act in the 1980s (Benjamin, 1991, p. 11). � Closely related to the merging of files is the increasing use of buying cards ("frequent-shopper cards") by retail stores. Inside such a card a computer chip is buried that records every item purchased along with a variety of personal information of the buyer (Branscomb, 1995, p. 19). This information obtained from the card enables marketing companies to do targeted marketing to specific individuals because the buying habits as well as other personal information of people are known. � Another major threat to privacy is the raise of so called hackers and crackers which break into computer systems (Benjamin, 1991, p. 7). This coincides with the shift in ethical values and the emergence of the cyberpunk culture with the motto of "information wants to be free".
- 44. � The development of software that makes the decoding of digital information (which can be private information) virtually impossible also poses serious legal as well as ethical questions because it can protect criminals. A good example is the development of software called Pretty Good Privacy by P Zimmerman in 1991. According to an article in the IT Review (1996, p. 22) he has developed the most complex algorithm ever invented which makes the decoding of digital information virtually impossible. 4.3. The Individual and Socio-economical Effect The use of technology for the processing of personal and other forms of private information has far reaching effects on society. The following effects can be distinguished: � On the individual level: The effect on the individual can be summarized as a loss of dignity and spontaneity, as well as a threat to freedom and the right to privacy. In her research on the impact of technology on the privacy of the individual, Rosenberg (1994, p. 228) concluded that: "Technology continuous to be viewed as a threat to privacy rather than a possible solution". A survey that was conducted in 1990 by Equifax (one of the three biggest credit bureau companies in the USA) on the use of technology and the threat to the privacy of people, found that 79% of the respondents indicated that they were weary of the use of technology for the processing of their personal information (Frocht & Thomas, 1994, p. 24). � On the economic and social levels the biggest effect is the growth of large information businesses like credit bureau and telecommunication companies that specialize
- 45. in the processing and trade of person- related information. This brings about a redefinition of the role of society (big businesses) in the personal and private lives of the individual (the use of personal information as a commodity). It also becomes clear 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 5/9 that the legislation (for example on E-mail) on the protection of the privacy of the individual is falling behind due to the rapidly changing world of technology. 5. THE RELEVANCE FOR THE INFORMATION PROFESSIONAL The above-mentioned has implications for the information professional on at least three levels. Firstly, the information professional works with all four categories of personal and private information. Secondly, increasing use is made of technology in the processing thereof. Lastly, a new profession is emerging in the infopreneur whose main line of business may be the buying and selling of person-related and other private information. 5.1. The Main Ethical Issues In the handling and processing of these different categories of private and personal information the information professional is confronted with the following ethical issues:
- 46. � Deciding which categories of personal and private information the information professional is entitled to gather. This question is of utmost importance to infopreneurs. � The confidential treatment of such information. This issue refers specifically to information gained from the reference interview. According to Froehlich (1994), Smith (1994) and Shaver et al. (1985), the main ethical problems in this regard (with specific reference to online searching) are as follows: can personal details, obtained from the reference interview, be used for purposes other than for that which it was specifically gathered, is it ethically correct to re-use a search strategy formulated for one user for anther user?, is it appropriate to discuss the nature of a specific query with other people? � The accuracy of information. This issue is of specific importance in cases where an information professional is working with personal information that can have a direct influence on the life of a person. An example is the processing of medical information. � The purposes for which various categories of information may be used. The question here is whether an information professional may use any of these four categories of private information for any other reasons than the original reason given for the gathering thereof. Relating to this is the question whether the person must be notified about the way in which personal information is going to be used.
- 47. � The rights of a person in terms of the use and distribution of one's personal and private information. This ethical problem relates to the above- mentioned questions and boils down to the question of consent of the user in terms of the use of personal information. Related questions are as follows: does a user have the right to verify any personal and private information that is being held by an information professional, and if so, what are such person's rights regarding the correcting (in cases of the incorrectness thereof) of this information, and, does the person have the right to know who is using that personal and private information and for what purposes? 5.2. Applicable Ethical Norms Applicable ethical norms which can act as guidelines as well as instruments of measurement must be formulated to address these ethical issues. The following norms can be distinguished: truth, freedom and human rights. They will be discussed briefly. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 6/9 � Truth. Truth as an ethical norm has a dual ethical application. Firstly, it serves as norm for the factual correctness of information. As a norm it thus guides the information
- 48. professional regarding the accurate and factually correct handling of private information. In the second place truth is an expression of ethical virtues such as openness, honesty and trustworthiness. � Freedom. According to this norm a person has the freedom to make choices in terms of freedom of privacy and freedom from intrusion. As norm, however, it may not become absolutized. Therefore the choice to privacy from intrusion may not restrict the freedom of others. � Human rights. This norm is closely related to freedom, but can be regarded as a more concretely applicable norm. Applied to privacy it means the juridical acknowledgment and protection of a persons' right to privacy. As an individual human right it also protects the individual from unlawful interference from society (amongst others the state) in the private life of an individual.7 5.3. Ethical Guidelines for the Information Professional Based on these norms, practical guidelines for the information professional can be formulated. Before the formulation of these guidelines, two fundamental aspects must be taken into consideration, namely the recognition of a persons' autonomy and freedom as well as the fact that the legal guidelines on privacy do not offer a complete framework for the ethical actions of the information professional with regard to the handling of personal and private information.
- 49. The concepts of autonomy and freedom has already been dealt with. With regard to the juridical guidelines the following comments can be made. Firstly, once a person's private or personal information has been made known publicly (disclaim of the implied intention) such information is no longer, according to the law, viewed as private. This implies that the information can legally be dealt with as trade information. There is therefore (from a juridical perspective) no ethical sensitivity for the autonomy and freedom of the individual with regard to his right to privacy. The second remark relates to the content of legislation itself. As indicated, the immense growth in and development of information technology give rise to the fact that the legislators fall behind in the tabling of appropriate legislation on the protection of personal privacy. This is especially true in the South African situation where there is, for example no legislation on the protection of privacy to provide for information handled via E-mail. Bearing in mind these two aspects the following practical guidelines can be given: (The appropriate norms are also given) � As an acknowledgment of the autonomy and freedom of the individual the information professional must act on the assumption that the client regards as confidential all personal and private information that is handled by the information professional. This implies that the information professional acknowledges the right of the client to control to a certain extent any personal and private information8 - based on the norm of freedom. � The client must, on a regular basis have access to all private and personal information that is held and
- 50. used by the information professional. The reason for this is to provide the client the opportunity to verify the accuracy of the information. It is then the responsibility of the information professional to see to it that the necessary corrections are made and again verified by the client (Fouty, 1993, p. 290) - based on the norms of freedom and human rights. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 7/9 � The merging of personal and other private information of an individual into a different database than the one for which it was originally collected must be done with the necessary caution (Schattuck, 1995, p. 310). This is specifically applicable in situations where the client is not aware of such merging or the implications thereof. The appropriate action would not only be to inform the client about such a merging and the implications thereof, but also to give the client the right of access to the information on the central database, and the opportunity to change the information where it is incorrect, and the right to know who is using the information as well as the purpose of such use - based on the norms of human rights, freedom and truth. � The information professional must notify the client explicitly of the intended purposes9 of the use of all personal and private information. This implies the client's permission. Different avenues exist for seeking such permission. Spinello (1995:122) prefers the method of
- 51. implicit informed consent. According to this principle, companies (information professionals) that have collected information about a person must diligently inform that person about the various uses of the information. Clients must then be given an opportunity to consent to these uses or to withhold their consent. The burden is on the client to respond, and a lack of response implies consent. However, the client must be granted the opportunity to withdraw consent (Amidon, 1992:67) - based on the norms of freedom and human rights. � No unnecessary private information must be gathered. This is not only for logistic reasons but also to prevent the unnecessary violation or exposure of a person's privacy - based on the norm of freedom. � Personal and other private information that is no longer necessary for the function for which it was collected must be destroyed (Branscomb, 1995, p. 71) - based on the norms of freedom and human rights. � When the rendering of a specific service or product to a person is refused on the grounds of personal information (e.g. creditworthiness), the reason for this denial must be made known to the person10 - based on the norms of truth and human rights. � A person's information must be handled with the necessary confidentiality. This implies security and control of access to the information, of the right to use it, as well as the right to change or add any information (Fouty, 1993:290) - based on the norms of freedom, truth and human rights. � A private policy must be formulated consisting of the
- 52. following elements: the categories of information that must be regarded as private and personal, the levels of confidentiality (e.g. who has access and use of which information), a clear explanation of the purposes of the use of the information, and the description of the procedures to ensure the accuracy of this information - based on the norms of freedom, truth and human rights. 6. CONCLUSION It can thus be concluded that the use of technology in the processing of information, poses important questions with regard to a person's right to privacy. This right is directly linked to the right to freedom and human autonomy. These problems relate mainly to the accessibility of information and the manipulation thereof. This is of specific relevance to the information professional who deals with private and personal information. Practical guidelines in the handling of these problems can be formulated according to the norms of freedom, truth and human rights. REFERENCES Amidon, P. (1992). Widening privacy concerns. Online, 16 (4): 64-67. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges
- 53. web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 8/9 Baker, L. (1992). Needed: An ethical code for library administrators. Journal of Library Administration, 16 (4): 1-17. Benjamin, L.M. (1991). Privacy, computers and personal information: Towards equality and equity in an information age. Communications and the Law, 13 (2): 3-16. Branscomb, A.W. (1994). Who Owns Information?: From Privacy to Private Access. New York: Basic Books. A division of Harper Collins Publishers. Christians, C.G. (1991). Information ethics in a complicated age. In Ethics and the Librarian. Proceedings of the Allerton Park Institute, 29-31 October 1989, University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library, edited by F.W. Lancaster. Vol. 31. Also In Cochrane, J. (1991). Hell hound on my trail. Ethics and librarianship. New Zealand Libraries, 46 (11):2 6-31. Collier, G. (1994). Information privacy. Just how private are the details of individuals in a company's database? Information Management and Computer Security, 3 (1): 41-45. Focht, K.T. & Thomas, D.S. (1994). Information compilation and disbursement: moral, legal and ethical considerations. Information Management and Computer Security, 2 (2): 23-28. Fouty, K.G. (1993). Online patron records and privacy: Service vs Security. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 19 (5): 289-293. Froehlich, T.J. (1994). Re-thinking ethical issues in an online
- 54. environment. Online Information '94 Proceedings, 6-8 December 1994, edited by D.I. Raitt & B. Jeapes. Oxford: Learned Information. pp. 415-422. Goode, J & Johnson, M. (1991). Putting out the flames: The etiquette and law of e-mail. Online, 15 (6): 61-66. I spy. Personal rights in the information age. (1996). Information Technology. Kluge, E.H.W. (1994). Health information, the fair information principles and ethics. Methods of Information in Medicine, 33: 336-345. McGarry, K. (1993). The Changing Context of Information. An Introductory Analysis. 2nd ed. London: Library Association Publishing. Neethling, J. (1991). Persoonlikheidsreg. Derde uitgawe. Durban: Butterworths. Neethling, J., Potgieter, J.M. & Visser, P.J. 1996. Neethling's law of personality. Durban: Butterworths. Rosenberg, R.S. (1993). Free speech, pornography, sexual harassment, and electronic networks. The Information Society, 9: 285-331. Shank, R. (1986, Summer). Privacy: History, legal, social, and ethical aspects. Library Trends, pp. 7-15. Shattucks, J. (1995). Computer matching is a serious threat to individual rights. In Computers, Ethics and Social Values, edited by D.G. Johnson & H. Nissenbaum. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. pp. 305-311.
- 55. Shaver, D.B. et al. (1985, Fall). Ethics for online intermediaries. Special Libraries, Fall: 238-245. Smith, M.M. (1994). Online information ethics: Online searching and the searching self. Proceedings of the 15th National Online Meeting, May 1994, edited by M.E. Williams. Medford, NY: Learned Information. pp. 399-405. Spinello, R.A. (1995). Ethical Aspects of Information Technology. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. Stair, R.M. (1992). Principles of Information Systems. A Managerial Approach. Boston: Boyd & Fraser. 4/20/2021 TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY: Ethical Challenges web.simmons.edu/~chen/nit/NIT%2796/96-025-Britz.html 9/9 Van Brakel, P.A. (1989). Inligtingstegnologie: Verkenning van navorsingstemas. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Biblioteek- en Inligtingkunde, 57 (3). Ware, W.H. (1993). The new faces of privacy. The Information Society, 9 (3): 195-211. Westin, A. (1967). Privacy and Freedom. New York: Atheneum. Zorkoczy, P. (1990). Information Technology: An Introduction. 2nd edition. London: Pitman Publishing. 4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be
- 56. forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 1/4 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten Rory Cellan-Jones Technology correspondent @BBCRoryCJ 15 May 2014 Comments The reverberations from this week's landmark European Court of Justice ruling on the right to be forgotten continue to be felt. Legions of lawyers are still trying to work out what it will mean for the search engines, and for millions of EU citizens who may want to force them to remove links to their past online lives. And the cultural divide between Europe and the US appears wider than ever, with two very different views of how we should live our lives online. On the one hand there is what you might call the web utopian view, held by the US internet giants and some in Europe who look to Silicon Valley for inspiration. This sees the ECJ ruling as unworkable, illiberal and just out of touch. The Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales, who divides his time
- 57. between London and the US, explains to me why something like it could never happen across the Atlantic because of the constitutional guarantee of free speech: "This is not a ALAMY https://www.bbc.com/news/correspondents/rorycellanjones https://www.twitter.com/BBCRoryCJ https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969#comments http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-27388289 4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 2/4 debate the United States is even capable of entering into. You'd have to repeal the First Amendment - and that's like a religious artefact - so that's never going to happen." He tells me this is not necessarily a new cultural gap but one that is being made evident for the first time. "In the past if you were in Germany you were never worried that some encyclopedia website based in the United States was going to name you as a murderer after you got out of jail because that was inconceivable. Today that can happen, so the cultural gap that was always there about the regulation of speech is becoming more visible."
- 58. But in Europe many politicians and regulators and some - though by no means all - privacy campaigners have welcomed the ruling. Mr Wales' point about local laws - which used to mean old convictions simply disappeared from the record after a certain time - is one of the reasons for that support. Europeans who have been told that the internet is basically ungovernable - and if it does have guiding principles then they come from the land of the free - are expressing some satisfaction that court has refused to believe that. Max Mosley, who has fought privacy battles with tabloid newspapers and Google over pictures of a sadomasochistic orgy, expresses particular satisfaction that the European Court decided the search firm was subject to local laws. When I talked to him as he emerged from a radio studio he was also exercised about the rehabilitation of offenders: "A principle accepted in most civilised countries. The internet shouldn't regurgitate things for ever." And he refuses to accept the idea that the online world just cannot be regulated. "The internet is so new that the law hasn't caught up with it but eventually it'll be ADVERTISEMENT
- 59. 4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 3/4 regulated like every other aspect of society and that's quite right." So a battle between two views of freedom - the US belief that free speech trumps everything, and the European view that individuals should have some control over what the world knows about them. But there is something else in play here, a growing unease about the power wielded by what are nearly always US web giants over our lives. Mario Costeja Gonzalez, the man who prompted this week's EU ruling against Google Google, Facebook, Twitter and other firms that store and use vast banks of data about Europeans have all sought to deny responsibility for how people use and share that information. They also maintain that they are not media firms - which in Europe face strict regulation - but mere technology platforms enabling better communication. In Google's case that stance has come to bite it. Media firms like the Spanish newspaper site at the heart of this test case, haven't been told to remove content. It is the "data controllers" - the search engines -
- 60. which are in the court's sights. Now there are obvious questions about the practicality of getting Google to decide which of billions of links to millions of European names should or should not be removed. The temptation for the company will be to automatically agree to all requests, rather than to set up a vast quasi-judicial bureaucracy to decide what is justified and what is not, and that could have a chilling effect on free expression. But European web users, who have been told for so long that companies based in Silicon Valley cannot be told what to do in the UK or France or Germany, may feel REUTERS 4/20/2021 US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten - BBC News https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-27421969 4/4 a smidgen of satisfaction about the howls of outrage coming from across the Atlantic. 4/20/2021 FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership | Healthcare IT News
- 61. https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros-cybersecurity-public-private-partnership 1/3 Medical Devices FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership The agency released a five-point plan outlining regulatory changes to bolster medical device safety, including requiring manufacturers ensure devices can be updated and patched. By Jessica Davis April 18, 2018 04:23 PM https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/medical-devices https://www.healthcareitnews.com/author/jessica-davis https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 https://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=300 4/20/2021 FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership | Healthcare IT News https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros-cybersecurity-public-private-partnership 2/3 The Food and Drug Administration released its plan to improve medical device safety, which includes a reorganization of its medical device center and a Congressional plan to launch a
- 62. public-private partnership focused on cybersecurity. The five-point plan released Tuesday outlines a plan to consolidate offices within its device center, which oversees pre- and post-market activities. As part of the plan, the FDA will require manufacturers to ensure medical devices are capable of being updated and receiving security patches. FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, MD, also said the agency is contemplating forcing manufacturers to publicly disclose known cybersecurity issues. [Also: California medical device manufacturer reports breach of 30,000 consumers] The FDA also is exploring regulatory options to expedite labeling changes and other features, including timely implementation of post-market changes. The current system on making those changes is voluntary, even when safety issues arise. “Although medical devices provide great benefits to patients, they also present risks,” Gottlieb said in a statement. “And we are focusing equal attention on advancing new frameworks for identifying risks and protecting consumers.”
- 63. “Our aim is to ensure not only that devices meet the gold standard for getting to market, but also that they continue to meet this standard as we get more data about devices and learn more about their benefit-risk profile in real-world clinical settings,” he added. https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnounceme nts/ucm604672.htm https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/california-medical- device-manufacturer-reports-breach-30000-consumers 4/20/2021 FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership | Healthcare IT News https://www.healthcareitnews.com/news/fda-medical-device- plan-zeros-cybersecurity-public-private-partnership 3/3 The agency also is looking into a requirement of additional training or education of providers to ensure the safety and effectiveness of complex devices. Gottlieb said the FDA also is looking into ways to support developers pursuing safer devices, including a faster review of those devices with vastly improved safety features. While the FDA has a breakthrough device program, those devices currently can be reviewed
- 64. under that program. Gottlieb also outlined plans for a public-private partnership, CyberMed Safety (expert) Analysis Board, which complements its existing device vulnerability coordination and response efforts. The group, made up of a wide range of experts from clinicians to biomedical engineers, also will support device manufacturers and FDA on safety issues, such as high-risk vulnerabilities and adjudicating disputes. Funding for CYMSAB will be included in the agency’s requested $70 million for Fiscal Year 2019 for its digital health technology advancements. Twitter: @JessieFDavis Email the writer: [email protected] Topics: Compliance & Legal, Government & Policy, Medical Devices, Privacy & Security, Quality and Safety More regional news https://twitter.com/jessiefdavis mailto:[email protected] https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/compliance-legal https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource-
- 65. topic/government https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/medical-devices https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/privacy-security https://www.healthcareitnews.com/category/resource- topic/quality-safety 4/20/2021 Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm 1/3 Email This Subscribe to Newsletter Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed February 13, 2018 Article 3 Comments The Equifax data breach exposed more of consumers’ personal information than the company first disclosed last year, according to documents given to lawmakers. The credit reporting company announced in September that the personal information of 145.5 million consumers had been compromised in a data breach. It originally said that the information accessed included names, Social Security numbers, birth dates, addresses and — in some cases — driver’s license numbers and credit card numbers. It also said some consumers’ credit card numbers were among the information exposed, as well as the personal
- 66. information from thousands of dispute documents. mailto:?subject=Equifax%20Breach%20Exposed%20More%20C onsumer%20Data%20Than%20First%20Disclosed&body=Equifa x%20Breach%20Exposed%20More%20Consumer%20Data%20T han%20First%20Disclosed%0Ahttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.insuranc ejournal.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2F2018%2F02%2F13%2F4 80357.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/subscribe/ mailto:?subject=Equifax+Breach+Exposed+More+Consumer+Da ta+Than+First+Disclosed&body=Equifax+Breach+Exposed+Mo re+Consumer+Data+Than+First+Disclosed%0Ahttps://www.insu rancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/480357.htm https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https://www.ins urancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/480357.htm https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?original_referer=https%3A%2F %2Fwww.insurancejournal.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2F2018 %2F02%2F13%2F480357.htm&text=Equifax+Breach+Exposed+ More+Consumer+Data+Than+First+Disclosed&url=https%3A% 2F%2Fwww.insurancejournal.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2F201 8%2F02%2F13%2F480357.htm https://www.linkedin.com/sharing/share- offsite/?url=https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/20 18/02/13/480357.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm?print https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm/?comments https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/08/46 3716.htm 4/20/2021 Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than
- 67. First Disclosed https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm 2/3 However, Atlanta-based Equifax Inc. recently disclosed in a document submitted to the Senate Banking Committee, that a forensic investigation found criminals accessed other information from company records. According to the document, provided to The Associated Press by Sen. Elizabeth Warren’s office, that included tax identification numbers, email addresses and phone numbers. Finer details, such as the expiration dates for credit cards or issuing states for driver’s licenses, were also included in the list. The additional insight into the massive breach was first reported by the Wall Street Journal. Equifax’s disclosure, which it has not made directly to consumers, underscores the depth of detail the company keeps on individuals that it may have put at risk. And it adds to the string of missteps the company has made in recovering from the security debacle. Equifax spokeswoman Meredith Griffanti said that “in no way did we intend to mislead consumers.” The company last year disclosed only the information that affected the greatest number of consumers and wanted to “act with the greatest clarity” in terms of the information provided the committee, she said. Griffanti also said that while the list provided to the committee includes all the potential data points that
- 68. may have been accessed by criminals, those elements impacted a minimal portion of consumers. And some data _ like passport numbers _ were not stolen. The company reiterated that the total number of consumers affected is unchanged. “When you are making that kind of announcement, where do you draw the line? If you saw the list we provided the banking finance committee it was pretty exhaustive,” Griffanti said. “We wanted to show them that no stone was left unturned.” But to consumers whose information was exposed, it may feel like yet another slap in the face. Equifax waited months to disclose the hack. After it did, anxious consumers experienced jammed phone lines and uninformed company representatives. An Equifax website set up to help people determine their exposure was described as sketchy by security experts and provided inconsistent and unhelpful information to many. The company blamed the online customer help page’s problems on a vendor’s software code after it appeared that it had been hacked as well. 4/20/2021 Equifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First Disclosed https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/13/48 0357.htm 3/3 Equifax has tried to make changes, replacing its CEO, as well as spending millions to research and
- 69. rectify the breach. In January, it launched a service that allows consumers to lock and unlock their credit report. But a test of the site by The New York Times found it unusable in many ways. The company said this experience was an exception and it has made some key changes to the service since it first launched. The company continues to deal with multiple regulatory investigations into the matter as well as hundreds consumer lawsuits. Warren, D-Mass., released a report on the hack Wednesday that described it as “one of the largest and most significant data security lapses in history.” Related: Treasury to Look Into Consumer Financial Bureau’s Handling of Equifax Breach Equifax, Wells Fargo May Still Face Class Actions Despite Wall Street Arbitration Win FTC, Congress, States Investigating Equifax Over Data Breach Is Equifax’s Cyber Insurance Enough to Cover Breach? Equifax Breach Exposed Credit Data of 143 Million U.S. Consumers Copyright 2021 Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2018/02/07/47 9854.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/10/26/46 9456.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/15/46 4450.htm
- 70. https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/11/46 3769.htm https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/09/08/46 3716.htm The Washington Post Washington Post Live The ethics of Hacking 101 By Ellen Nakashima and Ashkan Soltani October 7, 2014 At the University of Tulsa, professor Sujeet Shenoi is teaching students how to hack into oil pipelines and electric power plants. At Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, professor David Brumley is instructing students on how to write software to break into computer networks. And George Hotz, a largely self-taught hacker who became a millionaire in part by finding flaws in Apple and other computer systems, is now back in school, where he’s one of the stars on Carnegie Mellon’s competitive hacking team.
- 71. Cybersecurity: A Special Report Shenoi, Brumley and Hotz are players in a controversial area of technology: the teaching and practice of what is loosely called “cyberoffense.” In a world in which businesses, the military and governments rely on computer systems that are potentially vulnerable, having the ability to break into those systems provides a strategic advantage. Unsurprisingly, ethics is a big issue in this field. Both professors say they build an ethics component into their curriculum; Shenoi won’t even accept students who don’t promise to work, if hired, for the National Security Agency, the Energy Department or another U.S. government agency. But some experts say the academic community is not taking ethics seriously enough, and professors are not accepting responsibility for the potentially dangerous skills they are teaching. The very nature of hacking means that a lot of its skills and standards evolve outside academia. (Hotz, known in tech circles by the handle “geohot,” says he learned most of what he knows on the Internet “and from playing with things.”) This leads advocates of teaching cyberoffense to say that the “good guys” have to keep
- 72. up — which in turn raises more questions about whether such education is morally right. “There’s a very large stigma around saying we do anything offense-related,” said Tyler Nighswander, 23, a computer science graduate student at Carnegie Mellon. “It’s certainly understandable that you don’t want to say your school teaches offense — ‘Oh, you mean you teach kids how to break into computers and steal stuff?’ ” http://washingtonpostlive.com/ https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/ellen-nakashima/ http://www.utulsa.edu/cybercorps http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~dbrumley/index.html http://www.geohot.com/ http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/post- live/collection/cybersecurity-special-report/ Some academics note that it may be too late to stop the worldwide expansion of offensive cyber tools and techniques. “There is an escalating arms race in cyberspace as governments, companies and malicious actors are all going on the offensive, most of it under a shroud of secrecy and absent any meaningful political oversight,” said Ron Deibert, director of the University of Toronto’s Citizen Lab.
- 73. Seeking ‘vulnerabilities’ No more than a handful of professors have the knowledge and resources to teach cyberattack skills at the level of Brumley or Shenoi, whose students are heavily recruited for government and industry positions. At Tulsa, Shenoi, 54, obtains permission from energy companies for his students to attempt to hack into them, infiltrating the systems that run gas pipelines or power grids and gaining access to critical U.S. infrastructure. They also do penetration testing for other companies, finding “vulnerabilities,” or flaws, that enemy hackers could exploit. “We have a class where we teach people how to write things like Stuxnet,” Shenoi said, referring to a computer worm, reportedly developed by U.S. and Israeli scientists, that was found in 2010 and damaged about 1,000 centrifuges in an Iranian uranium-enrichment plant, delaying the country’s nuclear program. Stuxnet, whose deployment is often considered the first true use of a cyberweapon, was built around an unprecedented four “zero-day exploits” — that is, attack tools based on previously unknown software flaws. Shenoi began teaching courses on offensive computer
- 74. techniques in 1999, he said, and by 2008, Tulsa was offering an entire program. Now, he said, there are “four courses in reverse engineering, two in cyber operations, two in offensive SCADA [supervisory control and data acquisition], and one on malware analysis and creation.” Shenoi said that the potential power of offensive cyber techniques is so great that he accepts only students who intend to work for the government and who have records that would qualify them for government security clearances. He interviews all the applicants as well as their parents. He sends 15 to 20 students a year, he said, to work at the NSA or the CIA. “In order for me to teach these real-world attack skills, these students have to be trusted,” he said. “They cannot go to work for the private sector. “There’s no reason to teach private-sector people how to use Stinger missiles,” he continued. Similarly, he said, you don’t teach them to use cyber weapons. Brumley, 39, has taught offensive cyber skills since 2009. A self-described “patriot,” he says he discusses ethics in his classes at Carnegie Mellon — an introductory computer security course as well as more advanced
- 75. vulnerability analysis, in which students learn techniques for breaking through computer defenses. Some of https://www.sfs.opm.gov/ http://www.wired.com/2011/07/how-digital-detectives- deciphered-stuxnet/ http://spectrum.ieee.org/telecom/security/the-real-story-of- stuxnet Brumley’s students work for the government, but most go to start-ups, big companies such as Google or defense contractors. To develop their skills, Brumley encourages his students to compete in hacking contests. In August, a recreational team he advises called PPP, made up of about 20 current and former Carnegie Mellon students, won the ultimate U.S. showcase of hacking skills at the DefCon hacking conference in Las Vegas — a “capture- the-flag” competition in which 20 teams tried to break into one another’s computers. PPP’s top gun is Hotz, who gained fame in 2007 for “jailbreaking” the previously impenetrable iPhone. He left Carnegie Mellon as a 23-year-old sophomore to work on his own, and is now back as a junior at 25. Hotz is so skilled that he has won some contests solo — as in July, when he beat nine teams to win $30,000 at the
- 76. SecuInside competition in Seoul. He earned $200,000 in April for finding bugs in Google’s Chromebook computer and the Firefox browser. Brumley calls him “a machine.” Hotz boasts that he is “maybe the best hacker in the world.” A question of profit Obviously, these students are developing valuable skills. Shenoi says his students never make money off the vulnerabilities they discover or exploits they develop. They give the information for free to the companies whose systems they are testing, or to the government. Intelligence agency officials fly every so often to Tulsa to be briefed on the flaws the students have found. Brumley agrees that it is dangerous to share vulnerabilities or exploits with anyone but the software vendor or the U.S. government. “If you’re selling exploits in a free market,” he said, “then you’re potentially selling them to the adversary.” Nighswander, a former student of Brumley’s, said that he has never sold a vulnerability to a software vendor, but that he thinks it’s ethical to do so, saying, “When you think that finding a vulnerability can take weeks and
- 77. months, you can understand that the person wants to get compensated.” Hotz declined to say whether he has sold an exploit (although he was caught last year on a surreptitiously recorded conversation appearing to broker a $350,000 deal to sell exploits to jailbreak the iPhone to a Chinese company). “I have never worked with any country aside from the U.S.,” he said. He says he doesn’t dwell on issues of morality, saying, “I’m not big on ethics.” Brian Pak, 25, who created the PPP hacking team while studying under Brumley and now works for a start-up he cofounded, said that sometimes, noodling around on his own, he finds bugs in software and discloses them to the software vendor. He said he has never sold information about flaws, although some vendors offer “bounties” of up to several thousand https://www.defcon.org/ http://www.iclarified.com/37008/leaked-audio-tape-of-geohot- negotiating-sale-of-ios-7-jailbreak-listen dollars. He holds onto some vulnerabilities for use in research — a practice common among security researchers, he said.
- 78. “I also don’t think it’s unethical to provide vulnerabilities or exploits to the U.S. government,” Pak said. “I trust the U.S. government. The government protects me. As long as it’s not used against our own people, I see less of an issue.” But some experts disapprove of providing previously unknown or “zero day” vulnerabilities to the government — whether for free or for profit. They worry that, rather than disclosing these zero days to vendors, the government is stockpiling them for use against adversaries. Doing so would leave the software vendors ignorant of dangerous flaws in their products, making the Internet less secure, they say. They also charge that the government is using these tools with far too little public debate, for example, in the controversial area of domestic law enforcement. Christopher Soghoian, chief technologist for the American Civil Liberties Union, said the government should have a policy of promptly disclosing any bugs it discovers so that software companies such as Microsoft can fix them before they cause damage. Not doing so can undermine network security, he said. But Brumley said such a blanket policy would be unwise.
- 79. “The obvious example is Stuxnet,” which destroyed Iranian centrifuges, he said. That, he said, was “an opportunity to use an exploit for good.” “Twenty years earlier, that would be the thing that we flew in bombers and bombed factories for, and people would die,” he said. Dual-use tools Selling exploits and vulnerabilities is not illegal, per se, but selling them with the intent that they’ll be used to hack someone else’s computer is a crime. Software is a classic “dual use” product. It can be used to do something as innocuous as unlock an iPhone to allow consumers to switch providers or as destructive as causing an adversary’s nuclear centrifuges to spin out of control. Some academics say the teaching of hacking techniques should remain limited. “I’m personally against the widespread or wholesale teaching of offensive cyber,” said Arthur Conklin, associate professor of information and logistics technology at the University of Houston. For one thing, he said, vetting students for trustworthiness, as Shenoi does, would be impractical on a mass scale.
- 80. Giovanni Vigna, a computer science professor at the University of California at Santa Barbara, warned that not teaching offensive skills is “not a very smart option because the bad guys are going to develop them http://www.cs.ucsb.edu/~vigna/ anyway.” He added, “The key is to make the students understand what are the lines that cannot be crossed.” So he integrates into his courses on offensive cyber “a very substantial chapter on ethical issues.” Some experts argue that the government should regulate the sale and use of offensive cyber technology — but others, including Shenoi, say regulation will only drive the market for such products deeper underground. At this point, the U.S. government is in the process of placing export controls on some hacking and surveillance tools. It already has forbidden the sale of such technologies to countries with particularly egregious human rights records, such as Sudan and Iran. Meanwhile, interest in offensive cyber skills is growing. Experts estimate that several thousand personnel in private industry work at finding bugs and building exploits. More companies are training employees in
- 81. offensive skills, and more people are competing in hacking competitions. In this context, Soghoian of the ACLU fears that universities are teaching students high-end skills without a solid ethical foundation. “The academic computer security community has not yet realized the role they are playing in cyberwar,” he said. Shenoi said that, above all, he wants to impress upon his students the responsibilities that come with their technological prowess. “They have great power to do harm. They have power to intimidate. They have power to accrue money illegally,” he said. “What I tell them is, ‘You may be learning some potentially deadly skills. But use them gently and wisely, and use them for the good of society.’ ” Related: Key to keeping cyberspace safe? International accord. With mobile devices, many firms are playing Russian roulette with cybersecurity What top government and business officials are saying about cybersecurity
- 82. Ellen Nakashima Ellen Nakashima is a two-time Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter covering intelligence and national security matters for The Washington Post. She joined The Post in 1995 and is based in https://www.washingtonpost.com/postlive/the-ethics-of- hacking-101/2014/10/07/39529518-4014-11e4-b0ea- 8141703bbf6f_story.html?utm_term=.e9c36c86d53a http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/capitalbusiness/with- mobile-devices-many-firms-are-playing-russian-roulette-with- cybersecurity/2014/10/07/9556219a-4979-11e4-891d- 713f052086a0_story.html http://www.washingtonpost.com/postlive/what-top-government- and-business-officials-are-saying-about- cybersecurity/2014/10/07/a6e5142e-4e70-11e4-8c24- 487e92bc997b_story.html https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/ellen-nakashima/ https://twitter.com/nakashimae Reporting the facts for over 140 years. Try 1 month for $10 $1 Already a subscriber? Sign in https://subscribe.washingtonpost.com/acquisition/?promo=ba_d _am_4&acqEntType=mktg_onsite_article Democracy Dies in Darkness California is on the verge of passing a sweeping new
- 83. online privacy law targeting Facebook, Google and other tech giants By June 27, 2018 at 4:07 p.m. EDT California is hurtling toward the adoption of a new online privacy law that would govern how tech giants like Amazon, Facebook, Google and Uber collect and monetize consumers' personal data – a set of changes that could ripple throughout the country. The Golden State legislature is due to vote Thursday on the California Consumer Privacy Act of 2018, which would require tech companies to disclose the categories of data they collect about consumers as well as the third-party entities, like advertisers, with whom they share that information. Web users would also gain the ability to opt out of having their data sold, and companies wouldn’t be allowed to charge users a fee or provide them less service if they made that choice. And the proposal comes with some teeth: California’s attorney general would be empowered to fine companies that fail to secure consumers' sensitive details against cyber threats. If it passes, California’s proposed privacy rules would apply to only its citizens. But it still could force companies like
- 84. Facebook and Google to change some of their practices across the country, given the difficulty in maintaining two sets of privacy protections – one in California, the most populous state in the country, and a second for everyone else. Many tech giants in Silicon Valley took precisely that approach in May, adapting their data-collection practices worldwide when Europe began implementing its own strict privacy rules. California’s new regulations also could add to the pressure on other regulators, including federal lawmakers in Congress, to follow suit and adopt fresh data-collection protections, responding to web users who have grown furious with a series of recent privacy mishaps, particularly at Facebook. "These corporations make billions of dollars selling people's privacy without people having any visibility into what they're doing," said Alastair Mactaggart, a real-estate developer and driving force behind California’s new privacy push. State policymakers have moved at an unprecedented pace to introduce tweak and advance the bill all in a matter of Tony Romm https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill _id=201720180AB375 https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/tony-romm/
- 85. State policymakers have moved at an unprecedented pace to introduce, tweak and advance the bill -- all in a matter of days -- as they seek to avoid a November ballot initiative spearheaded by Mactaggart that would impose even tougher privacy rules on the tech industry. It would have allowed local consumers, for example, to sue companies in almost any case where their privacy or security had been compromised. The ballot initiative had garnered more than 600,000 signatures, almost double what it needed to qualify for consideration in the upcoming election. But Mactaggart announced this week he would withdraw his measure if lawmakers passed a compromise bill by California’s June 28 deadline for finalizing ballot propositions, setting up a last-minute blitz in the state’s Assembly and Senate after years of slow progress on privacy reform. Major technology companies like Amazon, Facebook, Google and Twitter had strongly opposed the ballot measure, chiefly through their lobbying group, the Internet Association. Tech giants like Facebook, Google, Microsoft and Uber, and Internet providers like AT&T and Verizon, also donated $200,000 each to a California coalition assembled in March to defeat it, according to local campaign finance records, though Facebook has maintained it is not actively
- 86. fighting the ballot initiative. Two of those companies, Facebook and Uber, have been the subjects of recent federal investigations into their privacy and data security practices. AT&T and Verizon, meanwhile, lobbied last year to defeat federal rules governing the way they handle customers' web-browsing information. But some tech companies have come to stomach the compromise bill now advancing in the legislature, believing that even if it does become law they can train their political firepower on trying to change it before it takes effect on Jan. 1, 2020. Robert Callahan, the vice president of state government affairs at the Internet Association, said the group opposes “many problematic provisions” in the bill and the “unprecedented lack of debate or full legislative process.” But he stressed that the “Internet industry will not obstruct or block [the measure] from moving forward, because it prevents the even worse ballot initiative from becoming law in California.” In the past, California’s regulations have spurred other states – and even the federal government – to adopt laws in areas as wide ranging as email spam and climate change. This time, privacy experts hope Congress steps in to do the same in response to major privacy mishaps, including
- 87. Facebook’s entanglement with Cambridge Analytica, a political consultancy that improperly accessed personal data on roughly 87 million of the site’s users. "We haven't done much since [Mark] Zuckerberg's hearing," Rep. Ro Khanna, a Democrat who represents a slice of Silicon Valley in Congress, said this week about the Facebook executive's appearance on Capitol Hill in April, which was prompted by the Cambridge Analytica scandal. "The people are looking to Congress and saying, we need you to act." For some, like Facebook, the California bill might not actually result in major revisions to its business practices. The social giant maintains it doesn’t sell data, though it does allow advertisers to tailor their campaigns on the site to narrow categories of users, which isn’t prohibited by California’s proposed law. “People should be in control of their information online and companies should be held to high standards in explaining what data they have and how they use it, especially when they sell data,” Will Castleberry, the vice president of state and local public policy at Facebook said in a statement. He said Facebook supports the bill, “while not perfect,” and would work with “policymakers on an approach that protects consumers and promotes responsible innovation.”
- 88. If California’s bill does not pass, however, Mactaggart has promised to forge ahead with his ballot initiative – setting up another high-stakes showdown come November. He also warned companies against trying to weaken those privacy t ti i th f t “If th t t ll ’ll d thi i I’ll d thi i ” h id https://www.caprivacy.org/post/california-consumer-privacy- act-clears-major-hurdle-submits-625-000-signatures-statewide http://cal- access.sos.ca.gov/Campaign/Committees/Detail.aspx?id=140151 8&view=electronic protections in the future. “If they totally screw us, we’ll do this again; I’ll do this again,” he said. Comments are not available on this story. Have a question about our commenting policies? Review our community rules or contact the commenting team. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/ask-the- post/wp/2018/06/11/community-rules/ https://helpcenter.washingtonpost.com/hc/en- us/requests/new?ticket_form_id=114094010092 4/20/2021 Bias already exists in search engine results, and it’s only going to get worse | MIT Technology Review https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/02/26/3299/meet-the- woman-who-searches-out-search-engines-bias-against-women-
- 89. and-minorities/ 1/5 4/20/2021 Bias already exists in search engine results, and it’s only going to get worse | MIT Technology Review https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/02/26/3299/meet-the- woman-who-searches-out-search-engines-bias-against-women- and-minorities/ 2/5 4/20/2021 Bias already exists in search engine results, and it’s only going to get worse | MIT Technology Review https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/02/26/3299/meet-the- woman-who-searches-out-search-engines-bias-against-women- and-minorities/ 3/5 NYU BOOK PRESS The internet might seem like a level playing field, but it isn’t. Safiya Umoja Noble came face to face with that fact one day when she used Google’s search engine to look for subjects her nieces might find interesting. She entered the term “black girls” and came back with pages dominated by pornography. Noble, a USC Annenberg communications professor, was horrified but not surprised. For years
- 90. she has been arguing that the values of the web reflect its builders—mostly white, Western men— and do not represent minorities and women. Her latest book, Algorithms of Oppression, details research she started after that fateful Google search, and it explores the hidden structures that shape how we get information through the internet. The book, out this month, argues that search engine algorithms aren’t as neutral as Google would like you to think. Algorithms promote some results above others, and even a seemingly neutral piece of code can reflect society’s biases. What’s more, without any insight into how the algorithms work or what the broader context is, searches can unfairly shape the discussion of a topic like black girls. Noble spoke to MIT Technology Review about the problems inherent with the current system, how Google could do better, and how artificial intelligence might make things worse. 4/20/2021 Bias already exists in search engine results, and it’s only going to get worse | MIT Technology Review
- 91. https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/02/26/3299/meet-the- woman-who-searches-out-search-engines-bias-against-women- and-minorities/ 4/5 COURTESY OF SAFIYA UMOJA NOBLE What do people get wrong about how search engines work? If we’re looking for the closest Starbucks, a specific quote, or something very narrow that is easily understood, it works fine. But when we start getting into more complicated concepts around identity, around knowledge, this is where search engines start to fail us. This wouldn’t be so much of a problem except that the public really relies upon search engines to give them what they think will be the truth, or something vetted, or something that’s credible. This is where, I think, we have the greatest misunderstanding in the public about what search engines are. To address bias, Google normally suppresses certain results. Is there a better approach? 4/20/2021 Bias already exists in search engine results, and it’s only going to get worse | MIT Technology Review https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/02/26/3299/meet-the- woman-who-searches-out-search-engines-bias-against-women-
- 92. and-minorities/ 5/5 We could think about pulling back on such an ambitious project of organizing all the world’s knowledge, or we could reframe and say, “This is a technology that is imperfect. It is manipulatable. We’re going to show you how it’s being manipulated. We’re going to make those kinds of dimensions of our product more transparent so that you know the deeply subjective nature of the output.” Instead, the position for many companies—not just Google—is that [they are] providing something that you can trust, and that you can count on, and this is where it becomes quite difficult. How might machine learning perpetuate some of the racism and sexism you write about? I've been arguing that artificial intelligence, or automated decision-making systems, will become a human rights issue this century. I strongly believe that, because machine-learning algorithms and projects are using data that is already biased, incomplete, flawed, and [we are] teaching machines how to make decisions based on that information. We know [that’s] going to lead to a variety of disparate outcomes. Let me just add that AI will be harder and
- 93. harder to intervene upon because it will become less clear what data has been used to inform the making of that AI, or the making of those systems. There are many different kinds of data sets, for example, that are not standardized, that are coalescing to make decisions. Since you first searched for “black girls” in 2010, have you seen things get better or worse? Since I started writing about and speaking publicly about black girls in particular being associated with pornography, things have changed. Now the pornography and hypersexualized content is not on the first page, so I think that was a quiet improvement that didn’t come about with a lot of fanfare. But other communities, like Latina and Asian girls, are still highly sexualized in search results. 115© The Author(s) 2020 F. Stjernfelt, A. M. Lauritzen, Your Post has been Removed, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25968-6_11 Due to the recent crises, Facebook is restructuring to restore the company’s reputation, which is, according to Zuckerberg, a three-year process. On April 24, 2018, Facebook published its updated internal guidelines for enforcement of the com- pany’s community standards.1 It was the first time the public
- 94. gained direct, “official” insight into this comprehensive hid- den policing inside the company. The only glimpses behind the curtain provided before then came from confidential documents leaked to Gawker magazine in 2012, to S/Z in 2016—and in 2017, when The Guardian published “The Facebook Files”. They included comprehensive removal guidelines featuring a mixture of parameters, decision trees and rules of thumb—illustrated by many concrete examples of content to be removed, most likely taken from real ousted material of the time.2 As a contrast to this, the 2018 document is much more sparse, orderly and void of examples, and it is tempting to think that this is a combed-down version aimed for publication. Still, the document gives unique insight into the detailed principles for the company’s content removal — albeit not the enforcement procedure itself. One can only 1 Facebook “Community Standards”. Last visit 08-04-18: https://www. facebook.com/communitystandards/; the quotes in this chapter are taken from here. See also Lee, N. “Facebook publishes its community standards playbook” Engadget. 04-24-18. 2 Cf. Gillespie (2018) p. 111f. Chapter 11 Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/978-3-030- 25968-6_11&domain=pdf https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25968-6_11 https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/; https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/;
- 95. 116 guess as to whether this surprising move away from secrecy can be attributed to the increasing media storm throughout 2017, culminating in the Cambridge Analytica revelation of March 2018 and the congressional hearings in April of the same year. The document contains six chapters: (1) “Violence and Criminal Behavior”, (2) “Safety”, (3) “Objectionable Content”, (4) “Integrity and Authenticity”, (5) “Respecting Intellectual Property” and (6) “Content Related Requests”. The first chapter features reasonable restrictions regarding criminal acts such as threats and incitement to violence. The second, “Safety”, is more problematic. Here, for instance, child pornography and images of naked children are treated as if they were but varieties of the same thing, i.e., no posting of photos featuring “nude, sexualized, or sexual activity with minors”. This means that images of diaper-changing and pedo- philia fall into the same category. The stance towards “self- injury” is also problematic, because Facebook believes itself capable of preventing suicide by banning content which “promotes, encourages, coordinates, or provides instructions for suicide, self-injury or eating disorders.” For one, this excludes serious discussion of the ongoing political issue of voluntary euthanasia—and in the same vein, one can ask whether it would not also exclude many fashionable diets. The sections “Bullying” and “Harassment” and the right to privacy are less problematic. There is, however, an issue with the following wording: “Our bullying policies do not apply to public figures because we want to allow discourse, which often includes critical discussion of people who are featured in the news or who have a large public audience. Discussion of public figures nonetheless must comply with our Community Standards, and we will remove content about public figures that violates other policies, including “hate speech” or credible threats”. This can easily be used as a cop-
- 96. out to shield public figures from criticism many would find completely legitimate. The fourth item is “Spam”, “Misrepresentation”, “False News” and “Memorialization”. It is funny how a basic guide- line within the “Spam” category says: “Do not artificially Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 117 increase distribution for financial gain.” It is hard not to read this as an exact characterization of Facebook’s very own busi - ness model, but obviously the company cannot have users invading the company’s own commercial turf. Indeed, spam is by far the largest category of content removed. “Misrepresentation” refers to Facebook’s policy stating that all users must use their own real name. In democratic countries, the reasoning behind this policy is understandable; the very name “Facebook” is based on the requirement of presenting a somewhat authentic picture of the user’s face. But it may be acutely dangerous for users in non-democratic countries. However, even in democratic countries, certain people such as anonymous media sources, whistle blowers or others might have very legitimate reasons not to appear with their own name and photo. In 2017, a major case put Facebook and the LGBT community at loggerheads. Many Drag Queens who appeared on the platform under their adopted transgender names had their accounts blocked (it would later turn out that they had all been flagged by one and the same energetic complainant) with reference to the requirement to appear under their own real name. The problem is not periph- eral. In the first months of 2018, Facebook had to close as
- 97. many as 583 million fake accounts, while still estimating that 3–4% of the remaining billions of users are fake.3 Creating and selling fake user accounts has become a large indepen- dent industry which can be used to influence everything from consumer reviews of restaurants, books, travel, etc., to more serious and malicious things such as political propaganda disguised as personal views originating from real users. When you read a good review of a restaurant online, it is potentially written by the owner, with a fake user as intermediary. As tech writer Jaron Lanier pointed out, there are numerous celebrities, businesses, politicians and others whose presence on the Internet is boosted by large numbers of fake users who 3 That is, around 100 million fake users; “Facebook shut 583 million fake accounts” Phys Org. 05-15-18. Last visited 06-25-18: https://phys.org/ news/2018-05-facebook-million-fake-accounts.html. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal https://phys.org/news/2018-05-facebook-million-fake- accounts.html https://phys.org/news/2018-05-facebook-million-fake- accounts.html 118 “follow” or “like” their activities.4 He believes that the large amount of fake users represents a fundamental problem for tech giants because so much other false communication— fake ads, “fake news”, political propaganda—is disseminated though these non-existent people. These are dead souls that can also be traded. As of early 2018, the price of 25,000 fake followers on Twitter was around 225 USD.5 In this light, it is
- 98. understandable that Facebook wants to tackle fake users, but it is unsettling if this can only be done by an encroaching ban on anonymity, especially earnest and necessary use of ano- nymity. Serious media regularly need to guarantee anonymity of sources or writers to even get them to participate, which then happens on the condition that the editorial staff know the identity of the person. Regarding the strongly disputed concept of “fake news”, the following phrase from the document might seem reassur- ing: “There is also a fine line between false news and satire or opinion.” This could lead one to believe that Facebook does not feel called upon to act as judge of true and false. But the very next sentence goes: “For these reasons, we don’t remove false news from Facebook but instead significantly reduce its distribution by showing it lower in the News Feed.” So false news is not removed, but still the people in the background consider themselves capable of identifying false news, inas- much as such news stories are downgraded in the news feed and thus marginalized. This reveals a shocking level of con- ceit: Facebook believes that its some 30.000 moderation inspectors —probably untrained— should be able to perform a truth check on news within 24 hours. It is self-evident that news is new, and society’s established institutions—with their highly educated specialists in serious journalism, courts and academia—often spend a very long time determining and documenting what is true and false in the news flow. How would a platform with no experience in the production and research of news whatsoever be a credible clearinghouse for 4 Lanier (2018) p. 34. 5 According to New York Times, cit. from Lanier, op.cit. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal
- 99. 119 truth? Perhaps the company is realizing this as of late. In December 2016, when the “fake news” debate raged in the wake of the US presidential election,6 Facebook announced a collaboration with various fact-checking organizations. They were tasked with tagging certain news (primarily about American politics) as “disputed”. The idea was, however, abandoned in December 2017, when it was found that this tagging attracted more attention and traffic to those news stories rather than scaring users off.7 Despite the public promotion of Facebook’s new fact- checking cooperation, it is still a very closed procedure with few details given. The collaborating organizations are fact checker companies PolitiFact, FactCheck.org, Snopes and the two news outlets ABC News and Associated Press—cf. Mike Ananny’s comprehensive 2018 report The partnership press: Lessons for platform-publisher collaborations as Facebook and news outlets team to fight misinformation.8 Some collabo- rators work for free, while others receive a symbolic amount from Facebook. The report is based mainly on anonymous interviews with fact checkers and according to it, the collabo- rations between Facebook and the five organizations w orks as follows: “Through a proprietary process that mixes algo- rithmic and human intervention, Facebook identifies candi - date stories; these stories are then served to the five news and fact-checking partners through a partners-only dashboard that ranks stories according to popularity. Partners 6 It has since become clear that Facebook was the biggest source of “fake news” during the 2016 presidential election, cf. Guess, A., Nyhan, B. & Reifler, J. “Selective Exposure to Misinformation: Evidence
- 100. from the consumption of fake news during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign” Dartmouth. 09-01-18. Last visited 07-30-18: https://www.dartmouth. edu/~nyhan/fake-news-2016.pdf. 7 BBC “Facebook ditches fake news warning flag” BBC News. 12-21-17. 8 Ananny, M. “The partnership press: Lessons for platform- publisher collaborations as Facebook and news outlets team to fight misinforma- tion” Tow Center for Digital Journalism. 04-04-18. Last visited 07-30-18: https://www.cjr.org/tow_center_reports/partnership-press- facebook- news-outlets-team-fight-misinformation.php#citations —the following quotes are taken from this. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal https://www.dartmouth.edu/~nyhan/fake-news-2016.pdf https://www.dartmouth.edu/~nyhan/fake-news-2016.pdf https://www.cjr.org/tow_center_reports/partnership-press- facebook-news-outlets-team-fight- misinformation.php#citations%E2%80%94the https://www.cjr.org/tow_center_reports/partnership-press- facebook-news-outlets-team-fight- misinformation.php#citations%E2%80%94the 120 independently choose stories from the dashboard, do their usual fact- checking work, and append their fact-checks to the
- 101. stories’ entries in the dashboards. Facebook uses these fact- checks to adjust whether and how it shows potentially false stories to its users.” Thousands of stories are cued up on the website, and each organization has the capacity to control a handful or two per day. The procedure for selecting critical news stories seems to consist of Facebook users flagging them as fake, in combina- tion with automated warnings, which are based on previous suspicious links. Once again, a lot of responsibility is put on users flagging other users—but the details of the selection remain protected, as mentioned above. Ananny’s report could access neither the central “dashboard” website nor the principles behind it, and many of the fact checkers inter- viewed in the report are dissatisfied with various aspects of the opaque procedure dictated by Facebook. Among other things, they complain of not being able to flag pictures and videos as fake.9 Among the interviewees, for example, there is suspicion that Facebook avoids sending them false stories if they have high advertising potential. In general, there is skep- ticism among fact checkers regarding Facebook’s motives and behavior around the design of the dashboard website and the classification and selection of its content: “We don’t see main- stream media appearing [in the dashboard]—is it being fil- tered out?” And: “We aren’t seeing major conspiracy theories or conservative media—no InfoWars on the list, that’s a sur- prise.” (InfoWars is a site dedicated to conspiracy theories, which had more than 1.4 million Facebook followers before Facebook finally shut down the site in August 2018—see Chapter 12).10 In the absence of a transparent process, several fact- checkers suspect that Facebook avoids sending certain types 9 On iconic material in truth-based assertions, see Stjernfelt (2014).
- 102. 10 InfoWars host Alex Jones had his account on Facebook and other sites shut down on 6. August 2018, cf. Vincent, J. “Facebook removes Alex Jones pages, citing repeated hate speech violations” The Verge. 08-06-18. Apple, Spotify and YouTube also closed InfoWars on the same day. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 121 of news through the fact-check system in order to avoid their labelling. If that is the case, then some false news stories are removed or de-ranked while others are not even sent to check. The suspicion seems justified, as in July 2018, an undercover reporter from Channel4 Dispatches revealed how popular activists from the extreme right get special protec- tion from Facebook. The documentary showed how modera- tors, for example, let right-wing movement Britain First’s pages slip through, simply because they “generate a lot of revenue”. The process is called “shielded review”. Typically, a page is removed if it has more than five entries violating Facebook rules. But with shielded review, particularly popu- lar pages are elevated to another moderation level, where the final removal decision is made by Facebook’s internal staff.11 In Ananny’s report, fact checkers are also quoted as com- plaining that they have no knowledge of the actual purpose of Facebook’s checks or what impact they have. Facebook has publicly stated that a negative fact check results in 80% less traffic to the news in question. But as a fact checker says, this claim itself is not open to fact-checking. Others complain that
- 103. the process has the character of a private agreement between private companies and that there is no openness about its ideals or accountability to the public. With so little transpar - ency about Facebook’s fact-check initiatives, it is difficult to conclude anything unambiguously, but the whole process seems problematic from a free speech standpoint, given the lack of clear criteria regarding which stories are sent to check and which are not. The efforts do not seem to be working well, either. The number of users visiting Facebook pages with “fake news” was higher in 2017 than in 2016.12 As part of its hectic public relations activity in Spring 2018, Facebook announced that it would begin to check photos and videos, this time in collaboration with the French media agency 11 Hern, A. “Facebook protects far-right activists even after rule breaches” The Guardian. 07-17-18. 12 According to a Buzzfeed survey: Silverman, C., Lytvynenko, J. & Pham, S. “These are 50 of Fake News Hits on Facebook in 2017” BuzzFeed. 12-28-17. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 122 AFP.13 Details about the procedure and results of this initia- tive remain to be seen. In December 2018, after Facebook had used the Definers spin company to smear opponents became known, former managing editor of Snopes, a fact- checking company, Brooke Binkowski expressed her disap- pointment with the company’s two-year collaboration with Facebook: “They’ve essentially used us for crisis PR.” She
- 104. added: “They’re not taking anything seriously. They are more interested in making themselves look good and passing the buck […] They clearly don’t care.”14 By February 2019, Snopes quit the Facebook factchecking partnership.15 The next clause of the Facebook removal manual concern- ing intellectual property rights does nothing more than make explicit the company’s responsibility disclaimer—much like Google and other tech giants. It puts all responsibility on users, who are assumed to have made the copyright situation clear for all posts they upload (cf. Ch. 14). The last section of the clause, “Content-Related Requests”, covers users’ right to delete accounts—as expected, there is no mention of the right to ask Facebook to delete their detailed data profiles including their general online behavior, data purchased, etc. Also, the section does not address the issue of how the tech giant will respond if asked by intelli - gence agencies and police for access to user data—a touchy subject concerning anything from relatively unproblematic help with criminal investigations to much more debatable help with politically motivated surveillance. Crucial to freedom of expression, however, is the third item: “Objectionable Content”. It features the subcategories “Hate Speech”, “Graphic Violence”, “Adult Nudity and Sexual 13 Ingram, D. “Facebook begins ‘fact-checking’ photos and videos” Reuters. 03-29-18. 14 Levin, S. “‘They don’t care’: Facebook factchecking in disarray as jour- nalists push to cut ties” The Guardian. 12-13-18. 15 Coldewey, D. ”UPDATE: Snopes quits and AP in talks over Facebook’s factchecking partnership” TechCrunch. 02-01-19.
- 105. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 123 Activity” and “Cruel and Insensitive”.16 Each category is described in detail. “We define hate speech as a direct attack on people based on what we call protected characteristics— race, ethnicity, national origin, religious affiliation, sexual orientation, sex, gender, gender identity, and serious disability or disease. We also provide some protections for immigration status. We define attack as violent or dehumanizing speech, statements of inferiority, or calls for exclusion or segregation. We separate attacks into three tiers of severity, as described below.”17 Facebook’s list of “hate speech” examples is charac - teristic in its attempt at a definition based on a random list of groups of people who for some reason should enjoy particu- lar protection beyond other groups in society. Such a break with equality before the law is one of the classic problems of “hate speech” regulation, both because different legislators choose and select different groups for special protection, but also in practice: usually, it is humor or other remarks about certain, selected skin colors, ethnicities and religions, that are considered as bad taste. But then there are others of whom it is considered acceptable to make fun. This changes with the spirit of the times and is often a matter of which groups yell the loudest—groups that do not have the zeitgeist in their favor notoriously do not even expect to find protection in “hate speech” paragraphs. Although “race” is a crucial con- cept on the list, for instance, the Caucasian race is rarely 16 Facebook’s “Community Standards 12. Hate Speech” p. 18. Last vis- ited 07-30-18:
- 106. https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/objec- tionable_content/hate_speech. 17 Many tech giants have similar formulas that directly cite the range of groups that enjoy special protection in US anti-discrimination legisla- tion. Although the United States has no criminalization of hate speech (and may not have it because of the First Amendment), companies thus, in a certain sense, generalize and extend the existing law to include hate speech. It is worth noting that the characteristics (ethnicity, gender, reli- gion, etc.) used in this legislation do not distinguish between minority and majority groups—unlike what is often assumed, the protection here is not aimed at protecting minorities specifically, and as a matter of prin- ciple majority groups supposedly have right to equal protection accord- ing to such laws and regulations. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/ objectionable_c ontent/hate_speech https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/objectionable_c ontent/hate_speech 124 mentioned as worthy of protection from attacks related to skin color, and attacks on Islam is often taken very seriously
- 107. which is seldom the case with Christianity. Also, Facebook’s “hate speech” definition does not include a reference to the concept of truth, as we find in libel—thus, a true statement can be classified as “hate speech” if someone claims to feel offended by it. It is a well-known fact that Facebook and other tech giants have had a hard time deciding how to deal with statements which merely cite or parody the hateful statements of others. This problem is now openly addressed in the following seg- ment: “Sometimes people share content containing someone else’s hate speech for the purpose of raising awareness or educating others. Similarly, in some cases, words or terms that might otherwise violate our standards are used self- referentially or in an empowering way.” Irony and satire are not mentioned explicitly but are referenced in the part about “fake news”, and one must assume that they are addressed in the “self-referential” use of “hate speech”. Such statements are, of course, difficult to process quickly or automatically because their character cannot be determined based on the simple presence or absence of particular terms but require a more thorough understanding of the whole context. Facebook’s solution goes: “When this is the case, we allow the content, but we expect people to clearly indicate their intent, which helps us better understand why they shared it. Where the intention is unclear, we may remove the content.”18 Quotes or irony are allowed, then, but only if this is made completely clear, with quotation marks and explicit or implicit underlining. An ironic post about Christians and white Danes was exactly what sprung the Facebook trap on Danish journalist Abdel Aziz Mahmoud in January 2018.19 As 18 Facebook’s “Community Standards 12. Hate Speech” p. 18. Last vis- ited 07-30-18:
- 108. https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/objec- tionable_content/hate_speech. 19 See Abdel Mahmoud’s Facebook post in Pedersen, J. ”Kendt DR-vært censureret af Facebook: Se opslaget, der fik ham blokeret” BT. 01-28-18. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/objectionable_c ontent/hate_speech https://www.facebook.com/communitystandards/objectionable_c ontent/hate_speech 125 a public figure with many followers, he had posted a com- ment aimed at highlighting the double standard among many players in public Danish debate. However, after several users reported the post as offensive, Facebook chose to delete it and throw the journalist off the site. Facebook does not seem to understand that irony works best in a delicate balance, causing its addressee to wonder what exactly the idea may be—and not by overexplaining and spelling out. The reason for this removal was, of course, that no one can expect sophis- ticated text interpretation from underpaid staff working under pressure on the other side of the globe, just as it has not yet been possible to teach artificial intelligence to understand irony. But apparently Facebook has concluded that some of the most elegant and artistically and politically effective instruments—irony, parody and satire—cannot come to full fruition. In a Danish context, we need to dig deep in the his- tory books and go all the way back to the Danish Freedom of the Press Act of 1799. Its Article 13 established that irony and allegory were penalized the same way as explicit statements.
- 109. At the time, the idea was to protect the Monarchy. In the case of Facebook, the reasons are financial, as the company cannot afford to deploy the procedures necessary to really differenti - ate such challenging statements. Since 1790, crimes of press freedom in Denmark have, at least as a general rule, been decided publicly in the courts, allowing for thorough arguments pro et contra to be pre- sented, and for the intention and meaning of a contested statement to be clarified. One of the key challenges of the new online censorship is that this is not the case. It is per - formed automatically, without transparency, and thus far removed from any real appeal option, unless the affected person—as in the case of Abdel Mahmoud Aziz—is fortunate enough to be a publicly known figure with the related oppor - tunities of contacting the traditional press to raise public awareness about a problem, pressuring tech giants to respond and apologize for the removal. Another example from Denmark of a public figure clash- ing with Facebook’s foggy policies was Jens Philip Yazdani, Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 126 former chairman of the Union of Danish Upper Secondary School Students. During the 2018 Soccer World Cup, Yazdani, whose background is part Iranian, weighed in on the debate on national identity and what it means to be Danish. In a post he wrote that he found it easier to support the Iranian national team than the Danish one, because of the harsh tone of the immigration debate in Danish society. The post was shared vividly on Facebook, garnering many likes and a glow -
- 110. ing debate in the comments. Against all reason, Facebook decided to remove the post—including its many shares and comments—after several complaints, because the post had allegedly violated Facebook’s guidelines on “hate speech”. One may agree or disagree with Yazdani, but it is indeed hard to find anything per se offensive in the post whatsoever. With the press of a button, Facebook managed to kill a relevant contribution to the Danish debate in society. Only journalist Mikkel Andersson’s public criticism of Facebook’s decision led to a concession from Facebook, who put Yazdani’s post back online.20 The “hate speech” clause details three levels and therefore requires a larger quotation here: Do not post: Tier 1 attacks, which target a person or group of people who share one of the above-listed characteristics or immigration status (including all subsets except those described as having carried out violent crimes or sexual offenses), where attack is defined as Any violent speech or support in written or visual form Dehumanizing speech such as reference or comparison to: Insects Animals that are culturally perceived as intellectually or physically inferior Filth, bacteria, disease and feces
- 111. Sexual predator Subhumanity Violent and sexual criminals 20 Andersson, M. ”Når Facebook dræber samfundsdebatten” Berlingske. 07-25-18. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 127 Other criminals (including but not limited to “thieves”, “bank rob- bers” or saying “all [protected characteristic or quasi -protected characteristic] are ‘criminals’”) Mocking the concept, events or victims of hate crimes even if no real person is depicted in an image Designated dehumanizing comparisons in both written and visual form Tier 2 attacks, which target a person or group of people who share any of the above-listed characteristics, where attack is defined as Statements of inferiority or an image implying a person’s or a group’s physical, mental, or moral deficiency
- 112. Physical (including but not limited to “deformed”, “undeveloped”, “hideous”, “ugly”) Mental (including but not limited to “retarded”, “cretin”, “low IQ”, “stupid”, “idiot”) Moral (including but not limited to “slutty”, “fraud”, “cheap”, “free riders”) Expressions of contempt or their visual equivalent, including (but not limited to) “I hate” “I don’t like” “X are the worst” Expressions of disgust or their visual equivalent, including (but not limited to) “Gross” “Vile” “Disgusting” Cursing at a person or group of people who share protected characteristics Tier 3 attacks, which are calls to exclude or segregate a person
- 113. or group of people based on the above-listed characteristics. We do allow criticism of immigration policies and arguments for restrict- ing those policies. Content that describes or negatively targets people with slurs, where slurs are defined as words commonly used as insulting labels for the above-listed characteristics. We find these straitlaced∗ , American∗ moderators on Facebook despicable∗ . We hate∗ their retarded∗ attempts to Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 128 subdue free speech. We think that such idiots∗ ought to be kicked out∗ from Facebook and from other tech giants∗ . In this short statement, we have violated Facebook’s “hate speech” criteria in Tiers 1, 2 and 3 (marked by ∗ ). Despite the amplified rhetoric, the sentiment is sincere, and we consider the statement to express legitimate political criticism. It is instructive to compare Facebook’s weak and broad “hate speech” criteria with Twitter’s radically different narrow and precise definitions, beginning with: “You may not promote violence against or directly attack or threaten other people on the basis of race…” (and then a version of the usual well - known group list is added).21 The only strange thing here is that it implies that users are indeed allowed to promote vio- lence against people who happen not to belong to any of those explicitly protected groups. At Twitter, the focus
- 114. remains on “harm”, “harassment”, “threats” and—unlike Facebook’s list—it does not operate with a diffuse list of fairly harmless linguistic terms, statements and metaphors. Regarding “Violence and Graphic Content”, Facebook’s policy goes as follows: Do not post: Imagery of violence committed against real people or animals with comments or captions by the poster that contain Enjoyment of suffering Enjoyment of humiliation Erotic response to suffering Remarks that speak positively of the violence; or Remarks indicating the poster is sharing footage for sensational viewing pleasure Videos of dying, wounded, or dead people if they contain Dismemberment unless in a medical setting Visible internal organs Charred or burning people Victims of cannibalism It is no wonder that the company wants to ban snuff videos where people are actually killed in front of rolling cameras, 21 Quot. from Gillespie (2018) p. 58. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal
- 115. 129 essentially for profit. But the paragraph seems to completely overlook the value of war journalism and other serious reports on torture, crime or disasters—such as Nick Ut’s already mentioned press photo “Napalm Girl”, featuring a naked child running from a US napalm attack, a photo that at the time contributed to a radical turn in the public opinion on the Vietnam War.22 Or what about Robert Capa’s famous photos from the Spanish Civil War? Facebook seems to assume that all images featuring, for example, “charred or burning people” necessarily have a malignant purpose as opposed to an enlightening, medical, journalistic, documen- tary or critical purpose. In any event, this section of the policy has no counterpart in the legislations of most countries. The section on nudity and sex contains the following inter- esting concessions: “Our nudity policies have become more nuanced over time. We understand that nudity can be shared for a variety of reasons, including as a form of protest, to raise awareness about a cause, or for educational or medical reasons. Where such intent is clear, we make allowances for the content. For example, while we restrict some images of female breasts that include the nipple, we allow other images, including those depicting acts of protest, women actively engaged in breast- feeding, and photos of post-mastectomy scarring. We also allow photographs of paintings, sculptures, and other art that depicts nude figures.” Facebook seems to be realizing that fighting against the Delacroix painting, breast-feeding selfies, and so on is going way too far. Still, as recently as 2018, the company had to apologize for repeatedly deleting photos of one of humanity’s oldest sculptures, the tiny 30,000-year-old stone figurine known as “Venus from Willendorf”, an ample-
- 116. 22 Ingram, M. “Here’s Why Facebook Removing That Vietnam War Photo Is So Important” Fortune. 09-09-2016. Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten went to great lengths to attack Facebook’s removal of the photo when its Editor-in-Chief published an open letter to Zuckerberg, which gained international impact. Critics added that the effect of Facebook’s removal of the photo reiterated the Nixon administration’s attempts many years ago to label the photo as a fake. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 130 bodied fertility symbol with highlighted labia.23 And August 2018 saw the story of the removal from the Anne Frank Center page of a Holocaust photo featuring naked concentra- tion camp prisoners.24 The very long list of things that this section disallows is very detailed and would probably still include Peter Øvig’s hippie photos from 1970. In a subclause such as the following, there are two interesting things to make a note of among the list of sexual content which users are not allowed to post: Other sexual activities including (but not limited to) Erections Presence of by-products of sexual activity Stimulating genitals or anus, even if above or under clothing Use of sex toys, even if above or under clothing
- 117. Stimulation of naked human nipples Squeezing naked female breast except in breastfeeding context The recurring phrase “but not limited to” (cf. “for any rea- son”) gives the platform a license to expand the list of prohib- ited subjects as it sees fit. Thus users, despite the quite explicit and detailed descriptions of examples worthy of a porn site, are not given any real clarity about where the boundary actu- ally lies. Another interesting ban is that against “the presence of by-products of sexual activity”… the most widely known and visible byproduct of sexual activity being—children. However, photos of children (unless nude) do not seem to be removed from people’s Facebook pages—the sloppy choice of words shows that the platform’s detailed community stan- dards are still a far cry from the clarity one normally expects of real legal texts. This is no minor issue, inasmuch as these standards are in the process of supplementing or even replac - ing actual legislation. 23 Breitenbach, D. “Facebook apologizes for censoring prehistoric figu- rine ‘Venus of Willendorf’” dw.com. 01-03-18. 24 The photo was put back up after a complaint filed by the museum. Brandom, R. “Facebook took down a post by the Anne Frank Center for showing nude Holocaust victims” The Verge. 08-29-18. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 131 The last form of forbidden content has been given the enigmatic title “Cruel and Insensitive” (which seems to be
- 118. missing a noun, by the way). It is only briefly elaborated: “Content that depicts real people and mocks their implied or actual serious physical injuries, disease, or disability, non- consensual sexual touching, or premature death.” Is this to say that making fun of someone’s death is okay, as long they died on time? Perhaps this rule against mockery of disabili - ties was also what allowed Facebook to remove a caricature drawing of Donald Trump with a very small penis, believing that it was an offense against the poor man. Again, a more context-sensitive reader or algorithm would know that this was an ironic political reference to the debates during the presidential primaries of 2016, where an opponent accused Trump of having small hands (obviously referring to the popular wisdom that a correlation exists between the size of men’s hands and their genitals). In the spring and summer of 2018, Facebook seems to have been hit by almost a panic of activity in the wake of the Cambridge Analytica scandal—hardly a week went by with- out new, ostentatious initiatives from the company, probably in an attempt to appear serious and well-behaved enough to avoid imminent political regulation. However, many of the initiatives come off as improvised and uncoordinated—the principles of the removal manual from April were thus already being revised in August. During the Alex Jones case (see Chapter 12), the application of the “hate speech” policy was further tightened, and a few days after the Jones ban, on August 9th, Facebook came out with another sermon, this time with the title “Hard Questions: Where Do We Draw The Line on Free Expression?”, signed by the company’s Vice President of Policy Richard Allen. The document takes its departure in a defintion of freedom of speech as guaranteed by the government. The spread is noted between American freedom, acknowledged by the First Amendment, and at the other end, dictatorial regimes. However, in the message Facebook takes care to remind us that it is not a government,
- 119. but that still the company wants to draw this line in a way “... Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 132 that gives freedom of expression the maximum extension possible.”25 It seems that leaders at Facebook have finally begun to look to the political and legal tradition of freedom of expression. Now there are references to Article 19 of “The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights” (ICCPR) as a source of inspiration. The United Nations joined this covenant in 1966, but even back then, the agreement was already surrounded by a lot of discussion and criticism, partly due to its Article 20 calling for legislation on “hate speech”. It was heavily criticized by many Western countries for its curtailment of free speech. There is some irony to the fact that this convention, which Facebook now invokes, was promoted by none other than the former Eastern Bloc, led by the Soviet Union.26 One may wonder why Facebook does not prefer to seek inspiration in the US tradition of free speech legislation and case law, a country which has gained important experience practicing freedom of speech over a long period of time. In the short term, however, what is worth noting is another bit: “we do not, for example, allow content that could physically or financially endanger people, that intimidates people through hateful language, or that aims to profit by tricking people using Facebook.” In mere casual remark, Facebook here introduces a new removal criterion that was not included in the removal handbook: “financial danger”, i.e. content that tries to gain a profit by fooling Facebook users.27 Again, the sloppy steps of the approach are spectacular: A whole new removal criterion is introduced in passing, with no clear definition or examples of
- 120. what would comprise a violation of the new rule. If we did not know any better, the many ads through which Facebook gen- erates its huge profits could easily be characterized as tools to gain profit by fooling people into buying something they do 25 Facebook: “Hard Questions: Where Do We Draw The Line on Free Expression?” Facebook Newsroom. 08-09-18. 26 See also Mchangama & Stjernfelt (2016) p. 781ff. 27 Constine, J. ”Facebook now deletes posts that financially endanger/ trick people” TechChrunch. 08-09-18. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 133 not need. This is yet another piece of improvisation when formulating policy—one must hope that American and European politicians realize that such measures cause more problems than they solve, and that such measures call out for regulation rather than make it superfluous. The bottom line is that Facebook’s belated publication of more detailed content removal guidelines is a small step for - ward—probably triggered by the congressional hearings of Zuckerberg a few weeks before their publication. It is commendable that a little more public light is shed on the mix of reasonable and strange, common-sense and unconsidered pondering that lie beneath this key political document. We still do not know much, however, about the safety and secu- rity staff, at present counting some 30.000 people, and their training, qualifications and working conditions, or what equips them to perform this task so crucial for the public.
- 121. Many of the content moderation departments of the tech giants work mostly for a low pay (3–500 dollars a month) in third-world countries like the Philippines and under non- disclosure agreements.28 There is indeed some distance between the luxurious hipster life of table soccer and free organic food and drinks at the Facebook headquarters in California and the work lives of stressed subcontractors stuffed closely side-by-side in shabby surroundings. One might reasonably ask how they should be able to understand the motivation behind a user posting a picture, especially when that user is in a different country, posting in a different language and a different context. Is the staff being trained, and if so then how? Image, video and text are often inter - twined, commenting on each other: Does the company have personnel with the appropriate language skills to cover a global circle of users posting in hundreds of different lan- guages? Does Facebook give moderators productivity bonuses—how many cases does an employee need to solve 28 Chen, A. “The Laborers Who Keep Dickpics and Beheadings out of Your Facebook Feed” Wired. 10-23-13. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 134 per hour? And, respectively, how many accounts need to be blocked? And how much content is removed per hour? An average time of five to ten seconds spent on each image is often mentioned; in such a short span, aspects like context, culture, quotation or irony of course cannot be taken into account. But the actual time frame may be even shorter.
- 122. Dave Willner, who worked for Facebook as a moderator fr om 2008 to 2013, processed 15,000 images per day; on an eight- hour workday, that makes around two seconds per image.29 Since doubtful cases presumably take a little longer, the aver - age time for most decisions is even shorter. Is there any effec- tive, overall assurance that the many employees actually follow the guidelines, or are they to some extent left to their own rushed decisions and assessments based on taste? In an interview with ProPublica, Willner’s description of how the removal work began in 2008 points to a great deal of judg- ment involved: “ ... [Facebook’s] censorship rulebook was still just a single page with a list of material to be removed, such as images of nudity and Hitler. At the bottom of the page it said, ‘Take down anything else that makes you feel uncom- fortable’.” This is an extremely broad censorship policy, leav- ing a considerable amount of judgment on the shoulders of the individual employee—and very little legal protection for the user. Willner continues with a thoughtful remark: “‘There is no path that makes people happy. All the rules are mildly upsetting.’ The millions of decisions every day means that the method, according to Willner, is ‘more utilitarian than we are used to in our justice system. It’s fundamentally not rights- oriented.’”30 The utilitarian attitude weighs damage against utility. So if a number of users’ rights are violated and their content is removed, the act can be legitimized by the fact that a larger number of other users, in turn, experience a benefit— for example, if they feel that a violation has been avenged. 29 Angwin, J. & Grassegger, H. “Facebook’s secret censorship rules pro- tect white men from hate speech but not black children” Salon (origi- nally appeared on ProPublica). 06-28-17. 30 Ibid. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal
- 123. 135 Questions of guilt and rights drift to the background, as what matters is the net number of satisfied users. Obviously, such a balancing system tends to favor the complainant, since he or she is the one heard by the moderators, while the accused party is not heard and has no means of defense. Therefore, it is inherent to this system that the expressing party, the utterer of a statement, has no right—no real freedom of expression. The community standards of the tech giants are becoming the policies guiding a new form of censorship. Removal of content by an algorithm before it even becomes visible to users takes us all the way back to the pre-censorship which was abolished in Denmark in 1770 by J.F. Struensee. On large parts of the Internet, this “formal” freedom of speech is not respected. The manual removal of content upon complaints can be likened to post-censorship and is comparable to the police control practiced in Denmark from 1814 until the Constitution of Denmark came into effect in 1849—with it came a number of laws against material freedom of expres- sion, such as the sections on blasphemy, pornography and “hate speech”. Unlike Danish law going as far back as 1790, however, in the legal environment of the tech giants there is no judicial review, no public court case, and appeal options are poor, unsystematic, or non-existent. Of course, Facebook’s rule-book is not a proper legal document, but still it is bizarre to note that this pseudo-legal text, with its vagueness and many hyper-detailed bans, now comprises the principles governing the limits of expression of millions—if not billions—of people for whom Facebook’s de facto monopoly is the only way they may reach the public
- 124. sphere and access their news. In the April 2018 document, Facebook had also promised a new appeal option for users whose content has been blocked and their accounts suspended. In a November 2018 missive to Facebook users, Zuckerberg elaborated on the idea. Here, he promised the long-term establishment of an independent appeal institution in order to “[...] uphold the principle of giving people a voice while also recognizing the Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 136 reality of keeping people safe.”31 We are still waiting for the details on how that attempt of squaring the circle will work— particularly how the board will be selected and how indepen- dence of Facebook’s commercial interests will be granted. Given the amount of flaggings, one can only imagine how many staffers would have to be employed in this private “supreme court”. Even if this idea may be a virtual step in the right direction, such an appeal organ, of course, will still have to function on the basis of the much-disputed detail of the Facebook community standards. In the same pastoral letter, Zuckerberg articulated a new theory on the regulation of free speech. No matter where one draws the line between legal and illegal, he claimed, special user interest will be drawn to legal content which comes close to that borderline. No matter whether you are prudish or permissive in drawing the line, special fascination will radiate from borderline posts. To mitigate this fact, Zuckerberg now proposes a new policy: such borderline content, legal but in the vicinity of the border, will be suppressed and have its
- 125. Facebook circulation reduced—with more reduction the closer to the line it comes: “[...] by reducing sensationalism of all forms, we will create a healthier, less polarized discourse where more people feel safe participating.”32 The idea echoes de-ranking “fake news”, only now spreading to other types of content. Introduced in the same letter as the appeal institu- tion, this idea begs some new unsolved questions: will people posting borderline content be informed about the reduced distribution of their posts? If not, a new zone of suppression without possibility of appeal will be created. Furthermore, as soon as this reduction is realized in the community, more interest is sure to be generated by posts on the borderline of the borderline—a slippery slope if there ever was one. One might ask why there should even be detailed rules for content removal at all. It was not an issue with the communi- 31 Zuckerberg, M. “A Blueprint for Content Governance and Enforcement” Facebook Notes. 11-15-18. 32 ibid. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal 137 cation technologies Facebook is helping to replace: the tele- phone and mail former generations relied on to “connect” with their “friends”. The postal services of the free world do not refuse to deliver certain letters after examining their con- tent, and the telephone companies do not interrupt calls based on people talking about things the phone companies do not like. These providers of communications infrastructure were even obliged not to censor users; they were seen as com- panies that help communicate content, not moderate it.33 It is
- 126. primarily for commercial reasons that companies like Facebook introduce restrictions on what their users have to say. But a harmful consequence of this is that it has turned out to be conducive to the desires for censorship of certain political forces. 33 Cf. the distinction in American law between “conduit” and “content”, responsibility for transfer and responsibility for content modification, respectively. Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distri- bution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain
- 127. permission directly from the copyright holder. Chapter 11. Facebook’s Handbook of Content Removal http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ 4/20/2021 The cost of data security: Are cybersecurity investments worth it? https://www.cloudmask.com/blog/the-cost-of-data-security-are- cybersecurity-investments-worth-it 1/2 Where is the evidence that current cybersecurity spending works? "The average cost of losing sensitive information is approximately $4 billion." The cost of data security: Are cybersecurity investments worth it? Cybersecurity and data breaches continue to make headlines as businesses and associations around the world fall victim to network intrusion and data theft. However, some organizations are still hesitant to just start spending thousands of dollars upgrading their security systems and improving data protection policies and practices. It isn't uncommon to hear someone asking, "Are investments into cybersecurity worth it compared to the cost of a data breach?" Benjamin Dean, a fellow in the School of International and Public Affairs at Columbia University, told Fortune magazine
- 128. that it's time to get down to the "hard evidence." He asserted that as long as businesses and associations have access to the facts, they can fix the cybersecurity problem. So, where is the evidence that current cybersecurity spending works? The cost to protect Businesses and associations are hesitant to publicly announce their cybersecurity spending habits. To add to the difficulties of tracking down the average investment in data protection, organizations have a variety of different needs when it comes to cybersecurity, since a health care provider might demand tighter security than a restaurant. However, the information security market is booming. According to Gartner, worldwide, organizations spent $81.6 billion in 2016 on information security, an increase of 7.9 percent from 2015. The cost of a breach There is no getting around the huge financial results of a data breach. According to Ponemon Institute's 2016 Cost of Data Breach Study, the average total cost of losing sensitive corporate or personal information is approximately $4 billion. Per stolen record, businesses and associations can spend anywhere between $145 and $158, with health card information costing the most to lose, at $355 per record. The majority of data breach costs are associated with resolving the matter, as organizations must pay compliance fines and court fees, invest in forensic and investigation processes, and spend revenue on identity theft prevention services for customers or employees. Additionally, Ponemon's report noted that turnover of consumers directly impacts business costs, and from then on out, these organizations must spend more on customer acquisition as the reputational losses of a data breach
- 129. last a long time. The showdown When Ponemon's data is paired with the Identity Theft Resource Center's statistics, it would appear that businesses and associations are spending too much on security that isn't working. With the average cost of a personal record coming in at $150 and 117,678,050 records accessed as of July 7 - according to ITRC - organizations have lost $17.65 billion six full months into 2015. What is the solution? Simply put, every organization needs a use case for cybersecurity solutions, otherwise the investment is made into a tool that doesn't work. With different monitoring software, physical firewalls and cutting-edge cybersecurity offerings, businesses and associations aren't successful at the only thing that matters: data protection. CloudMask acts as the last line of defense when all the others fail, ensuring that even when breaches, data remains secure. In other words, cybercriminals cannot compromise information when organizations use CloudMask.It encrypts emails and cloud storage data, separates the key from the data and ensures that no one - not even CloudMask - can access or alter information. With CloudMask, only your authorized parties can decrypt and see your data. Not hackers with your valid password, Not Cloud Providers, Not Government Agencies, and Not even CloudMask can see your protected data. Twenty-six government cybersecurity agencies around the world back these claims. TRY IT NOW
- 131. https://www.cloudmask.com/blog/the-cost-of-data-security-are- cybersecurity-investments-worth-it 2/2 Gif Animation All.gif With CloudMask, only your authorized parties can decrypt and see your data. Not hackers with your valid password, Not Cloud Providers, Not Government Agencies, and Not even CloudMask can see your protected data. Twenty-six government cybersecurity agencies around the world back these claims. TRY IT NOW https://www.commoncriteriaportal.org/ https://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/468512/CloudMask_Aug2016/pd f/Common_Criteria_Cert.pdf?t=1486380970425 https://www.cloudmask.com/cs/c/?cta_guid=b113616d-7231- 4c37-8904- a181b65a01c5&signature=AAH58kGqTLYanFjRIYZwwnsbwU HvPAtEqA&pageId=3096293126&placement_ guid=82253abc- 9465-4974-b5ea-2a46f934181b&click=2a20438b-1215-4b87- a184- 9561461ddf9c&hsutk=7511527ae58da709e3e9f4e418fa87a8&ca non=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cloudmask.com%2Fblog%2Fthe- cost-of-data-security-are-cybersecurity-investments-worth- it&utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Flearn.umgc.edu%2F&portal_ id=468512&redirect_url=APefjpHnIcHZmUAMnORLspfrU93n6 n- GR1PeOLJauMhCa3GU3OiWsBMP0RwJLrR0WAON0CY2356 mQb3pX1c6PVM_mkn3Abgfh3A7jabdIWQt6Psd7BUrlJVMqOG eovy2VtDYUr_Atj6_&__hstc=181206520.7511527ae58da709e3 e9f4e418fa87a8.1618963069492.1618963069492.161896306949 2.1&__hssc=181206520.1.1618963069493&__hsfp=3425372001
- 132. &contentType=blog-post 4/20/2021 Ethics and advanced medical devices: Do we need a new approach? - Health Voices healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics-advanced- medical-devices-need-new-approach/ 1/7 Mary Jean Walker Dr Mary Jean Walker is Research Fellow, Ethics Program, ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, Philosophy Department, Monash University. She has research interests in bioethics, philosophy of medicine, health policy, and personal identity. Dr Walker is currently researching ethical issues related to advanced medical devices, with a focus on advanced prosthetics and artificial organs. Along with their potential to greatly benefit health, biotechnological advances surrounding medical devices may exacerbate risks, and pose new kinds of risk. Our primary mechanism for managing these risks is therapeutic goods regulation. As these technologies advance, it is apt to question the basis of the current regulatory approach. WRITTEN BY medicalmedical devices: Do wedevices: Do we need a newneed a new
- 133. approach?approach? https://healthvoices.org.au/author/mjw/ https://healthvoices.org.au/author/mjw/ http://healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics- advanced-medical-devices-need-new-approach/#top http://healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics- advanced-medical-devices-need-new-approach/#content 4/20/2021 Ethics and advanced medical devices: Do we need a new approach? - Health Voices healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics-advanced- medical-devices-need-new-approach/ 2/7 Ethics and the purpose of therapeutic goods regulation Regulation of therapeutic goods has two purposes that are sometimes at odds with each other. Regulation seeks to safeguard the public’s health and safety, while allowing or even incentivising beneficial innovations to reach the market as quickly as reasonably possible. In current systems, a major part of how regulation achieves both aims is the requirement that manufacturers present evidence of a product’s safety and effectiveness. On the one hand, this protects consumers from using products that are unsafe or won’t be beneficial. On the other, it means that commercial
- 134. success must be based on sound research, incentivising quality innovation. Any such approach to regulation must deal with difficult questions about the standard of evidence it will require. Answering these questions requires not only scientific input, but ethical decisions, since it will involve judgements about what levels of risk are acceptable, and which of the two aims should outweigh the other. If evidentiary standards are too low, regulators’ safeguarding role might be compromised; too high and they may unnecessarily prevent patients from benefiting from new advances. Problems of evidence about devices With regard to devices, a lower standard of evidence is often accepted. There appears to be no principled reason for this; rather it has resulted from historical accident combined with some difficulties in obtaining evidence about devices. For example, controlled studies of devices can be difficult, since outcomes can depend on how they are used, for instance in surgical procedures, which may vary. Device risks may also be long-term, but many studies do not report on long-term outcomes – and doing so would require long delays for approval.
- 135. 4/20/2021 Ethics and advanced medical devices: Do we need a new approach? - Health Voices healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics-advanced- medical-devices-need-new-approach/ 3/7 Further, lower-risk devices are not always required to undergo pre-market approval, instead being approved on the basis of their similarity to previous devices, with lower evidential requirements. There are reasons for this system – the sheer number of minor alterations made to devices would make subjecting each new iteration to full scrutiny unfeasible, and many alterations are unlikely to affect clinical outcomes. But it was also involved in the approval of two devices later found to be harmful, metal- on-metal hips and vaginal mesh. Particularly where there are a series of small alterations, it can be difficult to judge when outcomes will be affected. The major ethical issue in device regulation, then, is that we currently accept a high level of risk at the market approval stage – but this is because of problems of evidence collection and the practical needs of a regulatory system as it applies to devices, not because the risks
- 136. have actually been assessed as acceptable. On the contrary, many consumers assume that any product on the market has been thoroughly assessed for safety and effectiveness. Partly to compensate for the difficulties of pre-market evidence collection, most jurisdictions expect manufacturers to undertake post- market studies and other ‘vigilance’ activities such as adverse event reporting. While this might be a good solution in theory, sometimes requirements for post-market studies have not been enforced, and there is often under- or inconsistent reporting of adverse events. It also raises the ethical worry that, to the extent that the evidence for safety and effectiveness is collected post-market, the first patients to use a device are de facto research subjects. Yet they are not protected, as subjects in pre-market research studies are, by ethical oversight and informed consent procedures. On the contrary, many consumers assume that any product on the market has been thoroughly assessed for safety and effectiveness. 1 2
- 137. 4/20/2021 Ethics and advanced medical devices: Do we need a new approach? - Health Voices healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics-advanced- medical-devices-need-new-approach/ 4/7 New challenges In the context of these existing challenges, emerging technologies pose further difficulties. I will discuss just two. First, devices are increasingly computerised and many, such as pacemakers and insulin pumps, incorporate software into their functioning. This can have great benefits: automation of functions for easier management; better calibration of devices to patients’ needs; collection of physiological data of clinical value; and remote, thus more efficient, adjustment of device functioning. Software in or as a medical device exacerbates old challenges, and introduces new ones. It means even more frequent updating of devices – and these updates may affect the functioning of devices that are already being used by, even implanted in the bodies of, patients. Ensuring that devices remain safe and effective through each change will become even more challenging. Manufacturers will need to take more responsibility for
- 138. ongoing device functionality. Software also involves new kinds of risks, for instance in attempting to predict how functionality could be affected when used in conjunction with a range of different technological systems, and when integrated into different clinical situations. Another important, and somewhat new risk relates to cybersecurity: the possibility of devices being hacked and used to harm their users. Notably, Dick Cheney had his implantable cardiac defibrillator’s wireless connectivity disabled for the term of his office as US Vice President for this reason. Similarly, the collection of physiological information could constitute a risk for patients if it is misused. There are also further ethical questions to consider with regard to the research use of this data, to which patients may not have consented. Again, customisation also poses new kinds of challenge. Given the unprecedented accessibility of this 3 4 5 4/20/2021 Ethics and advanced medical devices: Do we need a new approach? - Health Voices
- 139. healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics-advanced- medical-devices-need-new-approach/ 5/7 method of manufacture, it may simply be difficult for regulators to capture all uses. A second emerging possibility is for increased customisation of devices, particularly through 3D printing and computer-aided design. Commonly used implants such as artificial hips can now be far more easily manufactured with dimensions matching specific patients, and bespoke devices can even be modelled directly on patient physiology. Intuitively, this could benefit patients; but obtaining rigorous evidence of safety and effectiveness for custom devices is even more difficult than it is for standardised devices. The best evidence for regulatory purposes is generated from populations of research subjects who receive a standardised intervention, and this is fundamentally at odds with customisation. Customisation thus exacerbates existing difficulties with obtaining good evidence about devices. Thus far, custom devices have usually been used under research regulations, or regulatory exemptions. The more customisation is used, the less appropriate this will be. Again, customisation also poses new kinds of challenge. Given the
- 140. unprecedented accessibility of this method of manufacture, it may simply be difficult for regulators to capture all uses. Clinicians and basic science researchers, among others, may engage in creating bespoke devices without being aware of regulatory controls on manufacturers, and without experience in quality assurance practices, putting patients at risk. Questioning current approaches As advances further challenge the current system, it is worth questioning whether there could be alternative approaches to device regulation. Most radically perhaps, we could question the way current regulatory approaches incentivise research by linking it to commercial success. This link itself leads to ethical issues, such as that research is primarily directed towards addressing the health problems of the most well-off. Healthcare inequities are likely to increase with increasing technological sophistication, since this comes with increased cost. Some technologies also have the potential to reduce inequities, such as using 3D printing to 6 4/20/2021 Ethics and advanced medical devices: Do we need a new approach? - Health Voices
- 141. healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics-advanced- medical-devices-need-new-approach/ 6/7 provide lower-tech devices in low-income countries – but while research is incentivised as it currently is, this potential may not be fulfilled. That healthcare innovation primarily focuses on marketable products can also lead to neglect of improvements that could be made through social or institutional change. Admittedly, making research necessary for commercial purposes, while in these respects not an ideal feature of a regulatory approach, might be the best possible one overall (and certainly be extremely difficult to change). Less radically then, we might question the way the current system is arranged around the pre-/post-market distinction, and the corresponding research subject/patient distinction. Other options, like creating a third category between research and practice, or developing new methods for post-market investigation (including ethical oversight where appropriate) or compliance, are worth considering. Whatever the result of these considerations, my point is that there is value in questioning all features of the system and the assumptions built
- 142. into them, even radically, if we are to arrive at an approach based on reasoned assessment, and defensible ethical decisions. References 1 Gibbs JN, et al. 2014. 510(k) statistical patterns. Medical Device and Diagnostic Industry, 2 Dec, https://www.mddionline.com/510k- statistical- patterns. 2 Roger WA, Hutchison K. 2017. Hips, knees, and hernia mesh: When does gender matter in surgery? International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics 10(1):148-174. 3 Hutchison K, Sparrow R. 2017. Ethics and the cardiac pacemaker: More than just end-of-life issues. Europace, online first doi:10.1093/europace/eux019. 4 IMDRF Software as a Medical Device (SaMD) Working Group. 2014. “Software as a Medical Device”: Possible Framework for Risk Categorization and Corresponding Considerations. International Medical Device Regulators Forum, http://www.imdrf.org/docs/imdrf/final/technical/imdrf-tech- 140918- samd-framework-risk-categorization-141013.pdf. 7
- 143. 4/20/2021 Ethics and advanced medical devices: Do we need a new approach? - Health Voices healthvoices.org.au/issues/november-2017/ethics-advanced- medical-devices-need-new-approach/ 7/7 5 American College of Cardiology. 2013. From IEDs to ICDs? Credible threat led to disabling Cheney’s ICD in 2007. http://www.acc.org/latest-in- cardiology/articles/2013/10/20/21/04/from-ieds-to-icds. 6 E.g., Therapeutic Goods Administration. No date. Custom- made medical devices (fact sheet), https://www.tga.gov.au/custom-made- medical- devices. 7 Olsen L, Aisner D, McGinnis JM (Institute of Medicine). 2007. The learning healthcare system: Workshop summary. National Academies Press, Washington DC, https://www.nap.edu/search/? term=learning+healthcare. BMGT 496 - Week 6 CitationsBibliographyBreuninger - Net neutrality rules look doomedBritz - TECHNOLOGY AS A THREAT TO PRIVACY_ Ethical ChallengesCellan - US v Europe - a cultural gap on the right to be forgotten - BBC NewsDavis - FDA medical device plan zeros in on cybersecurity, public-private partnership _ Healthcare IT NewsEquifax Breach Exposed More Consumer Data Than First DisclosedNakashima - The ethics of Hacking 101 - The Washington PostRomm - California is on the verge of passing a sweeping new online privacy law - The Washington PostSnow - Bias already exists in search engine results, and it’s only going to get worse _ MIT Technology ReviewStjernfelt- Lauritzen2020_Chapter_FacebookSHandbookOfContentRemoCh apter 11: Facebook’s Handbook of Content RemovalThe cost of
- 144. data security_ Are cybersecurity investments worth it_Walker - Ethics and advanced medical devices_ Do we need a new approach_ - Health Voices BMGT 496 - Week 1 Citations (Banton, 2020) (Brusseau, 2012) (Deloitte, 2015) (Fernando, 2021) (Ganti, 2020) (Horton, 2020) (Lumen Learning) (University of Maryland Global Campus) Bibliography Banton, C. (2020, February 25). Shareholder vs. Stakeholder: What's the Difference? Retrieved March 18, 2021, from Investopedia: https://www.investopedia.com/ask/a nswers/08/difference- between-a-shareholder-and- a-stakeholder.asp Brusseau, J. (2012). Chapter 1: What is Business Ethics? In J. Brusseau, The Business Ethics
- 145. Workshop (pp. 4-32). Washington, DC: Saylor Academy. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/textboo ks/The%20Business% 20Ethics%20Workshop.pdf Deloitte. (2015). Corporate Culture: The second ingredient in a world-class ethics and compliance program. New York: Deloitte Development. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/us/Documents/r isk/us-aers- corporate-culture-112514.pdf Fernando, J. (2021, February 2). Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). (G. Scott, Editor) Retrieved March 19, 2021, from Investopedia: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/corp-social- responsibility.asp Ganti, A. (2020, December 22). Social Responsibility. (S. Anderson, Editor) Retrieved March 19, 2021, from Investopedia: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/socialresponsibility.asp Horton, M. (2020, July 1). The Importance of Business Ethics. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from Investopedia: https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/040815/why-are- business- ethics-important.asp Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Ethics Explored. In Introductio n to Ethics. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from
- 146. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-epcc-introethics- 1/chapter/ethics-explored/ University of Maryland Global Campus. (n.d.). Ethical Issues Dilemmas Legal Issues. Retrieved March 15, 2021, from University of Maryland Global Campus: https://learn.umgc.edu/d2l/le/content/566199/viewContent/2037 9475/View Shareholder vs. Stakeholder: What's the Difference? By CAROLINE BANTON Updated Feb 25, 2020 Shareholder vs. Stakeholder: An Overview When it comes to investing in a corporation, there are shareholders and stakeholders. While they have similar-sounding names, their investment in a company is quite different. Shareholders are always stakeholders in a corporation, but stakeholders are not always shareholders. A shareholder owns part of a public company through shares of stock, while a stakeholder has an interest in the performance of a company for reasons other than stock performance or appreciation. These reasons often mean that the stakeholder has a greater need for the company to succeed over a longer term. Understanding the Role of the Shareholder
- 147. A shareholder can be an individual, company, or institution that owns at least one share of a company and therefore has a financial interest in its profitability. For example, a shareholder might be an individual investor who is hoping the stock price will increase because it is part of their retirement portfolio. Shareholders have the right to exercise a vote and to affect the management of a company. Shareholders are owners of the company, but they are not liable for the company’s debts.1 For private companies, sole proprietorships, and partnerships, the owners are liable for the company's debts. A sole proprietorship is an unincorporated business with a single owner who pays personal income tax on profits earned from the business. 2 Understanding the Role of the Stakeholder Stakeholders can be: • owners and shareholders • employees of the company • bondholders who own company-issued debt • customers who may rely on the company to provide a particular good or service • suppliers and vendors who may rely on the company to provide a consistent revenue stream Although shareholders may be the largest type of stakeholders, because shareholders are affected directly by a company's performance, it has become more commonplace for additional groups to
- 148. also be considered stakeholders. Key Differences A shareholder can sell their stock and buy different stock; they do not have a long-term need for the company. Stakeholders, however, are bound to the company for a longer term and for reasons of greater need.3 For example, if a company is performing poorly financially, the vendors in that company's supply chain might suffer if the company no longer uses their services. Similarly, employees of the company, who are stakeholders and rely on it for income, might lose their jobs. Stakeholders and shareholders often have competing interests depending on their relationship with the organization or company. Special Considerations The emergence of corporate social responsibility (CSR), a self- regulating business model that helps a company be socially accountable to itself, its stakeholders, and the public, has encouraged companies to take the interests of all stakeholders into consideration.4 During their decision-making processes, for example, companies might consider their impact on the environment instead of making choices based solely upon the interests of shareholders. The general public is an external stakeholder now considered under
- 149. CSR governance. When a company's operations could increase environmental pollution or take away a green space within a community, for example, the public at large is affected. These decisions may increase shareholder profits, but stakeholders could be impacted negatively. Therefore, CSR encourages corporations to make choices that protect social welfare, often using methods that reach far beyond legal and regulatory requirements. Key Takeaways • Shareholders are always stakeholders in a corporation, but stakeholders are not always shareholders. • Shareholders own part of a public company through shares of stock; a stakeholder wants to see the company prosper for reasons other than stock performance. • Shareholders don't need to have a long-term perspective on the company and can sell the stock whenever they need to; stakeholders are often in it for the long haul and have a greater need to see the company prosper. Article Sources 1. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. "Shareholder Voting." Accessed Feb. 24, 2020.
- 150. 2. U.S. Small Business Administration. "Sole Proprietorship." Accessed Feb. 24, 2020. 3. ENISA, European Union Agency for Cybersecurity. "Define Stakeholders." Accessed Feb. 24, 2020. 4. Business Development Bank of Canada. "Corporate social responsibility." Accessed Feb. 24, 2020. http://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/The%20Business%20Ethic s%20Workshop.pdf https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 4 Chapter 1 What Is Business Ethics? Chapter Overview Chapter 1 "What Is Business Ethics?" defines business ethics and sketches how debates within the field happen. The history of the discipline is also considered, along with the overlap between business and personal ethics.
- 151. 1.1 What Is Business Ethics? L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S 1. Define the components of business ethics. 2. Outline how business ethics works. Captive Customers Ann Marie Wagoner studies at the University of Alabama (UA). She pays $1,200 a year for books, which is exasperating, but what really ticks her off is the text for her composition class. Called A Writer’s Reference (Custom Publication for the University of Alabama), it’s the same Writer’s Reference sold everywhere else, with slight modifications: there are thirty-two extra pages describing the school’s particular writing program, the Alabama A is emblazoned on the front cover, there’s an extra $6 on the price tag (compared with the price of the standard version when purchased new), and there’s an added sentence on the back: “This book may not be bought or sold used.” The modifications are a collective budget wrecker. Because she’s forced to buy a new copy of the customized Alabama text, she ends up paying about twice what she’d pay for a used copy of the standard, not-customized book that’s
- 152. available at Chegg.com and similar used- book dealers. For the extra money, Wagoner doesn’t get much—a few additional text pages and a school spirit cover. Worse, those extra pages are posted free on the English department’s website, so the cover’s the only unambiguous benefit. Even there, though, it’d be cheaper to just buy a UA bumper sticker and paste it Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 5 across the front. It’s hard to see, finally, any good reason for the University of Alabama English Department to snare its own students with a textbook costing so much. Things clear up when you look closely at the six-dollar difference between the standard new book cost and the customized UA version. Only half that money stays with the publisher to cover specialized printing costs. The other part kicks back to the university’s writing program, the one requiring the book in the first place. It turns out there’s a quiet moneymaking scheme at work here: the English department gets some
- 153. straight revenue, and most students, busy with their lives, don’t notice the royalty details. They get their books, roll their eyes at the cash register, and get on with things. Wagoner noticed, though. According to an extensive article in the Wall Street Journal, she calls the cost of new custom books “ridiculous.” She’s also more than a little suspicious about why students aren’t more openly informed about the royalty arrangement: “They’re hiding it so there isn’t a huge uproar.” [1] While it may be true that the Tuscaloosa University is hiding what’s going on, they’re definitely not doing a very good job since the story ended up splattered across the Wall Street Journal. One reason the story reached one of the United States’ largest circulation dailies is that a lot of universities are starting to get in on the cash. Printing textbooks within the kickback model is, according to the article, the fastest growing slice of the $3.5 billion college textbook market. The money’s there, but not everyone is eager to grab it. James Koch, an economist and former president of Old Dominion University and the University of Montana, advises schools to think carefully before
- 154. tapping into customized-textbook dollars because, he says, the whole idea “treads right on the edge of what I would call unethical behavior. I’m not sure it passes the smell test.” [2] What Is Business Ethics? What does it mean to say a business practice doesn’t “pass the smell test”? And what would happen if someone read the article and said, “Well, to me it smells all right”? If no substance fills out the idea, if there’s no elaboration, then there probably wouldn’t be much more to say. The two would agree to disagree and move on. Normally, that’s OK; no one has time to debate everything. But if you want to get involved—if you’re like Wagoner who sounds angry about what’s going on and maybe wants to change it— you’ll need to do more than make comments about how things hit the nose. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 6 Doing business ethics means providing reasons for how things ought to be in the economic world. This
- 155. requires the following: clearly defined and well-justified set of priorities about what’s worth seeking and protecting and what other things we’re willing to compromise or give up. For example, what’s more important and valuable: consumers (in this case students paying for an education) getting their books cheaply or protecting the r ight of the university to run the business side of its operation as it sees fit? to any situation, the situation itself must be carefully defined. Who, for example, is involved in the textbook conflict? Students, clearly, as well as university administrators. What about parents who frequently subsidize their college children? Are they participants or just spectators? What about those childless men and women in Alabama whose taxes go to the university? Are they involved? And how much money are we talking about? Where does it go? Why? How and when did all this get started? action serves our values better than other
- 156. actions. While the complexities of real life frequently disallow absolute proofs, there remains an absolute requirement of comprehensible reasoning. Arguments need to make sense to outside observers. In simple, practical terms, the test of an ethical argument resembles the test of a recipe for a cook: others need to be able to follow it and come to the same result. There may remain disagreements about facts and values at the end of an argument in ethics, but others need to understand the reasoning marking each step taken on the way to your conclusion. Finally, the last word in ethics is a determination about right and wrong. This actual result, however, is secondary to the process: the verdict is only the remainder of forming and debating arguments. That’s why doing ethics isn’t brainwashing. Conclusions are only taken seriously if composed from clear values, recognized facts, and solid arguments. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 7 Bringing Ethics to Kickback Textbooks
- 157. The Wall Street Journal article on textbooks and kickbacks to the university is a mix of facts, values, and arguments. They can be sorted out; an opportunity to do the sorting is provided by one of the article’s more direct assertions: Royalty arrangements involving specially made books may violate colleges’ conflict-of-interest rules because they appear to benefit universities more than students. A conflict of interest occurs when a university pledges to serve the interest of students but finds that its own interest is served by not doing that. It doesn’t sound like this is a good thing (in the language of the article, it smells bad). But to reach that conclusion in ethical terms, the specific values, facts, and arguments surrounding this conflict need to be defined. Start with the values. The priorities and convictions underneath the conflict-of-interest accusation are clear. When university takes tuition money from a student and promises to do the best job possible in providing an education to the student, then it better do that. The truth matters. When you make a promise, you’ve got to fulfill it. Now, this fundamental value is what makes a conflict of interest
- 158. worrisome. If we didn’t care about the truth at all, then a university promising one thing and doing something else wouldn’t seem objectionable. In the world of poker, for example, when a player makes a grand show of holding a strong hand by betting a pile of chips, no one calls him a liar when it’s later revealed that the hand was weak. The truth isn’t expected in poker, and bluffing is perfectly acceptable. Universities aren’t poker tables, though. Many students come to school expecting honesty from their institution and fidelity to agreements. To the extent these values are applied, a conflict of interest becomes both possible and objectionable. With the core value of honesty established, what are the facts? The “who’s involved?” question brings in the students buying the textbooks, the company making the textbooks (Bedford/St. Martin’s in Boston), and the University of Alabama. As drawn from the UA web page, here’s the school’s purpose, the reason it exists in the first place: “The University of Alabama is a student-centered research university and an academic community united in its commitment to enhancing the quality of life for all Alabamians.”
- 159. Moving to the financial side, specific dollar amounts should be listed (the textbook’s cost, the cost for the non-customized version). Also, it may be important to note the financial context of those involved: in the Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 8 case of the students, some are comfortably wealthy or have parents paying for everything, while others live closer to their bank accounts edge and are working their way through school. Finally, the actual book-selling operation should be clearly described. In essence, what’s going on is that the UA English Department is making a deal with the Bedford/St. Martin’s textbook company. The university proposes, “If you give us a cut of the money you make selling textbooks, we’ll let you make more money off our students.” Because the textbooks are customized, the price goes up while the supply of cheap used copies (that usually can be purchased through the Internet from stores across the nation) goes way down. It’s much harder for UA students to find used copies, forcing many to buy a new version. This is a huge windfall for Bedford/St. Martin’s because, for
- 160. them, every time a textbook is resold used, they lose a sale. On the other side, students end up shelling out the maximum money for each book because they have to buy new instead of just recycling someone else’s from the previous year. Finally, at the end of the line there is the enabler of this operation, the English department that both requires the book for a class and has the book customized to reduce used- copy sales. They get a small percentage of Bedford/St. Martin’s extra revenue. With values and facts established, an argume nt against kickback textbooks at Alabama can be drawn up. By customizing texts and making them mandatory, UA is forcing students to pay extra money to take a class: they have to spend about thirty dollars extra, which is the difference between the cost of a new, customized textbook and the standard version purchased, used. Students generally don’t have a lot of money, and while some pass through school on the parental scholarship, others scrape by and have to work a Mc Job to make ends meet. So for at least some students, that thirty dollars directly equals time that could be spent studying, but that instead goes to flipping burgers. The customized textbooks,
- 161. consequently, hurt these students’ academic learning in a measurable way. Against that reality there’s the university’s own claim to be a “student-centered” institution. Those words appear untrue, however, if the university is dragging its own students out of the library and forcing them to work extra hours. To comply with its own stated ideals—to serve the students’ interests—UA should suspend the kickback textbook practice. It’s important to do that, finally, because fulfilling promises is valuable; it’s something worth doing. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 9 Argument and Counterargument The conclusion that kickback textbooks turn universities into liars doesn’t end debate on the question. In fact, because well-developed ethical positions expose their reasoning so openly (as opposed to “it doesn’t smell right”), they tend to invite responses. One characteristic, in other words, of good ethical arguments is that, paradoxically but not contradictorily, they tend to provoke counterarguments.
- 162. Broadly, there are three ways to dispute an argument in ethics. You can attack the 1. facts, 2. values, 3. reasoning, In the textbook case, disputing the facts might involve showing that students who need to work a few extra hours to afford their books don’t subtract that time from their studying; actually, they subtract it from late-night hours pounding beers in dank campus bars. The academic damage done, therefore, by kickback textbooks is zero. Pressing this further, if it’s true that increased textbook prices translate into less student partying, the case could probably be made that the university actually serves students’ interests—at least those who drink too much beer—by jacking up the prices. The values supporting an argument about kickback textbooks may, like the facts, be disputed. Virginia Tech, for example, runs a text-customization program like Alabama’s. According to Tech’s English Department chair Carolyn Rude, the customized books published by Pearson net the department about
- 163. $20,000 a year. Some of that cash goes to pay for instructors’ travel stipends. These aren’t luxury retreats to Las Vegas or Miami; they’re gatherings of earnest professors in dull places for discussions that reliably put a few listeners to sleep. When instructors —who are frequently graduate students—attend, they’re looking to burnish their curriculum vitae and get some public responses to their work. Possibly, the trip will help them get a better academic job later on. Regardless, it won’t do much for the undergraduates at Virginia Tech. In essence, the undergrads are being asked to pay a bit extra for books to help graduate students hone their ideas and advance professionally. Can that tradeoff be justified? With the right values, yes. It must be conceded that Virginia Tech is probably rupturing a commitment to serve the undergrads’ interest. Therefore, it’s true that a certain Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 10 amount of dishonesty shadows the process of inflating textbook costs. If, however, there’s a higher value than truth, that won’t matter so much. Take this possibility:
- 164. what’s right and wrong isn’t determined by honesty and fidelity to commitments, but the general welfare. The argument here is that while it’s true that undergrads suffer a bit because they pay extra, the instructors receiving the travel stipends benefit a lot. Their knowledge grows, their career prospects improve, and in sum, they benefit so much that it entirely outweighs the harm done to the undergrads. As long as this value—the greatest total good— frames the assessment of kickback textbooks, the way is clear for Tech or Alabama to continue the practice. It’s even recommendable. The final ground on which an ethical argument can be refuted is the reasoning. Here, the facts are accepted, as well as the value that universities are duty bound to serve the interests of the tuition-paying undergraduate students since that’s the commitment they make on their web pages. What can still be debated, however, is the extent to which those students may actually be benefitted by customizing textbooks. Looking at the Wall Street Journal article, several partially developed arguments are presented on this front. For example, at Alabama, part of the money collected from the customized texts underwrites
- 165. teaching awards, and that, presumably, motivates instructors to perform better in the classroom, which ends up serving the students’ educational interests. Similarly, at Virginia Tech, part of the revenue is apportioned to bring in guest speakers, which should advance the undergraduate educational cause. The broader argument is that while it’s true that the students are paying more for their books than peers at other universities, the sequence of reasoning doesn’t necessarily lead from that fact to the conclusion that there’s a reproachable conflict of interest. It can also reach the verdict that students’ educational experience is improved; instead of a conflict of interest, there’s an elevated commitment to student welfare inherent in the kickback practice. Conclusion. There’s no irrefutable answer to the question about whether universities ought to get involved in kickback textbooks. What is clear, however, is that there’s a difference between responding to them by asserting that something doesn’t smell right, and responding by uniting facts, values, and reasoning to produce a substantial ethical argument. K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
- 166. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 11 -reasoned arguments, by reason of their clarity, invite counterarguments. R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S 1. What is the difference between brainwashing and an argument? 2. What does it mean to dispute an argument on the basis of the facts? 3. What does it mean to dispute an argument on the basis of the values? 4. What does it mean to dispute an argument on the basis of the reasoning? [1] John Hechinger, “As Textbooks Go ‘Custom,’ Students Pay: Colleges Receive Royalties for School-Specific Editions; Barrier to Secondhand Sales,” Wall Street Journal, July 10, 2008, accessed May 11, 2011,http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121565135185141235.htm l. [2] John Hechinger, “As Textbooks Go ‘Custom,’ Students Pay: Colleges Receive Royalties for School-Specific
- 167. Editions; Barrier to Secondhand Sales,” Wall Street Journal, July 10, 2008, accessed May 11, 2011,http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121565135185141235.htm l. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 12 1.2 The Place of Business Ethics L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S 1. Distinguish the place of business ethics within the larger field of decision making. 2. Sketch the historical development of business ethics as a coherent discipline. The Boundaries and History of Business Ethics Though both economic life and ethics are as old as history, business ethics as a formal area of study is relatively new. Delineating the specific place of today’s business ethics involves nd meta-ethics;
- 168. business ethics. Morality, Ethics, and Meta-ethics: What’s the Difference? The back and forth of debates about kickback textbooks occurs on one of the three distinct levels of consideration about right and wrong. Morals occupy the lowest level; they’re the direct rules we ought to follow. Two of the most common moral dictates are don’t lie and don’t steal. Generally, the question to ask about a moral directive is whether it was obeyed. Specifically in the case of university textbooks, the debate about whether customized textbooks are a good idea isn’t morality. It’s not because morality doesn’t involve debates. Morality only involves specific guidelines that should be followed; it only begins Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 13 when someone walks into a school bookstore, locates a book needed for a class, strips out the little magnetic tag hidden in the spine, and heads for the exit. Above all morality there’s the broader question about exactly what specific rules should be instituted and
- 169. followed. Answering this question is ethics. Ethics is the morality factory, the production of guidelines that later may be obeyed or violated. It’s not clear today, for example, whether there should be moral rule prohibiting kickback textbooks. There are good arguments for the prohibition (universities are betraying their duty to serve students’ interests) and good arguments against (schools are finding innovative sources of revenue that can be put to good use). For that reason, it’s perfectly legitimate for someone like Ann Marie Wagoner to stand up at the University of Alabama and decry the practice as wrong. But she’d be going too far if she accused university administrators of being thieves or immoral. They’re not; they’re on the other side of an ethical conflict, not a moral one. Above both morality and ethics there are debates about meta- ethics. These are the most abstract and theoretical discussions surrounding right and wrong. The questions asked on this level include the following: Where do ethics come from? Why do we have ethical and moral categories in the first place? To whom do the rules apply? Babies, for example, steal from each other all the time and no one accuses them of being immoral or insufficiently ethical. Why is that? Or
- 170. putting the same question in the longer terms of human history, at some point somewhere in the past someone must have had a light bulb turn on in their mind and asked, “Wait, is stealing wrong?” How and why, those interested in meta-ethics ask, did that happen? Some believe that morality is transcendent in nature—that the rules of right and wrong come from beyond you and me and that our only job is to receive, learn, and obey them. Divine command theory, for example, understands earthly morality as a reflection of God. Others postulate that ethics is very human and social in nature—that it’s something we invented to help us live together in communities. Others believe there’s something deeply personal in it. When I look at another individual I see in the depth of their difference from myself a requirement to respect that other person and his or her uniqueness, and from there, ethics and morality unwind. These kinds of meta-ethical questions, finally, are customarily studied in philosophy departments. Conclusion. Morality is the rules, ethics is the making of rules, and meta-ethics concerns the origin of the entire discussion. In common conversation, the words morality and ethics often overlap. It’s hard to
- 171. change the way people talk and, in a practical field like business ethics, fostering the skill of debating Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 14 arguments is more important than being a stickler for words, but it’s always possible to keep in mind that, strictly speaking, morality and ethics hold distinct meanings. What’s the Difference between Normative Ethics and Descriptive Ethics? Business ethics is normative, which means it concerns how people ought to act. Descriptive ethics depicts how people actually are acting. At the University of Alabama, Virginia Tech, and anywhere kickback textbooks are being sold, there are probably a few students who check their bank accounts, find that the number is low, and decide to mount their own kickback scheme: refund the entire textbook cost to themselves by sneaking a copy out of the store. Trying to make a decision about whether that’s justified—does economic necessity license theft in some cases?—is normative ethics. By contrast, investigating to determine the exact number of students
- 172. walking out with free books is descriptive. So too is tallying the reasons for the theft: How many steal because they don’t have the money to pay? How many accuse the university of acting dishonestly in the first place and say that licenses theft? How many question the entire idea of private property? The fields of descriptive ethics are many and varied. Historians trace the way penalties imposed for theft have changed over time. Anthropologists look at the way different cultures respond to thievery. Sociologists study the way publications, including Abbie Hoffman’s incendiary book titled Steal This Book, have changed public attitudes about the ethics of theft. Psychologists are curious about the subconscious forces motivating criminals. Economists ask whether there’s a correlation between individual wealth and the kind of moral rules subscribed to. None of this depends on the question about whether stealing may actually be justifiable, but all of it depends on stealing actually happening. Ethics versus Other Forms of Decision When students stand in the bookstore flipping through the pages of a budget buster, it’s going to cross a
- 173. few minds to stick it in the backpack and do a runner. Should they? Clear-headed ethical reflection may provide an answer to the question, but that’s not the only way we make decisions in the world. Even in the face of screaming ethical issues, it’s perfectly possible and frequently reasonable to make choices based on other factors. They include: law Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 15 When the temptation is there, one way to decide whether to steal a book is legal: if the law says I can’t, I won’t. Frequently, legal prohibitions overlap with commonly accepted moral rules: few legislators want to
- 174. sponsor laws that most believe to be unjust. Still, there are unjust laws. Think of downloading a text (or music, or a video) from the web. One day the downloading may be perfectly legal and the next, after a bill is passed by a legislature, it’s illegal. So the law reverses, but there’s no reason to think the ethics—the values and arguments guiding decisions about downloading— changed in that short time. If the ethics didn’t change, at least one of the two laws must be ethically wrong. That means any necessary connection between ethics and the law is broken. Even so, there are clear advantages to making decisions based on the law. Besides the obvious one that it’ll keep you out of jail, legal rules are frequently cleaner and more direct than ethical determinations, and that clarity may provide justification for approving (or disapproving) actions with legal dictates instead of ethical ones. The reality remains, however, that the two ways of deciding are as distinct as their mechanisms of determination. The law results from the votes of legislators, the interpretations of judges, and the understanding of a policeman on the scene. Ethical conclusions result from applied values and arguments. Religion may also provide a solution to the question about
- 175. textbook theft. The Ten Commandments, for example, provide clear guidance. Like the law, most mainstream religious dictates overlap with generally accepted ethical views, but that doesn’t change the fact that the rules of religion trace back to beliefs and faith, while ethics goes back to arguments. Prudence, in the sense of practical concern for your own well - being, may also weigh in and finally guide a decision. With respect to stealing, regardless of what you may believe about ethics or law or religion, the possibility of going to jail strongly motivates most people to pay for what they carry out of stores. If that’s the motivation determining what’s done, then personal comfort and welfare are guiding the decision more than sweeping ethical arguments. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 16 Authority figures may be relied on to make decisions: instead of asking whether it’s right to steal a book, someone may ask themselves, “What would my parents say I should do? Or the soccer coach? Or a movie star? Or the president?” While it’s not clear how great the
- 176. overlap is between decisions based on authority and those coming from ethics, it is certain that following authority implies respecting the experience and judgment of others, while depending on ethics means relying on your own careful thinking and determinations. Urges to conformity and peer pressure also guide decisions. As depicted by the startling and funny Asch experiments (see Video Clip 1.1), most of us palpably fear being labeled a deviant or just differing from those around us. So powerful is the attraction of conformity that we’ll deny things clearly seen with our own eyes before being forced to stand out as distinct from everyone else. Custom, tradition, and habit all also guide decisions. If you’re standing in the bookstore and you’ve never stolen a thing in your life, the possibility of appropriating the text may not even occur to you or, if it does, may seem prohibitively strange. The great advantage of custom or tradition or just doing what we’ve always done is that it lets us take action without thinking. Without that ability for thoughtlessness, we’d be paralyzed. No one would make it out of the house in the morning: the entire day would be spent
- 177. wondering about the meaning of life and so on. Habits—and the decisions flowing from them—allow us to get on with things. Ethical decisions, by contrast, tend to slow us down. In exchange, we receive the assurance that we actually believe in what we’re doing, but in practical terms, no one’s decisions can be ethically justified all the time. Finally, the conscience may tilt decisions in one direction or another. This is the gut feeling we have about whether swiping the textbook is the way to go, coupled with the expectation that the wrong decision will leave us remorseful, suffering palpable regret about choosing to do what we did. Conscience, fundamentally, is a feeling; it starts as an intuition and ends as a tugging, almost sickening sensation in the stomach. As opposed to those private sensations, ethics starts from facts and ends with a reasoned argument that can be publicly displayed and compared with the arguments others present. It’s not clear, even to experts who study the subject, exactly where the conscience comes from, how we develop it, and what, if any, limits it should place on our actions. Could, for example, a society come into existence where
- 178. people stole all the time and the decision to not shoplift a textbook carries with it the pang of remorse? It’s Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 17 hard to know for sure. It’s clear, however, that ethics is fundamentally social: it’s about right and wrong as those words emerge from real debates, not inner feelings. History and Ethics Conflicts, along with everything necessary to approach them ethically (mainly the ability to generate and articulate reasoned thoughts), are as old as the first time someone was tempted to take something from another. For that reason, there’s no strict historical advance to the study: there’s no reason to confidently assert that the way we do ethics today is superior to the way we did it in the past. In that way, ethics isn’t like the physical sciences where we can at least suspect that knowledge of the world yields technology allowing more understanding, which would’ve been impossible to attain earlier on. There appears to be, in other words, marching progress in science. Ethics doesn’t have that. Still, a number of critical historical
- 179. moments in ethics’ history can be spotted. In ancient Greece, Plato presented the theory that we could attain a general knowledge of justice that would allow a clear resolution to every specific ethical dilemma. He meant something like this: Most of us know what a chair is, but it’s hard to pin down. Is something a chair if it has four legs? No, beds have four legs and some chairs (barstools) have only three. Is it a chair if you sit on it? No, that would make the porch steps in front of a house a chair. Nonetheless, because we have the general idea of a chair in our mind, we can enter just about any room in any home and know immediately where we should sit. What Plato proposed is that justice works like that. We have—or at least we can work toward getting—a general idea of right and wrong, and when we have the idea, we can walk into a concrete situation and correctly judge what the right course of action is. Moving this over to the case of Ann Marie Wagoner, the University of Alabama student who’s outraged by her university’s kickback textbooks, she may feel tempted, standing there in the bookstore, to make off with a copy. The answer to the question of whether she ought to do that will be answered by the general
- 180. sense of justice she’s been able to develop and clarify in her mind. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a distinct idea of fundamental ethics took hold: natural rights. The proposal here is that individuals are naturally and undeniably endowed with rights to their own lives, their freedom, and to pursue happiness as they see fit. As opposed to the notion that certain acts are firmly right or wrong, proponents of this theory— including John Locke and framers of the new Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 18 American nation—proposed that individuals may sort things out as they please as long as their decisions and actions don’t interfere with the right of others to do the same. Frequently understood as a theory of freedom maximization, the proposition is that your freedom is only limited by the freedoms others possess. For Wagoner, this way of understanding right and wrong provides little immediate hope for changing textbook practices at the University of Alabama. It’s difficult to
- 181. see how the university’s decision to assign a certain book at a certain price interferes with Wagoner’s freedom. She can always choose to not purchase the book, to buy one of the standard versions at Amazon, or to drop the class. What she probably can’t justify choosing, within this theory, is responding to the kickback textbooks by stealing a copy. Were she to do that, it would violate another’s freedom, in this case, the right of the university (in agreement with a publisher) to offer a product for sale at a price they determine. A third important historical direction in the history of ethics originated with the proposal that what you do doesn’t matter so much as the effects of what you do. Right and wrong are found in the consequences following an action, not in the action itself. In the 1800s John Stuart Mill and others advocated the idea that any act benefitting the general welfare was recommendable and ethically respectable. Correspondingly, any act harming a community’s general happiness should be avoided. Decisions about good or bad, that means, don’t focus on what happens now but what comes later, and they’re not about the one person making the decision but the consequences
- 182. as they envelop a larger community. For someone like Wagoner who’s angry about the kickback money hidden in her book costs, this consequence-centered theory opens the door to a dramatic action. She may decide to steal a book from the bookstore and, after alerting a reporter from the student newspaper of her plan, promptly turn herself into the authorities as a form of protest. “I stole this book,” she could say, “but that’s nothing compared with the theft happening every day on this campus by our university.” This plan of action may work out— or maybe not. But in terms of ethics, the focus should be on the theft’s results, not the fact that she sneaked a book past security. The ethical verdict here is not about whether robbery is right or wrong but whether the protest stunt will ultimately improve university life. If it does, we can say that the original theft was good. Finally, ethics is like most fields of study in that it has been accompanied from the beginning by skeptics, by people suspecting that either there is no real right and wrong or, even if there is, we’ll never have much
- 183. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 19 luck figuring out the difference. The twentieth century has been influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche’s affirmation that moral codes (and everything else, actually) are just interpretations of reality that may be accepted now, but there’s no guarantee things will remain that way tomorrow. Is stealing a textbook right or wrong? According to this view, the answer always is, “It depends.” It depends on the circumstances, on the people involved and how well they can convince others to accept one or another verdict. In practical terms, this view translates into a theory of cultural or contextual relativism. What’s right and wrong only reflects what a particular person or community decides to believe at a certain moment, and little more. The Historical Development of Business Ethics The long philosophical tradition of ethical thought contains the subfield of business ethics. Business ethics, in turn, divides between ethics practiced by people who happen to be in business and business ethics as a coherent and well-defined academic pursuit. People in business, like everyone else, have ethical dimensions to their lives. For example, the company
- 184. W. R. Grace was portrayed in the John Travolta movie A Civil Action as a model of bad corporate behavior. [1] What not so many people know, however, is that the corporation’s founder, the man named W. R. Grace, came to America in the nineteenth century, found success, and dedicated a significant percentage of his profits to a free school for immigrants that still operates today. Even though questions stretch deep into the past about what responsibilities companies and their leaders may have besides generating profits, the academic world began seriously concentrating on the subject only very recently. The first full-scale professional conference on academic business ethics occurred in 1974 at the University of Kansas. A textbook was derived from the meeting, and courses began appearing soon after at some schools. By 1980 some form of a unified business ethics course was offered at many of the nation’s colleges and universities. Academic discussion of ethical issues in business was fostered
- 185. by the appearance of several specialized journals, and by the mid-1990s, the field had reached maturity. University classes were widespread, allowing new people to enter the study easily. A core set of ideas, approaches, and debates had been established as central to the subject, and professional societies and publications allowed for advanced research in and intellectual growth of the field. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 20 The development of business ethics inside universities corresponded with increasing public awareness of problems associated with modern economic activity, especially on environmental and financial fronts. In the late 1970s, the calamity in the Love Canal neighborhood of Niagara Falls, New York, focused international attention on questions about a company’s responsibility to those living in the surrounding community and to the health of the natural world. The Love Canal’s infamy began when a chemical company dumped tons of toxic waste into the ground before moving away. Despite the company’s
- 186. warnings about the land’s toxicity, residential development spread over the area. Birth defects and similar maladies eventually devastated the families. Not long afterward and on the financial front, an insider trading scandal involving the Wall Street titan Ivan Boesky made front pages, which led John Shad, former head of the Securities and Exchange Commission, to donate $20 million to his business school alma mater for the purpose of ethics education. Parallel (though usually more modest) money infusions went to university philosophy departments. As a discipline, business ethics naturally bridges the two divisions of study since the theory and tools for resolving ethical problems come from philosophy, but the problems for solving belong to the real economic world. Today, the most glamorous issues of business ethics involve massively powerful corporations and swashbuckling financiers. Power and celebrity get people’s attention. Other, more tangible issues don’t appear in so many headlines, but they’re just as important to study since they directly reach so many of us: What kind of career is worth pursuing? Should I lie on my résumé? How important is money? The Personal History of Ethics
- 187. Moving from academics to individual people, almost every adult does business ethics. Every time people shake their exhausted heads in the morning, eye the clock, and decide whether they’ll go to work or just pull up the covers, they’re making a decision about what values guide their economic reality. The way ethics is done, however, changes from person to person and for all of us through our lives. There’s no single history of ethics as individuals live it, but there’s a broad consensus that for many people, the development of their ethical side progresses in a way not too far off from a general scheme proposed by the psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. Pre-conventional behavior—displayed by children, but not only by them—is about people calculating to get what they want efficiently: decisions are made in accordance with raw self-interest. That’s why many Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 21 children really do behave better near the end of December. It’s not that they’ve suddenly been struck by respect for others and the importance of social rules; they just
- 188. figure they’ll get more and better presents. Moving up through the conventional stages, the idea of what you’ll do separates from what you want. First, there are immediate conventions that may pull against personal desires; they include standards and pressures applied by family and friends. Next, more abstract conventions—the law and mass social customs—assert influence. Continuing upward, the critical stages of moral development go from recognizing abstract conventions to actively and effectively comparing them. The study of business ethics belongs on this high level of individual maturity. Value systems are held up side by side, and reasons are erected for selecting one over another. This is the ethics of full adulthood; it requires good reasoning and experience in the real world. Coextensive with the development of ideas about what we ought to do are notions about responsibility— about justifiably blaming people for what they’ve done. Responsibility at the lowest level is physical. The person who stole the book is responsible because they took it. More abstractly, responsibility attaches to notions of causing others to do a wrong (enticing someone else to steal a book) and not doing something
- 189. that could have prevented a wrong (not acting to dissuade another who’s considering theft is, ultimately, a way of acting). A mature assignment of responsibility is normally taken to require that the following considerations hold: The person acts to cause—or fails to act to prevent—a wrong. K E Y T A K E A W A Y S ethics is the debate about what the rules should be; meta-ethics investigates the origin of the entire field. done. academic study is a recent development in the long history of ethical reflection. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 22
- 190. thought may be studied, as well as notions of responsibility. R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S 1. List two basic questions belonging to the field of morality. 2. List two basic questions belonging to the field of ethics. 3. What is one basic question belonging to the field of meta- ethics? 4. What is an example of normative ethics? And descriptive ethics? 5. Explain the difference between a decision based on ethics and one based on the law. 6. Explain the difference between a decision based on ethics and one based on religion. 7. List two factors explaining the recent development and growth of business ethics as a coherent discipline. [1] Steven Zaillian (director), A Civil Action (New York: Scott Rudin, 1998), film. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 23 1.3 Is Business Ethics Necessary?
- 191. L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S 1. Articulate two extreme views of business ethics. 2. Describe the sense in which business ethics is inevitable. Two Extreme Views of the Business World At the boundaries of the question about whether business ethics is necessary, there are conflicting and extreme perceptions of the business world. In graphic terms, these are the views: featuring people who get ahead by being selfish liars. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 24 business ethicists are interfering and annoying scolds threatening to ruin our economic welfare. A 1987 New York Times article titled “Suddenly, Business Schools Tackle Ethics” begins this way: “Insider-trading scandals in the last year have badly tarnished the reputations of some of the nation’s
- 192. most prominent financial institutions. Nor has Wall Street been the only area engulfed in scandal; manufacturers of products from contraceptives to military weapons have all come under public scrutiny recently for questionable—if not actionable—behavior.” [1] Slimy dealing verging on the illegal, the message is, stains the economic world from one end to the other. A little further into the article, the author possibly gives away her deepest feelings about business when she cracks that business ethics is “an oxymoron.” What will business leaders—and anyone else for that matter— do when confronted with the accusation of sliminess? Possibly embrace it—an attitude facilitated by an infamous article originally published in the Harvard Business Review. In “Is Business Bluffing Ethical?” the author suggests businessmen and women should double down on the strategy of getting ahead through deceit because if you’re in business, then everyone already knows you’re a liar anyway. And since that’s common knowledge, taking liberties with the truth doesn’t even count as lying: there’s no moral problem because that’s just the way the business game is played. In the author’s words, “Falsehood
- 193. ceases to be falsehood when it is understood on all sides that the truth is not expected to be spoken—an exact description of bluffing in poker, diplomacy, and business.” [2] The basic argument is strong. Ethically, dishonesty stops being reproachable—it stops being an attempt to mislead—when everyone knows that you’re not telling the truth. If it weren’t for that loophole, it’d be difficult to enjoy movies. Spiderman swinging through New York City skyscrapers isn’t a lie, it’s just fun because everyone agrees from the beginning that the truth doesn’t matter on the screen. The problem with applying this logic to the world of commerce, however, is that the original agreement isn’t there. It’s not true that in business everyone knows there’s lying and accepts it. In poker, presumably, the players choosing to sit down at the table have familiarized themselves with the rules and techniques of the game and, yes, do expect others to fake a good hand from time to time. It’s easy to show, however, that the expectation doesn’t generally hold in office buildings, stores, showrooms, and sales pitches. Take, for example, a car advertisement claiming a certain model has a
- 194. higher resale value, has a lower sticker price, Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 25 or can go from zero to sixty faster than its competition. People in the market for a new car take those claims seriously. If they’re prudent, they’ll check just to make sure (an economic form of “trust but verify”), but it’s pretty rare that someone sitting in front of the TV at home chuckles and calls the claim absurd. In poker, on the other hand, if another player makes a comparable claim (“I have the highest hand at the table!”), people just laugh and tell the guy to keep drinking. Poker isn’t like business. The argument that bluffing—lying—in business is acceptable because everyone does it and everyone knows everyone’s doing it doesn’t hold up. However, the fact that someone could seriously make the argument (and get it published in the Harvard Business Review no less) certainly provides heavy ammunition for those who believe that most high-level businesspeople—like those who read the Harvard Business Review—should have a hard time looking at themselves in the mirror in the morning.
- 195. Opposing the view that business life is corrupt and needs serious ethical policing, there’s the view that economic enterprises provide wealth for our society while correcting their own excesses and problems internally. How does the correction work? Through the marketplace. The pressures of demanding consumers force companies into reputable behavior. If a car manufacturer lies about its product, there may be a brief uptick in sales, but eventually people will figure out what’s going on, spread the word at the water cooler and on Facebook, and in the end the company’s sales will collapse. Similarly, bosses that abuse and mistreat subordinates will soon find that no one wants to work for them. Workers who cheat on expense reports or pocket money from the till will eventually get caught and fired. Of course it must be admitted that some people sometimes do get away with something, but over the long run, the forces of the economic world inexorably correct abuses. If this vision of business reality is correct, then adding another layer of academic ethics onto what’s already going on in the real world isn’t necessary. More, those who insist on standing outside corporate
- 196. offices and factory buildings preaching the need for oversight and remedial classes in morality become annoying nags. That’s especially true if the critics aren’t directly doing business themselves. If they’re ensconced in university towers and gloomy libraries, there may even be a suspicion that what really drives the call to ethics is a burning resentment of all the money Wall Street stars and captains of industry seem to make, along with their flashy cars, palatial homes, and luxurious vacations. An issue of the Cato Institute’s Policy Report from 2000 carries an article titled “Business Ethics Gone Wrong.” It asserts that some proponents of business ethics aren’t only bothersome envious—their Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 26 resentment-fueled scolding actually threatens our collective economic welfare. Business ethics, according to the author, “is fundamentally antagonistic to capitalist enterprise, viewing both firm and manager as social parasites in need of a strong reformative hand.” [3]
- 197. These reforms—burdensome regulations, prying investigations, and similar ethical interventions — threaten to gum up the capitalist engine: “If the market economy and its cornerstone, the shareholder- oriented firm, are in no danger of being dealt a decisive blow, they at least risk death by a thousand cuts.” [4] There’s a problem with this perspective on the business world. Even if, for the sake of argument, it’s acknowledged that economic forces effectively police commerce, that doesn’t mean business ethics is unnecessary or a threat to the market economy. The opposite is the case: the view that the marketplace solves most problems is an ethics. It’s a form of egoism, a theory to be developed in later chapters but with values and rules that can be rapidly sketched here. What are most valued from this perspective is our individual welfare and the freedom to pursue it without guilt or remorse. With that freedom, however, comes a responsibility to acknowledge that others may be guided by the same rules and therefore we’re all bound by the responsibility to look out for ourselves and actively protect our own interests since no one
- 198. will be doing it for us. This isn’t to confirm that all businesspeople are despicable liars, but it does mean asserting that the collective force of self-interest produces an ethically respectable reality. Right and wrong comes to be defined by the combined force of cautious, self-interested producers and consumers. In the face of this argument defending a free-for-all economic reality where everyone is doing the best they can for themselves while protecting against others doing the same, objections may be constructed. It could be argued, for example, that the modern world is too complex for consumers to adequately protect their own interests all the time. No matter how that issue gets resolved, however, the larger fact remains that trusting in the marketplace is a reasonable and defensible ethical posture; it’s a commitment to a set of values and facts and their combination in an argument affirming that the free market works to effectively resolve its own problems. Conclusion. It’s not true that doing business equals being deceitful, so it’s false to assert that business ethics is necessary to cure the ills of commerce. It is true that the business world may be left to control its
- 199. own excesses through marketplace pressure, but that doesn’t mean business escapes ethics. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 27 Business Ethics Is Inevitable Business ethics is not about scolding, moralizing, or telling people to be nice. Ethics doesn’t have to be annoying or intrusive. On the other hand, it can’t just be dismissed altogether because ethics in business is unavoidable. The values guiding our desires and aspirations are there whether they’re revealed or not. They must be because no one can do anything without first wanting something. If you don’t have a goal, something you’re trying to achieve or get, then you won’t have anything to do when you get out of bed in the morning. Getting up in the morning and going, consequently, mean that you’ve already selected something as desirable, valuable, and worth pursuing. And that’s doing ethics; it’s establishing values. The only real and durable difference, therefore, between those who understand ethics and those who don’t is that the former achieve a level of self-understanding about what they want: they’ve compared their
- 200. values with other possibilities and molded their actions to their decisions. The latter are doing the same thing, just without fully realizing it. The question about whether ethics is necessary, finally, becomes a false one. You can choose to not understand the ethics you’re doing (you can always drop this class), but you can’t choose to not do ethics. K E Y T A K E A W A Y S guiding our aspirations and actions, some form of ethics is unavoidable for anyone acting in the economic world. R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S 1. Why might someone believe the business world needs exterior ethical monitoring and correction? 2. What is the argument that the business world can regulate itself, and why is that an ethics? 3. In your own words, why is business ethics unavoidable? [1] Sandra Salmans, “Suddenly, Business Schools Tackle Ethics,” New York Times, August 2, 1987, accessed May 11, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/02/education/suddenly- business-schools-tackle-ethics.html.
- 201. [2] Albert Carr, “Is Business Bluffing Ethical?,” Harvard Business Review 46 (January–February, 1968), 143–53. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 28 [3] Alexei M. Marcoux, “Business Ethics Gone Wrong,” Cato Policy Report 22, no. 3 (May/June 2000), accessed May 11, 2011,http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/v22n3/cpr - 22n3.html. [4] Alexei M. Marcoux, “Business Ethics Gone Wrong,” Cato Policy Report 22, no. 3 (May/June 2000), accessed May 11, 2011,http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/v22n3/cpr - 22n3.html. 1.4 Facebook and the Unavoidability of Business Ethics L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E 1. Show how business ethics stretches beyond working life. The Facebook Firing Business ethics in some form is inescapable inside factories, office buildings, and other places where work gets done. The application of business ethics principles and guidance doesn’t stop, though, when the workday ends or outside the company door. Because our
- 202. economic lives mingle so intimately with our private existences, the decisions and reasoning shaping our laboring eventually shape our lives generally. Business ethics, as the problems bedeviling Dawnmarie Souza show, provides a way to examine and make sense of a large segment of our time, both on and off the job. Souza’s problems started when the ambulance she worked on picked up a “17.” That’s code for a psychiatric case. This particular 17, as it happened, wasn’t too crazy to form and submit a complaint about Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 29 the treatment received from Souza. Since this was the second grievance the ambulance service had received on Souza in only ten days, she sensed that she’d be getting a suspension. “Looks like,” she wrote on her Facebook page later that day, “I’m getting some time off. Love how the company allows a 17 to be a supervisor.” She also referred to her real supervisor wi th some choice four-letter words. A number of coworkers responded to her post with their own supportive and agreeing comments.
- 203. Management responded by firing her. The termination decision came easily to the ambulance service, American Medical Response of Connecticut, since their policy explicitly prohibited employees from identifying or discussing the company or other employees in the uncontrolled public forum that is the Internet. Around the water cooler, at home, or during weekend parties, people can say what they like. Given the semi-permanent record that is the web, however, and the ambulance service’s natural inclination to protect its public image, posting there was out of bounds. But, Souza responded, there’s no difference. If people can talk at the water cooler and parties, why can’t they post on Facebook? She’s not claiming to speak for the company, she’s just venting with a keypad instead of vocal chords. The celebrity blogger and Facebook addict Perez Hilton came down on the company’s side: “We think Dawnmarie should be fired, and we support the company’s decision to let her go. When you post things online, it’s out there for the public to see, and it’s a sign of disloyalty and disrespect to deal with a work-
- 204. related grievance in such a manner.” [1] The Reach of Business Ethics When someone like Perez Hilton—a blogger most comfortable deriding celebrities’ bad hair days—finds himself wrapped in a business ethics debate, you’ve got to figure the discipline is pretty much unavoidable. Regardless, the Souza episode displays many of the ways business ethics connects with our nonworking existence, whether we like it or not: her job. Maybe she really doesn’t care that she got fired. Or maybe she cares but only because it means a lost paycheck. On the other hand, it may just have been a bad day; it’s possible that she usually gets up in the morning eager to mount the ambulance. It’s hard to know, but it’s certain that this—the decision about what we want to do with our Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 30 professional lives—is business ethics. When choosing a job, what has value? The money it provides?
- 205. Satisfaction from helping others? Status? Or do you just want something that gives you the most free time possible? There are no rights or wrong answers, but these are all ethical decisions tangling your personal and professional lives together. and professional on the question of one’s job tends to link tighter as people get older. Many of us define who we and others are through work. When finding out about someone new, the question—embraced by some and dreaded by others— inevitably comes up. When meeting a woman at a party, when being sent on a blind date, or when discussing old high school friends or the guy who just moved into the next-door apartment, the question hums just below the surface, and it’s never long until someone comes out and asks. Of course, for collegians and young people working part-time jobs, it doesn’t matter so much because everyone knows that where you work isn’t where you’ll end up working. Once someone hits the mid-twenties, though, the question “what do you do?” starts to press and it won’t let up.
- 206. company when she trashed the management on Facebook. The following questions are raised: What is loyalty? What is it worth? When should you feel it? When do you have a right to demand it from others? Is there any difference among loyalty to the company, to family, and to friends? the web page’s comments section: “I bet if she were gay, and did the same exact thing, you would be singing a different tune!” Perez Hilton, it’s widely known, is about as exuberantly gay as they come. As it happens, in his line of work that orientation isn’t professionally harmful. For others, however, the revelation may be career damaging. Hilton, in fact, is despised by some in Hollywood for his habit of outing gay celebrities, people who hide part of themselves in the name of furthering their career. The business ethics question here is also a life one. Would you hide who you are to facilitate things at work? Should you? Doesn’t everyone do that to some extent and in some ways? employer owns you. I mean they can make you piss
- 207. in a cup to check and see what you did over the weekend.” Should employers be able to change what you do over the weekend? Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 31 to free speech—she should be able to say whatever she wants wherever she wants without fear of retribution. In response to those assertions, this was posted, “Of course we have freedom of speech. Employers also have the freedom to employ whoever they wish. Your decision is whether whatever is on your mind is more important than your job.” Does freedom of speech—or any other basic liberty—end or get conditioned when the workday begins? company on this one. An employer expects proper business demeanor even while off the clock.” What is “proper demeanor”? Who decides? On the basis of what? There’s no shortage of women who see their
- 208. boss more than their husband, of men who remember the birthday of the guy in the next cubicle before their own child’s. Parties tend to include workmates; companies invite clients to ball games. The sheer hours spent at work, along with the large overlaps between professional and social relationships, make separating the ethics of the office and the home nearly impossible. gossip column, which wins few points for checking and confirming claims but definitely gets the juicy and embarrassing rumors out about the private lives of celebrities: “Are you insane? All you did for God knows how long is put nasty stuff up about people for the public to see as a sign of disloyalty and disrespect.” Assuming that’s a reasonable depiction of Hilton’s work, the question his career raises is: what are you willing to do to the lives of others to get yourself ahead at work? Underlining all these questions is a distinction that’s easy to make in theory but difficult to maintain in real life. It’s one betweeninstitutional business ethics and personal business ethics. Institutional ethics in business deals with large questions in generic and anonymous
- 209. terms. The rules and discussions apply to most organizations and to individuals who could be anyone. Should companies be allowed to pollute the air? What counts as a firing offense? The personal level, by contrast, fills with questions for specific people enmeshed in the details of their particular lives. If Perez Hilton has gotten rich dishing dirt on others, is he allowed to assert that others must treat their employers respectfully? K E Y T A K E A W A Y between professional and personal lives. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 32 R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S 1. What are two reasons business ethics decisions tend to affect lives outside work? 2. What are two ways business ethics decisions may affect lives outside work? [1] “Facebook-Related Firing Sparks Legal Drama!,” PerezHilton.com (blog), accessed May 11, 2011, http://perezhilton.com/2010-11-09-woman-fired-over-
- 210. comments- she-made-about-her-boss-on-facebook- brings-about-court-case#respond. 1.5 Overview of The Business Ethics Workshop This textbook is organized into three clusters of chapters. The first group develops and explains the main theories guiding thought in business ethics. The goals are to clarify the theoretical tools that may be used to make decisions and to display how arguments can be built in favor of one stance and against others. The questions driving the chapters include the following: what we ought to do? If so, are the imperatives very specific, including dictates like “don’t lie”? Or are they more flexible, more like rules broadly requiring fairness and beneficence to others? —especially the conviction that we’re all free to pursue the destinies we choose— the key to thinking about ethics? If we have these rights, what happens when my free pursuit of happiness conflicts with yours? Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
- 211. 33 effects of what’s done? How can a framework for decisions be constructed around the idea that we ought to undertake whatever action is necessary (even lying or stealing) in order to bring about a positive end, something like the greater happiness of society overall? nt are perspectives on right and wrong only expressions of the particular culture we live in? Does it makes sense to say that certain acts—say bribery—are OK in some countries but wrong in others? The second cluster of chapters investigates business ethi cs on the level of the individual. The goal is to show how the tools of ethical reasoning may be applied to personal decisions made in connection with our nine-to-five lives. The questions driving the chapters include the following: nto play when a career path is selected? to get a raise or promotion? from a kickback? An office romance?
- 212. ployer? Is there loyalty in business, or is there nothing more than the money I’m paid and the duties I’m assigned according to my work contract? something I think is wrong? me, what responsibilities do I have toward them inside and outside the office? workers? The third cluster of chapters considers institutional business ethics. These are general and sweeping issues typically involving corporations, the work environments they promote, and the actions they take in the economic world. Guiding questions include the following: and what remedies ought to be tried? to sex and drugs in the workplace? strategies? Is there anything wrong with creating consumer needs? What relationships should corporations form with their consumers? community in which they operate, to the people
- 213. who aren’t employees or consumers but live nearby? ’s environmental health? individually successful stars or to protect the welfare of laboring collectives? Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 34 1.6 Case Studies Gray Matters Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 35 To foster ethical discussion and understanding in the workplace, the Lockheed Martin Company developed a quiz for employees called “Gray Matters.” The quiz is multiple choices, with a range of points awarded (or subtracted) depending on the response. Subsequently, the approach has been adopted by a wide range of corporations. Here’s a typical question matched with its possible answers and the
- 214. corresponding points: Six months after you hired an assistant accountant who has been working competently and responsibly, you learn that she departed from the truth on her employment application: she claimed she had a college degree when she didn’t. You’re her manager; what should you do? 1. Nothing because she’s doing her job just fine. (–10 points) 2. Bring the issue to the human resources department to determine exactly how company policy determines the situation should be handled. (10 points) 3. Fire her for lying. (5 points) 4. Carefully weigh her work performance, her length of service, and her potential benefit to the company before informing anyone of what happened or making any recommendations. (0 points) Q U E S T I O N S Im ag e r em
- 215. ov ed du e t o c op yri gh t iss ue s. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 36 1. The three principle components of business ethics are facts, values, and arguments. What are the facts pertinent to an ethical evaluation of this case? Is there any information not contained in the question that you’d like to have before making a decision about what should be done? 2. From the facts and information provided, can you sketch a set of values and chain of reasoning justifying
- 216. the answer that the quiz’s original authors sanctioned as the right one? (Leave the decision in the hands of the HR department and existing company policy.) 3. You get some points for C (firing her). What values and reasoning may lead to that determination? 4. According to the quiz authors, the worst answer is A. Maybe they’re wrong, though. What values and reasoning may lead to the conclusion that doing “nothing because she’s doing her job just fine” is an excellent response? 5. One of the most important questions about a situation’s facts is “who’s involved?” o Would it be reasonable to say that, ethically, this is an issue just between you and the woman who you hired after she lied on her résumé? o If you expand the answer about who’s involved to include other workmates at the company, as well as the company’s clients and shareholders, does that change the ethical perspective you have on what should be done with the lying (but capable) coworker? 6. What’s the difference between morality and ethics? o Would you categorize response B (bring the issue to HR to
- 217. determine exactly how company policy determines the situation should be handled) as leading to a decision more based on morality or more based on ethics? Explain. o Would you categorize response D (carefully weigh her work performance, her length of service, and her potential benefit to the company before informing anyone of what happened or making any recommendations) as leading to a decision more based on morality or ethics? Explain. Who made your iPhone? Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 37 Connie Guglielmo, a reporter for Bloomberg news services, begins an article on Apple this way: “Apple Inc. said three of its suppliers hired 11 underage workers to help build the iPhone, iPod and Macintosh computer last year, a violation it uncovered as part of its onsite audit of 102 factories.” [1] Her story adds details. The underage workers were fifteen in places where the minimum legal age for
- 218. employment is sixteen. She wasn’t able to discover the specific countries, but learned the infractions occurred in one or more of the following: China, Taiwan, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, the Czech Republic, and the Philippines. Following the discovery, the employees were released, and disciplinary action was taken against a number of the foreign suppliers. In one case, Apple stopped contracting with the company entirely. The story closes with this: “Apple raised $2.62 to $204.62 yesterday in Nasdaq Stock Market trading. The shares more than doubled last year.” Q U E S T I O N S Im age re mo ved du e to co pyr igh
- 219. t is sue s. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 38 1. The ethical question is whether Apple ought to contract (through suppliers) fifteen-year-olds to work on factory floors. Is the fact that the stock price has been zooming up a pertinent fact, or does it not affect the ethics? Explain. 2. From the information given and reasonable assumptions about these factories and the living conditions of people working inside them, sketch an ethical argument against Apple enforcing the age workplace rule. What fundamental values underwrite the argument? 3. From the information given and reasonable assumptions about these factories and the living conditions of people working inside them, sketch an argument in favor of Apple enforcing the age workplace rule. What fundamental values underwrite the argument? 4. Within the context of the Apple situation, what’s the
- 220. difference between making a decision in terms of the law and in terms of ethics? 5. Assume that in the countries where fifteen-year-olds were working, it’s customary for children even younger to earn an adult-type living. o What is an advantage of following the local customs when making economic decisions like the one confronting Apple? o Does the custom of employing young workers in some countries change your ethical consideration of the practice in those places? Why or why not? 6. Attributing responsibility—blaming another for doing wrong—requires that the following conditions hold: o The person is able to understand right and wrong. o The person acts to cause (or fails to act to prevent) a wrong. o The person acts knowing what they’re doing. o The person acts from their own free will. Assuming it’s unethical for fifteen-year-olds to work factory shifts making iPhones, who bears responsibility for the wrong?
- 221. o Do the fifteen-year-olds bear some responsibility? Explain. o Does Steve Jobs, the CEO of Apple? Explain. o Are shareholders guilty? Explain. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 39 o Do people who use iPhones bear responsibility? Explain. I Swear Since 2006, students at the Columbia Business School have been required to pledge “I adhere to the principles of truth, integrity, and respect. I will not lie, cheat, steal, or tolerate those who do.” This is a substantial promise, but it doesn’t sound like it’ll create too many tremendous burdens or require huge sacrifices. A somewhat more demanding pledge solidified in 2010 when a group of business school students from Columbia, Duke Fuqua, Harvard, MIT Sloan, NYU Stern, Rensselaer Lally, Thunderbird, UNC Kenan- Flagler, and Yale met to formalize the following MBA Oath: As a business leader I recognize my role in society.
- 222. value that no single individual can create alone. -being of individuals inside and outside my enterprise, today and tomorrow. Therefore, I promise that: not advance my personal interests at the expense of my enterprise or society. Im age re mo ved du e t o c op yri gh t is
- 223. sue s. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 40 contracts governing my conduct and that of my enterprise. practices harmful to society. otect the human rights and dignity of all people affected by my enterprise, and I will oppose discrimination and exploitation. standard of living and enjoy a healthy planet. ort the performance and risks of my enterprise accurately and honestly. management profession continue to advance and create sustainable and inclusive prosperity. In exercising my professional duties according to these principles, I recognize that my behavior
- 224. must set an example of integrity, eliciting trust and esteem from those I serve. I will remain accountable to my peers and to society for my actions and for upholding these standards. [2] Q U E S T I O N S 1. The second introductory clause of the MBA Oath is “My decisions affect the well-being of individuals inside and outside my enterprise, today and tomorrow.” [3] What’s the difference between seeing this as a positive ethical stand in favor of a broad social responsibility held by those in business, and seeing it as arrogance? 2. Looking at the MBA Oath, can you list a set of values that are probably shared by those responsible for its creation? 3. All this pledging and oathing suddenly popping up at business schools drew the attention of the New York Times, and soon after, an article appeared: “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of Immorality.” [4]
- 225. Many of the readers’ comments at the end are interesting. The commenter paulnyc writes that “most students go to MBA programs to advance their careers and to earn more money, pure and simple, and there is nothing wrong with it.” [5] o What values underlie paulnyc’s perspective? Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 41 o How is paulnyc’s vision different from the one espoused in the oath? 4. The commenter JerryNY wrote, “Greed IS good as long as it is paired with the spirit of fairness. Virtually all of the major advances in science and technology were made with greed as one of the motivating factors. Gugliemo [sic] Marconi, Alexander Graham Bell, Bill Gates, Henry Ford and Steve Jobs would not have given us the life changing technological advances of our time were it not for personal greed. Remove that element, and your class is destined for mediocrity.” [6]
- 226. Is it plausible to assert that JerryNY shares most of the values of those who wrote the MBA Oath, it’s just that he sees a different business attitude as the best way to serve those values? If so, explain. If not, why not? 5. Eric writes, I would refuse to take that oath…on principle. The idea that an individual’s proper motive should be to serve “the greater good” is highly questionable. This altruistic ethic is what supported the collectivist of communism and National Socialism. If my life belongs first and foremost to “the greater good,” it follows that the greatest virtue is to live as a slave. A slave’s existence, after all, is devoted primarily for the benefit of his master. The master can be a plantation owner or a King or an oligarchy or a society that demands your servitude. The only oath I’d be willing to take is, “I swear, by my life and my love of it, that I will never live for the sake of another man, nor ask another man to live for mine.” [7]
- 227. In your own words, contrast the values the MBA Oath supporters espouse with the values the commenter Eric espouses. 6. The commenter Clyde Wynant is skeptical. He writes this about those who take the MBA Oath: “Call me hyper-cynical, but I can’t help wondering if a lot of these kids aren’t hoping that having this ‘pledge’ on their résumé might help them look good.” [8] Is it unethical to take the pledge without expecting to adhere to it simply because you think it will help in your job search, or is that strategy just a different kind of ethics? Explain. 7. The commenter Mikhail is skeptical. He writes, “Give me a break…With the next upswing of the economy, these leeches will be sucking the lifeblood out of our collective economies like the Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 42 champions they truly are!!! Yes, perhaps opportunistic parasites every last one of them—but really, it’s not their fault—they’re just programmed that way.” [9]
- 228. When he says business school students are programmed, what does he mean? If someone is programmed to be an opportunistic parasite in business, can we blame them for what they do? If so, how? If not, who should be blamed? 8. The commenter as is skeptical. He writes, “Don’t make me laugh. If they are so concerned about the ‘greater good,’ go into teaching and nursing.” [10] Assume the MBA Oath does stress the importance of the greater good, and you too are going into the economic world with that as a privileged value. How could you respond to the argument that you really should be doing nursing or something more obviously serving the general good? 9. According to the Times, B-schoolers aren’t lining up for the MBA Oath: only about 20 percent take the pledge. How could you convince the other 80 percent to sign on? I.M.P. (It’s My Party) “Look at them!” he said, his eyes dancing. “That’s what it’s all about, the way the people feel. It’s
- 229. not about the sellout performances and the caliber of the bands that appear here. It’s about the people who buy tickets, having a good time.” [11] Ima ge r emo ved due to c opy righ t iss ues. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 43 That’s Seth Hurwitz quoted in the Washington Post, talking about his 9:30 Club, a small venue playing over-the-hill bands on the way down, and fresh acts scratching their way up. The story’s curious detail is that even though Hurwitz calls his company I.M.P. (It’s My Party), he doesn’t
- 230. spend much time at his club. In fact, he’s almost never there. Part of the reason is that his workday begins at 6 a.m., so he’s actually back in bed preparing for the next day before his enterprise gets going in earnest each night. His job is straightforward: sitting in the second floor office of his suburban DC home, he scrutinizes the music publications and statistics, probing for bands that people want to see and that won’t charge too much to appear. He told the Post that he won’t book an act as a favor, and he won’t flatter a group into playing his club to keep them away from the competition by overpaying them. “I don’t subscribe,” he says, “to doing shows that will lose money.” Hurwitz has been connected with music in one way or another for almost as long as he can remember. The Post relates some of his early memories: He rigged a system to broadcast radio from his basement to his parents and brothers in the living room. “I used to bring my singles into class and play them,” Hurwitz said. When he was 16, he decided he wanted to be a deejay and got his chance when alternative rock station WHFS gave him a spot. “It was from 7:45 to 8—fifteen minutes,” he said, laughing. “But that was okay
- 231. because I wanted to be on the radio, and I had my own show, as a high school student.” He said he was fired “for being too progressive.” [12] It’s a long way from getting fired for playing music too obscure for alternative radio to where Hurwitz is now: putting on concerts by bands selected because they’ll make money. Q U E S T I O N S 1. Hurwitz is brutally honest about the fact that he’ll only contract bands capable of turning a profit. When he was younger and a deejay, he insisted on playing the music he judged best no matter how many people turned off the radio when his show came on (an attitude that cost him the job). o What, if anything, is Hurwitz the older concert promoter compromising to get ahead? Is there an ethical objection that could be raised here? If so, what? If not, why not? Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 44
- 232. o When Hurwitz was a deejay, he played records that led people to change the station. Then the station changed him. Is this an example of business regulating itself? Is there an ethical side to this, or is it just the way money works? Explain. o From the information given, would you judge that Hurwitz is successful in business? Why or why not? o Are all these questions part of institutional business ethics or personal business ethics? Explain. 2. Hurwitz says that he doesn’t book bands as favors. Presumably at least some of the favors he’s talking about would be to friends. o Do people who run their own company have an ethical responsibility to separate friends from business? 3. One nice thing about Hurwitz working upstairs in his own house is that he can show up for work in the morning in his pajamas. Should all places of business be like that—with people free to wear whatever they want for work? Explain your answer from an ethical perspective. 4. Most of Hurwitz’s shows are on weeknights. Some
- 233. concertgoers may have such a good time that they can’t make it in to work the next day. o If you go to a concert on a Wednesday and are too hung over to make it to work on Thursday, what should you tell your boss on Friday? That you were hung over? That your car broke down? Something else? Justify. o Should Hurwitz accept some responsibility and blame for absent employees? Explain. [1] Connie Guglielmo, “Apple Says Children Were Used to Build iPhone, iPod (Update1),” Bloomberg, February 27, 2010, accessed May 11, 2011, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=ai EeeQNHkrOY. [2] “The MBA Oath,” MBA Oath, accessed May 11, 2011, http://mbaoath.org/about/the-mba-oath. [3] “The MBA Oath,” MBA Oath, accessed May 11, 2011, http://mbaoath.org/about/the-mba-oath. [4] Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/30/business/30oath.html.
- 234. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 45 [5] paulnyc, May 30, 2009 (10:58 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011, http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20 09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort =oldest. [6] JerryNY, May 30, 2009 (10:51 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011, http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20 09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort =oldest. [7] Eric, May 30, 2009 (10:35 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011, http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20 09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort =oldest.
- 235. [8] Clyde Wynant, May 30, 2009 (10:55 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011, http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20 09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort =oldest. [9] Mikhail, May 30, 2009 (10:35 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011, http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20 09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort =oldest. [10] as, May 30, 2009 (10:35 a.m.), comment on Leslie Wayne, “A Promise to Be Ethical in an Era of Immorality,” New York Times, May 29, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011, http://community.nytimes.com/comments/www.nytimes.com/20 09/05/30/business/30oath.html?sort =oldest. [11] Avis Thomas-Lester, “A Club Owner’s Mojo,” Washington Post, December 28, 2009, accessed May
- 236. 11, 2011, http://views.washingtonpost.com/on-success/what-it- takes/2009/12/seth_hurwitz.html. [12] Avis Thomas-Lester, “A Club Owner’s Mojo,” Washington Post, December 28, 2009, accessed May 11, 2011, http://views.washingtonpost.com/on-success/what-it- takes/2009/12/seth_hurwitz.html. Corporate culture: The second ingredient in a world-class ethics and compliance program A culture of ethics and compliance is at the core of a strong risk management program In a business environment where reputational threats lurk around every corner, a strong culture of ethics and compliance is the foundation of a robust risk management program. The lessons learned related to scandals and organizational crises that trace back to the early 2000s make one thing clear: without an ethical and compliant culture, organizations will always be at risk. As a fundamental component of an effective ethics and compliance program, culture is now referenced by the U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines, which include expectations for organizations to promote an “organizational culture that encourages ethical conduct” and “compliance with the law.” Furthermore, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD’s) Convention on
- 237. Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions refers to the importance of a strong culture of organizational ethics. More and more, culture is moving from a lofty, “squishy” concept to something that should be defined, measured, and improved (see figure 1). 2 Third-party Compliance Training and Communications Case Management and Investigations Continuous Improvement Governance and Leadership Employee Reporting Risk Assessments and Due Diligence Standards, Policies, and Procedures
- 238. Testing and Monitoring Culture of Ethics and Compliance Figure 1: Culture is the foundation The Deloitte Ethics and Compliance Framework recognizes that an ethical culture is the core element of an organization’s ethics and compliance program. If the culture of the organization does not support principled performance, then all of the people, processes, and technologies that are put in place to mitigate ethics and compliance risks cannot be effective. http://www.ussc.gov/guidelines-manual/guidelines-manual http://www.oecd.org/corruption/oecdantibriberyconvention.htm http://www.oecd.org/corruption/oecdantibriberyconvention.htm 3 Culture has always been important to how organizations operate. So why is it getting so much attention lately? One reason is that regulators have come to the realization that without a culture of integrity, organizations are likely to view their ethics and compliance programs as a set of check- the-box activities, or even worse, as a roadblock to achieving their business objectives. In fact, organizations responsible for some of the most egregious acts of malfeasance have had quite impressive, formalized ethics and compliance guidelines. The problem was that either leadership or a group of influential insiders operated outside of those guidelines.
- 239. What is “culture”? Culture is one of the biggest determinants of how employees behave. Strong cultures have two common elements: there is a high level of agreement about what is valued, and a high level of intensity with regard to those values. Of course, not all cultures encourage good or ethical behaviors. When it comes to developing world-class ethics and compliance programs, the starting point is a positive culture of integrity. Given the regulatory focus on fostering an ethical culture, many organizations are conducting assessments leveraging internal and/or external resources to review their overall programs to ensure both ethics and compliance are addressed. The balance of this article will provide practical guidance for leaders to consider in creating a culture of integrity. Grounding a culture in integrity A culture of integrity is generally characterized by: • Organizational values: A set of clear values that, among other things, emphasizes the organization’s commitment to legal and regulatory compliance, integrity, and business ethics. • Tone at the top1: Executive leadership and senior managers across the organization encourage employees and business partners to behave legally and ethically, and in accordance with compliance and policy requirements. • Consistency of messaging: Operational directives and business imperatives align with the messages from leadership related to ethics and compliance.
- 240. • Middle managers who carry the banner: Front-line and mid-level supervisors turn principles into practice. They often use the power of stories and symbols to promote ethical behaviors. • Comfort speaking up: Employees across the organization are comfortable coming forward with legal, compliance, and ethics questions and concerns without fear of retaliation. • Accountability: Senior leaders hold themselves and those reporting to them accountable for complying with the law and organizational policy, as well as adhering to shared values or organizational values. • The hire-to-retire life cycle: The organization recruits and screens employees based on character, as well as competence. The on-boarding process steeps new employees in organizational values, and mentoring also reflects those values. Employees are well-treated when they leave or retire, creating colleagues for life. • Incentives and rewards: The organization rewards and promotes people based, in part, on their adherence to ethical values. It is not only clear that good behavior is rewarded, but that bad behavior (such as achieving results regardless of method) can have negative consequences. • Procedural justice: Internal matters are adjudicated equitably at all levels of the organization. Employees may not always agree with decisions, but they will accept them if they believe a process has been fairly administered.
- 241. Organizations with strong positive cultures create trusting relationships with stakeholders. In our experience, those relationships become reciprocal; that is, stakeholders trust the organization and the brand. This creates employee, customer, and supplier loyalty. A strong culture helps to build positive relationships with regulators and it helps attract long-term investors. Ultimately, a culture of integrity is reflected in superior, long-term performance. 1 For more information on tone at the top, see the first article in our series: www.deloitte.com/us/toneatthetop As used in this document, “Deloitte” means Deloitte LLP and its subsidiaries. Please see www.deloitte.com/us/about for a detailed description of the legal structure of Deloitte LLP and its subsidiaries. Certain services may not be available to attest clients under the rules and regulations of public accounting. 4 Facing up to the challenges More and more organizations are choosing to create additional structure around their ethics program. This can include the appointment of a Chief Ethics Officer (or expanding the Chief Compliance Officer’s role to include specific responsibility for the ethics program), enhancing the code of conduct and related controls and procedures, and improving accountability for ethical behavior through training and performance assessments. These actions are a
- 242. great start toward the creation of a strong culture and will benefit the broader efforts around risk management and compliance. Establishing a strong culture of integrity is not a discrete project with a beginning and an end, nor is it always smooth sailing. Despite best efforts, many organizations may run up against a number of obstacles. Defining the culture Most leaders believe they understand and can define their organization’s culture. However, often there is a gap between management’s perception of the culture and how the rest of the organization views it. It is a mistake for leaders to assume they always have their finger on the pulse of the organization’s culture. To get a more accurate picture, organizations can set up listening posts, such as cultural assessments using employee surveys and outside observers. It is especially helpful to offer avenues, such as focus groups, run by third parties, for employees to provide open-ended responses that truly reflect their perceptions of the organization. Instilling culture and values throughout the organization While executive leadership may work hard to establish a culture of integrity at headquarters, something often gets lost in translation as one moves farther away from the central office. This is why attention to culture needs to be active and continuous, especially in large organizations with distant outposts. Values—with ethics and integrity at their core—must be clearly and consistently communicated. Messaging needs to be explicit and repeated, so that it becomes embedded in how work gets done. Communicating culture can be especially challenging when
- 243. crossing borders. It is important that everyone understands the expected behaviors of the organization and the principles against which decisions will be made. Values need to be articulated in a manner that transcends nationality— for example, the concepts of honesty and trustworthiness are universally acknowledged. Nevertheless, it is important to recognize that cultural differences will influence how messages are heard and interpreted, and adjustments may need to be made in training, employee onboarding, and performance reviews. Extending cultural values to mergers and acquisitions (M&A) Cultural fit is one of the biggest stumbling blocks in integrating a merged or acquired organization; in fact, it is one reason such transactions fail, despite the potential business benefits. This is why executives may want to conduct a cultural “audit” as part of the due diligence process. If the target company's values diverge significantly from those of the buyer, this could be a red flag. A well - developed integration plan will ensure both entities understand and reinforce desired values. From day one, management needs to let new employees know that they are welcome. At the same time, leaders need to communicate how the organization expects them to behave and how they can expect to be treated in return. Handling the naysayers Nothing will damage culture more than the malcontents. When people get in the way of supporting the culture, they can cause roadblocks and undermine the efforts of the organization. They must be identified, counseled, and offered the opportunity to conform to expected behavior, or they should be separated from the organization. Training programs focusing on ethics and compliance are one way to communicate values to individuals who may need additional
- 244. reinforcement. As a next step, performance reviews should be structured to include an evaluation of an individual’s results and should reflect how those results were achieved. Some organizations even make adhering to values part of the goal-planning process by setting objectives that are tied to specific cultural elements. 5 Reinforcing culture and values Create listening posts: Conduct cultural assessments that get at the core of how people behave and what they think. Maintain a healthy mood in the middle: Much hinges on middle management’s ability to translate tone at the top into the policies and practices that drive everyday behavior. Keep it interesting: Find new and innovative ways to communicate cultural values and reward values-based behavior. Encourage storytelling to bring values to life. Play fair: Reward the right behaviors and penalize the wrong ones. Don't play favorites. Shout it from the rooftops: Leaders tend to undercommunicate values and expectations. In this case, more is better. Battling values fatigue
- 245. While ongoing communication is essential, organizations should avoid delivering exactly the same message again and again. This is because messages can get stale, causing employees to ignore the underlying values and principles. Communicating values is much like a marketing campaign—it needs to capture people’s attention and use different content, formats, and communication channels to remain fresh. One way to achieve this level of interest is through the power of stories. Stories cannot only make values concrete, they connect people to those values in ways other forms of communication cannot. Addressing leadership flux When organizations experience rapid turnover of CEOs and other senior leaders, maintaining a consistent identity and set of values can sometimes be a challenge. Clearly, selecting the right individuals to lead the organization is critical. If everyone in the organization lives its values, then promoting from within is one way to ensure those values remain intact. But that is not always either practical or possible. The board is usually involved in external hiring of senior leaders, especially CEOs. They need to pay particular attention to cultural fit and consider candidates who are not only competent, but who have the chemistry, character, and moral capability to inspire and win the hearts and minds of all stakeholders. Regardless of the CEO selection, it is important that culture not be dependent on a single person or group. A robust ethics and compliance program—appropriately designed, positioned, and resourced—will survive executive changes at the top of the organization. Appealing to a cross-generational workforce Revolving leadership is not the only source of change that can undermine culture. Employee turnover can threaten it as well. Organizations today need to appeal
- 246. to the most multi-generational workforce in history.2 For both financial and other reasons, baby boomers are not retiring the minute they hit age 65. Many are choosing to remain employed, sometimes postponing promotional opportunities for younger, Generation X workers. At the same time, Millennials entering the workforce are often driven by a sense of purpose and crave a more collaborative culture. They are more likely to pursue portfolio careers in which they change jobs frequently to seek organizations that fit with their values. To create cultures with staying power, organizations must therefore foster an environment that balances a “something for everyone” appeal, with a set of consistent values that all generations will be able to embrace. Conclusion An organization is a community of people with common interests and shared values, banded together to achieve a common goal. When people work together toward these shared goals, success follows. When organizations are torn apart by distractions that are not aligned at the core, failure follows. Building a culture of integrity not only fortifies the organization against risk, but also builds both employee engagement and strong loyalties with all stakeholders. In the long run, a positive culture of integrity is the foundation for an effective ethics and compliance program, which, when properly embedded into an organization, can create a competitive advantage and serve as a valuable organizational asset. 2 Global Human Capital Trends 2014: Engaging the 21st- century workforce, Deloitte. http://dupress.com/wp- content/uploads/2014/04/GlobalHumanCapitalTrends_2014.pdf
- 247. 66 Please contact one of our Enterprise Compliance Services leaders for more information. Nicole Sandford Partner | Deloitte Advisory National Practice Leader, Enterprise Compliance Services Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 203 708 4845 [email protected] Stamford, CT Keith Darcy Independent Senior Advisor to Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 203 905 2856 [email protected] Stamford, CT Maureen Mohlenkamp Principal | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 212 436 2199 [email protected] Stamford, CT Brian Clark Partner | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 816 802 7751 [email protected] Kansas City, MO
- 248. Laurie Eissler Director | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 313 396 3321 [email protected] Detroit, MI Nolan Haskovec Senior Manager | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 212 436 2973 [email protected] New York, NY Kevin Lane Principal | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 214 840 1577 [email protected] Dallas, TX Thomas Nicolosi Principal | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 215 405 5564 [email protected] Philadelphia, PA Holly Tucker Partner | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte Financial Advisory Services LLP +1 214 840 7432 [email protected] Dallas, TX
- 249. Additionally, feel free to reach out to our team of former compliance officers who are located across the country and experienced in a wide variety of industries. Martin Biegelman Director | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte Financial Advisory Services LLP +1 602 631 4621 [email protected] Phoenix, AZ Industry: Technology Rob Biskup Director | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte Financial Advisory Services LLP +1 313 396 3310 [email protected] Detroit, MI Industry: Consumer & Industrial Products Timothy Cercelle Director | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 216 589 5415 [email protected] Cleveland, OH Industry: Insurance Michael Fay Principal | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 617 437 3697 [email protected] Boston, MA Industry: Investment Management
- 250. Howard Friedman Director | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 713 982 3065 [email protected] Houston, TX Industry: Energy & Resources George Hanley Director | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 973 602 4928 [email protected] Parsippany, NJ Industry: Insurance Peter Reynolds Director | Deloitte Advisory Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 973 602 4111 [email protected] Parsippany, NJ Industry: Investment Management Thomas Rollauer Director | Deloitte Advisory Executive Director, Deloitte Center for Regulatory Strategies Deloitte & Touche LLP +1 212 436 4802 [email protected] New York, NY Industry: Financial Services/Banking & Securities Contacts
- 251. 7 This publication contains general information only and Deloitte is not, by means of this publication, rendering accounting, business, financial, investment, legal, tax, or other professional advice or services. This publication is not a substitute for such professional advice or services, nor should it be used as a basis for any decision or action that may affect your business. Before making any decision or taking any action that may affect your business, you should consult a qualified professional advisor. Deloitte shall not be responsible for any loss sustained by any person who relies on this document. Copyright © 2015 Deloitte Development LLC. All rights reserved. Member of Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) By JASON FERNANDO Reviewed By GORDON SCOTT Updated Feb 2, 2021 What Is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)? Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a self-regulating business model that helps a company be socially accountable —to itself, its stakeholders, and the
- 252. public. By practicing corporate social responsibility, also called corporate citizenship, companies can be conscious of the kind of impact they are having on all aspects of society, including economic, social, and environmental. To engage in CSR means that, in the ordinary course of business, a company is operating in ways that enhance society and the environment, instead of contributing negatively to them. Understanding Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Corporate social responsibility is a broad concept that can take many forms depending on the company and industry. Through CSR programs, philanthropy, and volunteer efforts, businesses can benefit society while boosting their brands. As important as CSR is for the community, it is equally valuable for a company. CSR activities can help forge a stronger bond between employees and corporations, boost morale and help both employees and employers feel more connected with the world around them. KEY TAKEAWAYS • Corporate social responsibility is important to both consumers and companies. • Starbucks is a leader in creating corporate social
- 253. responsibility programs in many aspects of its business. • Corporate responsibility programs are a great way to raise morale in the workplace. For a company to be socially responsible, it first needs to be accountable to itself and its shareholders. Often, companies that adopt CSR programs have grown their business to the point where they can give back to society. Thus, CSR is primarily a strategy of large corporations. Also, the more visible and successful a corporation is, the more responsibility it has to set standards of ethical behavior for its peers, competition, and industry. https://www.investopedia.com/contributors/53746/ https://www.investopedia.com/contributors/82594/ https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/corporatecitizenship.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/corporatecitizenship.asp Small-and-mid-sized businesses also create social responsibility programs, although their initiatives are not often as well-publicized as larger corporations. Example of Corporate Social Responsibility Starbucks has long been known for its keen sense of corporate social responsibility and commitment to sustainability and communi ty
- 254. welfare. According to the company, Starbucks has achieved many of its CSR milestones since it opened its doors. According to its 2019 Global Social Impact Report, these milestones include reaching 99% of ethically sourced coffee, creating a global network of farmers, pioneering green building throughout its stores, contributing millions of hours of community service, and creating a groundbreaking college program for its partner/employees.1 Starbucks' goals for 2020 and beyond include hiring 10,000 refugees, reducing the environmental impact of its cups, and engaging its employees in environmental leadership.1 Today there are many socially responsible companies whose brands are known for their CSR programs, such as Ben & Jerry's ice cream and Everlane, a clothing retailer.2 3 Special Considerations In 2010, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of voluntary standards meant to help companies implement corporate social responsibility. Unlike other ISO standards, ISO 26000 provides guidance rather than requirements because the nature of CSR is more qualitative than quantitative, and its standards cannot be certified.4 Instead, ISO 26000 clarifies what social responsibility is and helps organizations
- 255. translate CSR principles into practical actions. The standard is aimed at all types of organizations, regardless of their activity, size, or location. And, because many key stakeholders from around the world contributed to developing ISO 26000, this standard represents an international consensus.5 Frequently Asked Questions What is corporate social responsibility (CSR)? The term corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to practices and policies undertaken by corporations that are intended to have a positive influence on the world. The key idea behind CSR is for corporations to pursue other pro-social objectives, in addition to maximizing profits. Examples of common CSR objectives include minimizing environmental externalities, promoting volunteerism among company employees, and donating to charity. Why should a company implement CSR? https://www.investopedia.com/articles/markets/120215/if-you- had-invested-right-after-starbucks-ipo.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/international- organization-for-standardization-iso.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/externality.asp Many companies view CSR as an integral part of their brand image, believing that customers will be more likely to do business with brands that they perceive
- 256. to be more ethical. In this sense, CSR activities can be an important component of corporate public relations. At the same time, some company founders are also motivated to engage in CSR due to their personal convictions. What is the impact of CSR? The movement toward CSR has had an impact in several domains. For example, many companies have taken steps to improve the environmental sustainability of their operations, through measures such as installing renewable energy sources or purchasing carbon offsets. In managing supply chains, efforts have also been taken to eliminate reliance on unethical labor practices, such as child labor and slavery. Although CSR programs have generally been most common among large corporations, small businesses also participate in CSR through smaller- scale programs such as donating to local charities and sponsoring local events. Social Responsibility By AKHILESH GANTI Reviewed By SOMER ANDERSON Updated Dec 22, 2020 What Is Social Responsibility? Social responsibility means that businesses, in addition to maximizing shareholder value, must act in a manner that
- 257. benefits society. Social responsibility has become increasingly important to investors and consumers who seek investments that are not just profitable but also contribute to the welfare of society and the environment. However, critics argue that the basic nature of business does not consider society as a stakeholder. KEY TAKEAWAYS • Social responsibility means that businesses, in addition to maximizing shareholder value, should act in a manner that benefits society. • Socially responsible companies should adopt policies that promote the well-being of society and the environment while lessening negative impacts on them. • Companies can act responsibly in many ways, such as promoting volunteering, making changes that benefit the environment, and engaging in charitable giving. • Consumers are more actively looking to buy goods and services from socially responsible companies, hence impacting their profitability. • Critics assert that being socially responsible is the opposite of why businesses exist.
- 258. What is Corporate Social Responsibility? Understanding Social Responsibility Social responsibility means that individuals and companies have a duty to act in the best interests of their environment and society as a whole. Social responsibility, as it applies to business, is known as corporate social responsibility (CSR), and is becoming a more prominent area of focus within businesses due to shifting social norms. The crux of this theory is to enact policies that promote an ethical balance between the dual mandates of striving for profitability and benefiting society as a whole. These policies can be either ones of commission (philanthropy: donations https://www.investopedia.com/akhilesh-ganti-4590113 https://www.investopedia.com/somer-g-anderson-4799773 https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/shareholder.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/stakeholder.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/corp-social- responsibility.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/corp-social- responsibility.asp of money, time, or resources) or omission (e.g., "go green" initiatives like reducing greenhouse gases or abiding by EPA regulations to limit pollution). Many companies, such as those with "green" policies, have
- 259. made social responsibility an integral part of their business models, and they have done so without compromising profitability. In 2019, Forbes named the top 100 socially responsible companies in the world. Topping the list is the Lego Group, followed closely by Natura (NTCO), then technology giants, Microsoft (MSFT) and Google (GOOGL). At the bottom of the list in spot 100 is Starbucks (SBUX).1 Additionally, more and more investors and consumers are factoring in a company's commitment to socially responsible practices before making an investment or purchase. As such, embracing social responsibility can benefit the prime directive: maximization of shareholder value. There is a moral imperative, as well. Actions, or lack thereof, will affect future generations. Put simply, being socially responsible is just good business practice, and a failure to do so can have a deleterious effect on the balance sheet. In general, social responsibility is more effective when a company takes it on voluntarily, as opposed to being required by the government to do so through regulation. Social responsibility can boost company morale, and this is especially true when a company can engage employees with its social causes.
- 260. Social Responsibility in Practice The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) emphasizes that a business's ability to maintain a balance between pursuing economic performance and adhering to societal and environmental issues is a critical factor in operating efficiently and effectively. Social responsibility takes on different meanings within industries and companies. For example, Starbucks Corp. and Ben & Jerry's Homemade Holdings Inc. have blended social responsibility into the core of their operations. Both companies purchase Fair Trade Certified ingredients to manufacture their products and actively support sustainable farming in the regions where they source ingredients. Big-box retailer Target Corp., also well known for its social responsibility programs, has donated money to communities in which the stores operate, including education grants. The key ways a company embraces social responsibility include philanthropy, promoting volunteering, and environmental changes. Companies managing their environmental impact might look to reduce their carbon footprint and limit waste. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/businessmodel.asp https://www.investopedia.com/markets/quote?tvwidgetsymbol=n tco
- 261. https://www.investopedia.com/markets/quote?tvwidgetsymbol= msft https://www.investopedia.com/markets/quote?tvwidgetsymbol=g oogl https://www.investopedia.com/markets/quote?tvwidgetsymbol=s bux https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/international- organization-for-standardization-iso.asp There's also the social responsibility of ethical practices for employees, which can mean offering a fair wage, which arises when there are limited employee protection laws. Criticism of Social Responsibility Not everyone believes that businesses should have a social conscience. Economist Milton Friedman stated that "social responsibilities of business are notable for their analytical looseness and lack of rigor." Friedman believed that only individuals can have a sense of social responsibility. Businesses, by their very nature, cannot. Some experts believe that social responsibility defies the very point of being in business: profit above all else. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/milton-friedman.asp The Importance of Business Ethics By MELISSA HORTON
- 262. Updated Jul 1, 2020 The system of moral and ethical beliefs that guides the values, behaviors, and decisions of a business organization and the individuals within that organization is known as business ethics. Some ethical requirements for businesses are codified into law; environmental regulations, the minimum wage, and restrictions against insider trading and collusion are all examples of the government setting forth minimum standards for business ethics. What qualifies as business ethics in history has changed over time and the different areas of ethics are important to every business. Business Ethics Ethics in Leadership The management team sets the tone for how the entire company runs on a day- to-day basis. When the prevailing management philosophy is based on ethical practices and behavior, leaders within an organization can direct employees by example and guide them in making decisions that are not only beneficial to them as individuals, but also to the organization as a whole. Building on a foundation of ethical behavior helps create long-lasting positive effects for a company, including the ability to attract and retain highly talented individuals, and building
- 263. and maintaining a positive reputation within the community. Running a business in an ethical manner from the top down builds a stronger bond between individuals on the management team, further creating stability within the company. Employee Ethics When management is leading an organization in an ethical manner, employees follow in those footsteps. Employees make better decisions in less time with business ethics as a guiding principle; this increases productivity and overall employee morale. When employees complete work in a way that is based on honesty and integrity, the whole organization benefits. Employees who work for a corporation that demands a high standard of business ethics in all facets of operations are more likely to perform their job duties at a higher level and are also more inclined to stay loyal to that organization. https://www.investopedia.com/contributors/53894/ https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/business-ethics.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/collusion.asp https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/022615/how-have- business-ethics-evolved-over-time.asp https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/022615/how -have- business-ethics-evolved-over-time.asp https://www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/0113/how- corporate-culture-affects-your-bottom-line.aspx https://www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/0113/how-
- 264. corporate-culture-affects-your-bottom-line.aspx Ethics Vary by Industry Business ethics differ from industry to industry, and nation to nation. The nature of a business's operations has a major influence on the ethical issues with which it must contend. For example, an ethical quandary arises for an investment brokerage when the best decision for a client and their money does not coincide with what pays the brokerage the highest commission. A media company that produces TV content aimed at children may feel an ethical obligation to promote good values and eschew off-color material in its programming. A striking example of industry-specific business ethics is in the energy field. Companies that produce energy, particularly nonrenewable energy, face unrelenting scrutiny on how they treat the environment. One misstep—whether it is a minor coal ash spill at a power plant or a major disaster such as the 2010 BP (BP) oil spill—forces a company to answer to numerous regulatory bodies and society at large regarding whether it skirted its duty to protect the environment in an aggressive pursuit of higher profits. A stringent, clearly defined system of environmental ethics is paramount for an
- 265. energy company if it wants to thrive in a climate of increased regulations and public awareness on environmental issues. Companies such as Amazon (AMZN) and Google (GOOGL), which conduct most of their operations online, are not scrutinized for their environmental impact the way energy companies such as BP and Exxon (XOM) are. When it comes to protecting their customers' privacy and security, however, their ethics are examined very closely. A particular area in which technology companies must make tough ethical decisions is marketing. Advancements in data mining technology enable businesses to track their customers' movements online and sell that data to marketing companies or use it to match customers with advertising promotions. Many people view this type of activity as a major invasion of privacy. However, such customer data is invaluable to businesses, as they can use it to increase profits substantially. Thus, an ethical dilemma is born: To what extent is it appropriate to spy on customers' online lives to gain a marketing advantage? Benefits of Business Ethics The importance of business ethics reaches far beyond employee loyalty and morale or the strength of a management team bond. As with all
- 266. business https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/040715/how-do- business-ethics-differ-among-various-countries.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/brokerage-company.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/nonrenewableresource.as p https://www.investopedia.com/markets/quo te?tvwidgetsymbol=b p https://www.investopedia.com/markets/quote?tvwidgetsymbol=a mzn https://www.investopedia.com/markets/quote?tvwidgetsymbol=g oogl https://www.investopedia.com/markets/quote?tvwidgetsymbol=x om https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/datamining.asp initiatives, the ethical operation of a company is directly related to profitability in both the short and long term. The reputation of a business in the surrounding community, other businesses, and individual investors is paramount in determining whether a company is a worthwhile investment. If a company is perceived to not operate ethically, investors are less inclined to buy stock or otherwise support its operations. Companies have more and more of an incentive to be ethical as the area of socially responsible and ethical investing keeps growing. The increasing number of investors seeking out ethically operating companies
- 267. to invest in is driving more firms to take this issue more seriously. The Bottom Line With consistent ethical behavior comes an increasingly positive public image, and there are few other considerations as important to potential investors and current shareholders. To retain a positive image, businesses must be committed to operating on an ethical foundation as it relates to the treatment of employees, respecting the surrounding environment, and fair market practices in terms of price and consumer treatment. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/reputational-risk.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/socialresponsibility.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/ethical-investing.asp https://www.investopedia.com/articles/basics/13/ethics-of- investing.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/shareholder.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/environmental-social- and-governance-esg-criteria.asp Ethics Explored What is meant by “ethics”? Ethics is the study of the standards of right and wrong that inform us as to how we
- 268. ought to behave. These standards relate to unwritten rules that are necessary for humans to live among each other, such as “don’t hurt others.” We function better as a society when we treat each other well. Ethics can also refer to the standards themselves. They often pertain to rights, obligations, fairness, responsibilities, and specific virtues like honesty and loyalty. They are supported by consistent and well-founded reasons; as such, they have universal appeal. It’s never good to have a society that supports hurting others as a general rule; honesty and loyalty are positive attributes. Can we think of instances when hurting others is condoned (such as in war) and where honesty or loyalty may be misplaced? Of course! That’s one of the reasons why ethics are so complicated, and what makes Core 202 such an interesting class. What is not “ethics”? We need to distinguish ethics from what it is not. It’s easier if you can remember that ethics doesn’t change: ethical standards (don’t hurt others=don’t commit homicide) but it also usually reflects our cultural beliefs at the time. For example, hunting is legal in Virginia,
- 269. but it would be difficult to say that everyone agrees that it is ethical to hunt. Some people will argue that hunting is ethical because it manages the wildlife population, while others will argue that it is never ethical because it creates pain and suffering. are very egocentric: what’s best for me and my nearest and dearest? But making judgments based on these sentiments could be detrimental to society as a whole, and you may personally use religion to guide your beliefs, but people can have ethics without necessarily belonging to a religion. Therefore, ethics and religion are not interchangeable. your values and offer ethical arguments to supports its policies, but your decisions aren’t automatically ethical, just because you belong to one political party or another. In fact, many, if not most, political debates are built from arguments that claim one aspect of an ethical dilemma is more significant than another. What does it mean to be ethical?
- 270. When we explore what it means to be ethical, we are looking at what is rationally “right” and “wrong.” We need to have such conversations so that we can live with other people in society. Philosophers would also argue that the best way to achieve our fullest potential is by being ethical. In this course, we are not teaching you what to believe. We are building on the skills you learned in Core 201 to identify, evaluate, create and analyze ethical arguments. Do “ethical” and “moral” mean the same thing? For the purposes of this Handbook, the answer is ‘yes’. The terms ethical and moral are often used as synonyms, and we will adopt this convention and use these terms interchangeably. For most purposes this works fine, but some authors and teachers do see a distinction between these ideas. Usually when the terms are distinguished it is because “morals” can connote very culture-specific norms or expectations. Hence “the mores of the Azande” describes the moral norms of that particular tribe or culture, but without expectation that these norms are universally valid. When “ethics” is contrasted with “morals,” the writer is usually discussing certain normative ethical theories that maintain that certain principles, rules, or virtues have universal ethical validity. A slightly more comprehensive
- 271. answer would describe the difference; say from an ethical relativist positions definition, as hinging on ethical standards being subjected to the scrutiny of reason or rational ity as its fundamental method. What are values? Frequently when used in discussions of ethics the term values is used to refer to the fundamental ideals that an individual relies on to describe praise-worthy behavior. A person’s values are the bedrock concepts used to determine their ethical decisions. Most generally speaking values represent aspirational goals common within your culture or society. Values such as honesty, benevolence, wisdom, duty, or compassion are universally recognized laudable and desirable features of a well-developed character. But which values are most important may differ from individual to individual, or across cultures. We could refer to the values of the feudal Japanese samurai culture placing the highest emphasis on the concept of personal honor. We could compare and contrast that with the European knightly virtues as a similar yet distinctively different set of cultural values. We could draw on political beliefs to describe the concepts of equality and freedom at the heart of democratic ideals, contrasting them with a constitutional
- 272. monarchy that perhaps places the highest importance on duty and tradition as its central political ideals What are some examples of ethical issues? Ethical issues abound in contemporary society. Ethical issues involve questions of the ethical rightness or wrongness of public policy or personal behavior. Actions or policies that affect other people always have an ethical dimension, but while some people restrict ethical issues to actions that can help or harm others (social ethics) others include personal and self-regarding conduct (personal ethics). Many of today’s most pressing issues of social ethics are complex and multifaceted and require clear and careful thought. Some of these issues include: -assisted suicide? punishment? -called victimless crimes like drug use, not wearing a helmet or a seatbelt, etc.?
- 273. prevent starvation, malnutrition, and poverty wherever we find them in the world? To reach careful conclusions, these public policy issues require people to engage in complicated ethical reasoning, but the ethical reasoning involving personal issues can be just as complex and multifaceted: their behavior and choices as I have of myself? call living well or happily? How can I effectively apply critical reasoning to an ethical issue? People care quite a bit about ethical issues and often voice varied and even sharply opposed perspectives. So when looking at how we debate ethical issues publicly, it is not surprising to find debate ranging from formal to informal argumentation, and from
- 274. very carefully constructed arguments with well-qualified conclusions, to very biased positions and quite fallacious forms of persuasion. It’s easy to be dismayed by the discord we find over volatile issues like gun control, immigration policy, and equality in marriage or in the workplace, gender and race equality, abortion and birth control, jobs versus environment, freedom versus security, free speech and censorship, and so on. But it is also easy to go the other direction and be drawn into the often fallacious reasoning we hear all around us. Critical thinkers want to conduct civil, respectful discourse, and to build bridges in ways that allow progress to be made on difficult issues of common concern. Progress and mutual understanding is not possible when name-calling, inflammatory language, and fallacies are the norm. Some mutual respect, together with the skill of being able to offer a clearly-structured argument for one’s position, undercuts the need to resort to such tactics. So critical thinkers resist trading fallacy for fal lacy, and try to introduce common ground that can help resolve disputes by remaining respectful of differences, even about issues personally quite important to them. When we support a thesis (such as a position on one of the above ethical issues) with a clear and well-structured argument, we allow and invite others to engage with us in more constructive fashion. We say essentially, “Here is my thesis and here are my reasons for
- 275. holding it. If you don’t agree with my claim, then show me what is wrong with my argument, and I will reconsider my view, as any rational person should.” When I debate ethical issues, what is my responsibility to people who are part of the dialogue? When we evaluate (analyze) somebody else’s position on an ethical issue, we are not free to simply reject out-of-hand a conclusion we don’t initially agree with. To be reasonable, we must accept the burden of showing where the other person errs in his facts or reasoning. If we cannot show that there are errors in the person’s facts or reasoning, to be reasonable we must reconsider whether we should reject the other person’s conclusion. By applying the common standards of critical thinking to our reasoning about ethical issues, our arguments will become less emotionally driven and more rational. Our reasoning will become less dependent upon unquestioned beliefs or assumptions that the other people in the conversation may not accept. We become better able to contribute to progressive public debate and conflict resoluti on through a well-developed ability to articulate a well-reasoned position on an ethical issue. What are ethical judgments?
- 276. Ethical judgments are a subclass of value judgments. A value judgment involves an argument as to what is correct, superior, or preferable. In the case of ethics, the value judgment involves making a judgment, claim, or statement about whether an action is morally right or wrong or whether a person’s motives are morally good or bad. Ethical judgments often prescribe as well as evaluate actions, so that to state that someone (or perhaps everyone) ethically “should” or “ought to” do something is also to make an ethical judgment. How can I distinguish ethical judgments from other kinds of value judgments? If ethical judgments are a subclass of value judgments, how do we distinguish them? Ethical judgments typically state that some action is good or bad, or right or wrong, in a specifically ethical sense. It is usually not difficult to distinguish non-ethical judgments of goodness and badness from ethical ones. When someone says “That was a good action, because it was caring,” or “That was bad action, because it was cruel” they are clearly intending goodness or badness in a distinctly ethical sense.
- 277. By contrast, non-moral value judgments typically say that something is good (or bad) simply for the kind of thing it is; or that some action is right or wrong, given the practical goal or purpose that one has in mind. “That’s a good car” or “That’s a bad bike” would not be considered to moral judgments about those objects. Goodness and badness here are still value judgments, but value judgments that likely track features like comfort, styling, reliability, safety and mileage ratings, etc. The use of “should” or “ought to” for non-moral value judgments is also easy to recognize. “You ought to enroll early” or “You made the right decision to go to Radford” are value-judgments, but no one would say they are ethical judgments. They reflect a concern with wholly practical aims rather than ethical ones and with the best way to attain those practical aims. What are ethical arguments? Ethical arguments are arguments whose conclusion makes an ethical judgment. Ethical arguments are most typically arguments that try to show a certain policy or behavior to be either ethical or unethical. Suppose you want to argue that “The death penalty is unjust (or just) punishment” for a certain range of violent crimes. Here we have an ethical judgment, and one that with a bit more detail could serve as the thesis of a position paper on the death penalty debate.
- 278. An ethical judgment rises above mere opinion and becomes the conclusion of an ethical argument when you support it with ethical reasoning. You must say why you hold the death penalty to be ethically right or wrong, just or unjust. For instance, you might argue that it is unjust because of one or more of the reasons below: spects human life. racial group. people. Of course you could also give reasons to support the view that the death penalty is a just punishment for certain crimes. The point is that whichever side of the debate you take, your ethical argument should develop ethical reasons and principles rather than economic or other practical but non-moral concerns. To argue merely that the death penalty be abolished because that would save us all money is a possible policy- position, but it is essentially an economic argument rather than an ethical argument.
- 279. What is an ethical dilemma? An ethical dilemma is a term for a situation in which a person faces an ethically problematic situation and is not sure of what she ought to do. Those who experience ethical dilemmas feel themselves being pulled by competing ethical demands or values and perhaps feel that they will be blameworthy or experi ence guilt no matter what course of action they take. The philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre gives the example of a young Frenchman of military age during the wartime Nazi occupation who finds himself faced, through no fault of his own, with the choice of staying home and caring for his ailing mother or going off to join the resistance to fight for his country’s future: He fully realized that this woman lived only for him and that his disappearance – or perhaps his death – would plunge her into despair…. Consequently, he found himself confronted by two very different modes of action; the one concrete, immediate, but directed towards only one individual; and the other an action addressed to an end infinitely greater, a national collectivity, but for that very reason ambiguous – and it might be frustrated on the way. (Sartre, 1977) What is the role of values in ethical dilemmas?
- 280. Frequently, ethical dilemmas are fundamentally a clash of values. We may experience a sense of frustration trying to figure out what the ‘right’ thing to do is because any available course of action violates some value that we are dedicated to. For example, let’s say you are taking a class with a good friend and sitting next to him one day during a quiz you discover him copying answers from a third student. Now you are forced into an ethical decision embodied by two important values common to your society. Those values are honesty and loyalty. Do you act dishonestly and preserve your friend’s secret or do you act disloyal and turn them in for academic fraud? Awareness of the underlying values at play in an ethical conflict can act as a powerful method to clarify the issues involved. We should also be aware of the use of value as a verb in the ethical sense. Certainly what we choose to value more or less will play a very significant role in the process of differentiating between outcomes and actions thereby determining what exactly we should do. Literature and film are full of ethical dilemmas, as they allow us to reflect on the human struggle as well as presenting tests of individual character. For example in World War Z, Gerry Lane (played by Brad Pitt in the movie version) has to make a similar choice as Sartre’s Frenchman: between serving the world-community of humans in their just war
- 281. against Zombies, and serving his own immediate family. It adds depth and substance to the character to see him struggling with this choice over the right thing to do. What ethical dilemmas are more common in real life? Rarely are we called on to fight zombies or Nazis, but that doesn’t mean we live in an ethically easy world. If you’ve ever felt yourself pulled between two moral choices, you’ve faced an ethical dilemma. Often we make our choice based on which value we prize more highly. Some examples: -away college, but that would mean leaving your family, to whom you are very close. Values: success/future achievements/excitement vs. family/love/safety nds with Jane, who is dating Bill. Jane confides in you that she’d been seeing Joe on the side but begs you not to tell Bill. Bill then asks you if Jane has ever cheated on him. Values: Friendship/loyalty vs. Truth Tywin. You find out that Tywin has been leaving work early and asking his co-workers to clock him out on time. You intend to fire Tywin, but then you find out that he’s been leaving early because he needs to pick up his child from daycare. Values: Justice vs. Mercy
- 282. You could probably make a compelling argument for either side for each of the above. That’s what makes ethical dilemmas so difficult (or interesting, if you’re not directly involved!) What is an ethical violation? Sometimes we are confronted with situations in which we are torn between a right and a wrong; we know what the right thing to do would be, but the wrong is personally beneficial, tempting, or much easier to do. In 2010, Ohio State University football coach Jim Tressel discovered that some of his players were violating NCAA rules. He did not report it to anyone, as it would lead to suspensions, hurting the football team’s chances of winning. He was not torn between two moral choices; he knew what he should do, but didn’t want to jeopardize his career. In 2011, Tressel’s unethical behavior became public, OSU had to void its wins for the year, and he resigned as coach. Ethics experts tend to think that ethical considerations should always trump personal or self-interested ones and that to resist following one’s personal desires is a matter of having the right motivation and the strength of will to repel temptation. One way to strengthen your “ethics muscles” is to become familiar with the
- 283. ways we try to excuse or dismiss unethical actions. How does self-interest affect people’s ethical choices? In a perfect world, morality and happiness would always align: living ethically and living well wouldn’t collide because living virtuously—being honest, trustworthy, caring, etc.— would provide the deepest human happiness and would best allow humans to flourish. Some would say, however, that we do not live in a perfect world, and that our society entices us to think of happiness in terms of status and material possessions at the cost of principles. Some even claim that all persons act exclusively out of self-interest—that is, out of psychological egoism—and that genuine concern for the well-being of others—altruism—is impossible. As you explore an ethical issue, consider whether people making choices within the context of the issue are acting altruistically or out of self-interest. What is the difference between good ethical reasoning and mere rationalization? When pressed to justify their choices, people may try to evade responsibility and to justify decisions that may be unethical but that serve their self- interest. People are amazingly good at passing the buck in this fashion, yet pretty poor at recognizing and admitting that they are doing so. When a person is said to be
- 284. rationalizing his actions and choices, this doesn’t mean he is applying critical thinking, or what we have described as ethical analysis. Quite the opposite: it means that he is trying to convince others—or often just himself—using reasons that he should be able to recognize as faulty or poor reasons. Perhaps the most common rationalization of unethical action has come to be called the Nuremberg Defense: ‘I was just doing what I was told to do— following orders or the example of my superior. So blame them and exonerate me.’ This defense was used by Nazi officials during the Nuremberg trials after World War II in order to rationalize behavior such as participation in the administration of concentration camps. This rationalization didn’t work then, and it doesn’t work now. Defining an “Ethical Dilemma;” Distinguishing Facts from Ethical Issues; Legal Issues from Ethical Issues Identifying ethical and legal issues can be a bit tricky at first, but we will do it in each week. It is the essence of the course, of business ethics and of ethical decision making in
- 285. business. Let‘s begin with the easiest definition: Legal issues A legal issue arises when the law of a given jurisdiction—city, county, state, country—has something to say about the legal permissibility or legal consequence of a course of action. For example: There are federal laws that restrict the amount of CO2 emissions that a Foundry can send into the air. Thus, when considering what sort of pollution control devices a Foundry will install, the legal issue of compliance with this law arises. There are federal and state laws that prescribe the minimum wage that can be paid workers. [state minimum wages are often higher than the federal minimum wage]. Thus, in deciding how much to pay workers who are covered by these laws, the legal issue of compliance is raised. Law is passed by legislative or administrative bodies or it is announced by judges in specific court decisions. The courts and executive authorities, such as the police, are
- 286. charged with enforcing the law, whether by awarding damages to a civil plaintiff, or imposing fines or incarceration on those violating criminal laws. Now we should note that many laws enjoy widespread approval, as appropriate restrictions on behavior. Included in these would be laws prohibiting murder, rape, robbery, etc. Others may be questioned by some citizens, such as laws that restrict gun ownership, or laws that require us to pay income taxes. The point is that laws are the product of the conscious actions of people, usually government officials like Congresspersons, senators and judges. Why are laws important to business decision-makers? There are several possible answers. 1, If the business is found to have violated the law, it will have to pay fines, and sometimes, its managers may face criminal penalties. This is an important downside of breaking the law.
- 287. Of course, a business can ―get away with‖ violating the law. 2. The law may codify an important moral restraint on the business, as is the case with anti-pollution laws, which are aimed at minimizing the environmental damage of business operations. That is, a manager may agree with the law, inasmuch as he recognizes a responsibility to safeguard the environment. 3. Consumers may regard the law as important, and withdraw their patronage if they learn of the illegal/unethical behavior of the business. Contrasting Morality or Ethics with Law However one defines morality or ethics, it is clear that compliance with law, even if ethically significant, does not necessarily satisfy all ethical or moral requirements. A simple example: The law may require a foundry to limit the amount of a cancer - causing chemical it uses in production that is flushed into nearby waterways. Meeting this standard is all the law requires. But if a number of downstream inhabitants still face
- 288. significantly greater risk of cancer, an ethical issue arises: Is it ethically or morally permissible to run the business in such a way as to create a significantly increased risk of cancer in ―innocent‖ homeowners? For both individuals and businesses, morality may require more than law. There is no law, for example, prohibiting lying to your spouse, or being unkind to your neighbor. An ethical issue is one that is reflected in actions, conduct in various situations, such as how we treat one another (and, some would say, animals and the environment). For example, do our actions reflect the ethical issues of respect for others, show concern for others, show honesty, show dishonesty, show manipulation, etc.? You will be reading about a number of different ―ethical theories‖ in this class. Ethical theories can help us analyze situations and problems and thus, help us make decisions about ethical dilemmas, about how to act in certain situations, about how to resolve ethical problems. All decisions need to be justified and explained. For example, if a CEO decides
- 289. to close a plant, the CEO has to justify and explain this decision to the Board of Directors, shareholders. The CEO cannot just say, "I am closing a plant because I think it is best." There has to be detailed justification for this plant closing - and justification for all decisions we make as individuals and companies. For example, one theory you will study is Utilitarianism which, simply, is a consequences- based theory that guides ethical behavior by examining all possible negative and positive consequences of a given decision/action. If a CEO has to decision whether to close a plant that is not profitable, the CEO can consider applying Utilitarianism and thus, examining all possible consequences and choosing the decision that has the most positive consequence for the greatest number of affected people or groups. The CEO knows closing an unprofitable plant will result in short term loss of jobs and loss of income for the community - these are 2 consequences. On the other hand the
- 290. CEO knows if the unprofitable plant remains open, while there will be no short term loss of jobs or loss of community income, in the long term as costs will continue to rise, profits will continue to drop and this may have far-reaching impact on the entire company and all its internal and external stakeholders and likely will ultimately result in the company having to lay off more employees, close more than 1 plant, loss of revenue for investors and shareholders, loss of market share, etc. SO, the CEO may decide, by applying Utilitarianism, that the decision to close 1 plant now will have less negative consequences in the long term, and will be better for the greatest number of employees and other stakeholders in the long term. Thus, the CEO can use Utilitarianism to justify the decision to close 1 plant now. Each theory can help us decide what action is ethical, and best under the circumstances. Not all theories will result in agreement in a decision or what is "right", some theories will conflict with each another. For example, if the CEO in the
- 291. above example applies Utilitarianism and Egoism theories to help make the plant closing decision, the 2 theories may not guide the decision in the same direction; they may conflict, but the CEO has to decide which theory most logically and clearly justifies the decision. Theories can help us recognize what is ethical conduct in a given situation; theories can help us make decisions that are ethical, lawful and justifiable. Theories can guide and restrict our behavior in various situations. Distinguishing Facts from Ethical Issues Suppose we pay our workers no more than the minimum wage, when they work in dangerous difficult jobs that require some skill; we are a profitable business; and that wage keeps our employees below the poverty level. Suppose also that 80% of the employees must use food stamps and Medicaid to get by on this wage. These are the facts. There are no normative judgments here, no ―oughts‖ no assertion of rights. These are all facts.
- 292. The ethical issue, however, is the underlying ethical/moral value that is reflected in the facts and actions of someone or some group or some organization. For example, if a company does not pay adequate wages or provide a safe working environment, what does this tell us about the company's ethical/moral values? What is unethical about the company's conduct? What is "wrong" with the action of the company? The answer is the company's conduct shows no respect for employees' welfare (an underlying ethical issue), lack of concern for the safety of workers (an underlying ethical issue), unfairness to workers (an underlying ethical issue), and perhaps even suggests greed (an underlying ethical issue). All these are underlying ethical issues reflected by the company's conduct. Another example: A told B that A would babysit B's children while B went to a job interview. A did not show
- 293. up to babysit. These are facts. Was it right to have made and broken the promise? What does this action of not keeping the promise to babysit say about A's ethical/moral values? What is unethical/"wrong" about breaking the promise? This action of not showing up as promised suggests the underlying ethical issues of lack of concern for a friend's needs, or lack of integrity, or lack of respect for a friend, lack of honor in keeping promises, etc. These are underlying ethical issues related to the action of not keeping a promise to show up and babysit for a friend. Comments re: Ethical Issues Ethical Issues: and legal issues) and show the ethical values reflected in actions; dishonesty, trust, etc, or in brief phrases, i.e., lack of full disclosure, lack of respect for others' safety,
- 294. respect for others' needs, etc.; positive (i.e., honesty, respect, concern for others' safety, etc.); ‗unethical' or ‗wrong‘ with X's actions?", or "Why is C's conduct unethical?" etc.; many, but the list is not endless – many of the same ethical issues arise repeatedly in business; case scenario, etc.; from facts. Ethical Dilemmas An ethical dilemma (for a business) may be defined as a multi - faceted problem a company faces, which is described in an either/or statement that defines options open to a company to resolve an ethical problem; the either / or statement
- 295. also include possible consequences of each option. Virtually all options have ethical and business consequences. Business consequences, which are understood in terms of the best interests of the business, include those related to profits, reputation, public image, shareholder value. Ethical consequences or factors may include whether compensation is fair to employees, advertisements are truthful, promises or contracts are broken, misfortune or disadvantage is exploited, harm is visited on individuals, including stakeholders, or on the broader society. Dilemmas typically start with the need to make a decision on whether to react to the ethical concerns that have arisen, or not. That is probably the only point at which they are truly ―either/or‖ decisions: Do we keep things as they are and ignore the problem, or look to a feasible way to resolve it (always with a view to our other responsibilities, such as maintaining share value, and considering all other stakeholders‘)?
- 296. Then, unless action is rejected, the decision becomes more complicated, and a number of further choices would need to be made. Example: Hypothetical Scenario: Co. A was founded in Baltimore, MD in 1923. In 1924, Co. A began to manufacture sugar cookies. The company continued to grow, expand its manufacturing operations until, in 1945, Co. A "went public" and sold its stock on the NYSE for $10/per share. The value of the stock has increased to a value of $100/per share in 2012. In 2011, Co. A stated in its annual financial report to stockholders that its 2011 profit was $5 million, when in fact its profit was only $3 million. This error was a typo, and not an intentional fraudulent act. The new CEO has discovered this falsification and is concerned about ethical and legal implications. General Facts: underlined above. These facts are generally relevant to the company but not relevant to any ethical issues related to Co. A. Relevant Facts (relevant to ethical issues): in italics above. These facts are directly related to, and relevant to ethical dilemmas and issues. To determine the precise ethical
- 297. issue, ask what ethical concerns/ issues are raised by these facts. Ethical Dilemma: Essentially, A can either do nothing or publish an accurate report. The ethical dilemma can be described as: Co. A can EITHER do nothing and risk the error being discovered causing negative public relations with consumers and shareholders, and possibly causing legal action OR Co A can publish a revised, accurate financial report and risk some short- term negative reaction from consumers and shareholders but avoid legal action and long term negative reaction by being honest. Possible consequents/Resolutions: othing, and risk that the false report will be discovered. The possible effects will be that this would likely result in negative publicity, backlash from shareholders and possible legal investigation/charges. Either the truth will become
- 298. known or it will not. If it is not found out, then, for the time being, each major stakeholder category—employees, shareholders. Customers and communities-- would be unaffected. If it does become known however, every major stakeholder will suffer. Costs will be incurred to deal with legal claims so that share value may fall and future R&D would be less well funded. Production may have to be cut back, which affects employee job security and the community. Similarly, the price to be paid for negative publicity will also affect these stakeholders in the same way. responsibility for the inadvertent error. The effects will be…………….. announcement, apologizing for the error. The effects will be…………….. announcement, apologizing for
- 299. the error, and laying out compensation that may be appropriate, for those provably harmed. The effects will be…………….. addresses the ethical issue, and it can also implement tighter auditing. The effects will be…………… Thus, when dealing with the ethical issue of a failure of disclosure to those who have a right to accurate information, there can be many alternative resolutions. Ethical Issues related to this Dilemma 1. If Co. A does nothing and does not report the error in its financial report, what is unethical/wrong with this action? The answer is underlying ethical issues reflected in this conduct that could include dishonesty, lack of full disclosure, fairness, lack of respect or concern for shareholders, lack of respect for law, lack of respect for shareholders' right to know the financial status of Company A,
- 300. lack of concern for welfare of Company A, trust, distrust, lack of accountability for its actions, etc. 2. If Co. A does reveal the error and correct it with accurate financial information, underlying ethical issues reflected in this conduct are honesty, fairness, full disclosure, trust, respect for shareholders' rights, respect for consumers, concern for the welfare of Company A, trust, accountability for its actions, respect for legal regulations related to financial reporting of public companies, etc. Thus, when dealing with the ethical issue of a failure of disclosure to those who have a right to accurate information, there can be many alternative resolutions. BMGT 496 - Week 1 CitationsBibliographyChapter1_WhatIsBusinessEthicsStructure BookmarksChapter 1: What Is Business Ethics?Chapter 1: What Is Business Ethics?Chapter 1: What Is Business Ethics?Chapter 1: What Is Business Ethics? from The Business Ethics Workshop was adapted by Saylor Academy and is available
- 301. under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license without attribution as requested by the work's original creator or licensor. Deloitte - Corporate CultureThe Importance of Business EthicsThe Importance of Business EthicsBusiness EthicsEthics in LeadershipEmployee EthicsEthics Vary by IndustryBenefits of Business EthicsThe Bottom LineIntro to Ethics - Ch 1 Ethics ExploredEthical Issues Dilemmas Legal Issues1The Firm's StakeholdersADP4EDE.tmpBibliographySocial Responsibility.pdfSocial ResponsibilityWhat Is Social Responsibility?KEY TAKEAWAYSWhat is Corporate Social Responsibility?Understanding Social ResponsibilitySocial Responsibility in PracticeCriticism of Social ResponsibilityCorporate Social Responsibility (CSR).pdfCorporate Social Responsibility (CSR)What Is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)?Understanding Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)KEY TAKEAWAYSExample of Corporate Social ResponsibilitySpecial ConsiderationsFrequently Asked QuestionsWhat is corporate social responsibility (CSR)?Why should a company implement CSR?What is the impact of CSR?BMGT 496 - Week 1 Citations.pdfBibliography BMGT 496 - Week 7 Citations (AJ+, 2016) (Barrabi, 2019) (Brusseau, 2012)
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- 303. FOX News: https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/starbucks-serves-up-new- employee- benefits-to-lure-workers-in-hot-us-job- market?utm_source=morning_brew Brusseau, J. (2012). Chapter 14: The Green Office: Economics and the Environment. In The Business Ethics Workshop (pp. 627-664). Washington, DC: Saylor Academy. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from https://learn.umgc.edu/d2l/le/content/566199/viewContent/2037 9490/View Clelland, I. J., Dean, T. J., & Douglas, T. J. (2000, May). Stepping Towards Sustainable Business: An Evaluation of Waste Minimization Practices in US Manufacturing. Sustainable Business, 30(3), 107-124. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/25062601 Cramer, M. (2020, March 1). Baristas at Starbucks Accuse Service Company of Abuse and Pay Gaps. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/business/starbucks- discrimination- race.html Derouin, S. (2019, November 6). Deforestation: Facts, Causes & Effects. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from Live Science: https://www.livescience.com/27692- deforestation.html
- 304. Fáilte Ireland. (n.d.). Environmental Sustainability in Business. Dublin: NSW Trade & Investment. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from https://www.failteireland.ie/FailteIreland/media/WebsiteStructu re/Documents/2 _Develop_Your_Business/1_StartGrow_Your_Business/Environ mental- Sustainability-in-Business-BT-ESB-C9-0913-4.pdf Grant, K. (2019, May 22). Time's Up Comes for McDonald's. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from Morning Brew: https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s- comes-mcdonald-s?utm_source=morning_brew Oosthoek, J. (2014, January 23). What is Environmental History? YouTube. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KkFdDPBbn20 Perdue Farms announces animal care changes. (2017, July 17). Retrieved April 27, 2021, from Feedstuffs: https://www.feedstuffs.com/news/perdue- farms-announces- animal-care-changes Stone, J. (2017, February 23). Fracking Is Dangerous To Your Health -- Here's Why. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from Forbes: https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/23/fracking-is- dangerous-to- your-health-heres-why/?sh=6e38b6605945 Svensson, G., Wood, G., & Callaghan, M. (2010, October). A corporate model of sustainable business practices: An ethical perspectiv. Journal of
- 305. World Business, 45(4), 336-345. doi:doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2009.08.005 The needs of 7 billion people…. (2021). Retrieved April 27, 2021, from The World Counts: https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Depletion-of-Natural- Resources Toomey, D. (2012, May 23). Global Scarcity: Scramble for Dwindling Natural Resource. Retrieved April 27, 2021, from Yale Environment 360: https://e360.yale.edu/features/global_scarcity_scramble_for_dw indling_natural_ resources What are environmental ethics and What's your role in Saving Nature? (2008, August 11). Retrieved April 26, 2021, from Help Save Nature: https://helpsavenature.com/what-is-environmental-ethics Zhou, Y. M. (2017, May 18). When some US firms move production overseas, they also offshore their pollution. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from The Conversation: https://theconversation.com/when-some-us-firms-move- production-overseas- they-also-offshore-their-pollution-75371
- 306. 4/22/2021 Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market | Fox Business https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/starbucks-serves-up-new- employee-benefits-to-lure-workers-in-hot-us-job- market?utm_source=morning_br… 1/5 STARBUCKS Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market By Thomas Barrabi FOXBusiness Starbucks is rolling out a suite of employee bene�ts as it looks to lure workers despite a tight labor market, a growing �eld of aggressive coffeehouse competitors and the fallout from high-pro�le incidents at stores in Philadelphia and Tempe, Arizona. The perks were announced this week at a leadership summit in Chicago for Starbucks executives and more than 12,000 store managers from the U.S. and Canada. New initiatives include mental health resources for employees, ride- share options to help workers get home safely and technological developments that will streamline or automate time-consuming tasks like inventory management and scheduling. A strong, happy workforce – and effective outreach to the U.S. job candidate pool – is critical to Starbucks’ plans to open more than 600 net new
- 307. stores in the Americas in �scal 2019 alone. The U.S. unemployment held near record lows at just 3.7 percent through August. A longtime leader among coffee chains, Starbucks is facing stiff competition from smaller local chains of high-end coffee shops as well as corporate rivals such as McDonald’s and Dunkin’ Brands. By using this site, you agree to our Privacy Policy and our Terms of Use. Published September 6, 2019· MORE ON THIS STARBUCKS TO OPEN WORLD'S LARGEST LOCATION IN CHICAGO BUFFALO WILD WINGS TACKLES SPORTS BETTING WITH MGM RESORTS DEAL Login Watch TV https://www.foxbusiness.com/category/starbucks https://www.foxbusiness.com/person/b/thomas-barrabi http://www.foxbusiness.com/index.html http://www.foxbusiness.com/category/starbucks http://www.foxbusiness.com/category/jobs https://www.foxbusiness.com/privacy-policy https://www.foxbusiness.com/terms-of-use https://foxbusiness.com/small-business/starbucks-to-open- worlds-largest-location-in-chicago https://foxbusiness.com/features/buffalo-wild-wings-sports- betting-mgm https://video.foxbusiness.com/v/5614626175001/#sp=watch-live
- 308. 4/22/2021 Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market | Fox Business https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/starbucks-serves-up-new- employee-benefits-to-lure-workers-in-hot-us-job- market?utm_source=morning_br… 2/5 “We’ve always listened to our partners, so it’s just a chance for us to evolve that. I think it’s really important right now in this competitive environment that we do our very best,” Starbucks Chief Operating O�cer Roz Brewer told FOX Business. “We think we’re known for having great relationships with our partners, but we don’t really want to rest there, because they’re critical to us.” The new policies were developed in response to speci �c feedback Starbucks received from store managers, employees and tech-based monitoring of store ine�ciencies. Current plans call for the automation or elimination of 17 hours of tasks. Store managers will no longer have to double-check inventory, coordinate deliveries or set up three weeks of schedules for 25 employees by hand. Confrontations at the Philadelphia and Tempe stores complicated community outreach efforts and forced the company to rethink employee training. However, company o�cials say the policy changes are tied to a close study of internal operations that began two years ago.
- 309. Starbucks CEO Kevin Johnson meets with employees at a leadership summit in Chicago (Photo courtesy of Starbucks) “Through strategic, long-term investments in labor hours, training, and streamlining tasks and processes critical to running a store, we will work to alleviate some of the pressure and stress that often limits our store managers to lead and grow,” Starbucks CEO Kevin Johnson said in a letter to company employees. A new approach to the mental health crisis is core to the company’s efforts. In Chicago, store managers will take part in training sessions with clinical psychologists to learn “emotional �rst aid” and other ways of helping their employees. Starbucks is also set to offer subscriptions to mental health app “Headspace” by January. Moving forward after Philadelphia, Tempe Though fostering relations with customers in tight-knit communities has always been core to Starbucks’ business model, company policies have faced unprecedented 4/22/2021 Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market | Fox Business https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/starbucks-serves-up-new- employee-benefits-to-lure-workers-in-hot-us-job-
- 310. market?utm_source=morning_br… 3/5 scrutiny over the last 18 months. The trouble began in May 2018, when two black men, Donte Robinson and Rashon Nelson, were arrested at a Starbucks store in Philadelphia after store employees called police because the two men, who were waiting for a friend, had stayed inside without making a purchase. The incident sparked a national outcry and led Starbucks to take the unprecedented step of closing all of its more than 8,000 U.S. store locations for employee racial bias and sensitivity training. The sessions lasted for four hours and included 175,000 employees across the country. In July, Starbucks drew renewed criticism after an employee in Tempe, Arizona, asked six police o�cers, some of whom were military veterans, to leave the store. Starbucks issued a formal apology for the action, which executive vice president Rossann Williams called “completely unacceptable.” Brewer said the two incidents served as a “wake-up call” for Starbucks executives and informed how the company has trained employees in the days since. “Part of the work we realized is that our store manager needs to know what community they’re in and how they need to service any issues in those communities – because those issues come inside the store – in addition to creating those
- 311. conversations, going beyond coffee with a cop and engaging the community inside the building,” Brewer said. Aside from the initial sensitivity training session, Starbucks released a series of online seminars called “Pour-over Sessions.” Accessible to all employees and developed by independent experts, the sessions offer speci�c tips on how to de-escalate tense situations in the store. SBUXStock Symbol STARBUCKS CORP.Stock Name 115.92Stock Price -0.82Stock Change -0.70%Change % https://www.foxbusiness.com/quote?stockTicker=SBUX 4/22/2021 Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market | Fox Business https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/starbucks-serves-up-new- employee-benefits-to-lure-workers-in-hot-us-job- market?utm_source=morning_br… 4/5 While the Philadelphia and Tempe incidents each triggered calls among some customers to boycott Starbucks, Brewer said they did not have a negative impact on
- 312. efforts to retain staffers and hire new employees. “Absolutely not. Actually, it’s the total opposite, because most people feel as though we handled that situation well and they want to work for us because of how we were so aggressive with the changes we needed to make,” Brewer said. “We’re actually really pleased with what I’ll call our ‘partner brand’ right now. Again, more work to do, but no, we have not a seen a dip at all.” Future changes Starbucks’ efforts to improve the employee experience will have a material impact on how its stores function. The current slate of task automation is expected to be complete by �scal year 2020, as will the rollout of improved “help desks” for employees attempting to troubleshoot in-store issues. The changes are designed in part to free up store managers to directly interact with customers. Store managers will also have authority to make small donations to local organizations or charities as a means of fostering goodwill in the community. Customers may also notice physical changes at their local Starbucks. After noticing that baristas didn’t have enough room to operate behind the counter, the company is testing out larger pickup areas for customers who placed mobile orders.
- 313. “It was very di�cult for our baristas to just try to force 80 drinks within a 15-minute window on one small handoff point, so we have extended in 200 stores across the New York, Manhattan, Financial District areas, we’ve expanded physically in that area because we know the need for convenience is growing,” Brewer said. While many of the new perks are aimed at helping store managers, Brewer said the company will soon shift its focus on better training for �rst- time baristas and 4/22/2021 Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to l ure workers in hot US job market | Fox Business https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/starbucks-serves-up-new- employee-benefits-to-lure-workers-in-hot-us-job- market?utm_source=morning_br… 5/5 eliminating stress for shift managers – employees who report to, and often become, store managers. “We’re focusing right in on that position and making sure that they have all the tools that they need. We realize that a lot has fallen on that position and we’ve not looked at that position in a while,” she added. Quotes delayed at least 15 minutes. Real-time quotes provided by BATS BZX Real-Time Price. Market Data provided by Interactive Data
- 314. (Terms & Conditions). Powered and Implemented by Interactive Data Managed Solution s. Company fundamental data provided by Morningstar. Earnings estimates data provided by Zacks. Mutual fund and ETF data provided by Lipper. Economic data provided by Econoday. Dow Jones & Company Terms & Conditions. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed. ©2021 FOX News Network, LLC. All rights reserved. FAQ - Updated Privacy Policy Conversation Be the �rst to comment... Powered by Terms | Privacy | Feedback
- 315. http://www.batstrading.com/ https://www.foxbusiness.com/terms-of-use http://www.interactivedata.com/idms/ http://www.morningstar.com/ http://www.lipperweb.com/default.aspx http://help.foxbusiness.com/index.html https://www.foxbusiness.com/privacy-policy https://www.openweb.com/powered-by https://www.openweb.com/legal-and-privacy/terms-of- use?utm_source=Product&utm_medium=Footer?utm_source=Pr oduct&utm_medium=Footer https://www.openweb.com/legal-and- privacy/privacy?utm_source=Product&utm_medium=Footer?utm _source=Product&utm_medium=Footer Chapter 14: The Green Office: Economics and the Environment from The Business Ethics Workshop was adapted by Saylor Academy and is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license without attribution as requested by
- 316. the work's original creator or licensor. UMGC has modified this work and it is available under the original license. http://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/The%20Business%20Ethic s%20Workshop.pdf https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 627 Chapter 14 The Green Office: Economics and the Environment Chapter Overview Chapter 14 "The Green Office: Economics and the Environment" explores the multiple relations linking business, the environment, and environmental protection. The question of animal rights is also
- 317. considered. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 628 14.1 The Environment L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S 1. Consider damage done to the environment in a business context. 2. Delineate major legal responses to concerns about the environment. Cancun Cancun, Mexico, is paradise: warm climate, Caribbean water, white sand beaches, stunning landscapes, coral reefs, and a unique lagoon. You can sunbathe, snorkel, parasail, shoot around on jet skis, and drink
- 318. Corona without getting carded. Hordes of vacationers fill the narrow, hotel-lined peninsula—so many that the cars on the one main street snarl in traffic jams running the length of the tourist ki lometers. It’s a jarring contrast: on one side the placid beaches (until the jet skis get geared up), and on the other there’s the single road about a hundred yards inland. Horns scream, oil-burning cars and trucks belch pollution, tourists fume. Cancun’s problem is that it can’t handle its own success. There’s not enough room for roads behind the hotels just like there’s not enough beach in front to keep the noisy jet skiers segregated from those who want to take in the sun and sea quietly. The environment hasn’t been able to bear the success either. According to a report,
- 319. The tourist industry extensively damaged the lagoon, obliterated sand dunes, led to the extinction of varying species of animals and fish, and destroyed the rainforest which surrounds Cancun. The construction of 120 hotels in 20 years has also endangered breeding areas for marine turtles, as well as causing large numbers of fish and shellfish to be depleted or disappear just offshore. [1] For all its natural beauty, environmentally, Cancun is an ugly place. Those parts of the natural world that most tourists don’t see (the lagoon, the nearby forest, the fish life near shore) have been sacrificed so a few executives in suits can make money.
- 320. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 629 From its inception, Cancun was a business. The Mexican government built an airport to fly people in, set up rules to draw investors, and made it (relatively) easy to build hotels on land that only a few coconut harvesters from the local plantation even knew about. From a business sense, it was a beautiful proposition: bring people to a place where they can be happy, provide new and more lucrative jobs for the locals, and build a mountain of profit (mainly for government insiders and friends) along the way. Everything went according to plan. Those who visit Cancun have a wonderful time (once they finally get down the road to their hotel). College students live it up during spring break, young couples take their
- 321. children to play on the beach, and older couples go down and remember that they do, in fact, love each other. So fish die, and people get jobs. Forests disappear, and people’s love is kindled. The important questions about business ethics and the environment are mostly located right at this balance and on these questions: how many trees may be sacrificed for human jobs? How many animal species can be traded for people to fall in love? What Is the Environment? Harm to the natural world is generally discussed under two terms: the environment and the ecosystem. The words’ meanings overlap, but one critical aspect of the term ecosystem is the idea of interrelation. An ecosystem is composed of living and nonliving elements that find a balance allowing for their
- 322. continuation. The destruction of the rain forest around Cancun didn’t just put an end to some trees; it also jeopardized a broader web of life: birds that needed limbs for their nests disappeared when the trees did. Then, with the sturdy forest gone, Hurricane Gilbert swept through and wiped out much of the lower-level vegetation. Meanwhile, out in the sea, the disappearance of some small fish meant their predators had nothing to feed on and they too evaporated. What makes an ecosystem a system is the fact that the various parts all depend on each other, and damaging one element may also damage and destroy another or many others. In the sense that it’s a combination of interdependent elements, the tourist world in Cancun is no different from the surrounding natural world. As the traffic jams
- 323. along the peninsula have grown, making it difficult for people to leave and get back to their hotels, the tourists have started migrating away, looking elsewhere for their vacation reservations. Of course Cancun isn’t going to disappear, but if you took that one road completely away, most everything else would go with it. So economic realities can Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 630 resemble environmental ones: once a single part of a functioning system disappears, it’s hard to stop the effects from falling further down the line. What Kinds of Damage Can Be Done to the Environment? Nature is one of nature’s great adversaries. Hurricanes sweeping up through the Caribbean and along the
- 324. Eastern Seaboard of the United States wipe out entire ecosystems. Moving inland, warm winters in northern states like Minnesota can allow some species including deer to reproduce at very high rates, meaning that the next winter, when conditions return to normal, all available food is eaten rapidly at winter’s onset and subsequent losses to starvation are massive and extend up the food chain to wolves and bears. Lengthening the timeline, age-long periods of warming and cooling cause desertification and ice ages that put ends to giant swaths of habitats and multitudes of species. While it’s true that damaging the natural world’s ecosystems is one of nature’s great specialties, evidence also indicates that the human contribution to environmental change has been growing quickly. It’s
- 325. impossible to measure everything that has been done, or compare the world today with what would have been had humans never evolved (or never created an industrialized economy), but one way to get a sense of the kind of transformations human activity may be imposing on the environment comes from extinction rates: the speed at which species are disappearing because they no longer find a habitable place to flourish. According to some studies, the current rate of extinction is around a thousand times higher than the one derived from examinations of the fossil record, which is to say, before the time parts of the natural world were being severely trashed by developments like those lining the coast of Cancun, Mexico. [2]
- 326. In an economics and business context, the kinds of damage our industrialized lifestyles most extensively wreak include: with highly toxic materials Air pollution is the emission of harmful chemicals and particulate matter into the air. Photochemical smog—better known simply as smog—is a cocktail of gases and particles reacting with Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 631
- 327. sunlight to make visible and poisonous clouds. Car exhaust is a major contributor to this kind of pollution, so smog can concentrate in urban centers where traffic jams are constant. In Mexico City on bad days, the smog is so thick it can be hard to see more than ten blocks down a straight street. Because the urban core is nestled in a mountain valley that blocks out the wind, pollutants don’t blow away as they do in many places; they get entirely trapped. During the winter, a brown top forms above the skyline, blocking the view of the surrounding mountain peaks; the cloud is clearly visible from above to those arriving by plane. After landing, immediately upon exiting the airport into the streets, many visitors note their eyes tearing up and their throats drying out. In terms of direct bodily harm, Louisiana State University environmental
- 328. chemist Barry Dellinger estimates that breathing the air in Mexico’s capital for a day is about the equivalent of smoking two packs of cigarettes. [3] This explains why, on the worst days, birds drop out of the air dead, and one longer-term human effect is increased risk of lung cancer. Greenhouse gasses, especially carbon dioxide released when oil and coal are burned, absorb and hold heat from the sun, preventing it from dissipating into space, and thereby creating a greenhouse effect, a general warming of the environment. Heat is, of course, necessary for life to exist on earth, but fears exist that the last century of industrialization has raised the levels measurably, and continuing industrial expansion will speed the process even more. Effects associated with the warming are significant and
- 329. include: changes in wildlife distribution located (Cancun could be entirely flooded by only a small rise in the ocean’s water level.) Another group of chemicals, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), threaten to break down the ozone layer in the earth’s stratosphere. Currently, that layer blocks harmful ultraviolet radiation from getting through to the earth’s surface where it could cause skin cancer and disrupt ocean life. Effective international treaties have limited (though not eliminated) CFC emissions. Coal-burning plants—many of which produce electricity—
- 330. release sulfur compounds into the air, which later mix into water vapor and rain down as sulfuric acid, commonly known as acid rain. Lakes see their pH level changed with subsequent effects on vegetation and fish. Soil may also be poisoned. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 632 Air pollution is the most immediate form of environmental poison for most of us, but not the only significant one. In China, more than 25 percent of surface water is too polluted for swimming or fishing. [4] Some of those lakes may have been ruined in the same way as Onondaga Lake near Syracuse, New York. Over a century ago, resorts were built and a fish hatchery
- 331. flourished on one side of the long lake. The other side received waste flushed by the surrounding cities and factories. Problems began around 1900 when the fish hatchery could no longer reproduce fish. Soon after, it was necessary to ban ice harvesting from the lake. In 1940, swimming was banned because of dangerous bacteria, and in 1970, fishing had to be stopped because of mercury and PCB contamination. The lake was effectively dead. To cite one example, a single chemical company dumped eighty tons of mercury into the water during its run on the coast. Recently, the New York state health department loosened restrictions slightly, and people are advised that they may once again eat fish caught in the lake. Just as long as it’s not more than one per month. Those who do eat more risk breakdown of their nervous system, collapse of their liver, and teeth
- 332. falling out. [5] Like liquid poisons, solid waste can be dangerous. Paper bags degrade fairly rapidly and cleanly, but plastic containers remain where they’re left into the indefinite future. The metal of a battery tossed into a landfill will break down eventually, but not before dropping out poisons including cadmium. Cadmium weakens the bones in low doses and, if exposure is high, causes death. At the industrial waste extreme, there are toxins so poisonous they require special packaging to prevent even minimal exposure more or less forever. The waste from nuclear power plants qualifies. So noxious are the spent fuel rods that it’s a matter of national debate in America and elsewhere as to where they
- 333. should be stored. When the Chernobyl nuclear plant broke open in 1986, it emitted a radioactive cloud that killed hundreds and forced the permanent evacuation of the closest town, Pripyat. Area wildlife destruction would require an entire book to document, but as a single example, the surrounding pine forest turned red and died after absorbing the radiati on storm. Finally, all the environmental damage listed so far has resulted from ruinous substance additions to natural ecosystems, but environmental damage also runs in the other direction as depletion. Our cars and factories are sapping the earth of its petroleum reserves. Minerals, including copper, are being mined toward the point where it will become too expensive to continue digging the small amount that remains from the ground. The United Nations estimates that fifty
- 334. thousand square miles of forest are disappearing Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 633 each year, lost to logging, conversion to agriculture, fuel wood collection by rural poor, and forest fires. [6] Of course, most of those tree losses can be replanted. On the other hand, species that are driven out of existence can’t be brought back. As already noted, current rates of extinction are running far above “background extinction” rates, which are an approximation of how many species, would disappear each year were the rules of nature left unperturbed. Conclusion. Technically, there’s no such thing as preserving the
- 335. environment because left to its own devices the natural world does an excellent job of wreaking havoc on itself. Disruptions including floods, combined with wildlife battling for territory and food sources, all that continually sweeps away parts of nature and makes room for new species and ecosystems. Still, changes wrought by the natural world tend to be gradual and balanced, and the worry is that our industrialized lifestyle has become so powerful that nature, at least in certain areas, will no longer be able to compensate and restore any kind of balance. That concerns has led to both legal efforts, and ethical arguments, in favor of protecting the environment. The Law Legal efforts to protect the environment in the United States intensified between 1960 and 1970.
- 336. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established in 1970 to monitor and report on the state of the environment while establishing and enforcing specific regulations. Well known to most car buyers as the providers of the mile-per-gallon estimates displayed on the window sticker, the EPA is a large agency and employs a workforce compatible with its mission, including scientists, legal staffers, and communications experts. Other important legal milestones in the field of environmental protection include: emissions from industrial plants and monitor air quality. One measure extends to citizens the right to sue companies for damages if they aren’t complying with existing regulations: it effectively citizenries’ law enforcement in this area of
- 337. environmental protection. Act, along with other, related legislation, regulates the quality of water in the geographic world (lakes and rivers), as well as the water we drink and use for industrial purposes. Chemical composition is important, and temperature also. Thermal pollution occurs when factories pour heated water back into natural waterways at a rate sufficient to affect the ecosystem. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 634 areas of land as protected from development. Some zones, including the Boundary Waters Canoe Area in northern Minnesota, are reserved for minimal
- 338. human interaction (no motors are allowed); other areas are more accessible. All wilderness and national park areas are regulated to protect natural ecosystems. to ensure the survival of species pressed to near extinction, especially by human intrusion. One example is the bald eagle. Subjected to hunting, loss of habitat, and poisoning by the pesticide DDT (which caused eagle eggs to crack prematurely), a once common species was reduced to only a few hundred pairs in the lower forty-eight states. Placed on the endangered species list in 1967, penalties for hunting were increased significantly. Also, DDT was banned, and subsequently the eagle made a strong comeback. It is no longer listed as endangered.
- 339. an environmental impact statement be prepared for many major projects. The word environment in this case means not only the natural world but also the human one. When a new building is erected in a busy downtown, the environmental impact statement reports on the effect the building will have on both the natural world (how much new air pollution will be released from increased traffic, how much water will be necessary for the building’s plumbing, how much electricity will be used to keep the place cool in the summer) and also the civilized one (whether there’s enough parking in the area for all the cars that will arrive, whether nearby highways can handle the traffic and similar). Staying with the natural factors, the statement should consider impacts—positive and negative—on the local ecosystem as well as strategies for minimizing those impacts
- 340. and some consideration of alternatives to the project. The writing and evaluation of these statements can become sites of conflict between developers on one side and environmental protection organizations on the other. Two major additional points about legal approaches to the natural world should be added. First, they can be expensive; nearly all environmental protection laws impose costs on business and, consequently, make life for everyone more costly. When developers of downtown buildings have to create a budget for their environmental impact statements, the expenses get passed on to the people who buy condos in the building. There’s no doubt that banning the pesticide DDT was good for the eagle, but it made farming— and therefore the food we eat—more expensive. Further, clean
- 341. water and air stipulations don’t only affect consumers by making products more expensive; the environmental responsibility also costs Americans Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 635 jobs every time a factory gets moved to China or some other relatively low-regulation country. Of course, it’s also true that, as noted earlier, around 25 percent of China’s surface water is poisonous, but for laid-off workers in the States, it may be hard to worry so much about that. Second, these American laws, regulations, and agencies don’t make a bit of difference in Cancun, Mexico. Even though Cancun and America wash back and forth over each other (Cancun’s hotels were
- 342. constructed, chiefly, to host American visitors), the rights and responsibilities of legal dominion over the environment stop and start at places where people need to show their passports. This is representative of a larger reality: more than most issues in business ethics, arguments pitting economic and human interests against the natural world are international in nature. The greenhouse gases emitted by cars caught in Cancun traffic are no different, as far as the earth is concerned, from those gases produced along clogged Los Angeles freeways. K E Y T A K E A W A Y S on each other for their continued survival. clude air, water, soil, and contamination associated
- 343. with highly toxic materials. environment in the United States. R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S 1. What is an example of an ecosystem? 2. Explain one way that an ecosystem can resemble an economic system. 3. What are some effects of smog? 4. What’s an environmental impact statement? 5. Why are the business ethics of the environment more international in nature than many other subjects? [1] “Cancun Tourism,” TED, Trade & Environment Database, case no. 86, accessed June 8, 2011, http://www1.american.edu/TED/cancun.htm.
- 344. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 636 [2] Kent Holsinger, “Patterns of Biological Extinction,” lecture notes, University of Connecticut, August 31, 2009, accessed June 8, 2011,http://darwin.eeb.uconn.edu/eeb310/lecture- notes/extinctions/node1.html. [3] “Is Air Pollution Killing You?” Ivanhoe Newswire, May 2009, accessed June 8, 2011,http://www.ivanhoe.com/science/story/2009/05/572a.html. [4] “More than 25% of China’s Surface Water Contaminated,” China Daily, July 26, 2010, accessed June 8, 2011, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010- 07/26/content_11051350.htm. [5] The Upstate Freshwater Institute Onondaga Lake page,
- 345. October 22, 2010, accessed June 8, 2011, http://www.upstatefreshwater.org/html/onondaga_lake.html; “2010–2011 Health Advisories: Chemicals in Sportfish and Game,” New York State Department of Health, 2011, accessed June 8, 2011, http://static.ongov.net/WEP/wepdf/2009_AMP- FINAL/Library/11_SupportingDocs/L11.10.11_HealthAdvisory2 010-2011.pdf. [6] Rhett A. Butler, “World Deforestation Rates and Forest Cover Statistics, 2000–2005,”Mongabay.com, November 16, 2005, accessed June 8, 2011,http://news.mongabay.com/2005/1115-forests.html. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 637
- 346. 14.2 Ethical Approaches to Environmental Protection L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S 1. Outline five attitudes toward environmental protection. 2. Consider who should pay for environmental protection and cleanup. The Range of Approaches to Cancun Cancun is an environmental sacrifice made in exchange for tourist dollars. The unique lagoon, for example, dividing the hotel strip from the mainland was devastated by the project. To construct the roadwork leading around the hotels, the original developers raised the earth level, which blocked the ocean’s high tide from washing over into the lagoon and refreshing its waters. Quickly, the living water pool supporting a complex and unique ecosystem clogged with algae and became a stinky bog. No one
- 347. cared too much since that was the street side, and visitors had come for the ocean. Still, one hotel developer decided to get involved. Ricardo Legorreta who designed the Camino Real Hotel (today named Dreams Resort) said this about his early 1970s project: “Cancun is more water than land. The Hotel Camino Real site was originally 70 percent water. It had been filled during the urbanization process. I wanted to return the site to its original status, so we built the guest room block on solid rock and the public areas on piles, and then excavated what was originally the lagoon. The difference in tide levels provides the necessary water circulation to keep the new lagoon clean.” [1] Specific numbers aren’t available, but plainly it costs more to
- 348. dig out the ground and then build on piles than it does to just build on the ground. To save the lagoon, the owners of the Camino Real spent some money. Was it worth it? The answer depends initially on the ethical attitude taken toward the environment generally; it depends on how much, and how, value is assigned to the natural world. Reasonable ethical cases can be made for the full range of environmental protection, from none (total exploitation of the natural world to satisfy immediate human desires) to complete protection (reserving wildlife areas for freedom from any human interference). The main positions are the following and will be elaborated individually:
- 349. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 638 serving human welfare. future generations’ welfare. animal welfare. The Environment Shouldn’t Be Protected Should individuals and businesses use the natural world for our own purposes and without concern for its welfare or continuation? The “yes” answer traces back to an attitude called free use, which pictures the
- 350. natural world as entirely dedicated to serving immediate human needs and desires. The air and water and all natural resources are understood as belonging to everyone in the sense that all individuals have full ownership of, and may use, all resources belonging to them as they see fit. The air blowing above your land and any water rolling through it are yours, and you may breathe them or drink them or dump into them as you like. This attitude, finally, has both historical and ethical components. The history of free use starts with the fact that the very idea of the natural world as needing protection at all is very recent. For almost all human history, putting the words environment and protection together meant finding ways that we could be protected from it instead of protecting it from us. This is very easy to see along Europe’s Mediterranean coast. As opposed to Cancun
- 351. where all the buildings are pushed right up to the Caribbean and open to the water, the stone constructions of Europe’s old coastal towns are huddled together and open away from the sea. Modern and recently built hotels obscure this to some extent, but anyone walking from the coast back toward the city centers sees how all the old buildings turn away from the water as though the builders feared nature, which, in fact, they did. They were afraid because the wind and storms blowing off the sea actually threatened their existences; it capsized their boats and sent water pouring through roofs and food supplies. Going further, not only is it the case that until very recently nature threatened us much more than we threatened it, but in those cases where humans did succeed in doing some damage, nature bounced right back. After a tremendously
- 352. successful fishing year, for example, the supply of food swimming off the coastlines of the Mediterranean was somewhat depleted, but the next season things would return to normal. It’s only today, with giant motorized boats pulling huge nets behind, that we’ve been able to truly fish out some parts of the sea. The Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 639 larger historical point is that until, say, the nineteenth century, even if every human on the planet had united in a project to ruin nature irrevocably, not much would’ve happened. In that kind of reality, the idea of free use of our natural resources makes sense. Today, at a time when our power over nature is significant, there are two basic arguments in favor of free
- 353. use: 1. The domination and progress argument 2. The geological time argument The domination and progress argument begins by refusing to place any necessary and intrinsic value in the natural world: there’s no autonomous worth in the water, plants, and animals surrounding us. Because they have no independent value, those who abuse and ruin nature can’t be automatically accused of an ethical violation: nothing intrinsically valuable has been damaged. Just as few people object when a dandelion is pulled from a front yard, so too there’s no necessary objection to the air being ruined by our cars. Connected with this disavowal of intrinsic value in nature’s
- 354. elements, there’s high confidence in our ability to generate technological advances that will enable human civilization to flourish on the earth no matter how contaminated and depleted. When we’ve drilled the last drop of the petroleum we need to heat our homes and produce electricity to power our computers, we can trust our scientists to find new energy sources to keep everything going. Possibly solar energy technologies will leap forward, or the long- sought key to nuclear fission will be found in a research lab. As for worries about the loss of wildlife and greenery, that can be rectified with genetic engineering, or by simply doing without them. Even without human interference, species are disappearing every day; going without a few more may not ultimately be important.
- 355. Further, it should be remembered that there are many natural entities we’re happy to do without. No one bemoans the extinction of the virus called variola, which caused smallpox. That disease was responsible for the death of hundreds of millions of humans, and for much of history has been one of the world’s most terrifying scourges. In the 1970s, the virus was certified extinct by the World Health Organization. No one misses it; not even the most devoted advocate of natural ecosystems stood up against the human abuse and final eradication of the virus. Finally, if we can destroy one part of the natural world without remorse, can’t that attitude be extended? No one is promoting reckless or wanton destruction, but as far as those Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 640
- 356. parts of nature required to live well, can’t we just take what we need until it runs out and then move on to something else? To a certain extent, this approach is visible in Cancun, Mexico. The tourist strip has reached saturation and the natural world in the area—at least those parts tourists won’t pay to see—has been decimated. So what are developers doing? Moving down the coast. The new hotspot is called Playa del Carmen. Extending south from Cancun along the shoreline, developers are gobbling up land and laying out luxury hotels at a nonstop rate and with environmental effects frequently (not in every case) similar to those defining Cancun. What happens when the entire area from Cancun to Chetumal is cemented over? There’s more shoreline to be found in Belize, and on Mexico’s Pacific
- 357. coast, and then down in Guatemala. What happens when all shoreline runs out? There’s a lot of it around the world, but when the end comes, it’ll also probably be true that we won’t need a real natural world to have a natural world, at least those parts of it that we enjoy. Already today at Typhoon Lagoon in Disney World, six-foot waves roll down for surfers. And visitors to the Grand Canyon face a curious choice: they can take the trouble to actually walk out and visit the Grand Canyon, or, more comfortably, they may opt to see it in an impressive IMAX theater presentation. There’s no reason still more aspects of the natural world, like the warm breezes and evening perfection of Cancun, couldn’t be reproduced in a warehouse. Of course there are people who insist that they want the real thing when it comes to nature, but there were also once people who insisted
- 358. that they couldn’t enjoy a newspaper or book if it wasn’t printed on real paper. Next, moving on to the other of the two arguments in favor of free use, there’s the idea that we might as well use everything without anxiety because, in the end, we really can’t seriously affect the natural world anyway. This sounds silly at first; it seems clear that we can and do wreak havoc: species disappear and natural ecosystems are reduced to dead zones. However, it must be noted that our human view of the world is myopic. That’s not our fault, just an effect of the way we experience time. For us, a hundred years is, in fact, a long time. In terms of geological time, however, the entire experience of all humanity on this earth is just the wink of an eye. Geological time understands time’s passing not relative to human lives but
- 359. in terms of the physical history of the earth. According to that measure, the existence of the human species has been brief, and the kinds of changes we’re experiencing in the natural world pale beside the swings the earth is capable of producing. We worry, for example, about global warming, meaning the earth’s temperature jumping a few degrees, and while this change may be seismically important for us, it’s Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 641 nothing new to the earth. As Robert Laughlin, winner of the Nobel Prize in physics, points out in an article set under the provocative announcement “The Earth Doesn’t Care if You Drive a Hybrid,” six million years ago the Mediterranean Sea went bone dry. Eighty-five million years before that there were alligators in the
- 360. Arctic, and two-hundred million years before that Europe was a desert. Comparatively, human industrialization has changed nothing. [2] This geological view of time cashes out as an ethical justification for free use of the natural world for a reason nearly the opposite of the first. The argument for free use supported by convictions about domination and progress borders on arrogance: it’s that the natural world is unimportant, and any problems caused by our abusing it will be resolved by intelligence and technological advance. Alternatively, and within the argument based on geological time, our lives, deeds, and abilities are so trivial that it’s absurd to imagine that we could seriously change the flow of nature’s development even if
- 361. we tried. We could melt nuclear reactors left and right, and a hundred million years from now it wouldn’t make a bit of difference. That means, finally, that the idea of preserving the environment isn’t nobility: it’s vanity. The Environment Should Be Protected in the Name of Serving Human Welfare The free-use argument in favor of total environmental exploitation posits no value in the natural world. In and of itself, it’s worthless. Even if this premise is accepted, however, there may still be reason to take steps in favor of preservation and protection. It could be that the ecosystems around us should be safeguarded not for them, but for us. The reasoning here is that we as a society will live better and happier
- 362. when lakes are suitable for swimming, when air cleans our lungs instead of gumming them up, when a drive on the freeway with the car window down doesn’t leave your face feeling greasy. Human happiness, ultimately, hinges to some extent on our own natural and animal nature. We too, we must remember, are part of the ecosystem. Many of the things we do each day— walk, breathe, find shelter from the elements— are no different from the activities of creatures in the natural world. When that world is clean and functioning well, consequently, we fit into it well. Wrapping this perspective into an ethical theory, utilitarianism—the affirmation that the ethically good is those acts increasing human happiness—functions effectively. For visitors to Cancun, it seems difficult to
- 363. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 642 deny that their trip will be more enjoyable if the air they breathe is fresh and briny instead of stinky and gaseous as it was in some places when the lagoon had decayed into a pestilent swamp. Understood in this way, we could congratulate Architect Legorreta for his expensive decision to carve out a space for the tides to reenter and refresh the inland lake. It’s not, the argument goes, that he should be thanked for rescuing an ecosystem, but that by rescuing the ecosystem he made human life more agreeable. Another way to justify environmental protection in the name of human and civilized life runs through a rights-based argument. Starting from the principle of the right to pursue happiness, a case could be built
- 364. that without a flourishing natural world, the pursuit will fail. If it’s true that we need a livable environment, one where our health—our breathing, drinking, and eating—is guaranteed, then industrialists and resort developers who don’t ensure that their waste and contamination are controlled aren’t just polluting; they’re violating the fundamental rights of everyone sharing the planet. Bringing this rights-based argument to Cancun and Legorreta’s dredging of the lagoon, it’s possible to conclude that he absorbed a pressing responsibility to do what he did: in the name of protecting the right of others to live healthy lives, it was necessary to renew the dead water. Again, it must be emphasized that the responsibility isn’t to the water or the animals thriving in i ts ecosystem. They’re irrelevant, and there’s no obligation to protect them. What matters is human existence;
- 365. the obligation is to human rights and our dependence on the natural world to exercise those rights. The Environment Should Be Protected in the Name of Serving Future Generations’ Welfare The idea that the environment should be protected so that future generations may live in it and have the choices we do today is based on a notion of social fairness. Typically in ethics, we think of fairness in terms of individuals. When applying for a job at a Cancun hotel, fairness is the imperative that all those applying get equal consideration, are subjected to similar criteria for selection, and the selection is based on ability to perform job-related duties. When, on the other hand, the principle of fairness extends to the broad social level, what’s meant is that groups taken as a whole
- 366. are treated equitably. One hypothetical way to present this notion of intergenerational fairness with respect to the environment and its protection is through the previously discussed notion of the veil of ignorance—that is, the idea that you imagine yourself as removed from today’s world and then reinserted at some future point, one Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 643 randomly assigned. You may come back tomorrow, next year, next decade, or a hundred years down the line. If, the reasoning goes, that’s your situation, and then very possibly you’re going to urge contemporary societies to protect the environment so that it’ll be there for you when your time comes
- 367. around, whenever that might be. Stated slightly differently, it’s a lot easier to wreck the environment when you don’t have to think about others. Fairness, however, obligates us to think of others, including future others, and the veil of ignorance provides one way of considering their rights on a par with the ones we enjoy now. What does this mean in terms of Cancun? We should enjoy paradise there, no doubt, but we should also ensure that it’ll be as beautiful for our children (or any randomly selected future generation) as it is for us. In this case, the re dredging of the lagoon serves that purpose. By helping maintain the status quo in terms of the natural ecosystems surrounding the hotels, it also helps to maintain the possibility of enjoying that section of the Caribbean into the indefinite future.
- 368. There’s also a utilitarian argument that fits underneath and justifies the position that our environment should be protected in the name of future generations. This theory grades acts ethically in terms of their consequences for social happiness, and with those consequences projected forward in time. To the extent possible, the utilitarian mind-set demands that we account for the welfare of future generations when we act today. Of course the future is an unknown, and that tends to weigh decisions toward their effects on the present since those are more easily foreseen. Still, it’s not difficult to persuade most people that future members of our world will be happier and their lives fuller and more rewarding if they’re born onto an at least partially green earth. The Environment Should Be Protected in the Name of Serving Animal
- 369. Welfare One of the more frequently voiced lines of reasoning in favor of ecosystem preservation starts with a fundamental shift from the previous arguments. Those arguments place all intrinsic value in human existence: to the extent we decide to preserve the natural world, we do so because it’s good for us. Preservation satisfies our ethical duties to ourselves or to those human generations yet to come. What now changes is that the natural world’s creatures get endowed with a value independent of humans, and Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 644 that value endures whether or not we enjoy or need to fit into a web of healthy, clean ecosystems. Animals
- 370. matter, in other words, regardless of whether they matter for us. Ethically, the endowment of nonhuman animals with intrinsic worth is to treat them, to some extent, or in some significant way, as human. This treatment is a subject of tremendous controversy, one orbiting around the following two questions: worthy of moral consideration? What do they do, what qualities do they possess that lead us to believe they should have rights and impose obligations on you and me? and impose obligations on humans by their very existence, how far do the obligations go? If we’re given a choice on a speeding highway between running over a squirrel and hitting a person, do we have a moral obligation to avoid the person (and run
- 371. down the squirrel)? If we do, then it seems that the intrinsic worth of an animal is less than that of a human being, but how much less? Questions about whether animals have rights and impose obligations are among the most important in the field of environmental ethics. They will be explored in their own section of discussion that follows. In this section, it will simply be accepted that nonhuman animals do, in fact, have autonomous moral standing. It immediately follows that their protection is, to some extent, a responsibility. In terms of an ethics of duties, the obligation to protect animal life could be conceived as a form of the duty to beneficence, a duty to help those who we are able to aid, assuming the cost to ourselves is not disproportionately high. Protecting animals is something we do
- 372. for the same reason we protect people in need. Alternatively, in terms of the utilitarian principle that we act to decrease suffering in the world (which is a way of increasing happiness), the argument could be mounted that animals are, in fact, capable of suffering, and therefore we should act to minimize that sensation just as we do in the human realm. Finally, rights theory—the notion that we’re free and should not impinge on the freedom of others—translates into a demand that we treat the natural world with respect and with an eye to its preservation in order to guarantee that nonhuman animals may continue to pursue their own ends just as we demand that we humans be allowed to pursue ours. With the obligation for the protection of—or at least noninterference with—nonhuman animals
- 373. established, the way opens to extend the conservation to the natural world generally. Because animals depend on their habitat to express their existence, because their instincts and needs suggest that they may Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 645 be free only within their natural environment, the first responsibility derived from the human obligation to animals is one to protect their wild and natural surroundings. As an important note here, that habitat— the air all animals breathe, the water where fish swim, the earth housing burrowing animals—is not protected for its own sake, only as an effect of recognizing the creatures of the natural realm as dignified and worthy of our deference.
- 374. What does this dignity conferred on animal life mean for Cancun? The dredging and revivifying of the lagoon by Legorreta fulfills an obligation under this conception of the human relation to the natural world. It’s a different obligation from those developed in the previous cases, however. Before, the lagoon was cleansed in the name of improving the Cancun experience for vacationers; here, it’s cleansed so that it may once again support the land and aquatic life that once called the place home. As for whether that improves the vacation experience, there’s no reason to ask; it’s only necessary to know that saving animals probably requires saving their home. The Entire Environmental Web Should Be Protected for Its Own Sake The environment as a whole, the total ecosystem including all animal and plant life on Earth—along with
- 375. the air, water, and soil supporting existence—should be protected according to a number of ethical arguments: e is the case that the obligation flows from human welfare: we’re happier when our planet is healthy. reasonable case that the obligation to protection attaches to the autonomous value and rights of nonhuman animals. In order to protect all of them, the reasoning goes, we should preserve all elements of the natural world to the extent possible because we can’t be sure which ones may, in fact, play an important role in the existence of one or another kind of creature.
- 376. obligated to protect the total environment—all water and air, every tree and animal—because all of it and every single part holds autonomous value. This Earth-wide value translates into an Earth-wide obligation: the planet—understood as the network of life happening above and under its surface—becomes something like a single living organism we humans must protect. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 646 What distinguishes the third argument from the previous two is that we don’t save the greater natural ecosystem in the name of something else (human welfare or habitat preservation for nonhuman animals)
- 377. but for itself. It’s easy to trivialize the view that every element of the natural world demands respect and therefore some degree of protection. Do we really want to say that a child experimenting out in the driveway with worms, or pulling up plants to see the roots is failing a moral obligation to the living world? What about the coconut trees felled to make room for Cancun’s hotels? Perhaps if they were unique trees, or if a certain species of bird depended on precisely those limbs and no others for its survival, but do we want to go further and say that the standard trees—a few hundred out of millions in the world—should give developers pause before the cement trucks come wheeling in? For many, it will be easier to conclude that if a good project is planned—if there’s money to be earned and progress to be made—then we can cut
- 378. down a few anonymous trees that happen to be standing in the way and get on with our human living. On the other hand, sitting on the sand in Cancun, it’s difficult to avoid sensing a happening majesty: not a reason to pull out your camera and snap, but a living experience that can only be had by a natural being participating, breathing air as the wind blows across the beach, or swimming in the crisp water. There may be a kind of aesthetic imperative here, a coherent demand for respect that we feel with our own natural bodies. The argument isn’t that the entire natural ecosystem should be preserved because it feels good for us to jump in the ocean water—it feels good to jump in the shower too—the idea is that through our bodies we experience a substance and value of nature that requires our deference. Called
- 379. the aesthetic argument in favor of nature’s dignity, and consequently in favor of the moral obligation to protect it, there may be no proper explanation or reasoning, it may only be something that you know if you’re in the right place at the right time, like Cancun in the morning. The response to the aesthetic argument is that we can’t base ethics on a feeling. If We Decide to Protect the Environment, Who Pays? Much of the stress applied to, and the destruction wrought on the environment around Cancun could be reversed. That costs money, though. Determining exactly how much is a task for biologists and economists to work out. The question for ethical consideration is, who should pay? These are three basic answers:
- 380. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 647 1. Those who contaminated the natural world 2. Those who enjoy the natural world 3. Those who are most able The answer that the costs should be borne by those who damaged nature in the first place means sending the bill to developers and resort owners, to all those whose ambition to make money on tourism got roads paved, forests cleared, and foundations laid. Intuitively, placing the obligation for environmental cleanup on developers may make the most sense, and in terms of ethical theory, it fits in well with the basic duty to reparation, the responsibility to compensate others when we harm them. In this case, the harm has been
- 381. done to those others who enjoy and depend on the natural world, and one immediate way to compensate them is to repair the damage. A good model for this could be Legorreta’s work, the expense taken to raise a portion of a hotel and so once again allow tide water to freshen the lagoon. Similar steps could be taken to restore parts of the ruined coral reef and to replant the forest behind the hotel area. The plan makes sense, but there’s a glaring problem: times change. Back when Cancun was originally being laid out in the 1960s, ecological concerns were not as visible and widely recognized as they are today. That doesn’t erase the fact that most hotel companies in Cancun laid waste to whatever stood in the way of their building, but it does allow them to note that they are being asked to pay today for actions that
- 382. most everyone thought were just fine back when they were done. It’s not clear, finally, how fair it is to ask developers to pay for a cleanup that no one envisioned would be necessary back when the construction initiated. The proposal that those who enjoy and depend on the natural world should bear primary responsibility for protecting and renewing it also makes good sense. This reasoning is to some extent implemented in America’s natural parks where fees are charged for entry. Those revenues go to support the work of the forestry service that’s required to ensure that visitors to those parks—and the infrastructure they need to enjoy their time there—don’t do harm to the ecosystems they’re coming to see, and also to ensure that harm done by others (air pollution, for example, emitted by nearby factories) is cleansed by nature’s
- 383. organic processes. On a much larger scale, a global one, this logic is also displayed in some international attempts to limit the emission of greenhouse gasses. The specific economics and policy are complicated and involve financial devices including carbon credits and similar, but at bottom what’s happening is that governments are Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 648 getting together and deciding that we all benefit from (or even need) reduced emissions of waste into the air. From there, attempts are made to negotiate contributions various countries can make to the reduction effort. As for the cost, most economists agree that the expense of pollution control measures will, for the
- 384. most part, be passed along as hikes in the cost of consumer goods. Everyone, in other words, will pay, which matches up with the affirmation that everyone benefits. Finally, the response that those most able to pay should bear the brunt of the cost for protecting the natural world is a political as much as an environmental posture. One possibility would be a surtax levied on wealthy members of society, with the money channeled toward environmental efforts. This strategy may find a solid footing on utilitarian grounds where acts benefitting the overall welfare remain good even if they’re burdensome or unfair to specific individuals. What would be necessary is to demonstrate that the sum total of human (and, potentially, nonhuman animal) happiness would be increased by more than the accumulated displeasure of those suffering the tax increase.
- 385. K E Y T A K E A W A Y S both historical and ethical roots. diminishes concerns about protecting its current state. the very long term diminishes concerns about protecting its current state. welfare values the natural world because it’s valuable for us. generations’ welfare derives from a notion of social fairness.
- 386. welfare connects with a notion of moral autonomy in nonhuman animals. set of the world’s ecosystems. responsibility of various parties. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 649 R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S 1. Briefly, what is the history of the free-use attitude toward the natural world? 2. How can technology make environmental protection a wasted effort?
- 387. 3. How can the idea of geological time become an argument against taking expensive steps to protect the natural world? 4. What are some reasons why our ethical obligations to ourselves may lead us to protect the natural world? 5. What is the difference between protecting the natural world because we humans are valuable, and because animals are valuable? 6. What kind of experiences with nature may result in the sensation that, as an interdependent whole, the natural world holds value? 7. If the decision is made to protect nature, who are some individuals or groups that might be asked to pay the cost?
- 388. [1] Ricardo Legorreta, Wayne Attoe, Sydney Brisker, and Hal Box, The Architecture of Ricardo Legorreta (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990), 108. [2] George Will, “The Earth Doesn’t Care: About What Is Done to or for It,” Newsweek, September 12, 2010, accessed June 8, 2011,http://www.newsweek.com/2010/09/12/george-will-earth- doesn-t-care-what-is-done-to- it.html?from=rss. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 650 14.3 Three Models of Environmental Protection for Businesses L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E 1. Outline three business responses to environmental responsibility.
- 389. The Role of Businesses in Environmental Protection Protecting the environment is itself a business, and many organizations, especially nonprofits, take that as their guiding purpose. The World Wildlife Fund, the Audubon Society, and National Geographic exemplify this. Their direct influence over the natural world, however, is slight when compared against all the globe’s for-profit companies chugging away in the name of earning money. Whether the place is Cancun, or China, or the United States, the condition of the natural world depends significantly on what profit-making companies are doing, the way they’re working, the kinds of goods they’re producing, and the attitude they’re taking toward the natural world. Three common attitudes are 1. accelerate and innovate,
- 390. 2. monetize and count, 3. express corporate responsibility. 4. Business and Environmental Protection: Accelerate and Innovate There’s a subtle difference between environmental conservation and protection. Conservation means leaving things as they are. Protection opens the possibility of changing the natural world in the name of defending it. One way for a business to embrace the protection of nature is through technological advance. New discoveries, the hope is, can simultaneously allow people to live better, and live better with the natural world. Looking at a stained paradise like Cancun, the attitude isn’t so much worry that we’re
- 391. ruining the world and won’t be able to restore a healthy balance, it’s more industrially optimistic: by pushing the accelerator, by innovating faster we’ll resolve the very environmental problems we’ve created. Examples of the progressive approach to environmental protection—as opposed to the conservative one— include solar and wind power generation. Both are available to us only because of the explosion of technology and knowledge the industrialized, contaminating world allows. Because of them, we can today Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 651 imagine a world using energy at current rates without doing current levels of environmental damage. Here’s a statement of that aim from a wind power company’s web page: “Our goal has always been to
- 392. produce a utility-scale wind turbine that does not need subsidies in order to compete in electricity markets.” [1] The idea, in other words, is that electricity produced by this company’s windmills will be as cheap (or cheaper) than that produced from fossil fuels, including coal. To reach that point, the development of very strong yet lightweight materials has been necessary, along with other technological advances. If they continue, it may be that American energy consumption can remain high, while pollution emitted from coal-burning electricity plants diminishes. One point, finally, that the wind turbine company web page doesn’t underline quite so darkly is that they’ll make a lot of money along the way if everything goes
- 393. according to plan. This incentive is also typical of an accelerate-and-innovate approach: not only should industrialization go forward faster in the name of saving the environment, so too should entrepreneurialism and profit. In broad terms, the business attitude toward employing innovation to protect the environment acknowledges that human activity on earth has done environmental damage, and that matters. The damage is undesirable and should be reversed. The way to reverse, however, isn’t to go backward by doing things like reducing our energy use to previous levels. Instead, we keep doing what we’re doing, just faster. The same industrialization that caused the problem will pull us out. Business and Environmental Protections: Monetize and Count
- 394. A cost-benefit analysis is, theoretically, a straightforward way of determining whether an action should be undertaken. The effort and expense of doing something is toted on one side, and the benefits received are summed on the other. If the benefits are greater than the costs, we go ahead; if not, we don’t. Everyone performs cost-benefit analyses all the time. At dinner, children decide whether a dessert brownie is worth the cost of swallowing thirty peas. Adults decide whether the fun of a few beers tonight is worth a hangover tomorrow or, more significantly, whether getting to live in one of the larger homes farther out of town is worth an extra half-hour in the car driving to work every morning. Setting a cost-benefit analysis between a business and the environment means adding the costs of
- 395. eliminating pollution on one side and weighing it against the benefits of a cleaner world. The ethical Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 652 theory underneath this balancing approach to business and nature is utilitarianism. The right act is the one most increasing society’s overall happiness (or most decreasing unhappiness), with happiness measured in this case in terms of the net benefits a society receives after the costs of an action have been deducted. The most nettlesome problem for businesses adopting a cost- benefit approach to managing environmental protection is implementation. It’s hard to know exactly what all the costs are on the
- 396. business side, and what all the benefits are on nature’s side. Then, even if all the costs and benefits are confidently listed, it’s equally (or more) difficult to weigh them against each other. According to a report promulgated by the nonprofit Environmental Defense Fund, North Carolina’s coal-fired electricity plants could install smokestack scrubbers to significantly reduce contaminating emissions. The cost would be $450 million. The benefits received as a result of the cleaner air would total $3.5 billion. [2] This seems like a no-brainer. The problem is that when you dig a bit into the report’s details, it’s not entirely clear that the benefits derived from cleaner air add up to $3.5 billion. More troubling, it looks like it’s hard to put any price tag at all on them. Here are a few examples:
- 397. power plants triggers more than 200,000 asthma attacks across the state each year and more than 1,800 premature deaths.” The word estimated is important. Further, how do you put a dollar total on an asthma attack or a death? miles on an average day in the Smoky Mountains, but now air pollution has reduced this to an average of 22 miles.” How do you put a dollar total on a view? significant declines in populations of dogwood, spruce, fir, beech, and other tree species.” What is “significant?” What’s the dollar value of a dogwood? [3]
- 398. The list of items goes on, but the point is clear. A cost-benefit analysis makes excellent sense in theory, but it’s as difficult to execute as it is to assign numbers to human experiences. If the attempt is nonetheless made, the technical term for the assigning is monetization. A final set of hurtles to clear on the way to implementing a cost-benefit approach to business and the environment involves formalizing mechanisms for paying the costs. Two common mechanisms are regulation and incentives. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 653 Regulations are imposed by federal or local governments and come in various forms. Most directly, and staying with electrical plants in Carolina, the plants could be
- 399. required to install smokestack scrubbers. Costs of the installation would, to some significant extent, be passed on to consumers as rate hikes, and the benefits of cleaner air would be enjoyed by all. It’s worth noting here that the contamination producers in question—coal-burning electricity plants—are pretty much stuck where they are in geographic terms. You can’t produce electricity in China and sell it in the States. Other kinds of businesses, however, may be able to avoid regulations by packing up and heading elsewhere. This, of course, complicates the already knotted attempt to tote up the benefits and costs of environmental protection. A more flexible manner of regulating air and other types of pollution involves the sale of permits. There
- 400. are multiple ways of mounting a permit trade, but as a general sketch, the government sets an upper limit to the amount of air pollution produced by all industry, and sells (or gives) permits to specific operating businesses. In their turn, these permits may be bought and sold. So an electric company may find that it makes economic sense to install scrubbers (limiting its pollution output) and then sell the remaining pollution amount on its license to another company that finds the cost of limiting its emissions to be very high. One advantage of this approach is that, while it does limit total contamination, it allows for the fact that it’s easier for some polluters than others to cut back. As opposed to regulations that essentially force businesses to meet social pollution goals, incentives seek the same results cooperatively. For example, tax incentives could be offered for environmental protection
- 401. efforts; money paid for the scrubbers a company places in their smokestacks may be deducted from taxes at a very high rate. Similarly, matching funds may be offered by government agencies: for every dollar the company spends, the government—which in this case means you and I and everyone who pays taxes— chips in one also. Alternatively, government agencies including the Environmental Protection Agency may provide public recognition to anti-contamination efforts undertaken by a business, and in the hands of a strong marketing department those awards may be converted into positive public relations, new consumers, and extra profits that offset the original pollution control costs. Specific awards tied to government agencies may not even be necessary; the incentive can be drawn from
- 402. a broad range of sources. A good example comes from the Washington Post. A long and generally quite Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 654 positive news story recounts Wal-Mart’s efforts to encourage suppliers in China to increase energy efficiency while decreasing their pollution output. Basically, Wal-Mart told suppliers that they need to clean up or they’ll get replaced. According to the account, not only is the effort bearing fruit, but it’s working better than government regulations designed to achieve similar ends: “In many cases, Wal-Mart is first trying to bring firms up to government standards. Suppliers may not care about government fines, but they care about orders from the buyers.”
- 403. [4] As for Wal-Mart, their cause is served by the free publicity of the story when it’s distributed to almost a million newspaper readers in the Washington, DC, area and then projected broadly on the Internet. Further down the line, the good publicity ended up getting cited here. Going back to the specific newspaper story, it finishes with a clear acknowledgment of the public relations dynamic. These are the article’s last lines: “Wal-Mart sees this not just as good practice but also good marketing. ‘We hope to get more customers,’ said Barry Friedman, vice president for corporate affairs in Beijing. ‘We’re not doing it solely out of the goodness of our hearts.’” [5]
- 404. One notable problem with the incentive approach is identical to its strength: since participation is voluntary, some heavy polluters may choose not to get involved. As a final point about incentives, many industrial plants already receive incentives to not protect the environment. To the extent they’re allowed to simply jet sulfur and other contamination into the air, they are, in effect, forcing society generally to pay part of their cost of production. Every time someone in Carolina falls ill with an asthma attack, the consequences are suffered by that individual while the profits from electricity sales go to the electric company. As previously discussed, these externalities—these costs of production borne by third parties—actually encourage businesses to follow any route possible to make outsiders pay the costs of their operations. One route that’s frequently possible, especially for heavy
- 405. industry, involves letting others deal with their runoff and waste. Business and Environmental Protections: Corporate Social Responsibility The third posture an organization may adopt toward environmental protection falls under the heading of corporate social responsibility. The attitude here is that companies, especially large, public corporations, should humanize their existences: an attempt should be made to see the corporation, in a certain sense, as an individual person. Instead of being a mindless machine built to stamp out profits, the business is re- Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 655 envisioned as a seat of economic and moral responsibility.
- 406. Responding to ethical worries isn’t someone else’s concern (say, the government’s, which acts by imposing regulations), instead, large companies including Wal-Mart take a leading role in addressing ethical issues. The Washington Post’s flattering presentation of Wal-Mart in China fits well here. The story actually presents Wal-Mart as transitioning from a vision of itself as a pure profit enterprise to one exercising corporate citizenship. Originally, Wal-Mart only cared about price and quality, so that encouraged suppliers to race to the bottom on environmental standards. They could lose contracts because competition was so fierce on price. Now, however,
- 407. Wal-Mart held a conference in Beijing for suppliers to urge them to pay attention not only to price but also to “sustainability,” which has become a touchstone. [6] Sustainability means acting to protect the environment and the people surrounding an operation so that they may continue to contribute to the profit-making enterprise. As a quick example, a logging operation that clear-cuts forests isn’t sustainable: when all the trees are gone, there’s no way for the company to make any more money. Similarly in human terms, companies depending on manual labor need their employees to be healthy. If a factory’s air pollution makes everyone sick, no one will be able to come in to work.
- 408. For Wal-Mart in China, one step toward sustainability involved energy efficiency. A supplier installed modern shrink-wrapping machines to replace work previously done by people wielding over-the-counter hair dryers. In theoretical terms at least, the use of less energy will help the supplier continue to produce even as worldwide petroleum supplies dwindle and energy costs increase. Steps were also taken, as the newspaper story notes, to limit water pollution: “Lutex says it treats four tons of wastewater that it used to dump into the municipal sewage line. That water was supposed to be treated by the city, but like three- quarters or more of China’s wastewater, it almost certainly wasn’t.” [7] More examples of Wal-Mart suppliers making environmentally
- 409. conscious decisions dot the newspaper story, and in every case these actions may be understood as serving the long-term viability of the supplier’s operations. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 656 Stakeholder theory is another way of presenting corporate social responsibility. The idea here is that corporate leaders must make decisions representing the interests not only of shareholders (the corporation’s owners) but also of all those who have a stake in what the enterprise is doing: the company exists for their benefit too. Along these lines, Wal-Mart encouraged farmers in China to abandon the use of toxic pesticides. The corporation contracted with farmers
- 410. under the condition that they use only organic means to kill pests and then allowed their products to be sold with a label noting their Wal-Mart- confirmed clean production. The real lives of locals who eat that food and live on the now less- contaminated land are markedly improved. As another farming- related example of dedication to the well- being of the Chinese making up their manufacturing base, Wal - Mart sought “to help hundreds of small farmers build rudimentary greenhouses, made of wood and plastic sheeting, in which they grow oranges in midwinter to sell to Wal-Mart’s direct farm program. Zhang Fengquan is one of those farmers; he gathers more than three tons of nectarines from more than 400 trees in his greenhouse. Asked what he did during the winter before the greenhouse was built, he said he worked as a seasonal laborer. Or played
- 411. the popular Chinese board game mah-jongg.” [8] In both cases, Wal-Mart is not simply abandoning its workers (or its suppliers’ workers) once they punch out. As stakeholders in the company, Wal-Mart executives feel a responsibility to defend employees’ well- being just as they feel a responsibility to bring good products to market in the name of profit. The fact that Wal-Mart’s recent actions in China can be presented as examples of a corporation expressing a sense of responsibility for the people and their natural world that goes beyond immediate profit doesn’t mean that profit disappears from the equation. Shareholders are stakeholders too. And while corporate attitudes of social responsibility may well result in an increasingly protected environment, and while that
- 412. protection may actually help the bottom line in some cases, there’s no guarantee that the basic economic tension between making money and environmental welfare will be resolved. Conclusion. Businesses can react to a world of environmental concern by trusting in technological innovation, by trusting in governmental regulation, and by trusting in a concept of corporate responsibility. It is currently uncertain which, if any, of these postures will most effectively respond to society’s environmental preoccupations. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 657 K E Y T A K E A W A Y S
- 413. to participate in the process of technological innovation to produce cleaner, more efficient ways of living. to participate in, and act on cost-benefit studies of environmental protection. to concerns about the environment is to express corporate responsibility: to make the business a seat of economic and ethical decisions. R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S 1. What’s the difference between environmental protection and environmental conservation? 2. How has industrialization caused environmental problems? How can it resolve those problems? 3. What is a cost-benefit analysis?
- 414. 4. With respect to the environment, how can a cost-benefit analysis be used to answer questions about business and environmental protection? 5. What is practical problem with the execution of a cost-benefit analysis strategy for responding to environmental problems? 6. What’s the difference between a corporation guided by profit and one guided by a sense of social responsibility? 7. Why might a stakeholder theory of corporate decision making be good for the environment? [1] The Wind Turbine Company home page, accessed June 8, 2011,http://www.windturbinecompany.com. [2] “The North Carolina Clean Smokestacks Plan,” Environmental Defense Fund, March 2001, accessed June 8,
- 415. 2011, http://apps.edf.org/documents/700_NCsmokestacks.PDF. [3] “The North Carolina Clean Smokestacks Plan,” Environmental Defense Fund, March 2001, accessed June 8, 2011, http://apps.edf.org/documents/700_NCsmokestacks.PDF. [4] Steve Mufson, “Wal-Mart Presses Vendors in China to Meet Higher Standards,” Washington Post, February 26, 2010, accessed June 8, 2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- dyn/content/article/2010/02/26/AR2010022603339_pf.html. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 658 [5] Steve Mufson, “Wal-Mart Presses Vendors in China to Meet Higher Standards,” Washington Post, February 26, 2010, accessed June 8, 2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
- 416. dyn/content/article/2010/02/26/AR2010022603339_pf.html. [6] Steve Mufson, “Wal-Mart Presses Vendors in China to Meet Higher Standards,” Washington Post, February 26, 2010, accessed June 8, 2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- dyn/content/article/2010/02/26/AR2010 022603339_pf.html. [7] Steve Mufson, “Wal-Mart Presses Vendors in China to Meet Higher Standards,” Washington Post, February 26, 2010, accessed June 8, 2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- dyn/content/article/2010/02/26/AR2010022603339_pf.html. [8] Steve Mufson, “Wal-Mart Presses Vendors in China to Meet Higher Standards,” Washington Post, February 26, 2010, accessed June 8, 2011,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
- 417. dyn/content/article/2010/02/26/AR2010022603339_pf.html. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 659 14.4 Animal Rights L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S 1. Elaborate arguments in favor of and against the proposition that animals have ethical rights. 2. Distinguish questions about animal rights from ones about animal suffering. Do Animals Have Rights? Were these a textbook in environmental ethics, two further questions would be added to this subsection’s title: which rights, which animals? It’s clear that chimps and dolphins are different from worms and, even
- 418. lower, single-cell organisms. The former give coherent evidence of having some level of conscious understanding of their worlds; the latter seem to be little more than reactionary vessels: they get a stimulus, they react, and that’s it. Questions about where the line should be drawn between these two extremes, and by what criteria, fit within a more specialized study of the environment. In business ethics, attention fixes on the larger question of whether animals can be understood as possessing ethical rights as we customarily understand the term. There are two principal arguments in favor of understanding at least higher-order nonhuman animals as endowed with rights: 1. The cognitive awareness and interest argument 2. The suffering argument
- 419. And there are three arguments against: 1. The lack of expression argument 2. The absence of duties argument 3. The anthropomorphism suspicion argument The cognitive awareness and interest argument in favor of concluding that animals do have ethical rights begins by accumulating evidence that nonhuman animals are aware of what’s going on around them and do in fact have an interest in how things go. As for showing that animals are aware and interested, in higher species evidence comes from what ani mals do. Most dogs learn in some sense the rules of the house; they squeal when kicked and (after a few occurrences) tend to avoid doing whatever it
- 420. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 660 was that got them the boot. Analogously, anyone who’s visited Sea World has seen dolphins respond to orders, and seemingly understand that responding well is in their interest because they get a fish to eat afterward. If these deductions of animal awareness and interest are on target, the way opens to granting the animals an autonomous moral value and standing. Maybe their ethical value should be inferior to humans who demonstrate sophisticated understanding of their environment, themselves, and their interests, but any understanding at all does bring animals into the realm of ethics because determinations about whose interests should be served in any particular situation are what
- 421. ethical discussions concern. The reason we have ethics is to help those who have specific interests have them satisfied in ways that don’t interfere with others and their attempts to satisfy their distinct interests. So if we’re going to have ethical principles at all, then they should apply to dogs and dolphins because they’re involved in the messy conflicts about who gets what in the world. Putting the same argument slightly differently, when the owner of a company decides how much of the year-end profits should go to employees as bonuses, that’s ethics because the interests of the owner and the employees are being weighed. So too when decisions are made at Sea World about how often and how intensely animals should be put to work in entertainment programs: the interests of profits (and human
- 422. welfare) are being weighed against the interests of individual dolphins. As soon as that happens, the dolphins are granted an ethical standing. The suffering argument in favor of concluding that animals do have ethical rights fits neatly inside utilitarian theory. Within this ethical universe, the reason we have ethical rules is to maximize happiness and minimize suffering. So the first step to take here is to determine whether dogs and similar animals do, in fact, suffer. Of course no dog complains with words, but no baby does either, and no one doubts that babies suffer when, for example, they’re hungry (and whining). When dogs would be expected to suffer, when they get slapped in the snout, they too exhibit clear signs of distress. Further, biological studies have shown that pain-associated elements of some animal nervous systems resemble the human version. Of
- 423. course dogs may not suffer on the emotional level (if you separate a male and female pair, there may not be any heartbreak), and it’s true that absolute proof remains elusive, but for many observers there’s good evidence that some animals do, in fact, feel pain. If, then, it’s accepted that animals suffer, they ought to be included in our utilitarian considerations by definition because the theory directs us to act in ways that Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 661 maximize happiness and minimize suffering. It should be noted that the theory can be adjusted to include only human happiness and suffering, but there’s no necessary reason for that, and as long as there’s not, the establishment of animal suffering is enough to make a
- 424. reasonable case that they are entities within the ethical world, and ones that require respect. On the other side, the arguments against granting animals a moral standing in the world begin with the lack of expression argument. Animals, the reasoning goes, may display behaviors indicating an awareness of the world and the ability to suffer, but that’s not enough to merit autonomous moral standing. To truly have rights, they must be claimed. An explicit and demonstrated awareness must exist of what ethics are, and why rules for action are attached to them. Without that, what separates animals from a sunflower? Like dogs, sunflowers react to their environment; they bend and twist to face the sun. Further, like dogs, sunflowers betray signs of suffering: when they don’t get enough water they shrivel.
- 425. Granting, finally, animals rights based on their displaying some reactions to their world isn’t enough to earn a moral identity. Or if it is, then we end up in a silly situation where we have to grant sunflowers moral autonomy. Finally, because animals can’t truly explain morality and demand rights, they have none. Another way to deny animal rights runs through the absence of duties argument. Since animals don’t have duties, they can’t have rights. All ethics, the argument goes, is a two-way street. To have rights you must also have responsibilities; to claim protection against injury from others, you must also display consideration before injuring others. The first question to ask, consequently, in trying to determine whether animals should have rights is whether they have or could have responsibilities. For the most part,
- 426. the answer seems to lean toward no. Were a bear to escape its enclosure in the zoo and attack a harmless child, few would blame the bear in any moral sense; almost no one would believe the animal was guilty of anything other than following its instincts. People don’t expect wild animals to distinguish between their own interest and instinct on one side, and doing what’s right on the other. We don’t even expect that they can do that, and if they can’t, then they can’t participate in an ethical world any more than trees and other natural creatures that go through every day pursuing their own survival and little more. The last argument against granting moral autonomy or value to animals is a suspicion of anthropomorphism. Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human qualities to nonhuman things.
- 427. When we look at dogs and cats at home, or chimpanzees on TV, it’s difficult to miss the human Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 662 resemblance, the blinking, alert eyes, and the legs stretching after a nap, the howls when you accidentally step on a tail, the hunger for food, the thirst and need to drink. In all these ways, common animals are very similar to humans. Given these indisputable similarities, it’s easy to imagine that others must exist also. If animals look like we do (eyes, mouth, and nose), and if they eat and drink as we do, it’s natural to assume they feel as we do: they suffer sadness and boredom; they need affection and are happy being cuddled. And from there it’s natural to imagine that they think as we do, too. Not on the same level of
- 428. sophistication, but, yes, they feel loyalty and experience similar inclinations. All this is false reasoning, however. Just because something looks human on the outside doesn’t mean it experiences some kind of human sentiments on the inside. Dolls, for example, look human but feel nothing. Transferring this possibility of drawing false conclusions from superficial resemblances over to the question about animal rights, the suspicion is that people are getting fooled. Animals may react in ways that look like pain to us but aren’t pain to them. Animals may appear to need affection and construct relationships tinted with loyalty and some rudimentary morality, but all that may be just us imposing our reality where it doesn’t actually exist. If that’s what’s happening, then animals shouldn’t have rights
- 429. because all the qualities those rights are based on—having interests, feeling pain and affection—are invented for them by us. Corresponding with this argument, it’s hard not to notice how quickly we rush to the defense of animals that look cute and vaguely human, but few seem very enthusiastic about helping moles and catfish. Dividing Questions about Animal Rights from Ones about Animal Suffering The debate about whether animals should be understood as possessing rights within the ethical universe is distinct from the one about whether they should be subjected to suffering. If animals do have rights, then it quickly follows that their suffering should be objectionable. Even if animals aren’t granted any kind of autonomous ethical existence, however, there remains a debate about the extent to which their
- 430. suffering should be considered acceptable. Assuming some nonhuman animals do, in fact, suffer, there are two major business-related areas where the suffering is especially notable: Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 663 The case of research—especially medical and drug development—provides some obvious justification for making animals suffer. One example involves a jaw implant brought to market by the firm Vitek. After implantation in human patients, the device fragmented, causing extensive and painful problems. Later
- 431. studies indicated that had the implant been tested in animals first, the defect would’ve been discovered and the human costs and pain avoided. [1] From here, it’s easy to form an argument that if significant human suffering can be avoided by imposing on animals, then the route should be followed. Certainly many would be persuaded if it could be proven that the net animal suffering would be inferior to that caused in humans. (As an amplifying note, some make the case that testing on humans can be justified using the same reasoning: if imposing significant suffering on a few subjects will later help many cure a serious disease, then the action should be taken.) The case of animal testing in the name of perfecting consumer goods is less easily defended. A New York
- 432. Times story chronicles a dispute between the Perdue chicken company and a group of animal rights activists. The activists got enough money together to purchase a newspaper ad decrying poultry farm conditions. It portrayed chickens as crowded together so tightly that they end up fiercely attacking and eating each other. Even when not fighting, they wallow in disease and convulse in mass hysteria. [2] Though Perdue denied the ad’s claims, many believe that animals of all kinds are subjected to extreme pain in the name of producing everything from cosmetics, to dinner, to Spanish bullfights. When animals are made to suffer for human comfort or pleasure— whether the result is nice makeup, or a tasty
- 433. veal dish, or an enthralling bullfight—two arguments quickly arise against subjecting animals to the painful treatment. The utilitarian principle that pain in the world should be minimized may be applied. Also, a duty to refrain from cruelty may be cited and found persuasive. K E Y T A K E A W A Y S sufficient to grant them autonomous ethical rights. autonomous ethical rights. o not explicitly claim ethical rights may be sufficient to deny them those rights. deny them ethical rights.
- 434. possessing autonomous ethical value. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 664 suffering is ethically acceptable may be managed independently of the question about whether animals possess rights. R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S 1. What are the basic steps of the cognitive awareness and interest argument? 2. What are the basic steps of the suffering argument? 3. What are the basic steps of the lack of expression argument? 4. What are the basic steps of the absence of duties argument?
- 435. 5. What are the basic steps of the anthropomorphism suspicion argument? 6. In ethical terms, how is animal suffering for research reasons distinct from the suffering of a Spanish bullfight? [1] Lauren Myers, “Animal Testing Necessary in Medical Research,” Daily Wildcat, November 6, 2007, accessed June 8, 2011, http://wildcat.arizona.edu/2.2255/animal -testing- necessary-in-medical-research-1.169288. [2] Barnaby Feder, “Pressuring Perdue,” New York Times, November 26, 1989, accessed June 8, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/26/magazine/pressuring- perdue.html. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 665
- 436. 14.5 Case Studies Yahoo! Answers: Why Should We Save the Planet? Some people argue that there’s no ethical requirement to protect the environment because the natural world has no intrinsic value. Against that ethical posture, here are four broad justifications for environmental protection. Each begins with a distinct and fundamental evaluation: 1. The environment should be protected in the name of serving human welfare, which is intrinsically valuable. 2. The environment should be protected in the name of serving future generations because they’re valuable and merit intergenerational fairness. 3. The environment should be protected to serve animal welfare
- 437. because there’s an independent value in the existence and lives of animals. 4. The entire environmental web should be protected for its own sake because the planet’s collection of ecosystems is intrinsically valuable. On a Yahoo! forum page, a student named redbeard_90 posts the question “why should we save the planet?” and partially explains this way: “With the entire constant talk of ‘saving the planet’ and stopping global warming, should we actually try to stop it? Perhaps in a way, this is humans transforming the planet to better suit us?” [1] Imag e rem oved
- 438. due to c opyr ight issue s. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 666 Q U E S T I O N S 1. It sounds like redbeard_90 might think that humans doing damage to the environment is OK because it’s just a symptom of “humans transforming the planet to better suit us.” o Where is redbeard_90 placing value?
- 439. o What might redbeard_90’s attitude be toward the free use conception of the human relation with the environment? o What is the domination and progress argument against worrying about saving the planet? How could that argument fit together with what redbeard_90 wrote? 2. The response by a woman named Super Nova includes this reasoning: “We should try to save the planet because there would be less people with health problems. Did you know that there are more people with respiratory problems because of all the air pollution contributing to it? Also, we should think about future generations on Earth and how it would affect our future. Also, global warming is affecting our essential natural resources like food and lakes are drying up
- 440. and it is causing more droughts in the world.” The overall tone of her answer is strong with conviction. o It sounds like Super Nova wants to save the planet. What values sit underneath her desire? Why does she think environmental protection is important? o Does it sound like she believes nature in itself has value? Why or why not? 3. The poster named Luke writes an animated response, including these sentences: The first thing we need to do is help make some changes in our national mind set from one that lets us believe that our earth can recover from anything, to one that lets us believe that our earth could use a little help. Developing cleaner ways to produce electricity is not going to hurt a thing; if it does
- 441. nothing but make the air we breathe cleaner it works for me. Developing alternative fuels to power our transportation needs, again won’t hurt a thing, reduce the demand for oil you reduce the price we pay for it, I think everyone can say “that works for me” to this. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 667 I’m a global warming advocate but, not because of some unfounded fear of Doomsday but (as you may have guessed by now) because it won’t hurt a thing to help our earth recover from years of industrial plunder. o Some people are worried about human welfare, some people
- 442. care a lot about the welfare of the planet, some people mix a little of both. Where would you say Luke comes down? Justify by specific reference to his words. o Some people who are concerned about the earth’s welfare are most interested in helping nonhuman animals; others are more interested in the natural world in its totality. Where would you say Luke comes down here? Why? o Environmental conservation efforts can be conservative in the sense that they try to undo damage to the earth by limiting industrialization. The idea of environmental protection leaves open the possibility of using industrial advances—the same forces that have been contaminating the earth—to help resolve the problem. Does Luke sound more
- 443. like a conservationist or a protector? Explain. 4. The poster named scottsdalehigh64 is the most intense. He’s also fairly experienced: assuming his username is true and he graduated high school in 1964, he’s about retirement age now. He writes, “There is an alternate question: Why do we think we have a right to be so destructive to other life forms on the planet? Perhaps the best answer is that we want to leave a good place to live for the species that are left when we go extinct.” Unlike most of the other posters, he doesn’t include any personal note or “best wishes” type line in his response. He’s focused and intense. o How much value does scottsdalehigh64 place in human existence?
- 444. o Where does he place value? What does scottsdalehigh64 think is worth aiding and protecting? o Just from his words, how do you imagine scottsdalehigh64 would define “a good place to live?” 5. Scottsdalehigh64 doesn’t seem to like those who are “destructive to other life forms on the planet.” Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 668 o Could an argument be built that, in preparing for our own eventual extinction, we should make sure that we eliminate all life-forms that are destructive to other life forms? What would that elimination mean? What would need to be done? How could i t be justified?
- 445. o In a newspaper column, the philosopher Jeff McMahan appears to tentatively endorse scottsdalehigh64’s vision. He proposes that we “arrange the gradual extinction of carnivorous species, replacing them with new herbivorous ones.” [2] If, in fact, we decided to wipe out meat- eating animals and leave the world to plants and plant eaters, would we be valuing most highly ourselves? Nonhuman animals? The entire natural world? Something else? Explain your response. 6. An excited poster, KiRa01, announces, “Just live like there’s no tomorrow!!!!” With respect to the environment, justify his attitude in ethical terms.
- 446. Going Green Fifty years ago airports were designed to reward fliers with architecture as striking as the new experience of flight was rare and exciting. From those early days, only a few airports remain unspoiled by renovation and expansion. The Long Beach Airport south of Los Angeles is a survivor. The low lines of midcentury modern architecture captivate today’s visitors just as they did the first ones. The restaurant overlooking the tarmac remains as elegant and perfectly simple as always. Walking the concourse, it’s easy to imagine men in ties and women and children in their Sunday clothes waiting for a plane while uniformed porters manage their suitcases. Imag e rem
- 447. oved due to co pyrig ht iss ues. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 669 Flying is different today—no longer exciting and rare, it’s just frustrating and crowded. Recognizing that reality, when the large European nations combined to form an airplane manufacturer, they didn’t choose a distinguished and elevated name for their enterprise, they just called it Airbus: a company that makes buses that happen to go up and down.
- 448. Airplanes are tremendously polluting. In the United States, large passenger flights account for about 3 percent of released greenhouse gasses. That doesn’t sound like much, but when you compare the number of flights with car trips, it’s clear that each airplane is billowing massive carbon dioxide. And the problem is only getting worse, at least on the tourism front. Over the course of the next decade, global tourism will double to about 1.6 billion people annually. Tourists aren’t the only fliers. Planes are also taken by people heading to other cities to talk about tourism. One of them, Achim Steiner, is the executive director of the United Nations Environment Program. At a recent conference in Spain, he said, “Tourism is an extraordinary growth industry, it’s the responsibility of operators—from hoteliers to travel companies—as well as
- 449. governments to ensure that sites are sustainable.” [3] Sustainability has at least two sides. On one side, there’s the economic reality: revenue provided by visitors pays for needed services. An example comes from the Masai Mara park reserve in Kenya. In villages surrounding the park, schools were forced to close when political unrest scared away the tourists and their money. On the other side, sustainability also means environmental protection. According to Steiner, there’s the possibility that “Masai Mara could be overused to the point where it loses its value.” Q U E S T I O N S 1. According to Steiner, “Hoteliers, travel companies, and governments are responsible” for
- 450. ensuring the sustainability of sites including Masai Mara. In most discussions about paying the costs of a clean environment, three groups are signaled: o Those who contaminate the natural world o Those who enjoy the natural world o Those who are most able to pay How do each of these three fit into Steiner’s vision? Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 670 2. Airplane exhaust contributes significantly to the damage currently being done to the environment. Steiner rode an airplane to a city to talk about that damage.
- 451. o What is a cost-benefit analysis? o How could a cost-benefit analysis be used to show that his boarding the plane and going was actually an environmentally respectable act? 3. Fifty years ago, airplanes contributed almost no pollution to the environment because so few could afford to fly. One way to limit the amount of pollution into the air is through incentives. In the airplane case, a large tax could be attached to an air line ticket, thus providing an incentive to tourists to stay home or use alternate sources of transportation. Of course, for the very wealthy, the tax will be more absorbable and, presumably, airplane travel would tend toward its origins: flying would be something the rich do. How could a utilitarian analysis be used to justify the action of,
- 452. in essence, reserving plane flying for the rich in the name of helping the environment? 4. The airport at Long Beach is a low-ranking historical treasure. Tourists will never flock to see it, but it does incarnate and vivify a time in the recent past. The airport at Long Beach is also a business. That may lead its directors to initiate remodeling and expansion plans that will destroy the airport’s original essence. o Is preserving the natural world like the preservation of a historical architectural treasure? If so, why? If not, why not? o Using standard arguments against the business responsibility to preserve the natural world (free use, domination and progress, geological time), make the case that progress should be allowed
- 453. to destroy the Long Beach Airport’s historical authenticity if that course of action is profitable. o Using standard arguments in favor of the business responsibility to preserve the natural world (preservation for human welfare, for future generations, for the sake of the thing itself), make the case that the Long Beach Airport should be preserved. o If the airport is preserved, who should pay? Why? 5. In ethical terms, make the case that it’s more important to preserve the Masai Mara park reserve in Kenya than the Long Beach Airport. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 671 IBM and IBM
- 454. Bernadette Patrick moved away from her home in Endicott, New York, saying this about the town: “It was very neighborly and well kept, with lots of kids and families. Then all of a sudden it seemed like they put a skull and crossbones on all the doors. It was like a scene from a science fiction movie.” [4] The science fiction part is the large, white metal boxes attached to Endicott homes. With tubes burrowing down in the earth and shooting up high into the air, they’re wired to pump air from below and jet it above. The idea is to disperse toxic vapors rising up through the ground. The vapor’s source is industrial solvents poured down drains and dripped out of leaky pipes at the local IBM factory over the course of its seventy- five-year history.
- 455. Those seventy-five years have otherwise been good ones. IBM money and jobs drove the small town forward. As Wanda Hudak put it, “The IBM plant paid for a lot of college educations and cottages at Perch Pond.” [5] The good feelings ended when a company IBM hired started showing up at people’s homes to test the air and offer to install the mechanical ventilation systems. Q U E S T I O N S 1. IBM is paying millions for cleanup efforts. They’re installing air cleaners on homes and pumping contaminated groundwater to the surface for safe disposal. An IBM spokesman said this about Imag
- 456. e rem oved due to co pyrig ht iss ues. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 672 the toxic pollution, “None of it was done intentionally, but we still are sticking around to take care of it. We feel obligated legally, ethically. We are not going anywhere.” [6] o Make the ethical case that those who contaminated the
- 457. environment—IBM—should pay all the cleanup costs. o Make the case that those who benefit from a clean environment—the locals who work at the company and those who don’t—should pay for the cleanup. 2. When the extent of the environmental pollution became clear, it was also evident that the cleanup would be tremendously expensive. In general terms, how could a cost-benefit analysis be mounted to decide between going forward with the environmental cleanup or closing the factory, shuttering the town, and moving on? 3. One critical element of the notion of corporate social responsibility is the idea of sustainability. o In both environmental and economic senses, what is sustainability?
- 458. o What would be sustained by a cleanup in this case? How? 4. One critical element of the notion of corporate social responsibility is the idea of stakeholder theory. o Who are the obvious stakeholders in this case? o Thinking about the situation from the directorship of IBM, what are the company’s responsibilities to each of the stakeholders? 5. The IBM of Endicott, New York, is an IBM of the past, one focused on factories and making business machines like typewriters and photocopiers. The IBM of today leaves most hard manufacturing to foreign firms in low-cost countries. What IBM now wants to do now, according to their advertising, is “build a smarter planet.” That means
- 459. solving problems like this one reported by CNN: Stockholm bogs down in rush-hour traffic. A series of bridges connecting Sweden’s capital creates bottlenecks that cause gridlock and air pollution, waste millions of gallons of fuel, hamper public transportation, and endanger pedestrians. [7] The solution? Swede governmental officers decided on a congestion fee, on charging vehicles money for entering the city at peak traffic times. The aim was to seriously reduce the number of Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 673
- 460. cars downtown at rush hours. That’s easier said than done, however. Stopping people at toll booths would just make the problem worse: it would add yet another air-polluting stop to the traffic through town. So IBM was hired to produce camera technology allowing license plate numbers to be recorded and recognized automatically. Then monthly bills were generated and mailed out to the car owners. As CNN reported, these were the results: Traffic fell 35 percent almost immediately and stayed dow n 22 percent—and not just at peak times or solely downtown. Emissions also dropped by 14 percent. The streets became more pedestrian friendly, and the buses began finishing their routes so quickly that the city had to rewrite the schedules. The fee schedule
- 461. makes it obvious when traffic will be the worst, so drivers who trek in during peak hours know they’ll pay more for what will probably be a maddening experience. As a result, people seem to be cutting out unnecessary trips: bundling afterschool pickups, say, with visits to the grocery store. In short, Swedes are driving smarter. [8] When IBM protects the environment by cleaning up Endicott, they’re losing money; when IBM protects the environment by selling smart systems to the Swedes, they’re profiting. o Make the case that, ethically, IBM’s actions in Endicott are nobler than the actions in Sweden. o Make the case that, ethically, IBM’s actions in Sweden are
- 462. nobler than the actions in Endicott. 6. In the world of business ethics and the environment, one of the more spirited debates is this: should we slow down technology and industrialization to use less and pollute less, or speed up industrialization and technology in the hope that we’ll discover solutions to the environmental problems caused by industrialization and technology? o How does the case of IBM incarnate that debate? o Does the decision about where you come down depend on where you place value (human welfare versus environmental welfare)? Explain. 7. With respect to the environment and money, there are two formulas for thinking about IBM’s project in Sweden:
- 463. a. The aim was to clean up the environment, and money happened to be made along the way. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 674 b. The aim was to make money, and cleaning up the environment happened to be a good strategy for profit. In terms of basic values and ethics, outline the difference between these two visions. Thinking about ethics and IBM in Endicott and in Sweden, what’s more important: the intentions of a company when it acts, or the consequences of the actions? Explain. Windmills and Condors
- 464. The wind farms of Northern California produce clean electricity. Every light bulb illuminated by the giant turbines represents less destruction of the earth by mining and drilling operations and less contamination of the air by coal- and oil-fired power plants. It also represents fewer California Condors. The spinning blades of the windmills erected in spots including the Altamont Pass are proving deadly for the rare birds, which are a kind of vulture. Here’s a reaction by the environmental writer and activist Jim Wiegand: “For all the ‘green energy’ believers out there, this is a video you have to see. Each year across America thousands of eagles, hawks, owls, falcons, vultures and condors perish at green energy wind farms. This video will open your eyes and your mind when you see how easily a soaring vulture is smashed
- 465. by the innocent looking blades of a prop wind turbine.” [9] Fatal Accident with Vulture on a Windmill The video shows a large and calm vulture cycling slowly around a modern wind turbine and then getting struck by one of the spinning blades. The bird drops out of the air. Left on the ground beside the towering contraption, it drags and struggles to flap its broken wing. Imag e rem oved due to c opyr ight issue
- 466. s. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 675 Q U E S T I O N S 1. Unlike single-cell creatures, vultures seem to have awareness and interest in their environment. They notice distressed animals, circle patiently, and in the end descend to eat the carcass. o How can this behavior be translated into an argument that animals have ethical rights? o How can the claim that aware and interested vultures have independent ethical rights be mustered into an argument against installing wind turbines in areas that threaten vultures, no
- 467. matter how much clean electrical energy they may generate? 2. If you have a chance to see the video and watch the fallen bird struggling and dying on the ground, do the images change your feelings about the importance of protecting this creature? o Assume the bird writhing on the ground is, in fact, suffering in a way not completely unlike human suffering. How can this behavior be translated into an argument that animals have ethical rights? o Make the case that the video doesn’t allow the conclusion that birds suffer. 3. Assume that, for whatever reason, you’re convinced that those condors being cut down by California wind turbines have ethical rights comparable with the ones we deposit in human
- 468. animals. Can you nonetheless outline an argument in favor of continued windmill use because of the clean energy it provides? o Make your case by appeal to a utilitarian argument. o Make your case by appeal to a cost-benefit analysis. o Make your case by appealing to the idea that the environment should be protected in its entirety because, as an interlocked set of ecosystems, it holds autonomous value. 4. If you can make the case that some nonhuman animals that have autonomous ethical rights should be allowed to meet their end in the name of clean energy, could you make the same argument for human animals? Imagine, for example, that actually constructing these wind turbines leads to high worker
- 469. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 676 fatalities, say, 10 times higher than any other kind of work. Could those deaths be justified ethically in the name of clean energy? Why or why not? The PETA Homepage People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals are possibly the most active animal-rights organization in the United States. On the day this case study was written, the organization’s home page featured pictures of a sad-eyed Dalmatian, a noble elephant, and a cuddly rabbit. There was also a tease to a story set underneath a picture of smiling, former President Clinton. It read, “What’s the secret behind this former president’s newly trim waistline, enhanced energy, and improved cardiovascular health? A vegan diet!
- 470. Read more.” [10] Q U E S T I O N S 1. A vegan diet excludes all products derived from animals and promotes plant-based eating. In this PETA ad, what values probably underlie the strategy (is the appeal to protect animals made in the name of human welfare, animal welfare, or general environmental welfare)? Justify. 2. What is anthropomorphism? How could the phenomenon of anthropomorphism lead someone to posit autonomous ethical dignity, and rights, in nonhuman animals that really shouldn’t be considered worth protecting any more than trees? Ima
- 471. ge r emo ved due to co pyri ght issu es. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 677 3. From the description provided of the PETA home page, how could it be described as inviting anthropomorphism? 4. Were you in charge at PETA, an organization fighting for
- 472. animal an right that depends on donations, would you use the phenomenon of anthropomorphism to boost your organization’s revenue? o What is an argument in favor of the strategy? o What is an argument against the strategy? [1] “Why Should We Save the Planet?,” Yahoo! Answers, accessed June 8, 2011,http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=2008061019 3018AA7IQt2. [2] Jeff McMahan, “The Meat Eaters,” New York Times, September 19, 2010, accessed June 8, 2011, http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/19/the- meat-eaters. [3] James Kanter, “How Do You Measure Green Tourism?,” New York Times, October 6, 2008, accessed June 8,
- 473. 2011, http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/10/06/is-there-any- such-thing-as-green-tourism. [4] Janet Gramza, “Life in the Plume: IBM’s Pollution Haunts a Village,” Post-Standard, January 11, 2009, accessed June 8, 2011,http://www.syracuse.com/spe cialreports/index.ssf/2009/01 /life_in_the_plume_ibms_polluti.html. [5] Janet Gramza, “Life in the Plume: IBM’s Pollution Haunts a Village,” Post-Standard, January 11, 2009, accessed June 8, 2011,http://www.syracuse.com/specialreports/index.ssf/2009/01 /life_in_the_plume_ibms_polluti.html. [6] Janet Gramza, “Life in the Plume: IBM’s Pollution Haunts a Village,” Post-Standard, January 11, 2009, accessed June 8, 2011,http://www.syracuse.com/specialreports/index.ssf/2009/01 /life_in_the_plume_ibms_polluti.html.
- 474. [7] Jeffrey M. O’Brien, “IBM’s Grand Plan to Save the Planet,” CNN Money, April 21, 2009, accessed June 8, 2011,http://money.cnn.com/2009/04/20/technology/obrien_ibm.f ortune/index.htm. [8] Jeffrey M. O’Brien, “IBM’s Grand Plan to Save the Planet,” CNN Money, April 21, 2009, accessed June 8, 2011,http://money.cnn.com/2009/04/20/technology/obrien_ibm.f ortune/index.htm [9] C. Taibibi, “California Condors, Wind Farms on Collision Course,” Examiner.com, August 30, 2009, accessed June 8, 2011, http://www.examiner.com/wildlife-conservation-in- national/california-condors-wind-farms-on-collision- course. Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org 678
- 475. [10] Peta.org, “Try Bill Clinton's New Diet!,” accessed June 8, 2011,https://secure.peta.org/site/Advocacy?cmd=display&page= UserAction&id=3315.
- 476. 4/22/2021 Baristas at Starbucks Accuse Service Company of Abuse and Pay Gaps - The New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/business/starbucks- discrimination-race.html 1/3
- 477. Baristas at Starbucks Accuse Service Company of Abuse and Pay Gaps A union representing employees at airport Starbucks locations says immigrant, transgender and black baristas have faced discrimination. By Maria Cramer Published March 1, 2020 Updated March 3, 2020 One transgender barista said his supervisors kept writing “Jessica” instead of Jay on his work schedule. They stared at his stubble and frowned at his deepening voice. A manager even laughed when he told her to stop referring to him as “she,” said the barista, Jay Kelly, who works at a Starbucks at Orlando International Airport in Florida. “It’s like a bullet to my heart,” he said. “They look at me like I’m disgusting or like I’m not human or a type of animal that doesn’t belong in that airport.”
- 478. Mr. Kelly, 25, is one of some 300 employees who responded to a union survey about conditions working for HMSHost, a travel food service company that has long operated Starbucks and other coffee shops in airports nationwide. His allegations and others’ — including that dozens of employees were told to speak English — were made in a report the union released amid tense negotiations with HMSHost, and as labor groups reach out to marginalized people to increase their membership. HMSHost denied any discrimination and accused the union, UNITE HERE, of spreading false information to gain leverage at the bargaining table. “We do not discriminate against any associate based on race, ethnicity, national origin, L.G.B.T.Q. status or any other reason,” the company said in a statement. “Our fair treatment policy ensures an open and inclusive environment.” Laura FitzRandolph, HMSHost’s chief human resources officer, said the company took complaints of discrimination seriously.
- 479. “If an issue comes to our attention, as in this case, we swiftly investigate and resolve it,” she said in a statement. In its survey, the union said that the median pay for black baristas was less than for white baristas, based on an analysis of wage data for more than 2,000 unionized employees. In its statement, HMSHost said the pay analysis was misleading and accused the union of using isolated complaints to undermine the company and unionize more shops. UNITE HERE has been organizing at Starbucks airport locations in Orlando, Denver and other cities. “The union has deployed a well-known tactic of using the media to frame its false narrative to negotiate these agreements,” the company said. HMSHost declined to comment on specific allegations, employees or managers, citing privacy concerns. Caught between the union and HMSHost is Starbucks, which does not employ the workers who wear its signature green aprons.
- 480. Adam Yalowitz, a research coordinator with UNITE HERE, said the union wanted Starbucks to pressure HMSHost to improve conditions for the employees and to emulate the more progressive policies of Starbucks, which has touted its support of gay marriage, adapted its computer system to reflect the preferred names of employees and added coverage of sex reassignment surgery to the company’s health benefits. “Workers are publicly calling on Starbucks to fix the problems at these stores,” Mr. Yalowitz said. A Starbucks spokesman referred questions to HMSHost. The union’s focus on transgender issues is the latest effor t by labor organizations to tap into social groups that have felt disempowered to mobilize workers, said Jonathan Cutler, a sociology professor at Wesleyan University who has written about the labor movement. Today in Business
- 481. Live Updates: Updated ABC sells out ad space for the Oscars, even as fewer people are expected to watch. Snap tops Wall Street expectations for the first quarter. A lawyer is accused of helping a billionaire evade taxes. The billionaire escaped with a fine. Is this helpful? 1 hour ago https://www.nytimes.com/by/maria-cramer https://www.restaurantbusinessonline.com/financing/why-hms- ended-its-exclusive-deal-starbucks https://www.respectatstarbucks.org/report/ https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2019/starbucks-pride-a- long-legacy-of-lgbtq-inclusion/ https://www.advocate.com/commentary/2018/6/26/intertwined- labor-movement-and-lgbt-rights https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/04/22/business/stock- market-today?name=styln-business-
- 482. live®ion=MAIN_CONTENT_2&block=storyline_latest_upda tes_recirc&action=click&pgtype=Article&variant=1_Show&ind ex=0 https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/04/22/business/stock- market-today?name=styln-business- live®ion=MAIN_CONTENT_2&block=storyline_latest_upda tes_recirc&action=click&pgtype=Article&variant=1_Show &ind ex=1#oscars-ads https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/04/22/business/stock- market-today?name=styln-business- live®ion=MAIN_CONTENT_2&block=storyline_latest_upda tes_recirc&action=click&pgtype=Article&variant=1_Show&ind ex=1#snap-tops-wall-street-expectations-for-the-first-quarter https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/04/22/business/stock- market-today?name=styln-business- live®ion=MAIN_CONTENT_2&block=storyline_latest_upda tes_recirc&action=click&pgtype=Article&variant=1_Show&ind ex=1#a-lawyer-is-accused-of-helping-a-billionaire-evade-taxes- the-billionaire-escaped-with-a-fine 4/22/2021 Baristas at Starbucks Accuse Service Company of Abuse and Pay Gaps - The New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/business/starbucks-
- 483. discrimination-race.html 2/3 “Organized labor often lives or dies by its ability to tap into broader social movements,” he said. “In this case, you’re seeing the most public effort to organize around transgender issues.” The union said the employee data showed that 79 percent of workers were women and 64 percent were black or Latino. Many of them are gay or transgender, according to the union. These are key demographics for unions like UNITE HERE, which tend to represent workers in low-wage industries, said Kate Bronfenbrenner, the director of labor education research at Cornell University. “Women and people of color, those are the workers most likely to organize,” she said. Unions “have to be strategic and work with their community allies. And the L.G.B.T.Q. community, particularly the people of color in the L.G.B.T.Q. community, are often very good allies.”
- 484. UNITE HERE released the survey results in a report that featured photos and accounts by Mr. Kelly and other baristas around the country, including Martha Mendoza, a barista at Seattle-Tacoma International Airport who said her manager scolded her because she spoke English with an accent, and Connie Fong, a barista at Portland International Airport who said her supervisor chanted “build the wall” at her. Several transgender employees asserted in the report that managers refused to use their correct pronouns, or had referred to them by their “dead names,” the names they were given at birth and no longer use. The report also quoted a former barista in Orlando who said he believed he was fired because he tried to organize workers. Ninety-six immigrants responded to the survey. More than a quarter of them said they were told to stop speaking foreign languages at work, according to the report.
- 485. HMSHost said the survey was based on a questionnaire that “contained deceptive and leading language.” The company noted that only 13 percent of unionized employees responded to it “despite the pressure some associates reportedly felt to complete the questionnaire.” Union officials said they analyzed wage data for a nine-month period in 2019 and found that the median pay for black baristas was $1.85 an hour less than it was for white baristas working at Starbucks in 27 U.S. airports. The company said the median pay figures the union reported did not account for where employees lived, since wages vary according to the cost of living around the country. “All wage rates have been negotiated and agreed upon by the union during the collective bargaining process with HMSHost and these rates are not based on race,” the company said. The union is pushing HMSHost to increase its hourly minimum
- 486. wage to $15 and to provide benefits in line with what Starbucks offers its employees, like full tuition reimbursement. Jay Kelly, who is transgender, said a manager at the HMSHost- operated Starbucks location where he works refused to use his correct pronouns. Phelan M. Ebenhack for The New York Times https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/feb/25/starbucks- worker-labor-unions-organizing 4/22/2021 Baristas at Starbucks Accuse Service Company of Abuse and Pay Gaps - The New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/business/starbucks- discrimination-race.html 3/3 Union officials said the survey found that many employees, who earn an average of $13.12 an hour, often had a difficult time paying their rent or paying for food. Some have had to sleep at the airport because they could not afford to take a taxi or Uber back home
- 487. after a late shift, they said. In 2018, after Starbucks employees in Philadelphia called the police on two black men who asked to use the store bathroom, Starbucks shut down its 8,000 stores for one day so employees could receive anti-bias training. HMSHost locations, as well as other Starbucks-licensed stores in supermarkets and hotels, did not offer the training at the time. According to HMSHost, the company offers training on anti- discrimination, and harassment and non discrimination language has been written into collective bargaining agreements. Lacreshia Lewis, 27, who works with Mr. Kelly in Orlando, said she and other workers regularly write in Mr. Kelly’s name for him on the schedule. She has confronted managers about their refusal to use the right pronouns. “They say, ‘Oh, I didn’t realize it,’ or try to play it off,” she said. “I think they’re purposely trying to misgender him.”
- 488. Maria Cramer is a breaking news reporter on the Express Desk. @NYTimesCramer https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/15/us/starbucks-philadelphia- black-men-arrest.html https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/17/business/starbucks- arrests-racial-bias.html https://twitter.com/NYTimesCramer 4/22/2021 Deforestation: Facts, Causes & Effects | Live Science https://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html 1/15 Nourish naturally curly hair Carol’s Daughter Hair Milk Curl Refreshe… $11.37 $11.97 Subscribe & Save Save 5% 2,822
- 489. Shop now TRENDING Coronavirus News Forum Life's Little Mysteries Magazine Deals Cool Merch Live Science is supported by its audience. When you purchase through links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission. Learn more Experts estimate that a chunk of forest the size of a soccer �eld is lost every second to deforestation. (Image credit: Shutterstock) Deforestation: Facts, Causes & E�ects By Sarah Derouin - Live Science Contributor November 06, 2019 Reference Article: Facts about deforestation. Deforestation is the permanent removal of trees to make room for something besides forest. This can include clearing the land for agriculture or grazing, or using the timber for fuel, construction or manufacturing.
- 492. 4/22/2021 Deforestation: Facts, Causes & Effects | Live Science https://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html 2/15 Forests cover more than 30% of the Earth's land surface, according to the World Wildlife Fund. These forested areas can provide food, medicine and fuel for more than a billion people. Worldwide, forests provide 13.4 million people with jobs in the forest sector, and another 41 million people have jobs related to forests. Forests are a resource, but they are also large, undeveloped swaths of land that can be converted for purposes such as agriculture and grazing. In North America, about half the forests in the eastern part of the continent were cut down for timber and farming between the 1600s and late 1800s, according to National Geographic. Today, most deforestation is happening in the tropics. Areas that were inaccessible in the past are now within reach as new roads are constructed through the dense forests. A 2017 report by scientists at the University of Maryland showed that the tropics lost about 61,000 square miles (158,000 square kilometers) of forest in 2017 — an area the size of Bangladesh.
- 493. Reasons forests are destroyed The World Bank estimates that about 3.9 million square miles (10 million square km) of forest have been lost since the beginning of the 20th century. In the past 25 years, forests shrank by 502,000 square miles (1.3 million square km) — an area bigger than the size of South Africa. In 2018, The Guardian reported that every second, a chunk of forest equivalent to the size of a soccer �eld is lost. Often, deforestation occurs when forested area is cut and cleared to make way for agriculture or grazing. The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) reports that just four commodities are responsible for tropical deforestation: beef, soy, palm oil and wood products. UCS estimates that an area the size of Switzerland (14,800 square miles, or 38,300 square km) is lost to deforestation every year. Natural �res in tropical forests tend to be rare but intense. Human-lit �res are commonly used to clear land for agricultural use. First, valuable timber is harvested, then the remaining
- 494. vegetation is burned to make way for crops like soy or cattle grazing. In 2019, the number of human-lit �res in Brazil skyrocketed. As of August 2019, more than 80,000 �res burned in the Amazon, an increase of almost 80% from 2018, National Geographic reported. Many forests are cleared to make way for palm oil plantations. Palm oil is the most commonly produced vegetable oil and is found in half of all supermarket products. It's cheap, versatile and can be added to both food and personal products like Deforestation: Facts, Causes & Effects Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make the land available for other uses. PLAY SOUND Subscribe https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/deforestation-and-forest- degradation#causes https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/deforestation/ https://blog.globalforestwatch.org/data-and-research/2017-was-
- 495. the-second-worst-year-on-record-for-tropical-tree-cover-loss https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/five-forest-figures- international-day-forests https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng- interactive/2018/jun/27/one-football-pitch-of-forest-lost-every- second-in-2017-data-reveals https://www.ucsusa.org/global-warming/stop- deforestation/whats-driving-deforestation https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/194008291773720 7 https://go.redirectingat.com/?id=92X1590019&xcust=livescienc e_us_1402057447664401400&xs=1&url=https%3A%2F%2Fww w.nationalgeographic.com%2Fenvironment%2F2019%2F08%2F wildfires-in-amazon-caused-by- deforestation%2F&sref=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.co m%2F27692-deforestation.html https://www.rainforest-rescue.org/topics/palm-oil https://www.livescience.com/ 4/22/2021 Deforestation: Facts, Causes & Effects | Live Science https://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html 3/15 lipsticks and shampoo. Its popularity has spurred people to clear
- 496. tropical forests to grow more palm trees. Growing the trees that produce the oil requires the leveling of native forest and the destruction of local peatlands — which doubles the harmful e�ect on the ecosystem. According to a report published by Zion Market Research, the global palm oil market was valued at $65.73 billion in 2015 and is expected to reach $92.84 billion in 2021. A palm tree farm planted where there was once a rainforest. (Image credit: Shutterstock) E�ects of deforestation Forests can be found from the tropics to high-latitude areas. They are home to 80% of terrestrial biodiversity, containing a wide array of trees, plants, animals and microbes, according to the World Bank, an international �nancial institution. Some places are especially diverse — the tropical forests of New Guinea, for example, contain more than 6% of the world's species of plants and animals. Forests provide more than a home for a diverse collection of living things; they are also an important resource for many around the world. In countries like Uganda, people rely on trees
- 497. for �rewood, timber and charcoal. Over the past 25 years, Uganda has lost 63% of its forest cover, Reuters reported. Families send children — primarily girls — to collect �rewood, and Frontline Plus 3pk Dogs 5-22 lbs Advertisement by 1800petmeds.com Frontline Plus Is A Waterproof Monthly Topical Preventative That Provides Complete Protection From Fleas & Ticks. It Kills Existing Fleas On Your Pet In 12 Hours, All Ticks In 48 Hours, And All Flea… SEE MORE Subscribe https://www.ucsusa.org/global-warming/stop- deforestation/whats-driving-deforestation https://www.globenewswire.com/news- release/2017/11/03/1174294/0/en/Global-Palm-Oil-Market-to- Cross-USD-92-84-Billion-in-2021-Zion-Market-Research.html https://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html
- 503. https://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html 4/15 kids have to trek farther and farther to get to the trees. Collecting enough wood often takes all day, so the children miss school. According to a 2018 FAO report, three-quarters of the Earth’s freshwater comes from forested watersheds, and the loss of trees can a�ect water quality. The UN's 2018 State of the World's Forests report found that over half the global population relies on forested watersheds for their drinking water as well as water used for agriculture and industry. Related: The Latest Deforestation News Stories Deforestation in tropical regions can also a�ect the way water vapor is produced over the canopy, which causes reduced rainfall. A 2019 study published in the journal Ecohydrology showed that parts of the Amazon rainforest that were converted to agricultural land had higher soil and air temperatures, which can exacerbate drought conditions. In comparison, forested land had rates of evapotranspiration that were about three times higher, adding more water vapor to the air.
- 504. Trees also absorb carbon dioxide, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions produced by human activity. As climate change continues, trees play an important role in carbon sequestration, or the capture and storage of excess carbon dioxide. Tropical trees alone are estimated to provide about 23% of the climate mitigation that's needed to o�set climate change, according to the World Resources Institute, a nonpro�t global research institute. Deforestation not only removes vegetation that is important for removing carbon dioxide from the air, but the act of clearing the forests also produces greenhouse gas emissions. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations says that deforestation is the second-leading cause of climate change. (The �rst is the burning of fossil fuels.) In fact, deforestation accounts for nearly 20% of greenhouse gas emissions. Not only does deforestation remove trees that sequester greenhouse gases, but it also produces a signi�cant amount of greenhouse gases in the process. (Image credit: Shutterstock) Deforestation solutions Subscribe
- 505. http://www.fao.org/state-of-forests/en/ http://www.fao.org/3/I9535EN/i9535en.pdf https://www.livescience.com/topics/deforestation https://www.livescience.com/23017-deforestation-reduces- rainfall.html https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/eco.2126 https://www.livescience.com/63196-rainforest-facts.html https://www.livescience.com/37821-greenhouse-gases.html https://www.wri.org/blog/2018/10/numbers-value-tropical- forests-climate-change-equation http://www.fao.org/state-of-forests/en/ https://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html https://www.livescience.com/ 4/22/2021 Deforestation: Facts, Causes & Effects | Live Science https://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html 5/15 Developing alternatives to deforestation can help decrease the need for tree clearing. For example, the desire to expand the amount of land used for agriculture is an attractive reason to deforest an area. But if people adopted sustainable farming practices or employed new farming technologies and crops, the
- 506. need for more land might be diminished, according to the UN's Sustainable Forest Management Toolbox. Forests can also be restored, through replanting trees in cleared areas or simply allowing the forest ecosystem to regenerate over time. The goal of restoration is to return the forest to its original state, before it was cleared, according to the U.S. Forest Service. The sooner a cleared area is reforested, the quicker the ecosystem can start to repair itself. Afterward, wildlife will return, water systems will reestablish, carbon will be sequestered and soils will be replenished. Everyone can do their part to curb deforestation. We can buy certi�ed wood products, go paperless whenever possible, limit our consumption of products that use palm oil and plant a tree when possible. Additional resources: Check out this animation of deforestation in the Amazon made with images from NASA's Landsat 5 and 7 satellites. Learn more about forest conservation e�orts from the Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies. Read more about the problems caused by deforestation
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- 525. KINSEY GRANT BUSINESS EDITOR AND PODCAST HOST Follow Twenty-�ve McDonald’s (+0.43%) workers have accused the fast food chain of l h d di i i i d li i f ki b COPY Francis Scialabba https://www.morningbrew.com/search?tag=metoo https://www.morningbrew.com/contributor/kinsey-grant https://twitter.com/KinseyGrant https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.morningb rew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s-comes-mcdonald- s&utm_source=facebook_share http://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=McDonald%E2%80%99s%2 0problems%20are%20also%20emblematic%20of%20the%20rest aurant%20industry&url=https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/st ories/2019/05/22/time-s-comes-mcdonald- s&utm_source=twitter_share&via=MorningBrew
- 526. http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?url=https://www.morning brew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s-comes-mcdonald- s&utm_source=linkedin_share https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/05/21/mcdonal ds-employees-say-times-up-new-round-sexual-harassment- complaints/?utm_term=.b30bac63d630&utm_source=morning_b rew 4/22/2021 Time's Up Comes for McDonald's https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s- comes-mcdonald-s?utm_source=morning_brew 2/5 sexual harassment, gender discrimination, and retaliation for speaking out about either. The widespread collection of charges (the third such round in three years) was �led yesterday with support from the #MeToo-spearheading Time’s Up Legal Defense
- 527. Fund, the American Civil Liberties Union, and the labor group Fight for $15. The stakes are high As the NYT points out, this campaign against McDonald’s is a “major test of the legal and labor power of the #MeToo movement.” McDonald’s has almost 2 million workers in 100+ countries—making it a key player in conversations around global economic conditions. McDonald’s problems are also emblematic of the broader restaurant industry, which has one of the highest rates of workplace sexual harassment around. A 2016 survey found 40% of female fast food workers said they’d experienced workplace sexual harassment.
- 528. Over 20% said they’d faced consequences, like missing out on raises or getting their hours cut, for reporting misconduct. But it’s complicated Almost 95% of McDonald’s U.S. locations are independently owned franchises. That’s given corporate legal teams grounds to argue that McDonald’s (the company) is not liable for the behavior of employees at McDonald’s (the franchisee-owned stores). The National Labor Relations Board is currently presiding over a case that could decide whether that argument has legs. McDonald’s has made some changes. CEO Steve Easterbrook says his company
- 529. has improved its harassment policies, sent posters with the new policies to all of its restaurants, and put most franchise owners through new training. It also plans to establish a complaint hotline. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/21/business/mcdonalds- female-employees-sexual- harassment.html?utm_source=morning_brew http://www.nationalpartnership.org/our-impact/news- room/press-statements/women-in-fast-food-industry-face- sexual-harassment.html?utm_source=morning_brew 4/22/2021 Time's Up Comes for McDonald's https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s- comes-mcdonald-s?utm_source=morning_brew 3/5 Still, McDonald’s workers (and some of those who �led claims) ((and activist/Top
- 530. Chef host Padma Lakshmi)) protested yesterday in front of Mickey D’s Chicago HQ —just two days before the chain’s annual shareholder meeting. COPY You might also like... GRAB BAG Key Performance Indicators: April 22 NEAL FREYMAN / 04.21.2021 ENVIRONMENT President Biden Holds Virtual Climate Summit With 40 World Leaders JAMIE WILDE / 04.21.2021 https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/mcdonald-s-faces-25- new-sexual-harassment-charges- n1008376?utm_source=morning_brew https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.morningb rew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s-comes-mcdonald-
- 531. s&utm_source=facebook_share http://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=McDonald%E2%80%99s%2 0problems%20are%20also%20emblematic%20of%20the%20rest aurant%20industry&url=https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/st ories/2019/05/22/time-s-comes-mcdonald- s&utm_source=twitter_share&via=MorningBrew http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?url=https://www.morning brew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s-comes-mcdonald- s&utm_source=linkedin_share https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/s tories/2021/04/21/key- performance-indicators-april-22 https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2021/04/21/preside nt-biden-holds-virtual-climate-summit-40-world-leaders https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2021/04/21/biden- administration-confronts-less-demand-vaccines 4/22/2021 Time's Up Comes for McDonald's https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s- comes-mcdonald-s?utm_source=morning_brew 4/5 COVID Biden Administration Confronts Less Demand for
- 532. Vaccines NEAL FREYMAN / 04.21.2021 BECOME SMARTER IN JUST 5 MINUTES Get the daily email that makes reading the news actually enjoyable. Stay informed and entertained, for free. Enter Email Try it NEWSLETTERS Morning Brew Emerging Tech Brew Retail Brew Marketing Brew Sidekick LATEST ISSUES
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- 535. Careers Privacy © 2021 Morning Brew, Inc. All Rights Reserved. https://shop.morningbrew.com/ https://jobs.lever.co/morningbrew https://www.morningbrew.com/privacy https://www.facebook.com/MorningBrew/ https://www.instagram.com/morningbrew/ https://www.twitter.com/MorningBrew https://www.linkedin.com/company/9455978/ 4/22/2021 Perdue Farms announces animal care changes https://www.feedstuffs.com/print/24370 1/3 Perdue Farms has announced animal care improvements that it says will elevate the welfare of its chickens and that promise to meet growing customer and consumer demand for poultry raised to
- 536. higher welfare standards. The details are outlined in the release of the company’s first annual Credit: buhanovskiy/iStock/Thinkstock. Perdue Farms announces animal care changes Company moving to controlled-atmosphere stunning. Jul 17, 2017 https://www.feedstuffs.com/ 4/22/2021 Perdue Farms announces animal care changes https://www.feedstuffs.com/print/24370 2/3 progress report since its comprehensive 2016 commitment to accelerate advancements in animal care. The announcement came as part of Perdue’s Animal Care
- 537. Summit, a gathering of global animal care experts, advocates, researchers and farmers. “We know that trust is earned by responding to consumers and other stakeholders, and that includes a willingness to make significant changes,” said Jim Perdue, chairman of Perdue Farms. “It’s not easy, and it requires commitment, resources and time, but people expect more from Perdue, and we have to keep improving.” Perdue Farms also became the first major poultry company to promise its current and future customers a sustainable supply of chicken that meets all of the animal welfare criteria outlined in the “Joint Animal Protection Agency Statement on Broiler Chicken Welfare Issues.” The standards, agreed upon by a coalition of nine advocacy groups as
- 538. meaningful progress to address the main welfare concerns with broiler production, match many of the changes Perdue Farms was already exploring as part of its comprehensive Commitments to Animal Care program. “Major food companies are increasingly committing to treating chickens in their supply chains better. Perdue, with this announcement, becomes the largest poultry producer to ensure that this demand will be met,” said Josh Balk, vice president of farm animal protection at The Humane Society of the United States. “We applaud Perdue for focusing its improvements on the core areas of concern within the poultry industry, and this holistic approach demonstrates all that’s possible in creating better lives for billions of chickens.”
- 539. Perdue Farms' recent announcement includes: • Giving chickens more space, more light during the day and longer lights-off periods for rest; • Increasing the number of chicken houses with windows; • Continuing to study the role of enrichments in encouraging active behavior; • Raising and studying slower-growing chickens; • Moving to controlled-atmosphere stunning (CAS), and • Strengthening relationships with farmers. 4/22/2021 Perdue Farms announces animal care changes https://www.feedstuffs.com/print/24370 3/3 Source URL: https://www.feedstuffs.com/news/perdue-farms- announces-animal-care-changes As the fourth-largest poultry company in the U.S. – representing 7% of the nation’s chicken production – Perdue Farms said its commitment and progress indicate a sizeable shift away from
- 540. industry standards and toward addressing customer and consumer concerns about animal welfare, including issues related to fast growth. “Purdue’s animal welfare improvements and its promise to meet the demands of companies with progressive animal welfare policies puts other poultry producers on notice,” said Brent Cox, vice president of corporate outreach at Mercy For Animals. “It’s time for Tyson Foods, Foster Farms and others to catch up with business trends, consumer expectations and the latest in animal welfare science by committing to (Global Animal Partnership) standards and eliminating the worst forms of animal abuse in their supply chains.” Going forward, Perdue Farms will continue to progress using the Five Freedoms -- a globally
- 541. accepted standard for animal husbandry that goes beyond animals’ “needs” to include their “wants” - - and to involve the farmers who raise the company's chickens. Specific advancements will include studying a fully enclosed, climate-controlled, de-stress staging area for birds that arrive at the plant, continued work with slower-growing chicken breeds and further implementation of CAS. “I’ve been very impressed with Perdue as to the direction they’re going with the care of the birds. That’s what the consumer wants. Perdue is certainly meeting that concern, and we’re here to grow chickens to meet that concern the best we way we can,” said Jeffrey Reed, a Perdue farm family partner.
- 542. 4/22/2021 Fracking Is Dangerous To Your Health -- Here's Why https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/23/fracking-is- dangerous-to-your-health-heres-why/?sh=6e38b6605945 1/7 Healthcare I am an Infectious Disease specialist and author of Resilience: One Family's Story of Hope and Triumph over Evil and of Conducting Clinical Research, the essential guide to the topic. Follow Fracking Is Dangerous To Your Health -- Here's Why Feb 23, 2017, 06:30am EST Judy Stone Senior Contributor This article is more than 4 years old.
- 543. Fracking, or drilling for gas by hydraulic fracturing, has been associated with a growing number of health risks. Last week, I began this series looking at some of the hazardous chemicals injected into the wells to make drilling easier and cheaper, and the growing risks to our health by the GOP rushing through the approval of Scott Pruitt to head the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). https://www.forbes.com/healthcare https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/ https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/ http://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/17/fracking- and-what-new-epa-means-for-your-health/ https://fracfocus.org/chemical-use/why-chemicals-are-used http://blogs-images.forbes.com/judystone/files/2017/02/Judys-
- 544. water-Public-Herald-flickr.jpg 4/22/2021 Fracking Is Dangerous To Your Health -- Here's Why https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/23/fracking-is- dangerous-to-your-health-heres-why/?sh=6e38b6605945 2/7 This post looks in greater depth at the health problems linked to fracking. These are not hypothetical concerns—there are now more than 700 studies looking at risks—and more than 80% of the health studies document risks or actual harms. It’s also important to note that these risks are likely to be seriously underestimated, because the environmental agencies have been downplaying the risks to the public. A new in-depth exposé
- 545. from investigative journalists at Public Herald looks in-depth at the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection’s (DEP) misconduct and negligence, as the DEP studiously ignored citizens’ complaints, sometimes not even testing water samples. Earlier studies from ProPublica and others showed similar EPA failures in the western U.S. A variety of health problems are associated with fracking Respiratory problems: From $3.99 02:0903:20 Judy Eckert holding water contaminated with arsenic drawn
- 546. from her private well. In 2007 Guardian... [+] https://www.propublica.org/article/federal-report-appears-to- undercut-epa-assurances-water-safety-pennsylvania http://publicherald.org/to-hell-with-us-records-of-misconduct- found-inside-pa-drinking-water-investigations/ https://www.propublica.org/article/federal-report-appears-to- undercut-epa-assurances-water-safety-pennsylvania 4/22/2021 Fracking Is Dangerous To Your Health -- Here's Why https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/23/fracking-is- dangerous-to-your-health-heres-why/?sh=6e38b6605945 3/7 Cough, shortness of breath and wheezing are the most common complaints of residents living near fracked wells. Toxic gases like benzene are released from the rock by fracking. Similarly, a toxic waste brew of water and
- 547. chemicals is often stored in open pits, releasing volatile organic compounds into the air. These noxious chemicals and particulates are also released by the diesel powered pumps used to inject the water. An epidemiological study of more than 400,000 patients of Pennsylvania’s Geisinger clinic, done with Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, found a significant association between fracking and increases in mild, moderate and severe cases of asthma (odds ratios 4.4 to 1.5). Hopkins’ Dr. Brian Schwartz cautions that residents should be aware of this hazard as “some ‘pristine’ rural areas are converted to heavily trafficked industrial areas.”
- 548. Problems during pregnancy: Fracking chemicals are harmful to pregnant women and their developing babies. West Virginia researchers found endocrine-disrupting chemicals in surface waters near wastewater disposal sites; these types of chemicals can hurt the developing fetus even when present at very low concentrations. Another Hopkins/Geisinger study looked at records of almost 11,000 women with newborns who lived near fracking sites and found a 40% increased chance of having a premature baby and a 30% risk of having the pregnancy be classified as “high-risk,” though they controlled
- 549. for socioeconomic status and other risk factors. Contributing factors likely include air and water pollution, stress from the noise and traffic (1,000 tankers/well on average). Premature babies accounted for 35% of infant deaths in 2010. In addition to the personal toll on the families, preemies are very expensive for society— prematurity is a major cause of neurologic disabilities in kids, and their cost of care was more the $26 billion in 2005 alone, or $51,600 per preemie. Cost to employers during the infant’s first year of life averaged $46,004—
- 550. more than tenfold higher than for a full-term delivery. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4016083/ https://www.geisinger.org/ http://www.jhsph.edu/ http://www.jhsph.edu/faculty/directory/profile/624/brian- schwartz http://jamanetwork.com/learning/audio-player/13201824 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S00489697163 05356 http://www.chesapeakepsr.org/s/HealthEffectsofFrackingBriefC hesapeakePSROctober2016DontFrackMD-xlsc.pdf https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26426945 https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/10/151008110550. htm https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/10/151008110550. htm 4/22/2021 Fracking Is Dangerous To Your Health -- Here's Why https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/23/fracking-is- dangerous-to-your-health-heres-why/?sh=6e38b6605945 4/7 [Note that if the Affordable Care Act is repealed, women may
- 551. once again be denied health insurance for pregnancies and a premature baby will likely never be granted health insurance. According to the March of Dimes, Medicaid expansion of health insurance to low-income citizens helped the percentage of babies born as preemies drop to a low level of 11.4% in 2013.] Noise, stress and sleep deprivation Other studies have found that the noise from the drilling itself, the gas compressors, other heavy equipment and the truck traffic is high enough to disturb sleep, cause stress and increase high blood pressure. Longer-term
- 552. exposure to noise pollution contributes to endocrine abnormalities and diabetes, heart disease, stress and depression, and has been linked to learning difficulties in children. Sleep deprivation has pervasive public health consequences, from causing accidents to chronic diseases. Another epidemiologic study from University of Pennsylvania and Columbia University compared the hospitalization rates between a county with active fracking and a neighboring county without. This study found that fracking well density was significantly associated with higher inpatient hospitalization for cardiac or neurologic problems. There was also an
- 553. association between skin conditions, cancer and urologic problems and the proximity of homes to active wells. Spills and accidents With disturbing frequency, new spills or accidents are reported at the same time as industry tries to reassure that fracking brings safe and clean energy. Tell that to the residents of Dimock, Pa., who have had their drinking water destroyed, or those in many other communities. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S00489697163 25724 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S00489697163 25724 https://www.pressreader.com/uk/sunday- herald/20170129/281573765417572
- 554. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S00489697163 25724 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK19961/ http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131093 4/22/2021 Fracking Is Dangerous To Your Health -- Here's Why https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/23/fracking-is- dangerous-to-your-health-heres-why/?sh=6e38b6605945 5/7 A newly released study found 6,648 spills in just four states over the past 10 years. Once again, the EPA had reported a far lower number — 457 in eight states over a six-year period. Why the huge difference? Because the EPA chose to only look at the actual fracturing stage, rather than the whole life cycle of the gas and oil production. The DeSmogBlog notes that just this
- 555. month, the day after U.S. Army Corps of Engineers gave the owners of the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) the final permit it needed to build across Lake Oahe (threatening the Standing Rock Sioux tribe’s land and water), a pipeline of a DAPL co-owner exploded near New Orleans, killing one and injuring others. Aging pipelines pose special risks as they deteriorate. An ExxonMobil pipeline built in 1947 spilled 134,000 gallons of gas in Arkansas. You can see the location and magnitude of the spills at this handy interactive from the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis
- 556. (NCEAS) Science for Nature and People Partnership (SNAPP). Another disturbing data viz shows the type of spill and whether water was impacted. CBS Evening News with Scott Pelley - Penn. town CBS Evening News with Scott Pelley - Penn. town …… http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2017/02/21/Study-finds- 6600-fracking-spills-in-four-states-over-10- years/5611487691909/ https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/02/170221080501. htm https://www.desmogblog.com/2017/02/15/dakota-access- phillips-66-louisiana-gas-pipeline-explosion https://www.desmogblog.com/energy-transfer-partners-bakken- oil-pipeline-through-iowa http://www.cnn.com/2017/02/07/politics/dakota-access- pipeline-easement-granted/ https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/11/23/us/dakota- access-pipeline-protest-map.html?_r=0 https://www.desmogblog.com/2017/02/15/dakota-access- phillips-66-louisiana-gas-pipeline-explosion http://snappartnership.net/groups/hydraulic-
- 557. fracturing/webapp/spills.html http://snappartnership.net/groups/hydraulic- fracturing/webapp/spills_materials.html https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-tZ--fR6ywc 4/22/2021 Fracking Is Dangerous To Your Health -- Here's Why https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/23/fracking-is- dangerous-to-your-health-heres-why/?sh=6e38b6605945 6/7 But new fracking has additional risks, as the conventional pipes often used are unable to withstand the high pressure of the fracking mixture being injected. In fact, new wells were not safer, and 6% of unconventional (fracked) wells drilled since 2000 showed problems, with even the Pa. DEP (shown by Public Herald to not be thorough in investigating citizens'
- 558. complaints, nor entirely forthcoming) confirming more than 100 contaminated drinking water wells. Conclusion The oil and gas industry says that these health problems are not proven to be caused by fracking. That is partially true—especially since agencies like the Pa. DEP have actively hidden complaints or even failed to test the water of residents, as Public Herald reported. With the new head of the EPA, Scott Pruitt, determined to dismantle the agency and its protecti ons, we will likely never have definitive proof. Some health problems, such as cancer and some
- 559. neurologic problems, also take years to develop after an exposure. Fracking profits go to private industry but the public—families and communities—bear the costs of the many health complications from the Map of unconventional oil and gas spills in Pennsylvania -- courtesy SNAPP partnership. Click on the... [+] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4121783/ http://publicherald.org/to-hell-with-us-records-of-misconduct- found-inside-pa-drinking-water-investigations/ https://energyindepth.org/national/fracking-and-health- headlines-vs-reality/ http://publicherald.org/to-hell-with-us-records-of-misconduct- found-inside-pa-drinking-water-investigations/ http://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/17/fracking- and-what-new-epa-means-for-your-health/ http://snappartnership.net/groups/hydraulic- fracturing/webapp/spills_materials.html
- 560. 4/22/2021 Fracking Is Dangerous To Your Health -- Here's Why https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/2017/02/23/fracking-is- dangerous-to-your-health-heres-why/?sh=6e38b6605945 7/7 drilling. There is growing evidence of a variety of health problems being associated with fracking. Common sense dictates that drinking and breathing cancer- causing agents will take their toll. The correlation is too strong to ignore, especially when we have other, cleaner energy options. For our safety and that of future generations, we should not allow the new administration to sell off public lands, nor allow drilling on our land, and should ban fracking
- 561. completely. Follow me on Twitter or LinkedIn. Check out my website or some of my other work here. Judy Stone I am an Infectious Disease specialist and author of Resilience: One Family's Story of Hope and Triumph over Evil and of Conducting Clinical Research, the essential guide… Read More ADVERTISEMENT Reprints & Permissions https://www.twitter.com/drjudystone https://www.linkedin.com/in/conductingclinicalresearch/ https://drjudystone.com/
- 562. http://bit.ly/ResilienceStone_IndieBound https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/ https://www.forbes.com/sites/judystone/ https://www.parsintl.com/publication/forbes/ 4/22/2021 Depletion of Natural Resources https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Depletion-of-Natural- Resources 1/8 Stories / Depletion of Natural Resources The needs of 7 billion people… Find ethical companies when you are browsing Check out Arbor's FREE browser extension Add to Chrome for FREE The needs of 7 billion people… Resources are depleted when it is being used faster than it can replenish itself. The industrial revolution
- 563. is when it all began. As our culture advanced and our species invented many things that will make 27,147,003,980 Tons of resources extracted from Earth G LO B A L LY, T H I S Y E A R IN 2021 THIS MONTH THIS WEEK TODAY �� Worl� Count� https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories https://www.yourarbor.com/download https://www.yourarbor.com/download https://www.yourarbor.com/download https://www.theworldcounts.com/ 4/22/2021 Depletion of Natural Resources https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Depletion-of-Natural- Resources 2/8
- 564. our lives easier, our demand for raw materials increased by leaps and bounds. We get these resources from the other. The problem is, we’re using too much and without care. Our planet just can’t keep up with our ever increasing demands. More: Consequences of Depletion of Natural Resources What causes the depletion of our natural resources? Overpopulation. With 7 billion people on the planet, the demand on Earth’s resources continue to increase. Overconsumption and waste. This is the excessive and unnecessary use of resources. Deforestation and the Destruction of Ecosystems leading to loss of biodiversity. Mining of Minerals and Oil. Technological and Industrial Development. Erosion. Pollution and Contamination of resources.
- 565. What resources are in decline? Water – Even though you see water everywhere and our planet is 70% water, only 2.5% of that 70% is fresh water. The rest is salt water and not useful to humans at all. That small percentage of fresh water is mostly in �� Worl� Count� http://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/consequences_of_deplet ion_of_natural_resources https://www.theworldcounts.com/ 4/22/2021 Depletion of Natural Resources https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Depletion-of-Natural- Resources 3/8 the form of ice or permanent snow cover. So, we really have only a few percent available for use. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations predict that by 2025, 1.8 billion people will have no water to drink. Coal – This is the most used fossil fuel and a
- 566. non-renewable energy source. Peak coal extraction is predicted between 2025 and 2048. In 2011, it was estimated that we have enough coal to meet global demands for 188 years.If the demand increases, the timeframe will decrease. More: Negative Effects of Coal Mining Oil – Without oil, global transportation will be severely debilitated. The BP Statistical Review of World Energy estimates that there is 188.8 million tons of oil left in the known oil reserves as of 2010. If our current demand continues, this oil will only be enough to supply the world demands for the next 46.2 years. Natural Gas – As of 2010, the known reserves of natural gas was estimated to last 58.6 years with the current global production. Fish – Fishermen from a lot of coastal provinces report a decline in their catch. Other marine species such as the tuna is close to extinction due to overfishing. This is a resource since Fish is part of our major food group.
- 567. More: World Oil Consumption Per Day �� Worl� Count� http://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Negative-Effects-of- Coal-Mining http://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/World-Oil- Consumption-per-Day https://www.theworldcounts.com/ 4/22/2021 Depletion of Natural Resources https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Depletion-of-Natural- Resources 4/8 Phosphorous – This resource is used for fertilizers to help plants grow. Scientists from the Global Phosphorous Research initiative estimates that peak phosphorous will be reached by 2030. Phosphorous is derived from phosphorous rock and guano. How can we help stop our natural resources from running out? Many countries are now developing
- 568. sources of renewable and sustainable energy such as solar, wind and hydro power. These are natural resources and are clean sources of energy. They will not pollute the environment. Read more about the state of our environment at The World Counts: Stories. There are many things that you can do from your end to help stop the further degradation of our environment and its natural resources. Know the stories behind the numbers. Your action counts. 46.82031289 Percent coral reefs left G LO B A L LY, R I G H T N O W NOW IN 2021 THIS MONTH THIS WEEK TODAY �� Worl� Count� http://www.theworldcounts.com/stories https://www.theworldcounts.com/
- 569. 4/22/2021 Depletion of Natural Resources https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Depletion-of-Natural- Resources 5/8 8,570,004.05 Hectares of forests cut down or burned G LO B A L LY, T H I S Y E A R IN 2021 THIS MONTH THIS WEEK TODAY 26y 252d 02h 56m 16s Time left to the end of seafood R I G H T N O W 28y 252d
- 570. 02h 56m 16s Earth running out of food �� Worl� Count� https://www.theworldcounts.com/ 4/22/2021 Depletion of Natural Resources https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Depletion-of-Natural- Resources 6/8 Support TheWorldCounts Spread the message. Make a donation. Or update your wardrobe with clothes from our modest but growing selection of sustainably sourced and crafted clothes. Visit our Shop Make a Donation
- 571. Do you browse I F G LO B A L F O O D S Y S T E M S A R E N O T T R A N S F O R M E D 1.7826718648 Number of planet Earths we need T O P R O V I D E R E S O U R C E S A N D A B S O R B O U R WA S T E NOW IN 2021 THIS MONTH THIS WEEK TODAY �� Worl� Count� https://shop.theworldcounts.com/ https://www.paypal.com/donate?hosted_button_id=Q5NQM5TT UH2CN https://www.yourarbor.com/download https://www.theworldcounts.com/
- 572. 4/22/2021 Depletion of Natural Resources https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Depletion-of-Natural- Resources 7/8 environmentally & socially responsile companyes? Use this free browser plugin to find out. Add to Chrome for FREE Never before has our planet, and we as a people, stood before the number and scale of man-made challenges than we do today. Real change is needed. Not just from politicians and businesses - but from all of us. Without understanding the situation, and without developing a deeper awareness about the lives we are living - and the consequences it has - such changes are unlikely to occur. TheWorldCounts was created with a modest hope that it may contribute to such awakening.
- 573. Global Challenges If you compare Earth's history to a calendar year then we (humans) have Happiness & Purpose Our focus on consumption and material wealth makes sense if it leads �� Worl� Count� https://www.yourarbor.com/download https://www.theworldcounts.com/ 4/22/2021 Depletion of Natural Resources https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Depletion-of-Natural- Resources 8/8 only have existed for about 37 minutes - and we have used 33% of Earth's entire natural resources in the last 0.2 seconds!
- 574. See More to happiness and a sense of purpose. Yet, evidence shows that materialistic values are linked to low well-being across cultures and social groups. See More STAY CONNECTED Join thousands of others who receive an occasaional newsletter with different facts about our planet. TheWorldCounts is made, with love, in Copenhagen, Denmark. Icons by Icons8. PAGES World Populations Consumer Economies Global Challenges Stories Purpose & Happiness Get a Counter Shop
- 575. ABOUT About TheWorldCounts The Data The Project Keep the optimism Support green companies Thank you Contact us Copyright © 2021 TheWorldCounts Sitemap | Privacy Policy your email Subscribe �� Worl� Count� https://icons8.com/ https://www.theworldcounts.com/populations https://www.theworldcounts.com/economies https://www.theworldcounts.com/challenges https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories https://www.theworldcounts.com/happiness https://www.theworldcounts.com/get-counters https://shop.theworldcounts.com/
- 576. https://www.theworldcounts.com/about https://www.theworldcounts.com/about/the-data https://www.theworldcounts.com/about/the-project https://www.theworldcounts.com/about/keep-the-optimism https://www.theworldcounts.com/about/support-green- companies https://www.theworldcounts.com/about/thank-you https://www.theworldcounts.com/about/contact-us https://www.theworldcounts.com/assets/sitemap.xml https://www.theworldcounts.com/ 4/22/2021 Global Scarcity: Scramble for Dwindling Natural Resources - Yale E360 https://e360.yale.edu/features/global_scarcity_scramble_for_dw indling_natural_resources 1/8 Michael Klare Yale Environment 360 Global Scarcity: Scramble for Dwindling Natural Resources
- 577. National security expert Michael Klare believes the struggle for the world’s resources will be one of the defining political and environmental realities of the 21st century. In an interview with Yale Environment 360, he discusses the threat this scramble poses to the natural world and what can be done to sustainably meet the resource challenge. BY DIANE TOOMEY • MAY 23, 2012 Michael Klare, a professor of peace and world security studies at Hampshire College in Massachusetts, devotes much of his time these days to thinking about the intensifying competition for increasingly scarce natural resources. His most recent book, �e Race for What’s Left: �e Global Scramble for the World’s Last Resources, describes how the world economy has entered a period of what he calls “tough” extraction for energy,
- 578. minerals, and other commodities, meaning that the easy-to-get resources have been exploited and a rapidly growing population is now turning to resources in the planet’s most remote regions — the Arctic, the deep ocean, and war zones like Afghanistan. �e exploitation of “tough” resources, such as “fracking” for natural gas in underground shale formations, carries with it far greater environmental r isk, Klare says. In an interview with Yale Environment 360 contributor Diane Toomey, Klare discussed China’s surging appetite for resources, the growing potential for political and military conflict as commodities become more scarce, and
- 579. the disturbing trend of the planet’s agricultural land being bought by companies and governments seeking to ensure that their people will have enough food in the future. �e way to reduce resource conflicts, says Klare, is to find substitute materials and to significantly boost efficiency in a host of realms, most notably energy. Hope for the future, he says, lies with innovative entrepreneurs and, especially, the young. “�ey all want to be involved in developing solutions,” said Klare, “and they have a lot of optimism and enthusiasm for this.” Yale Environment 360: You make the point that when it comes to the age-old
- 580. competition for raw materials, we’re in an unprecedented age. How so? Michael Klare: I do believe that’s the case. Humans have been struggling to gain control of vital resources since the beginning of time, but I think we’re in a new era because we’re running out of places to go. Humans have constantly moved to new areas, to new continents, when they’ve run out of things in their home territory. But https://e360.yale.edu/ https://e360.yale.edu/authors/diane-toomey http://www.amazon.com/The-Race-Whats-Left- Resources/dp/0805091262 http://e360.yale.edu/ 4/22/2021 Global Scarcity: Scramble for Dwindling Natural Resources - Yale E360 https://e360.yale.edu/features/global_scarcity_scramble_for_dw
- 581. indling_natural_resources 2/8 there aren’t any more new continents to go to. We’re going now to the last places left on earth that haven’t been exploited: the Arctic, the deep oceans, the inner jungles in Africa, Afghanistan. �ere are very few places left that haven’t been fully tapped, so this is humanity’s last chance to exploit the earth, and after this there’s nowhere else to go. e360: Natural resource extraction has never been a pretty business when it comes to the environment, but you write that now that the era of easy oil, easy gas, easy minerals and other resources is basically over, and what’s left is in deep water, remote or inhospitable climates, or in geological formations that
- 582. require extraordinary means to get at. So paint me a picture of what extracting these tough resources looks like. Klare: We’re really going to be using very aggressive means of extraction, so the environmental consequences are going to be proportionally greater. For example, to get oil and natural gas out of shale rock, you can’t just drill “Oil companies want to turn this country back to what it was before environmentalism became an issue.” and expect it to come out. It doesn’t work that way. You have to smash the rock, you have to produce fractures in the rock, and we use a very aggressive technology to do that — hydraulic fracturing — and the water is brought under tremendous pressure and
- 583. it’s laced with toxic chemicals, and when the water is extracted from these wells it can’t be put back into the environment without risk of poisoning water supplies. So there’s a tremendous problem of storage, of toxic water supplies, and we really haven’t solved that problem. And that’s just one example. Drilling in the Arctic presents a tremendous problem because the Arctic, by its very nature, is at the edge of survival and all the species there are living at the edge of survival, so any oil spill could push them over the edge into extinction. So [oil companies] must have on hand all kinds of extra capacity to deal with the possibility of spills, and that’s much more
- 584. difficult to engineer than in the Gulf of Mexico, where there are tens of thousands of boats that you could hire on short notice to bring out skimmers and booms to contain a spill. �ere’s nothing like that in the Arctic. Moreover, if this were to happen in winter, there would be no way to move equipment up there to build a relief drill. Remember, it was a relief drill that closed the Deepwater Horizon spill, but you can’t do that in the middle of winter when the Arctic [Ocean] is covered with ice. e360: Yet despite all that, there’s profits to be made. Klare: �ere’s profits to be made, and this is particularly important to recognize — that http://e360.yale.edu/feature/a_high-
- 585. risk_energy_boom_sweeps_across_north_america/2324/ http://e360.yale.edu/digest/drilling_of_arctic_could_pose_ecolo gical_risks_lloyds_report_warns 4/22/2021 Global Scarcity: Scramble for Dwindling Natural Resources - Yale E360 https://e360.yale.edu/features/global_scarcity_scramble_for_dw indling_natural_resources 3/8 this is attractive to the private international oil companies, like Shell, BP, and Exxon Mobil that are going into the Arctic, because they’ve been pushed out of the Middle East, Venezuela, and Russia by state-owned companies. So there are very few places where they can go and control the whole process of production, from beginning to end, and the Arctic is one of those few areas.
- 586. LISTEN: Michael Klare talks about how mining companies are exploiting one of the last protected areas of Gabon. To listen to this content, you must have Javascript enabled in your browser preferences. You will also need to download the latest Flash Player. get_adobe_flash_player.png �ere’s more to it than just that. We’re really at a turning point and I think most people in this country and around the world understand that before too long we’re going to have to transition to other types of energy if we’re to avoid the catastrophic effects of climate change. But the big oil companies, they only know one business, which is producing oil and natural gas and selling it in their
- 587. service stations. And so they’re determined to maintain their business model as long as possible and they’re resisting the transition to alternative fuels. e360: North America has more than its share of so-called tough oil and gas. �at includes the Alberta tar sands and the shale gas fields in the U.S. that are being fracked. As energy extraction heats up in North America, you’ve written that the U.S. is in danger of becoming “a third-world petro state.” What do you mean by that? Klare: Consider what [happened] in the 1960s and 1970s when U.S. and European oil companies moved into countries like Nigeria and Angola. You had very low government oversight of oil company operations, little or no environmental
- 588. protection, a lot of corruption, so it was easy to expatriate your profits. You didn’t have to worry about labor regulations or labor unions. But now those places in the so- called �ird World are becoming much tougher. �ey’re either nationalizing their resources or enforcing their environmental regulations or labor laws. So it’s not as profitable as it once was. Meanwhile, in the United States, there are these formations that were once inaccessible, shale rock in particular. But to gain access to these resources in the United States and Canada it will be necessary to roll back a lot of the A major task of China’s leadership is to scour the
- 589. world for the resources they need to keep the Chinese economy growing.” environmental protections and the labor and tax laws that were imposed over the past 50 years. So the oil companies and the gas companies really want to turn this country http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer/ http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer/ 4/22/2021 Global Scarcity: Scramble for Dwindling Natural Resources - Yale E360 https://e360.yale.edu/features/global_scarcity_scramble_for_dw indling_natural_resources 4/8 back to what it was before environmentalism became an issue, and make it more like the way the �ird World was in the 1950s and 60s, with very lax environmental
- 590. oversight and labor concerns, so that they can use the very aggressive, environmentally hazardous techniques to extract oil and gas from these tough formations. e360: What developments can you point to that indicate that the U.S. is on the road to this? Klare: For example, when the Bush Administration was in office, and Congress was under control of Republicans, the 2005 Energy Policy Act exempted hydrofracking from the Clean Water Act so that oil and gas companies could use hydrofracking with toxic chemicals and were not covered by the protections that all other kinds of industrial activities in the United States are subject to.
- 591. e360: Talk about the China-African connection and how it fits into the race for what’s left. Klare: China now is the fastest-growing world economy and it’s very manufacturing- oriented, and China is also building cities and infrastructure very rapidly. All of this is incredibly resource-intensive. �ey need everything: oil, natural gas, iron, copper, more exotic things for the electronics that they build, like chromium, lithium, and palladium. And eventually food, because they’re unable to produce all the food they need for their population. So one of the major tasks of the Chinese leadership is to scour the world for all the resources that they need to keep the Chinese economic
- 592. machine growing, and this will only become a bigger problem the further you look into the future. To give one example, until relatively recently, 1993, China was self-sufficient in oil production and was until very recently self-sufficient in coal. But now China has to import half of its petroleum and that will increase to three- quarters. It’s now importing coal. Now, Africa is one of those areas that the Chinese leadership sees as a prime source of raw materials, and they think they have an advantage there, because of the historic animosity of the former colonies towards the West. �ey come in and say, “We’re going to do things differently. We’re not going to plunder your resources
- 593. the way the imperialists did. We’re going to do this in a more cooperative fashion, so turn to us, let us develop your resources, and we’ll help develop your country.” And they’re making a tremendous pitch to extract all of Africa’s resources. e360: And that promise to be the kinder, gentler extractor? What’s your take on that? Klare: Opinions are divided on how realistic this promise that China is making of offering development to Africa is. To what degree is this really just the icing on the cake, when really they are no different from the European imperial powers in their drive to plunder Africa for their own benefit? �ey are building railroads and roads. But are the roads and
- 594. http://e360.yale.edu/features/can_smarter_growth_guide_chinas _urban_building_boom http://e360.yale.edu/features/as_coal_use_declines_in_us_coal_ companies_focus_on_china 4/22/2021 Global Scarcity: Scramble for Dwindling Natural Resources - Yale E360 https://e360.yale.edu/features/global_scarcity_scramble_for_dw indling_natural_resources 5/8 �e price of things will rise and that will create hardship in people’s lives, and we’re seeing that today.” railroads merely to facilitate the shipment of the iron ore and the copper ore to the coast to be put on ships to be carried to China? �at’s the way it looks to me, more and more. Moreover, typically the Chinese say, “Well, we will bui ld
- 595. all of these facilities, new ports and railroads.” But typically they insist that Chinese state-owned companies build the railroads, ports, and airports. �ey bring in Chinese workers who live in self- contained compounds. �ey don’t offer jobs to local people, and so they’re creating a lot of resentment to China, just as there was once towards western imperialist exporters. e360: Minerals, including lithium and platinum, get a lot of attention in your book. �ese are minerals with industrial, military, and commercial applications. It seems that the difference between easy access minerals and tough access minerals is not the extraction method but the degree of remoteness, military
- 596. conflict, and regime volatility that companies have to contend with. Klare: Well, yes, it’s a combination of all of those. �e good, easy mining ores are largely gone now. So you have two choices. You can use more aggressive means to exploit the same old mines — tearing mountains apart they way they do in Chile and Indonesia for copper, where the mines are so vast you could see them from space, and you’re getting less and less desirable ores and so you have to treat them more with arsenic and other poisons. �e consequences to the environment are therefore greater. So that’s one option. �e other options are to go to the Arctic, and they are talking about producing some of these minerals in Greenland. For the
- 597. first time, they’re moving into Nunavut, the native lands in Canada, far above the Arctic Circle, to get iron ore. And the other possibility is to go to places you stayed away from because they were dangerous, like the Democratic Republic of the Congo, or now Afghanistan. Many people believe that Afghanistan has a tremendous treasure trove of valuable minerals: copper, iron, lithium, rare earths, and if you’re prepared to bring in an army to protect them, there’s a lot of minerals there. e360: And then there are the rare earth elements, with names that are difficult to pronounce, like scandium and promethium. Our cell phones and laptops are chock
- 598. full of some of these substances and demand is expected to skyrocket over the next few years. But right now, China is just about the only country producing them. Is that going to change, and if so, what are the environmental implications? LISTEN: Michael Klare on how new technologies increasingly rely on rare earth minerals. http://e360.yale.edu/features/a_vast_canadian_wilderness_poise d_for_a_uranium_boom 4/22/2021 Global Scarcity: Scramble for Dwindling Natural Resources - Yale E360 https://e360.yale.edu/features/global_scarcity_scramble_for_dw indling_natural_resources 6/8 To listen to this content, you must have Javascript enabled in
- 599. your browser preferences. You will also need to download the latest Flash Player. get_adobe_flash_player.png Klare: Well, the thing about rare earths that I learned is that they’re not exactly rare as a percent of the earth’s crust, but they’re not found in concentrated nodes. �ey tend to be found with a lot of other things, including typically radioactive materials. So you have to separate them from other minerals you don’t want. China has taken over production of most of the rare earths. �ey have the concentrations and they are willing to overlook the environmental consequences. A lot of this is in inner Mongolia, and they are trying to promote economic
- 600. development there. And from what I understand, it’s resulted in terrible environmental devastation of the surrounding agricultural areas that have been poisoned with the tailings from this rare earth production. But it was not because they had more of the minerals, but because they were willing to overlook the environmental hazards involved. Now they’re tightening up on their controls, and so the supply has gotten tighter. e360: It seems that one could argue that it’s not the running out of resources that we have to fear, but rather the environmental cost of obtaining them. Klare: �ere are several things happening all at once. �ere is the future point down the road where things really will be very scarce, and then
- 601. civilization as we know it will collapse, unless between now and then we develop new ways of living. I’m talking about something that could happen �e young know the bad news already and they’re determined to do something about it.” in 2050 or farther down the pike. Oil will run out. But between now and then, we will have other problems. �e price of things will rise and that will create everyday hardship in people’s lives and we’re seeing that today. But we’ll also see conflict arising in this race for what’s left. We’re already seeing signs of that in many places, for example, in the East China Sea and the South China Sea, as China and its neighbors
- 602. are increasingly using military force to exert their claims over undersea reserves of oil and natural gas. So there will be many consequences to this final stage in humanity’s struggle to gain control over vital resources. e360: �ere’s a relatively new phenomenon in which countries, mainly in the Persian Gulf, are buying up farmland in poor countries to grow crops for consumption at home. Saudi Arabia, for instance, has been buying up land in Sudan and Ethiopia. How have we come to a point where farmland has become a global commodity? Klare: You know, I can’t help but think that there’s something very cynical and ugly about all of this, but a lot of the people who are in this business, they talk about http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer/
- 603. http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer/ 4/22/2021 Global Scarcity: Scramble for Dwindling Natural Resources - Yale E360 https://e360.yale.edu/features/global_scarcity_scramble_for_dw indling_natural_resources 7/8 Malthus, future population growth, starvation, climate change, all of these things making food the most precious commodity of the future — that whoever possesses land to grow food will be the rich people of the future. �at’s the pitch that they make to investors, and it is based on the notion that people will be starving and desperate for food. Now, there are a second group of investors, those from Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and so on, who say that we will not be able to
- 604. feed our future population, and so therefore we will buy farmland in foreign countries to grow food exclusively for our own population, irrespective of the needs of the people who live in the food-growing areas. �ey’ll have to fend for themselves, but we’ll provide for our own people. And this, too, derives from very nightmarish scenarios of what we’ll see in the future. MORE FROM YALE e360 Leveling Appalachia: �e Legacy Of Mountaintop Removal Mining �is video report produced by Yale Environment 360 in collaboration with MediaStorm takes a first-hand look at
- 605. mountaintop removal mining in Appalachia and what is at stake for the region’s environment and its people. WATCH THE VIDEO e360: You say that to head off the global nightmare for the race for what’s left that we’ll need to engage in a race to adapt, and that includes finding substitute materials, improving efficiency. When I read this part of your book, I was rather surprised at its optimistic tone. You say you see signs that we’re already in the race to adapt. Talk to me about that. Klare: Being around students, they think they know the bad news already and they’re determined to do something about it. �ey want to be in the solutions business. I
- 606. think this is a universal phenomenon around the world because I have students in my classes from virtually every continent now, and they all want to be involved in developing solutions, and they have a lot of optimism and enthusiasm for this. So it’s partly that energy that I’m feeling from my students and young people about the possibilities of positive change. And then I see that there are entrepreneurs who are coming up with very creative solutions to the problems I describe, who are creating the alternative modes of producing energy and using materials more efficiently. And I think that with time they will gain momentum. Diane Toomey is an award-winning public radio journalist who has worked at Marketplace, the World Vision
- 607. Report, and Living on Earth, where she was the science editor. Her reporting has won numerous awards, including the American Institute of Biological Sciences' Media Award. She is a regular contributor to Yale e360 and currently is an associate researcher at the PBS science show NOVA. MORE → http://e360.yale.edu/content/feature.msp?id=2198 http://e360.yale.edu/content/feature.msp?id=2198 https://e360.yale.edu/authors/diane-toomey 4/22/2021 Global Scarcity: Scramble for Dwindling Natural Resources - Yale E360 https://e360.yale.edu/features/global_scarcity_scramble_for_dw indling_natural_resources 8/8 4/22/2021 What are Environmental Ethics and What's Your Role in Saving Nature? - Help Save Nature https://helpsavenature.com/what-is-environmental-ethics 1/8
- 608. What are Environmental Ethics and What’s Your Role in Saving Nature? Environmental ethics is a branch of environmental philosophy that studies the ethical relationship between human beings and the environment. This field has given a new dimension to the topics of conservation of natural resources and protection of the environment. For more information on environmental ethics, read this HelpSaveNature article. 4/22/2021 What are Environmental Ethics and What's Your Role in Saving Nature? - Help Save Nature https://helpsavenature.com/what-is-environmental-ethics 2/8
- 609. What are Environmental Ethics? Environmental ethics is a branch of environmental philosophy that studies the ethical relationship between human beings and the environment. This field has given a new dimension to the topics of conservation of natural resources and protection of the environment. For more information on environmental ethics, read this HelpSaveNature article. 4/22/2021 What are Environmental Ethics and What's Your Role in Saving Nature? - Help Save Nature https://helpsavenature.com/what-is-environmental-ethics 3/8 https://pixfeeds.com/images/save-nature/1280-136276794- energy-saving-light-bulbs.jpg https://pixfeeds.com/images/save-nature/1280-152507144- energy-savings-in-our-hands.jpg https://pixfeeds.com/images/natural-disasters/floods/1280- 525863555-frogmen-walking-to-sunken-car.jpg
- 610. 4/22/2021 What are Environmental Ethics and What's Your Role in Saving Nature? - Help Save Nature https://helpsavenature.com/what-is-environmental-ethics 4/8 Environmental Ethics Definition Environmental ethics is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and mor al status of, the environment and its nonhuman contents. -Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy The definition of environmental ethics rests on the principle that there is an ethical relationship between human beings and the natural environment. Human beings are a part of the environment and so are the other living beings. When we talk about the philosophical principle that guides our life, we often ignore the fact that even plants and animals are a part of our lives. They are an integral part of the environment and
- 611. hence cannot be denied their right to live. Since they are an inseparable part of nature and closely associated with our living, the guiding principles of our life and our ethical values should include them. They need to be considered as entities with the right to co-exist with human beings. Concept The concept of environmental ethics brings out the fact that all the life forms on Earth have the right to live. By destroying nature, we are denying the life forms this right. This act is unjust and unethical. The food web clearly indicates that human beings, plants, animals, and other natural resources are closely linked with each other. All of us are creations of nature and we depend on one another and the environment. Respecting the existence of not just other humans but also the non- human entities, and recognizing their right to live is our primary duty. With environmental ethics, morality extends to the non-human world.
- 612. Environmental Ethics as a Field The Earth Day celebration of 1970 was also one of the factors which led to the development of environmental ethics as a separate field of study. This field received impetus when it was first discussed in the academic journals in North America and Canada. Around the same time, this field emerged in Australia and Norway. Scientists like Rachel Carson and environmentalists who led philosophers to consider the philosophical aspect of environmental problems, pioneered in the development of environmental ethics as a branch of environmental philosophy. Today, environmental ethics is a widely discussed topic. It covers aspects such as ethical principles that guide our use of natural resources, our duty to take efforts towards environmental protection, and our moral responsibility towards animals. Issues in Environmental Ethics
- 613. 4/22/2021 What are Environmental Ethics and What's Your Role in Saving Nature? - Help Save Nature https://helpsavenature.com/what-is-environmental-ethics 5/8 Consumption of Natural Resources Our natural environment is not a storehouse to rob resources from. It is a reserve of resources that are crucial to the existence of life. Their unscrupulous depletion is detrimental to our well-being. We are cutting down forests for making our homes. Our excessive consumption of natural resources continues. The undue use of resources is resulting in their depletion, risking the life of our future generations. Is this ethical? This is an environmental ethics issue. Destruction of Forests When industrial processes lead to destruction of resources, is it not the industry’s responsibility to restore the depleted resources? Moreover, can a restored environment make up for the original one? Mining processes disrupt the ecological
- 614. balance in certain areas. They harm the plant and animal life in those regions. Slash- and-burn techniques are used for clearing land, that leads to the destruction of forests and woodland. The land is used for agriculture, but is the loss of so many trees compensated for? Environmental Pollution Many human activities lead to environmental pollution. The rising human population is increasing the demand for nature’s resources. As the population is exceeding the carrying capacity of our planet, animal and plant habitats are being destroyed to make space for human habitation. Huge constructions (roads and buildings for residential and industrial use) are being made at the cost of the environment. To allow space for these constructions, so many trees have to lose their lives. The animals that thrive in them lose their natural habitats and eventually their lives. However, the cutting down of trees is seldom even considered as loss of lives. Isn’t
- 615. this unethical? Harm to Animals Due to habitat loss, animals may enter human settlements, thus posing a threat to the people living there. In some cases, these animals are killed. Secondly, animals serve as food sources of humans, for which they are killed. Also, animal studies cause harm to animals and even their deaths. This destruction has led to the extinction of many animal species. The reduction in the populations of several other animal species continues. How can we deny the animals their right to live? How are we right in depriving them of their habitat and food? Who gave us the right to harm them for our convenience? These are some of the ethical environmental issues that need to be addressed. The Inherent Value of Non-human Entities Instrumental Value An important point that the field of environmental ethics is
- 616. concerned with, is whether non-human beings only have an instrumental value or whether they also have an intrinsic value. Aristotle said that “nature has made all things specifically for the sake of man”, which means non-human beings only have an instrumental value; 4/22/2021 What are Environmental Ethics and What's Your Role in Saving Nature? - Help Save Nature https://helpsavenature.com/what-is-environmental-ethics 6/8 they are meant to serve as ‘instruments’ for human beings. From an anthropocentric point of view (which lays emphasis on human beings), the use of other living elements in nature by humans is only right. Causing them harm or destroying them is wrong only because it eventually affects human life. With this view, cruelty to animals is wrong because it develops insensitivity, and not because animals should
- 617. not be harmed. Or the felling of trees is wrong because it eventually causes loss of food sources for humans, and not because it is simply unethical. Intrinsic Value Historian Lynn White Jr. published an essay in 1967, in which he criticized Judeo- Christian thinking as being a primary factor that led human beings to exploit the environment. According to this line of thinking, man is supreme and the nature has been created for him, which gives him the right to exploit it. White also criticized the Church Fathers who maintained that God created man in his own image and gave him the right to rule every being on Earth. According to White, this view promotes the idea that man is separate from nature and not a part of it. This thought leads human beings to exploit nature without realizing its intrinsic value. A key figure in modern environmental ethics was Aldo Leopold, an American author, scientist, environmentalist, ecologist, forester, and conservationist. His ecocentric
- 618. views were dominant in the development of modern environmental ethics. Ecocentrism deems the whole ecosystem as important as opposed to anthropocentrism that believes humans to be the most important in the universe. According to ecocentrism, there are no existential differences between the human and non-human entities in nature, which means humans are not more valuable than any other component of the environment. Humans as well as plants, animals, and other constituents of nature have an inherent value. Theologian and environmental philosopher Holmes Rolston III says that protection of species is our moral responsibility as they have an intrinsic value. In his view, the loss of a species spells disrespect to nature’s process of speciation. According to him, biological processes deserve respect. Thus, any action that translates into disregard for the environment is unethical. The concept of plant rights is worth discussing in this context.
- 619. It is the idea of plants having certain rights like humans and animals have. Philosopher Tom Regan argues that animals and human beings are entitled to rights because they are ‘aware’ of their 4/22/2021 What are Environmental Ethics and What's Your Role in Saving Nature? - Help Save Nature https://helpsavenature.com/what-is-environmental-ethics 7/8 existence, which does not apply to plants. Philosopher Paul Taylor is of the view that plants have intrinsic value and that they are entitled to respect but not rights. In his 1972 paper “Should Trees Have Standing?”, Christopher D. Stone said that if corporations can be assigned rights, so should trees. Our Moral Responsibility Another important point in relation to environmental ethics is of our moral responsibility to preserve nature for our future generations. By
- 620. causing environmental degradation and depletion of resources, we are risking the lives of future generations. Is it not our duty to leave a good environment for them to live in? Non-renewable energy resources are fast-depleting and sadly, it isn’t possible to replenish them. This means, they may not be available for the future generations. We need to strike a balance between our needs and the availability of resources, so that the forthcoming generations are also able to benefit from their use. We are morally obliged to consider the needs of even the other elements of our environment. They include not just other human beings, but also plants and animals. It is only ethical to be fair to these elements and make a responsible use of natural resources. Environmental ethics try to answer the question of whether human beings have any moral obligation towards the non-human entities in nature. For the sake of development and convenience, is it morally right to burn fuels
- 621. though pollution is caused? Is it morally right to continue with technological advances at the cost of the environment? Climate change is known to have a negative impact on plant diversity. It is a fact that the increasing pollution levels are hazardous for not only humans but also for plants and animals. Given this, isn’t it our moral responsibility to protect the environment? We have certain duties towards the environment. Our approach towards other living entities should be based on strong ethical values. Even if the human race is considered as the main constituent of the environment, animals and plants are in no way less important. They have a right to get a fair share of resources and lead a safe life. Environmental Ethics and Religion Different religions have their own theories of how the world was created and in their own ways, encourage the ideas of protecting the environment or preserving nature because of the association of natural elements with the Supreme
- 622. Power that created them. In some religions, certain plants or animals are worshiped considering them as sacred or symbols of a particular deity. Nature worship is a part of many religious and spiritual practices. This goes on to say that all religions express concern towards the environment and lay importance on its non-human constituents. Radical Ecology A step further from environmental ethics is radical ecology, which says that it may not be enough to extend ethics to non-human elements of the environment and that it is necessary to bring changes in the way we live and function. Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess classified environmentalism as shallow and deep. While shallow ecologists follow anthropocentrism, deep ecologists recommend the development of a new eco-philosophy. They are of the view that non-human elements have an intrinsic worth which is not dependent on their utility for humans. They believe in the need to implement ways to reduce human
- 623. intervention in the non-human world that leads to the destruction of biodiversity. According to Naess, humans should broaden their idea of ‘self’ to include other life forms. In his eco- philosophy, ‘transpersonal ecology’, Australian philosopher Warwick Fox says that the field of environmental ethics is not limited to realizing our moral obligations towards the environment. It is about realizing what he calls ecological consciousness. Some may think that the principles of deep ecology are not sufficient to address environmental issues, but advocates of this ideology believe that once a state of ‘environmental consciousness’ is attained, humans will feel obligated to protect the environment. Be it due to the scientific understanding of our environment or due to religious views that advocate the need for environmental protection, what’s most important is that human beings realize their connection with nature.
- 624. 4/22/2021 What are Environmental Ethics and What's Your Role in Saving Nature? - Help Save Nature https://helpsavenature.com/what-is-environmental-ethics 8/8 https://pixfeeds.com/images/save-nature/1280-123051112- recycling-bin-with-ort.jpg https://pixfeeds.com/images/save-nature/1280-506493627- energy-design.jpg https://pixfeeds.com/images/save-nature/1280-493993860- lightbulb-tree.jpg 4/22/2021 When some US firms move production overseas, they also offshore their pollution https://theconversation.com/when-some-us-firms-move- production-overseas-they-also-offshore-their-pollution-75371 1/6 Author
- 625. Yue Maggie Zhou Assistant Professor of Strategy, Ross School of Business, University of Michigan Close Academic rigor, journalistic flair When some US firms move production overseas, they also offshore their pollution May 18, 2017 9.01pm EDT On April 22, as protesters swelled Earth Day rallies in U.S. cities and around the world, President Trump tweeted that he was “committed to keeping our air and water clean but always remember that economic growth enhances environmental protection. Jobs
- 626. matter!” His message was eerily similar to assertions by governments in developing countries that environmental standards are less important than attracting jobs. Indeed, over the last few decades many developing countries have adopted loose environmental standards to lure foreign firms to move production there. However, an emerging body of research shows that policies like this also bring heavy pollution to the host countries. In a recent study, my co-author Xiaoyang Li and I found that a significant number of U.S. firms reduce their pollution at home by offshoring production to poor and less regulated countries. The greening of U.S. manufacturing over the past several decades may be partially caused by a growing
- 627. flow of “brown” imports from poor countries. Cleaner at home, dirty abroad Heavy gray smog blankets northeastern China, including Beijing and Tianjin, on Dec. 18, 2016 during a five-day air pollution ‘red alert.’ NASA Earth Observatory https://theconversation.com/profiles/yue-maggie-zhou-351695 https://theconversation.com/us http://www.theblaze.com/news/2017/04/22/trump-delivers- earth-day-message-and-liberals-arent-happy/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/smj.2656 http://en.saif.sjtu.edu.cn/content/show/103-76.html https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=89344 4/22/2021 When some US firms move production overseas, they also offshore their pollution https://theconversation.com/when-some-us-firms-move- production-overseas-they-also-offshore-their-pollution-75371 2/6
- 628. A “jobs-first” policy can add to serious environmental challenges in the host country. For example, one recent study calculates that 17 to 36 percent of four major air pollutants emitted in China come from production for export. Among these export-related emissions, about 21 percent come from the production of goods for the United States. Deep knowledge, daily, in The Conversation's newsletter Studies like this suggest that trade can potentially redistribute environmental footprints. This can happen via two pathways. One is for “dirty” firms in rich countries to stay out of the entire value chain that contains the polluting activities. In this case, some rich country customers will stop consuming the “dirty” products, which is good for the global environment. Others will keep consuming “dirty”
- 629. products imported from poor and less regulated countries. Another way is for firms in rich countries to keep selling the “dirty” products but redesign their production networks. They will offshore production (and jobs) in the “dirty” segment of the value chain to poor countries. They will then import the “dirty” unfinished products from poor countries for further domestic processing in the clean segment of the value chain. Unfortunately, existing studies have not been able to tease apart these two pathways. To find out if some U.S. companies were taking the second route, we obtained data from the U.S. Census Bureau and the Environmental Protection Agency about trade, production and pollution for more than 8,000 U.S. firms with 18,000 U.S. plants.
- 630. Sign up http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1312860111 4/22/2021 When some US firms move production overseas, they also offshore their pollution https://theconversation.com/when-some-us-firms-move- production-overseas-they-also-offshore-their-pollution-75371 3/6 We first found that of all goods imported by U.S. manufacturing firms (not wholesaler or retailers), the share produced in low-wage countries rose from 7 percent in 1992 to 23 percent in 2009. At the same time, toxic air emissions from manufacturing industries in the United States fell by more than half. Industries that experienced the greatest increase in imports from low-wage countries include
- 631. printing, apparel and textile, furniture, and rubber and plastics. These industries also experienced some of the largest drops in air pollution in the United States. Second, using this unprecedentedly detailed data, we obtained some interesting findings at the firm and plant level. We found that as U.S. firms imported more goods from low-wage countries, their plants released fewer toxic emissions on American soil. In addition, their U.S. plants shifted production to less-polluting industries, produced less waste, and spent less on pollution abatement. In sum, these firms were improving their own environmental performance by shifting to less- polluting segment of the value chain domestically and moving more-polluting activities overseas. To our relief, we found that not all U.S. firms chose to offshore their pollution. In particular, firms
- 632. that are more productive and invest more in R&D and brand equity offshore less pollution. These firms may find it less costly to renovate production technology domestically to comply with stringent environmental standards. They may also find it more rewarding to do so because consumers become more loyal to their brand for their socially responsible behavior at home. Changing firms’ incentives U.S. companies that offshore pollution are not violating environmental laws either at home or in their host countries. Indeed, rebalancing their global production is a logical response to higher environmental compliance costs in the United States. However, to the extent that U.S. firms can choose either to purchase cheap and “dirty-to-make” goods
- 633. from low-wage countries or to produce them under stringent environmental standards at home, they are making a strategic decision about the private costs of production compared to the public (and international) costs of pollution. Companies that offshore pollution to less-regulated countries are taking advantage of those nations’ lower environmental and labor standards and letting the host countries bear the associated social costs. In this May 1973 view of the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania skyline, steel plants line both sides of the Monongahela River. John Alexandrowicz, NARA/Wikipedia https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/VIEW_O F_THE_SKYLINE_AT_PITTSBURGH%2C_PENNSYLVANIA. _LINING_BOTH_SIDES_OF_THE_MONONGAHELA_RIVER_ IN_THE_FOREGROUND_ARE..._-_NARA_-_557227.jpg
- 634. 4/22/2021 When some US firms move production overseas, they also offshore their pollution https://theconversation.com/when-some-us-firms-move- production-overseas-they-also-offshore-their-pollution-75371 4/6 Plastic Pollution Manufacturing Offshoring developing countries US environmental policy Unfortunately, it is not always easy to induce companies to adopt higher standards for their operations in developing countries. After Nike was first reported to have unsafe and abusive working conditions at its foreign plants, it took the company almost a decade to announce that it would raise wages, increase monitoring and adopt more stringent air quality standards in its factories overseas. Similarly, Foxconn – a key supplier to Apple – has incurred heavy criticism over its labor practices in
- 635. China. The company reportedly has improved its working conditions there, but it has also diversified into other low-wage nations where regulations are more lax, including Malaysia, Mexico, Brazil, Vietnam and Indonesia. Reward social responsibility In a global market where companies compete fiercely across national boundaries, governments should coordinate closely to maintain a regulatory framework that incentivizes firms to undertake more socially responsible actions. Participating in trade agreements with strong environmental requirements, and in global coalitions such as those proposed at the United Nations Climate Change Conferences, is one way to coordinate. Unfortunately, some of the world’s largest economies seem to
- 636. be stepping in the opposite direction. Jobs are important for both developed and developing countries. In the face of globalization, however, national leaders should focus more on jobs that are sustainable and do not come at the expense of the environment. Before you go... A Bangladeshi worker throws a washed rawhide onto a pile inside a factory at the highly polluted Hazaribagh tannery area on the banks of the River Buriganga in Dhaka, Bangladesh, Aug. 26, 2014. Bangladesh annually exports millions of dollars of leather goods to some 70 countries, including the U.S. and Japan. AP Photo/A.M. Ahad https://theconversation.com/topics/plastic-280
- 637. https://theconversation.com/topics/pollution-306 https://theconversation.com/topics/manufacturing-1301 https://theconversation.com/topics/offshoring-4902 https://theconversation.com/topics/developing-countries-25761 https://theconversation.com/topics/us-environmental-policy- 34387 http://www.businessinsider.com/how-nike-solved-its-sweatshop- problem-2013-5 http://www.bbc.com/news/business-30532463 https://www.minnpost.com/christian-science- monitor/2012/09/foxconn-moves-indonesia-worrying-labor- groups https://theconversation.com/globalization-and-its-discontents- why-theres-a-backlash-and-how-it-needs-to-change-68800 http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Bangladesh-Daily- Life-/6d51767db48f43f9bf508801f3e251bf/35/0 4/22/2021 When some US firms move production overseas, they also offshore their pollution https://theconversation.com/when-some-us-firms-move- production-overseas-they-also-offshore-their-pollution-75371 5/6
- 638. The world is complicated, but The Conversation helps you understand it. Our editors identify experts on topics in the news, and work with them to help them write clear, engaging and fascinating articles. Each weekday, we publish eight to 12 of these stories, ranging from health to political science, from technology to business and from history to ethics. Sign up for our free newsletter to get these articles in your inbox each day. Joel Abrams Manager of Outreach You might also like Subscribe now Free trade is once again tearing apart the Republican Party
- 639. As incomes rise in China, so does concern about pollution Your city could be exporting deadly air pollution – here’s why Trump and Clinton want to bring back millions of outsourced jobs – here’s why they can’t https://theconversation.com/free-trade-is-once-again-tearing- apart-the-republican-party-57698 https://theconversation.com/as-incomes-rise-in-china-so-does- concern-about-pollution-65617 https://theconversation.com/your-city-could-be-exporting- deadly-air-pollution-heres-why-76374 https://theconversation.com/trump-and-clinton-want-to-bring- back-millions-of-outsourced-jobs-heres-why-they-cant-54141 4/22/2021 When some US firms move production overseas, they also offshore their pollution https://theconversation.com/when-some-us-firms-move- production-overseas-they-also-offshore-their-pollution-75371 6/6
- 640. BMGT 496 - Week 7 CitationsBibliographyBarrabi - Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market _ Fox BusinessBrusseau - Chapter14_TheGreenOffice_EconomicsandtheEnvironment (1)Structure BookmarksPartPLinkSpanSpanLinkSpanChapter 14: The Green Office: Economics and the Environment from The Business Ethics Workshop was adapted by Saylor Academy and is available under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license without attribution as requested by the work's original creator or licensor. Clelland - Stepping Towards Sustainable Business - An Evaluation of Waste Minimization Practices in US ManufacturingCramer - Baristas at Starbucks Accuse Service Company of Abuse and Pay Gaps - The New York TimesDerouin - Deforestation_ Facts, Causes & Effects _ Live ScienceGrant - Time's Up Comes for McDonald'sPerdue Farms announces animal care changesStone - Fracking Is Dangerous To Your Health -- Here's WhyThe Needs of 7 billion People - Depletion of Natural ResourcesToomey - Global Scarcity_ Scramble for Dwindling Natural Resources - Yale E360What are Environmental Ethics and What's Your Role in Saving Nature_ - Help Save NatureZhou - When some US firms move production overseas, they also offshore their pollution
- 641. 4/22/2021 Baristas at Starbucks Accuse Service Company of Abuse and Pay Gaps - The New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/business/starbucks- discrimination-race.html 1/3 Baristas at Starbucks Accuse Service Company of Abuse and Pay Gaps A union representing employees at airport Starbucks locations says immigrant, transgender and black baristas have faced discrimination. By Maria Cramer Published March 1, 2020 Updated March 3, 2020 One transgender barista said his supervisors kept writing “Jessica” instead of Jay on his work schedule. They stared at his stubble and frowned at his deepening voice. A manager even laughed when he told her to stop referring to him as “she,”
- 642. said the barista, Jay Kelly, who works at a Starbucks at Or lando International Airport in Florida. “It’s like a bullet to my heart,” he said. “They look at me like I’m disgusting or like I’m not human or a type of animal that doesn’t belong in that airport.” Mr. Kelly, 25, is one of some 300 employees who responded to a union survey about conditions working for HMSHost, a travel food service company that has long operated Starbucks and other coffee shops in airports nationwide. His allegations and others’ — including that dozens of employees were told to speak English — were made in a report the union released amid tense negotiations with HMSHost, and as labor groups reach out to marginalized people to increase their membership. HMSHost denied any discrimination and accused the union, UNITE HERE, of spreading false information to gain leverage at the bargaining table. “We do not discriminate against any associate based on race, ethnicity, national origin, L.G.B.T.Q. status or
- 643. any other reason,” the company said in a statement. “Our fair treatment policy ensures an open and inclusive environment.” Laura FitzRandolph, HMSHost’s chief human resources officer, said the company took complaints of discrimination seriously. “If an issue comes to our attention, as in this case, we swiftly investigate and resolve it,” she said in a statement. In its survey, the union said that the median pay for black baristas was less than for white baristas, based on an analysis of wage data for more than 2,000 unionized employees. In its statement, HMSHost said the pay analysis was misleading and accused the union of using isolated complaints to undermine the company and unionize more shops. UNITE HERE has been organizing at Starbucks airport locations in Orlando, Denver and other cities. “The union has deployed a well-known tactic of using the media to frame its false narrative to negotiate these agreements,” the company
- 644. said. HMSHost declined to comment on specific allegations, employees or managers, citing privacy concerns. Caught between the union and HMSHost is Starbucks, which does not employ the workers who wear its signature green aprons. Adam Yalowitz, a research coordinator with UNITE HERE, said the union wanted Starbucks to pressure HMSHost to improve conditions for the employees and to emulate the more progressive policies of Starbucks, which has touted its support of gay marriage, adapted its computer system to reflect the preferred names of employees and added coverage of sex reassignment surgery to the company’s health benefits. “Workers are publicly calling on Starbucks to fix the problems at these stores,” Mr. Yalowitz said. A Starbucks spokesman referred questions to HMSHost. The union’s focus on transgender issues is the latest effort by labor organizations to tap into social groups that have felt
- 645. disempowered to mobilize workers, said Jonathan Cutler, a sociology professor at Wesleyan University who has written about the labor movement. Today in Business Live Updates: Updated ABC sells out ad space for the Oscars, even as fewer people are expected to watch. Snap tops Wall Street expectations for the first quarter. A lawyer is accused of helping a billionaire evade taxes. The billionaire escaped with a fine. Is this helpful? 1 hour ago https://www.nytimes.com/by/maria-cramer https://www.restaurantbusinessonline.com/financing/why-hms- ended-its-exclusive-deal-starbucks
- 647. the-billionaire-escaped-with-a-fine 4/22/2021 Baristas at Starbucks Accuse Service Company of Abuse and Pay Gaps - The New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/business/starbucks- discrimination-race.html 2/3 “Organized labor often lives or dies by its ability to tap into broader social movements,” he said. “In this case, you’re seeing the most public effort to organize around transgender issues.” The union said the employee data showed that 79 percent of workers were women and 64 percent were black or Latino. Many of them are gay or transgender, according to the union. These are key demographics for unions like UNITE HERE, which tend to represent workers in low-wage industries, said Kate Bronfenbrenner, the director of labor education research at Cornell University.
- 648. “Women and people of color, those are the workers most likely to organize,” she said. Unions “have to be strategic and work with their community allies. And the L.G.B.T.Q. community, particularly the people of color in the L.G.B.T.Q. community, are often very good allies.” UNITE HERE released the survey results in a report that featured photos and accounts by Mr. Kelly and other baristas around the country, including Martha Mendoza, a barista at Seattle-Tacoma International Airport who said her manager scolded her because she spoke English with an accent, and Connie Fong, a barista at Portland International Airport who said her supervisor chanted “build the wall” at her. Several transgender employees asserted in the report that managers refused to use their correct pronouns, or had referred to them by their “dead names,” the names they were given at birth and no longer use.
- 649. The report also quoted a former barista in Orlando who said he believed he was fired because he tried to organize workers. Ninety-six immigrants responded to the survey. More than a quarter of them said they were told to stop speaking foreign languages at work, according to the report. HMSHost said the survey was based on a questionnaire that “contained deceptive and leading language.” The company noted that only 13 percent of unionized employees responded to it “despite the pressure some associates reportedly felt to complete the questionnaire.” Union officials said they analyzed wage data for a nine-month period in 2019 and found that the median pay for black baristas was $1.85 an hour less than it was for white baristas working at Starbucks in 27 U.S. airports. The company said the median pay figures the union reported did not account for where employees lived, since wages vary according to the cost of living around the country.
- 650. “All wage rates have been negotiated and agreed upon by the union during the collective bargaining process with HMSHost and these rates are not based on race,” the company said. The union is pushing HMSHost to increase its hourly minimum wage to $15 and to provide benefits in line with what Starbucks offers its employees, like full tuition reimbursement. Jay Kelly, who is transgender, said a manager at the HMSHost- operated Starbucks location where he works refused to use his correct pronouns. Phelan M. Ebenhack for The New York Times https://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/feb/25/starbucks- worker-labor-unions-organizing 4/22/2021 Baristas at Starbucks Accuse Service Company of Abuse and Pay Gaps - The New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/01/business/starbucks-
- 651. discrimination-race.html 3/3 Union officials said the survey found that many employees, who earn an average of $13.12 an hour, often had a difficult time paying their rent or paying for food. Some have had to sleep at the airport because they could not afford to take a taxi or Uber back home after a late shift, they said. In 2018, after Starbucks employees in Philadelphia called the police on two black men who asked to use the store bathroom, Starbucks shut down its 8,000 stores for one day so employees could receive anti-bias training. HMSHost locations, as well as other Starbucks-licensed stores in supermarkets and hotels, did not offer the training at the time. According to HMSHost, the company offers training on anti- discrimination, and harassment and non discrimination language has been written into collective bargaining agreements. Lacreshia Lewis, 27, who works with Mr. Kelly in Orlando, said she and other workers regularly write in Mr. Kelly’s name for
- 652. him on the schedule. She has confronted managers about their refusal to use the right pronouns. “They say, ‘Oh, I didn’t realize it,’ or try to play it off,” she said. “I think they’re purposely trying to misgender him.” Maria Cramer is a breaking news reporter on the Express Desk. @NYTimesCramer https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/15/us/starbucks-philadelphia- black-men-arrest.html https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/17/business/starbucks- arrests-racial-bias.html https://twitter.com/NYTimesCramer 4/22/2021 Time's Up Comes for McDonald's https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s- comes-mcdonald-s?utm_source=morning_brew 1/5 METOO
- 653. Time's Up Comes for McDonald's McDonald’s problems are also emblematic of the restaurant industry MAY 22, 2019 KINSEY GRANT BUSINESS EDITOR AND PODCAST HOST Follow Twenty-�ve McDonald’s (+0.43%) workers have accused the fast food chain of l h d di i i i d li i f ki b COPY Francis Scialabba https://www.morningbrew.com/search?tag=metoo https://www.morningbrew.com/contributor/kinsey-grant https://twitter.com/KinseyGrant https://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.morningb rew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s-comes-mcdonald- s&utm_source=facebook_share
- 654. http://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=McDonald%E2%80%99s%2 0problems%20are%20also%20emblematic%20of%20the%20rest aurant%20industry&url=https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/st ories/2019/05/22/time-s-comes-mcdonald- s&utm_source=twitter_share&via=MorningBrew http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?url=https://www.morning brew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s-comes-mcdonald- s&utm_source=linkedin_share https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/05/21/mcdonal ds-employees-say-times-up-new-round-sexual-harassment- complaints/?utm_term=.b30bac63d630&utm_source=morning_b rew 4/22/2021 Time's Up Comes for McDonald's https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s- comes-mcdonald-s?utm_source=morning_brew 2/5 sexual harassment, gender discrimination, and retaliation for speaking out about either. The widespread collection of charges (the third such round in
- 655. three years) was �led yesterday with support from the #MeToo-spearheading Time’s Up Legal Defense Fund, the American Civil Liberties Union, and the labor group Fight for $15. The stakes are high As the NYT points out, this campaign against McDonald’s is a “major test of the legal and labor power of the #MeToo movement.” McDonald’s has almost 2 million workers in 100+ countries—making it a key player in conversations around global economic conditions. McDonald’s problems are also emblematic of the broader restaurant industry, which has one of the highest rates of workplace sexual harassment around.
- 656. A 2016 survey found 40% of female fast food workers said they’d experienced workplace sexual harassment. Over 20% said they’d faced consequences, like missing out on raises or getting their hours cut, for reporting misconduct. But it’s complicated Almost 95% of McDonald’s U.S. locations are independently owned franchises. That’s given corporate legal teams grounds to argue that McDonald’s (the company) is not liable for the behavior of employees at McDonald’s (the franchisee-owned stores). The National Labor Relations Board is currently presiding over a case that
- 657. could decide whether that argument has legs. McDonald’s has made some changes. CEO Steve Easterbrook says his company has improved its harassment policies, sent posters with the new policies to all of its restaurants, and put most franchise owners through new training. It also plans to establish a complaint hotline. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/21/business/mcdonalds- female-employees-sexual- harassment.html?utm_source=morning_brew http://www.nationalpartnership.org/our-impact/news- room/press-statements/women-in-fast-food-industry-face- sexual-harassment.html?utm_source=morning_brew 4/22/2021 Time's Up Comes for McDonald's https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s-
- 658. comes-mcdonald-s?utm_source=morning_brew 3/5 Still, McDonald’s workers (and some of those who �led claims) ((and activist/Top Chef host Padma Lakshmi)) protested yesterday in front of Mickey D’s Chicago HQ —just two days before the chain’s annual shareholder meeting. COPY You might also like... GRAB BAG Key Performance Indicators: April 22 NEAL FREYMAN / 04.21.2021 ENVIRONMENT President Biden Holds Virtual Climate Summit With 40 World Leaders JAMIE WILDE / 04.21.2021
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- 663. https://www.morningbrew.com/daily/stories/2019/05/22/time-s- comes-mcdonald-s?utm_source=morning_brew 5/5 Shop Careers Privacy © 2021 Morning Brew, Inc. All Rights Reserved. https://shop.morningbrew.com/ https://jobs.lever.co/morningbrew https://www.morningbrew.com/privacy https://www.facebook.com/MorningBrew/ https://www.instagram.com/morningbrew/ https://www.twitter.com/MorningBrew https://www.linkedin.com/company/9455978/ 4/22/2021 Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market | Fox Business
- 664. https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/starbucks-serves-up-new- employee-benefits-to-lure-workers-in-hot-us-job- market?utm_source=morning_br… 1/5 STARBUCKS Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market By Thomas Barrabi FOXBusiness Starbucks is rolling out a suite of employee bene�ts as it looks to lure workers despite a tight labor market, a growing �eld of aggressive coffeehouse competitors and the fallout from high-pro�le incidents at stores in Philadelphia and Tempe, Arizona. The perks were announced this week at a leadership summit in Chicago for Starbucks executives and more than 12,000 store managers from the U.S. and Canada. New initiatives include mental health resources for employees, ride- share options to help
- 665. workers get home safely and technological developments that will streamline or automate time-consuming tasks like inventory management and scheduling. A strong, happy workforce – and effective outreach to the U.S. job candidate pool – is critical to Starbucks’ plans to open more than 600 net new stores in the Americas in �scal 2019 alone. The U.S. unemployment held near record lows at just 3.7 percent through August. A longtime leader among coffee chains, Starbucks is facing stiff competition from smaller local chains of high-end coffee shops as well as corporate rivals such as McDonald’s and Dunkin’ Brands. By using this site, you agree to our Privacy Policy and our Terms of Use. Published September 6, 2019· MORE ON THIS STARBUCKS TO OPEN WORLD'S LARGEST LOCATION IN
- 666. CHICAGO BUFFALO WILD WINGS TACKLES SPORTS BETTING WITH MGM RESORTS DEAL Login Watch TV https://www.foxbusiness.com/category/starbucks https://www.foxbusiness.com/person/b/thomas-barrabi http://www.foxbusiness.com/index.html http://www.foxbusiness.com/category/starbucks http://www.foxbusiness.com/category/jobs https://www.foxbusiness.com/privacy-policy https://www.foxbusiness.com/terms-of-use https://foxbusiness.com/small-business/starbucks-to-open- worlds-largest-location-in-chicago https://foxbusiness.com/features/buffalo-wild-wings-sports- betting-mgm https://video.foxbusiness.com/v/5614626175001/#sp=watch-live 4/22/2021 Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market | Fox Business https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/starbucks-serves-up-new-
- 667. employee-benefits-to-lure-workers-in-hot-us-job- market?utm_source=morning_br… 2/5 “We’ve always listened to our partners, so it’s just a chance for us to evolve that. I think it’s really important right now in this competitive environment that we do our very best,” Starbucks Chief Operating O�cer Roz Brewer told FOX Business. “We think we’re known for having great relationships with our partners, but we don’t really want to rest there, because they’re critical to us.” The new policies were developed in response to speci �c feedback Starbucks received from store managers, employees and tech-based monitoring of store ine�ciencies. Current plans call for the automation or elimination of 17 hours of tasks. Store managers will no longer have to double-check inventory, coordinate deliveries or set up three weeks of schedules for 25 employees by hand. Confrontations at the Philadelphia and Tempe stores complicated community outreach
- 668. efforts and forced the company to rethink employee training. However, company o�cials say the policy changes are tied to a close study of internal operations that began two years ago. Starbucks CEO Kevin Johnson meets with employees at a leadership summit in Chicago (Photo courtesy of Starbucks) “Through strategic, long-term investments in labor hours, training, and streamlining tasks and processes critical to running a store, we will work to alleviate some of the pressure and stress that often limits our store managers to lead and grow,” Starbucks CEO Kevin Johnson said in a letter to company employees. A new approach to the mental health crisis is core to the company’s efforts. In Chicago, store managers will take part in training sessions with clinical psychologists to learn “emotional �rst aid” and other ways of helping their employees. Starbucks is also set to offer subscriptions to mental health app “Headspace” by
- 669. January. Moving forward after Philadelphia, Tempe Though fostering relations with customers in tight-knit communities has always been core to Starbucks’ business model, company policies have faced unprecedented 4/22/2021 Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market | Fox Business https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/starbucks-serves-up-new- employee-benefits-to-lure-workers-in-hot-us-job- market?utm_source=morning_br… 3/5 scrutiny over the last 18 months. The trouble began in May 2018, when two black men, Donte Robinson and Rashon Nelson, were arrested at a Starbucks store in Philadelphia after store employees called police because the two men, who were waiting for a friend, had stayed inside without making a purchase.
- 670. The incident sparked a national outcry and led Starbucks to take the unprecedented step of closing all of its more than 8,000 U.S. store locations for employee racial bias and sensitivity training. The sessions lasted for four hours and included 175,000 employees across the country. In July, Starbucks drew renewed criticism after an employee in Tempe, Arizona, asked six police o�cers, some of whom were military veterans, to leave the store. Starbucks issued a formal apology for the action, which executive vice president Rossann Williams called “completely unacceptable.” Brewer said the two incidents served as a “wake-up call” for Starbucks executives and informed how the company has trained employees in the days since. “Part of the work we realized is that our store manager needs to know what community they’re in and how they need to service any issues in those
- 671. communities – because those issues come inside the store – in addition to creating those conversations, going beyond coffee with a cop and engaging the community inside the building,” Brewer said. Aside from the initial sensitivity training session, Starbucks released a series of online seminars called “Pour-over Sessions.” Accessible to all employees and developed by independent experts, the sessions offer speci�c tips on how to de-escalate tense situations in the store. SBUXStock Symbol STARBUCKS CORP.Stock Name 115.92Stock Price -0.82Stock Change -0.70%Change % https://www.foxbusiness.com/quote?stockTicker=SBUX
- 672. 4/22/2021 Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market | Fox Business https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/starbucks-serves-up-new- employee-benefits-to-lure-workers-in-hot-us-job- market?utm_source=morning_br… 4/5 While the Philadelphia and Tempe incidents each triggered calls among some customers to boycott Starbucks, Brewer said they did not have a negative impact on efforts to retain staffers and hire new employees. “Absolutely not. Actually, it’s the total opposite, because most people feel as though we handled that situation well and they want to work for us because of how we were so aggressive with the changes we needed to make,” Brewer said. “We’re actually really pleased with what I’ll call our ‘partner brand’ right now. Again, more work to do, but no, we have not a seen a dip at all.”
- 673. Future changes Starbucks’ efforts to improve the employee experience will have a material impact on how its stores function. The current slate of task automation is expected to be complete by �scal year 2020, as will the rollout of improved “help desks” for employees attempting to troubleshoot in-store issues. The changes are designed in part to free up store managers to directly interact with customers. Store managers will also have authority to make small donations to local organizations or charities as a means of fostering goodwill in the community. Customers may also notice physical changes at their local Starbucks. After noticing that baristas didn’t have enough room to operate behind the counter, the company is testing out larger pickup areas for customers who placed mobile orders. “It was very di�cult for our baristas to just try to force 80
- 674. drinks within a 15-minute window on one small handoff point, so we have extended in 200 stores across the New York, Manhattan, Financial District areas, we’ve expanded physically in that area because we know the need for convenience is growing,” Brewer said. While many of the new perks are aimed at helping store managers, Brewer said the company will soon shift its focus on better training for �rst- time baristas and 4/22/2021 Starbucks serves up new employee benefits to lure workers in hot US job market | Fox Business https://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/starbucks-serves-up-new- employee-benefits-to-lure-workers-in-hot-us-job- market?utm_source=morning_br… 5/5 eliminating stress for shift managers – employees who report to, and often become, store managers.
- 675. “We’re focusing right in on that position and making sure that they have all the tools that they need. We realize that a lot has fallen on that position and we’ve not looked at that position in a while,” she added. Quotes delayed at least 15 minutes. Real-time quotes provided by BATS BZX Real-Time Price. Market Data provided by Interactive Data (Terms & Conditions). Powered and Implemented by Interactive Data Managed