![1 Introduction
§1.1 Research Context
Countries are engaged in perpetual competition to improve their standing in the
world. Accordingly, over the past two or so decades, international competition among states
to secure a share of world‘s limited financial and technical resources and to garner greater
political influence has increased. Today, policy makers, particularly from emerging countries
understand that ―countries can be seen as a brand‖[1] and are making ―overt attempts to
attract foreign investments and increase exports through nation branding‖ [1].
With the advent of information communications technology (ICT) such as the internet,
mobile phones and laptop computers, the arena for this competition is also rapidly changing.
More countries are employing mass-media marketing techniques to develop interest in their
nation brand and Aronczyk (2013) believes that governments see this as ―a natural next
step‖, since modern technological and political developments had already set the stage[1].
The reality is that every country‘s ability to attract investments and resources is affected by
the efforts of competing nations, so policy makers must realise the importance having a
potent nation brand can have for country differentiation and ultimately for the prosperity of
its industries, markets and constituents.
Nation branding, a term coined in 1996[1] and promoted actively by marketing experts
even today, is now a rapidly developing concept in the public policy scholarship which seeks
to address the aforementioned concerns. It manifests itself as a hybrid of thoughts,
particularly between the corporate school of product branding, the marketing school of
destination and place branding and the policy school of public diplomacy and foreign policy.
At first consideration, the concept may not seem novel. Indeed, just as corporations employ
marketing and advertising schemes to position their products and companies in an
increasingly competitive and globalized environment, so too have governments always
attempted to market their unique features and characteristics to attract investments and
resources, typically towards an economic or political agenda, as such the approach can be
thought of as ‗marketing a country towards a political and economic end‘[1].
Nonetheless, preliminary research undertaken by this thesis proves that the definition
and scope of nation branding is significantly more extensive that it appears. From a
practitioner‘s perspective, nation branding requires a plethora of multidisciplinary tools and
techniques to develop and launch. From a scholarly perspective it is still highly
misunderstood, and discordant theoretical prescriptions bloat the literature. Essentially, the
concept is a complex and multifaceted school of thought, desirous of urgent theoretical
development. Further, because of the limited, but nonetheless increasing research in this
area, policy positions on nation branding are either non-existent or ill-defined; many
countries develop their nation branding policies impulsively or through innovation as
opposed to reliance on best-practices, scholarly prescriptions or practical precedents. This
thesis will contribute to closing that gap which hinders the theoretical and practical
development of the field, and misleads government officials and branding practitioners on
the nation branding process.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-15-320.jpg)
![2 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
§1.2 Research Statement
Despite the multidisciplinary interest in the concept, nation branding is having a
difficult time in terms of its theoretical and practical development. The simplistic yet vague
terminology used in its application has frequently been cited as the culprit. There is no
mechanism in the literature outlining the requisite activities, institutions, policies and
programs to successfully develop, launch and manage a nation branding initiative. Moreover,
research in the field is led primarily by marketing practitioners, so the concept tends to lack
integrated theories from related disciplines such as public policy.
As Sun (2009) explains, the nation branding literature discusses a range of factors
and concepts ―but no organizing mechanism to connect these factors exists to explore the
dynamics underlying nation branding‖[1]. This thesis attempts to fill that gap by developing a
nation branding framework. This tool will connect themes, theories and perspectives on
nation branding to determine what are the main elements of a nation brand, how they
interrelate, and also how they can be manipulated in a programmatic approach towards
positive economic and social outcomes.
1.2.1 Observations & Assumptions
This research and its methodology are based on several critical observations:
(1) The literature does not put forward any concordant definition of nation branding or a
model that has proven successful in any part of the world;
(2) The nation branding concept is led primarily by branding practitioners, which limits
the discourse to marketing perspectives;
(3) The prescriptions and models identified in the literature can be integrated with
knowledge from other fields to develop a nation branding framework;
(4) Many countries have not yet capitalised on their nation brand and lack the programs,
institutions and policy frameworks necessary to do so; and
(5) Many countries have launched nation branding programs which lack a well-defined
strategy or policy framework for them to be effective.
1.2.2 Research Significance
As there are over two hundred recognized nations in the world, governments are on a
continuous and desperate journey to gain political and economic traction as a means of
improving their standing in the international economy, not just through increasing tourists
arrivals and foreign direct investments (FDIs) but also technology, human resources and
social capital. One of the first steps in competing in this arena is to launch a comprehensive
strategy for defining and promoting a nation image. This research will contribute to the
limited body of knowledge on nation branding techniques but more importantly, it will
develop a framework for designing and executing a nation branding program. As no na tion
branding frameworks were found in the literature, this research is completely innovative and
will make an original contribution to the field. In terms of specific implications for
practitioners, researchers, public managers, governments and stakeholders (internal and
external) this thesis will:](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-16-320.jpg)
![June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 3
Play a critical role in directing the discourse on nation branding;
Produce a further understanding of what constitutes the nation brand;
Develop a policy implementation framework for nation brand development;
Clarify the importance, significance and dynamics of nation brands; and
Produce new terminology to explain the phenomena identified.
Additionally, strategic implications of nation branding will be exposed and
suggestions for further research not within the scope of this research will be presented.
§1.3 Research Aim
The ultimate aim of this research is “to develop a nation branding policy
implementation framework”. As noted above, there are no best practice templates or
models[5] of nation branding. This requires the interrogation of a range of cases, sources and
literature which can be analysed through a policy perspective to develop the framework.
To resolve these issues and satisfy the aim of this paper, the research was guided by a
predefined list of questions. These include an investigation into what constitutes the scope,
definition and research content of nation branding, identification of what tools and methods
are necessary for measuring the strength of a nation brand, and an inquiry into the requisite
tools and procedures for maintaining a potent nation brand.
To respond to specific concerns in the literature, this research will also explicate the
role of stakeholders in the nation branding process, and the theories and practices most
powerful for developing, launching, maintaining and measuring a nation brand.
§1.4 Thesis Structure
Based on the above stated research requirements and expected outputs, this thesis is
delimited as shown in Figure 1:1 Comprehensive research framework below:
Figure 1:1 Comprehensive research framework](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-17-320.jpg)
![2 Nation Branding Today
Country differentiation is imperative in a 21st century global village. Van Ham (2001)
posits that a country without keen management of its image and reputation stands to
experience difficulty in attracting economic and political attention[2]. But nation brand
management has implications that reach far beyond the economic [2][5][7 ] and it can
significantly impact on a nation‘s prosperity.
Countries have long made attempts to attract investments, increase exports and
improve their social situation. In the past, countries could make passionate appeals to the
international community for aid and assistance, or negotiate agreements with multilateral
lending organizations or with other states. But at present, the growing need for resources
has changed the way in which investors approach opportunities and also how nations solicit
these investments. Traditional methods still exist, but the advent of the internet and
improvements in information communications technology (ICT) tools have introduced a
wider array of platforms through which nations can communicate with potential investors,
travellers, development partners etc., while simultaneously opening portals through which
investors can pitch their investment ideas to suitable host countries. These countries are
carefully selected based on their absolute and comparative advantages, which means that
countries with similar offerings (i.e., investment protection, security, a stable business
environment and economy, abundant natural resources, superior ICT infrastructure and
technology offerings and a talented human resource pool etc.), are now engaged in an ever -
growing competition to attract investments and development funds.
In addition to investment solicitation for development, countries are also attempting
to improve their geopolitical status, international influence, and regional clout to achieve
specific political agenda regionally and internationally. The impact of increased investment
inflows and a stronger and more powerful international presence is undeniably invaluable to
this cause, but with the aforementioned competition it can only be achieved if countries are
clearly differentiated from one another. This requires the cultivation of a specific national
identity, i.e., a nation brand, which can be mounted as a beacon for attracting human,
technical and financial resources and increasing social capital at home and respect for the
country abroad. To this end, a number of governments have embarked on impressive drives
to improve the power and value of their brand, evidenced by the increasing trend to hire
branding consultants and embark on sophisticated nation branding campaigns[8]. This is
owed to the fact that all countries have an identity and reputation which play critical roles in
investors‘ assessments of their prospects for growth, development and investment returns.
With billions of investor and tourist dollars traded every day and massive
developments taking place in the vital sectors and industries, governments are patently
more cognizant of the importance of being involved in these changes. If governments hope
to safeguard the interests of their constituents and continue to execute their various
governmental functions effectively, then this alternative method of inward investment
solicitation does not only offer many opportunities but it is also imperative.
The present obstacle is therefore crafting that a distinguishable international presence
that can compete with other countries taking the same approach. While this activity is
described in various ways by branding firms across the world[9], a true standard for doing
this remains lost within a volume of misconceptions, conceptual misunderstandings and
vague descriptions and terminology[1][9][10], so what would certainly be a herculean task on its](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-19-320.jpg)
![6 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
own has been further convoluted to nebulous end. If established, a solid international
presence – provided it is packed with enough potency to positively influence the opinions
and perceptions of a country to positive end – can serve as a global beacon for attracting the
much needed attention, funding and support that can drive a country‘s development needs.
It is important to note however that this activity is beyond tourism marketing. It is
even larger than what would be described from a foreign policy perspective. Here we discuss
what Simon Anholt described as nation branding[11]. At first glance, the term may conjure
up what many regard as a common tactic by governments around the world, but as the
literature proves it is a highly ambiguous term, whose scope and definition lacks the level of
scrutiny and theoretical expansion that has expanded other concepts in the discipline.
Notwithstanding, nation branding has become an increasingly researched concept over the
last decade and a half[8][12]. Governments are always on the search for new means of
attracting catalysts of development, namely tourists, investors, and skilled human resources
and as they become increasingly aware of the importance of their nation as a brand[8], it has
become not only a tool but also an asset. Today, some scholars employ the term national
reputational capital in reference to the unique form of capital that can be gained from a well
developed brand reputation. Expert Simon Anholt, credited with coining the term in the late
1990s, has advised a number of governments including the Netherlands, Latvia, Croatia,
Jamaica, Chile, Tanzania and Sweden and has noted a significant increase in the number of
countries inquiring about nation branding techniques and strategies since early 2000 [8].
This not only reflects the growth of the field generally, but also an increased appreciation for
the role that a nation brand can play in development. It also shows that governments do in
fact regard nation branding as an alternative form of image promotion, separate from say
tourism marketing or public diplomacy. As a newly recognized asset, it has certainly gained
much consideration over a relatively short space of time.
A major challenge now is assessing the strength of a nation brand. There are new
metrics and measures being developed that attempt to index and quantify the strength of
nation brands, but only recently has there been a veritable explosion of literature [8].
Compounding this challenge is that, as the literature suggests, governments and marketing
experts take a greater level of interest in nation branding than scholars in other fields. So,
the nation branding concept has been slow to garner the level of research attention needed
to propel its importance in academia. Fan (2008) concurs that as an emerging field, nation
branding is being led more by practitioners than by academic researchers. This means the
field is being expanded in practice but is supported by limited theoretical research leaving
the concept virtually unexplored and undeveloped theoretically and conceptually[4][12].
In fact, a number of works available today that directly references the nation branding
concept (outside of Simon Anholt‘s research) was only published post 2010 and the first
available textbook on the subject, authored by Dr Keith Dinnie was published only in 2008.
Nation branding, like other fields of practice, stands to benefit from the injection of
meaningful theories devised by academicians around the world but it has a long way to go in
its theoretical and conceptual development and this thesis seeks to make a contribution to
closing that research gap.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-20-320.jpg)
![June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 7
§2.1 Theoretical Development
During the earliest discussions about image management for investment solicitation,
the literature postulated that nation branding - which was yet to be termed as such - could
be applied by countries as a strategy for gaining national reputational capital. This form of
capital, representing the amalgamation of global perceptions about a country, could be a
beacon for investors, tourists, human and technical resources, international aid or any other
form of development resource. Today, countries use nation branding as a signal that they
have entered the world economy [2] and are ready to re-enter the current economic and
political sphere and participate in a new way.
In trying to understand the process of nation branding, scholars reference the
practices of the related marketing and branding fields; specifically product branding,
corporate branding and place branding. Indeed, before governments and scholars began
speaking about nation branding, the concept of branding in other respects was already well
established. For instance, brand strategists in manufacturing companies have long used
brand development to stimulate interest in their products and services. Consid er two
companies, both producing bottled water. When these products enter the market,
consumers will make a choice between them based on factors such as price, functionality
(performance of the good), perceived quality of the good and its physical appearance (i.e.
packaging). Marketing experts at both these companies must therefore devise ways of
enhancing the appeal of these factors by stimulating interest in their own products to
compete effectively in the market.
This means that they must differentiate their goods and services by developing a
brand (Kotler and Gertner 2002)[1] and promoting that brand image. As Sun (2009)
explains, the brand management literature defines a brand as ―a name, term, sign, symbol,
or design, or any combination of these that are used to identify the goods and services of one
seller or group of sellers to differentiate them from those of a competitor‖[1]. This is known as
product branding and it is especially necessary in a world where products and product
features can easily be duplicated, as seen in the example earlier. Therefore, to increase their
presence in the market, companies associate their products with a catalogue of colours,
symbols, logos, slogans and shapes, which helps consumers to differentiate products.
Similar practice has also taken place in the corporate world where the trend of
corporate branding has long taken place. As the term suggests, it relates to the branding of
corporate entities. It is similar to product branding in the sense that is attempts to build a
brand identity and associate it to a particular product with the objective of differentiating
that product from similar products in the same category. The difference however is that
branded products are targeted at consumers whereas corporate brands are targeted at ―an
expanded set of stakeholders including employees, investors, suppliers, partners, regulators
and local communities‖ (Hatch and Schultz 2003)[1].
Branding has also been applied to locations where parallels have been made between
places and products and how they can be branded[9]. But, similar to nation branding, the
idea is not to attract traditional buyers and consumers but to attract a wider range of settlers,
customers, visitors, traders, investors and human capital. The practice is often confused with
the traditional concept of tourism marketing, which in fact has a more limited focus, i.e., on
the natural landscape, the food and culture, and local tourist attractions, but the concepts
are not the same. In nation branding, emphasis is placed on its resource offerings and its](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-21-320.jpg)
![8 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
unique flair and lifestyle, but more importantly the reputation of the nation‘s systems, its
social and economic environment and its political landscape.
A common mistake made by countries is offering generic qualities that can be found
in almost any nation, namely an educated human resource pool, a youthful population, and
an attractive landscape and scenery [13]. This approach disregards how the target audience
perceives the country itself, which could render the marketing campaign useless. Indeed,
brand strategists (even in related fields) have identified that the core essence and brand
message of any country must be different from those of competing nations. But most
potential customers demand more than hospitality and natural scenery, they are also
interested in the nation‘s economic, political and social stability, domestic security,
enforcement of basic freedoms and respect.
2.1.1 Current Trends
Earlier publications on the concept put the nation branding discourse largely under
the domain of marketing, with some references to public diplomacy and international
relations. Recently, journal articles on nation branding have reflected a shift in the scholarly
focus of the field. A growing number of scholars have either hinted at or directly posited the
need for greater public participation in branding activities (both on the level of the people
and the level of public institutions). Anholt, 2010 (as cited by Teslik 2007) identifies greater
emphasis being placed on the behavioural aspects of managing the national image,
dismissing claims that the focus should be on the use of logos and catch phrases[45]. Today a
number of scholars agree that a critical component in any nation branding initiative is
greater involvement of the population and public institutions. In fact, as the novelty and
complexity of the concept leaves much to be explored, many more scholars are introducing
scholarly perspectives and research developments of related fields into nation branding.
§2.2 Problems & Criticisms
Nation branding is a fairly new and theoretically underdeveloped field of inquiry [1][7 ].
Nonetheless the literature is inundated with criticisms and concerns, particularly with
regards to the terminology and methodology that defines the concept. There is a debate
among scholars and practitioners regarding the most appropriate tools and practices for
branding a nation. But a major point of confusion and a recurring phenomenon across the
literature is how vaguely defined are the terms nation brand and nation branding. The
multifarious definitions presented in the literature has rendered the term vague. Within the
marketing domain, Sun (2009) argues that the ―brand management literature fails to
provide a concordant definition of brand or branding‖[1] which could suggest why nation
branding has suffered in its theoretical development.
Retrospectively, Simon Anholt explains that the term ―nation brand‖ was coined out
of his observation that country reputations (just like cities and regions) behave like
corporate and product images which play a crucial role in the progress and development of
the product or entity they represent[9]. Marketing consulting firms adopted this idea and
morphed it into a ―promise that the images of countries can be directly manipulated using
the techniques of marketing communications‖[9], a claim which has never been supported by
any article, research, case study or other work[7 ], suggesting that countries cannot advertise
into a new reputation. Further is that nation branding has be en reduced by brand
consultants to an operation of simply creating a catalogue of stationery items such as](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-22-320.jpg)
![June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 9
professional logos, business cards and letterheads etc.; practices which could simply be
regarded as just ―good housekeeping‖ and not the true essenc e of nation branding.
As more scholars move toward describing nation branding as a comprehensive
process inclusive of stakeholder input and public participation, one researcher advances an
opposing view which characterises it as ―the production of symbols, signs, territories and
spaces for consumption‖[14]. As for tactics, Szondi argues that nation branding is built on the
use of logos, slogans, advertisements, brochures and e-marketing. This essentially reduces
the conceptualisation of nation branding to country promotion using traditional marketing
methods, i.e., with visual elements comprising signs and logos. This perspective is directly in
contrast to the commonly proposed definition of nation branding that looks beyond the
visual and symbolic elements of a nation to encapsulate the social, political and economic
spheres.
The incongruity in perspectives may be provoked by faulty terminology. Olins (2004)
highlights the fact that ―connecting marketing and branding terms to the concept of nations‖
invokes a sense of scepticism among policymakers, academics and diplomats[15]. Anholt
(2007) explains that the related terminology is often seen as cynical or too market-oriented,
which continues to be a key challenge for the development of the concept[6]. As elucidated by
Dinnie (2009a), ―integrating a marketing and communications approach to the objectives
and ambitions of policymakers may present serious challenges‖[6] and Anholt, who coined
the term, admits that nation branding is an erroneous expression since it misrepresents
itself as a promise that governments can directly manipulate perceptions about their country
and its people[8]. Scholars have since introduced the terms ‗competitive identity‘ and
‗reputation management as alternative descriptors.
Another scholar introduces the term national reputational capital, describing nation
branding as ―the strategic self-presentation of a country with the aim of creating
reputational capital through economic, political and social interest promotion at home and
abroad‖. Other scholars avoid the details of the conceptualisation by articulating a general
rather than comprehensive definition of the term. Fan (2008) for instance describes nation
branding as simply ―the management of a nation‘s image and reputation‖, or ― the practice of
applying brand and marketing communication techniques to promote a nation‘s image‖[10].
Nation branding is akin to image management, on a larger scale, and so some authors
have placed emphasis on the visual and symbolic elements of the nation, with an exclusive
―focus on the marketable elements of a country‘s culture and people‖[10]. Other scholars see
nation branding as just an extension of the familiar ―brand‖ concept, an ideological product
of the corporate world[2] which has no place in public policy or governance. With the
multitude of perspectives in the literature, it will take some time before the concept crosses
the disciplinary divide and is accepted as a valid principle by economists, public managers
and government officials generally.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-23-320.jpg)
![14 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
The countries selected as major cases were Kenya, South Africa and Germany. Based
on scoping of the literature, it appeared that these countries had the most active and highly
organized nation branding programs. Information regarding the nation branding exercises
in these countries was readily available as public record (especially via a domestic nation
branding web portal). This made it easy to track developments in their nation branding
activities. Another country frequently mentioned in this research is Jamaica. Jamaica was
selected as it has one of the most recognized nation brands in the world but ironically has an
unstructured nation branding policy strategy.
3.1.2 Methods of Data Manipulation
Data analysis will be performed using two conventional social science research
methods: thematic analysis and data triangulation. The specific application of these research
methods is explained in sub-sections 3.1.2.1 and 3.1.2.2:
3.1.2.1 Thematic Analysis
Thematic analysis has been practiced by researchers and scholars for decades; it is the
most common approach in content analysis and is now a conventional practice in qualitative
research[16][17 ]. Thematic analysis is a qualitative research method that is used to identify,
analyse and report themes (patterns) within a body of literature[5]. This method is useful
since it reveals patterns and themes which are not imposed by the researcher[5]. Since there
are no preset categories or labels and no predetermined themes, then critical and thorough
reading of the literature allows the researcher to identify these themes as they emerge.
Thematic analysis, although quite a conventional research method, is not often
demarcated as such. In fact, several examples can be found in scholarly works were
researchers refer to thematic analysis by other terms, such as discourse analysis. There are
also cases where scholars explain the process without actually referring to it as thematic
analysis, for instance Braun & Wilkinson (2003) state in their research that data would be
―subjected to qualitative analysis of commonly recurring themes‖[18]. What the researchers
described here is actually thematic analysis.
This research method played a critical role in the development of the nation branding
framework as it produced a list of themes, patterns, common perspectives and prescriptions
that explained the nation branding process and gave insight into what procedures and tools
should be employed during its implementation.
3.1.2.2 Data Triangulation
In social science research triangulation involves observing a phenomenon from at
least two different perspectives[20]. Specifically, it combines data captured by different
sources in different places and at different times or by different people[20]. Since it involves
data obtained from different types of sources[5], triangulation is one means of validating
research findings and increasing the credibility of research results.
Since this component of the research focused on triangulating patterns across country
case studies and scholarly prescriptions and theories, the qualitative and quantitative data
that supported this study was compiled from carefully filtered literature. (See
Figure 3:2 Framework for literature selection).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-28-320.jpg)
![June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 15
3.1.3 Developing the Framework
A comprehensive search of the literature reveals no existing nation branding
framework. The development of such framework therefore required the synthesis of theories,
prescriptions, scholarly opinions, and lessons learned. This thesis is composed of several
important analytical and research components. First, it applied thematic analysis and data
triangulation to the available literature to develop a theoretical framework for nation
branding. Second, using the theories and themes captured by the theoretical framework, a
policy framework was drafted which was a comprehensive outline of the tools and
procedures required for developing and executing a nation branding program. Third, a
graphical representation of the framework was developed to better represent the
interconnectedness of the processes involved. Producing suitable graphics to represent the
framework is an important stage of the framework development process as it helps the
reader to visualise the interrelatedness of the theoretical threads in a clear diagrammatic
representation of the concept[22]. Other successful constructs such as Maslow‘s pyramidal
hierarchy of needs and Bruner‘s spiral theory of learning are frequently referenced as
examples of diagrammatic representations which have ancho red the theoretical and
practical development of their respective fields. Such representations must be accompanied
by an updated catalogue of terminology; a principle which was adopted by this research.
3.1.3.1 Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework is meant to be an organized compilation of the main concepts,
ideas and theories regarding the phenomenon under observation[23]. Sinclair (2007) likens a
theoretical framework to a map or travel plan where users can determine where they are,
where they want to go, and how best they can arrive there.
In the context of scholarly inquiry, a theoretical framework is an assemblage of
accounts, experiences, suggestions, theories, prescriptions and expert opinions. It provides a
general representation of the relationships between various elements of the phenomenon[24]
and also an explicit statement regarding the theoretical assumptions surrounding that
phenomenon[25]. In the present study, the theories explored were about nation branding on
one hand and the policy process on the other. The activity was aided by questions adopted
from research by Slevin & Basford (1999). The questions explored:
The researcher‘s current knowledge about the phenomenon;
The type of knowledge available (empirical, tacit, intuitive, moral, practical etc);
Whether the theory is proven through theory -linked research;
Other theories with possible relevance to the phenomenon; and
How these theories can be applied in practice.
The resulting framework linked the researcher to a wider body of knowledge in
related fields that offer insight into what a nation branding framework should look like.
However the volume and face value of this information leave it largely meaningless when
scrutinised wholesale. So, it is the responsibility of the researcher to synthesize the views,
opinions, observations and existing theories so that a more refined and narrow
representation of the data is created. Application of thematic analysis at this point is critical.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-29-320.jpg)
![16 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
As Sinclair (2007) points out, the synthesis of themes and perspectives require information
permutations and amalgamations on the part of the researcher which leads to a more
scientifically sound body of data. Once developed, the theoretical framework allowed the
researchers to move from describing the phenomena to making generalizations about it[25].
This is ideal since these generalizations would later inform the nation branding framework.
3.1.3.2 Policy Implementation Theories
In the development of a nation branding framework, the researcher had to consider
nation branding as a policy process, rather than a marketing activity. In this sense, the
adoption of policy implementation theories was necessary to describe the phenomenon and
to understand and explain the activity. There are several approaches to policy
implementation including structural, procedural, behavioural and political approaches. In
terms of theories, scholars have long attempted to identify the particular factors that account
for both policy success and implementation failure (See for instance Ostrom 2007; Sabatier
2007). These theories are identified throughout the research discussion.
3.1.3.3 Nation Branding Theories
A range of nation branding theories exist in the literature. Scholars have posited a
number of perspectives and view regarding the effects and benefits of nation branding with a
significant amount of research effort placed on understanding the scope and validity of the
concept. Papers written from a policy perspective often focus on the viability of nation
branding, and the sustainability of a nation brand. A number of theories concerning the
process of nation branding helped inform the development of the implementation
framework.
By integrating these two theoretical datasets, i.e., the public policy and marketing
schools of thought, the researcher was able to develop a nation branding implementation
framework. Considering nation branding as a policy process, the research produced a device
that systematically outlined the steps, tools and procedures required in nation branding.
As expressed in the methodological framework, this process began with the
identification of relevant literature to support the theoretical assumptions, then thematic
analysis and data triangulation, and then finally, through a process ofcritical policy analysis,
all applicable theories and practices were integrated into one nation branding model.
§3.2 Theoretical & Conceptual Considerations
The literature highlights several themes and prescriptions that are critical
considerations of nation branding strategists. In the interest of understanding nation
branding as a policy process, the following themes (captured from both marketing and
policy-based literature) will be analysed from a policy lens. These themes were deduced
through data triangulation and are explained as follows:
3.2.1 Brand Channels
According to the Anholt-Gfk Roper Nation Brand Index (NBI), six factors affect the
nation brand. The global population takes these factors into consideration when estimating
the strength of a nation brand. Known as brand channels, these factors are the means
through which nations communicate with publics. They comprise Tourism promotion and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-30-320.jpg)
![June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 17
first-hand visitor experiences; Product exports, which act as brand ambassadors through the
country-of-origin effect (COO); examples include Mercedes - Made in Germany and Red
Stripe Beer - Made in Jamaica; cultural exports which appeal to audiences inclined to the
creative and culinary arts. Cultural exchange activities led by famous musicians, athletes,
actors/actresses and other cultural icons can impact on the nation brand, especially if their
creative products (i.e., paintings, works of poetry and musical recordings etc.) are promoted
too; nationals also play a significant part in building the brand. They may be average
members of the local population or Diaspora or well-known individuals with public profiles;
policy i.e. the country‘s domestic and foreign policy direction as reported in the
international media can affect perceptions of that country on themes such as democracy,
security, economy, human rights etc; and finally investment solicitation strategies help
international audiences understand what the nation‘s business and corporate environments
are best suited for in terms of investments activities. Expansion of foreign companies into
the country is also indicative of particular strengths.
3.2.2 Strategic Positioning
Positioning is a core branding activity wherein an organization‘s offerings and image
are designed to occupy a distinctive place in the mind of the target audience[26]. A brand
cannot be sustainable without effective positioning[27 ]. A good brand position rests on three
qualities namely, uniqueness, i.e., the message should be distinctive and distinguishable
from all others; prevalence, which speaks to how widespread the message is among the
target audience; and strength, which assesses the potency of the nation brand. These
qualities can be achieve by employing any one or a combination of the six approaches to
positioning as identified by Aaker & Shansby 1982[27 ], these are: positioning by use, user,
attribute, category, price/quality and competitiveness.
3.2.3 Positioning Attributes
There are six defining attributes of a national image that affect domestic and
international perceptions of the brand. These elements may be internal in nature (i.e., from
the perspective of the local population) or external (i.e., from the perspective of the global
population). The elements include reputation, which speaks to the credibility of the nation‘s
identity claims; image which speaks to what the nation projects to the rest of the world;
identity, which refers to cultural beliefs, commonalities and shared psychological bonds
among a group of people[4]; self-perception concerns how the people of a nation regard
themselves, for instance nationals from developed countries may perceive themselves as
economically superior, independent, or generally more powerful compared to nationals from
developing countries who may perceive themselves as players in the international political
economy. A range of self-perceptions claims may be made by the people of a nation and
concern a multitude of areas such as the economy, society and behaviour etc. The stereotype
element appears in this grouping since it refers to the imagery and the descriptions evoked
by a nation. The quality of a stereotype is that it is a label attributed to all members of the
defined group, in this case the nation. It can be a positive statement about the nation such as
―Chinese have superior maths skills‖ or a negative statement such as ―Chinese produce
inferior goods‖. But, as can be seen in these examples, the danger of a stereotype is that it
makes a general classification which may not always be true. Certain stereotypes can
therefore be damaging to a nation‘s brand. Finally, symbols constitute the tangible and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-31-320.jpg)
![18 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
intangible elements that define the nation; this category includes the national colours, the
national flag, national sub-brands and the nation‘s motto etc.
To understand how these elements play into the strength of a nation brand, consider
the case of South Sudan – a ‗new‘ country, with a provisional name, a flag and an anthem. A
simple territorial border will not ascribe it any particular identifying attribute, so the world
will continue to see South Sudan as ―just another African country‖[28], because it has lacks an
identity, and several of the aforementioned elements.
3.2.4 Cultural Export Outlets
Some countries have developed various forms of cultural export outlets, which are
entities that promote their national philosophy and ideology through their every day course
of business. Examples of such outlets include the Chinese Confucius Institutes and the
German Goethe Institute. Denmark has pioneered the world‘s first smartphone application
targeted at international media, which acts as a cultural export outlet. The app features
Danish cuisine, architecture and lifestyle in the hopes that foreigners will be inspired to
explore the country. From a policy perspective, these outlets are more than just export
outlets, they constitute an important avenue through which the policy managers can
communicate with their audience and also receive feedback. They facilitate sensitization,
exposure and enlightenment in a way that would be rather expensive and difficult to
coordinate through traditional methods.
3.2.5 Exploiting Mutual Image Transference
Due to the reciprocity between product and provenance[29], it is possible to use sub-
brands to promote the nation brand and vice versa[30]. This tactic is about exploiting the
country-of-origin (COO) effect, and is possible through the principle of mutual image
transference where a product or service is evaluated based on its origin, or where the
evaluation of a product can link back to the production characteristics (i.e., superior/inferior)
of the export nation. However it can have negative implications if the association made
between the mother-brand and the sub-brand is poor.
Japan readily comes to mind as a country with strong brand associations. The Asian
nation benefits from associations with international consumer brands Sony, Toshiba and
Honda and these has positioned Japan as a technological leader in the minds of many
overseas consumers, investors and tech enthusiasts. But there is a challenge: some
corporations have promoted their marks as international brands, a deliberate marketing
strategy to be unreferenced alongside any particular country and be seen as a ubiquitous
global brand. Telecommunications giant Nokia is one example. Mobile phone consumers
around the world are familiar with the brand name, but most are unaware that Nokia is
actually a Finnish company. If Finland was launching a nation branding initiative, close
collaboration with this brand could prove invaluable in building the image of the local talent,
research, economy, and technological achievements etc. Korea could benefit from a closer
relationship with its leading international corporate brands Samsung and LG[31].
Some countries have no high profile export brands with which to establish
associations[6]. However, these nations can still exploit the COO pheno menon. Take for
instance Poland, which lacks an internationally recognizable brand product[6]. Poland has
the opportunity to selectively promote particular brands and cultivate the proper
associations with its nation brand. This was successfully done by Fiji, where Fiji Water has](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-32-320.jpg)
![June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 19
attracted a massive following across North America and other overseas markets. Although
many of its consumers are ignorant of the country‘s geography, economy, and politics, the
product fetches a premium in some markets and has ―do ne much to promote the brand of
Fiji globally‖[29].
3.2.6 Audience Profiling (Message Receivers)
Mounting a message on an international platform follows an assumption that the
international audience is so homogenous that the message will be easily understand (and in
the same way) by everyone. This is a fallacy which can have negative implications for a
nation branding campaign if special care is not taken to understand the interpretive culture
of the target audience. Semiotics, the study of signs and communication, describes the
communications process as a series of activities from message encoding to decoding.
This background makes it clear the reason audience profiling is an important
consideration when devising a nation brand. Not only are different audiences informed in
different ways (i.e., through popular media, stories, folklore, books and periodicals, current
affairs etc.), but due to cultural differences, they also interpret the information they receive
differently too. Audience perspectives and opinions about world affairs and accordingly
about different countries, can vary significantly from one target group to another, so it is
important that brand strategists understand the interpretive culture of their target audience
to launch better campaigns that are better tailored to different target audiences.
To better understand what impact perceptions can play on the communications goals
of branding campaigns, it is important to understand the range of perception types [4]
between two countries as explained in the following statements below:
What Country A thinks of Country B
What Country B thinks of Country A
What A thinks B thinks of them, and
What B thinks A thinks of them
Due to the perception discrepancies, as highlighted in the example above, brand
strategists must make critical decisions on how to communicate to different audiences. One
consideration is whether an emotional or rational/factual message will have greater impact
and what elements of the nation brand warrant greater emphasis over the othe r. Rational
messages have a greater impact on FDI audiences while tourists and foreign workers are
more receptive to emotional messages[15]. In rational messages, facts and quantifiable data
such as statistics and rates are used while emotional messages place an emphasis on hedonic
elements such as exquisite cuisine and natural scenery. Market research can help brand
strategists develop the appropriate communication based on the characteristics of the target
audience[15].
3.2.7 Systemic Problems
Systemic and institutional problems are certain hindrances to effective nation
branding. Among the problems are lack of continuity in branding campaigns, organizational
power plays, internal politics and stakeholder conflicts (such as differences in ideals, goals
and professional opinions) and lack of technical and operational resources, among others.
Identifying potential difficulties, whether institutional, operational or systemic is
essential. For instance, during the design and implementation phase of the nation branding
program, there may be contention between government officials and branding consultants](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-33-320.jpg)
![20 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
on what is better for the nation[2], a disconnect that can lead to campaign failure and waste
of resources. Such areas of difference must be addressed before the program goes into effect.
3.2.8 Role of Stakeholders
Cornelissen (2004) explains that stakeholders are those parties or groups ―that are
themselves affected by the operations of a program but can equally have an impact on it‖ [6].
By this definition, stakeholders must be both message drivers (i.e., play a part in the
performance and operations of the initiative) and also be impacted by the message or
program. Since stakeholders can be at either of these extremes or fall squarely in the middle,
brand strategists must come to a clear understanding of who are the stakeholders and what
will be their primarily role in the nation branding program. A critical component of this
consideration is the impact that various policy players can have on the success of the
program. A common problem in policy implementation is competition.
3.2.8.1 Stakeholder salience
Stakeholders can be found across a broad spectrum of the population, and can even
include nondomestic partners too. An important consideration when determining the rota of
stakeholders will be their hierarchy in the nation branding program. Stakeholders can: (1) be
considered as full equals, sharing equal responsibly and equal authority in the program; or
(2) adhere to a vertical hierarchy where some have greater influence and say in the program
than others. In response to an interview question, one respondent suggested that
stakeholder input be included in the consultation (exploratory stage) of the program, but
excluded from the actual development/formulation of the brand[6].
Stakeholder identification and grading of salience is identified as an important step in
establishing relationships and communications. Mitchell et al., (1997) put forward the
power, legitimacy and urgency framework[6] which reveals that power has the greatest
effect on salience, followed by urgency and finally legitimacy, but the Fully Inclusive
Stakeholder Approach, FIST, is an alternative whereby all stakeholders are fully recognized
and included in the project[6].
3.2.9 Role of the Public
The public is indeed part of the aforementioned stakeholder group but is addressed
separately in this research because of the overwhelming focus placed on the role of the local
population specifically. The literature pays attention to the importance of having the general
population on board with the branding exercise, for several reasons. Hasan (2009) notes
that the success of a nation branding program depends on the ―active partic ipation,
ownership and support‖[32] of the population, who is expected to live the brand. But it is also
important to understand the current behaviour, interests and lifestyle of the population as a
nation branding strategy must be developed around the people rather than imposed on
themError! Bookmark not defined.. Since citizens of a country are socialized in a
particular way, they already project a natural image that must be met with a natural brand.
Dinnie (2007) argues that a people cannot ―adapt their natural behaviour to fit an artificially
created brand‖[15]. This was the situation in the 1990s when the British government sought
to implement ―Cool Britannia‖, a program with ultimately failed because the majority of the
population did not fit the characteristics described in the brand proposition of cutting edge
fashion, fashion, arts, design etc. (Gilmore 2002)[27 ]. This situation is likened to the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-34-320.jpg)
![June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 21
imposition of a new code-of-conduct on staff in an organization. Although change
management tools would certainly be necessary, participation and behavioural change is
much easier manipulated in the case of a corporation than a nation. Aronczyk (2013) adds
to the debate by highlighting that all places already have a brand, but that it only needs to be
owned and managed but that connections must always be made with pre-existing labels.
An important factor when developing a nation branding strategy is the involvement of
the people and public institutions. As in any policy process, success is ―correlated with
coherent willingness of dominant groups‖[33], meaning when the public is part of the nation
branding strategy, it will perform better. This is captured by one scholar who argues that
nation branding does better when ―public speaks to publics; when a substantial proportion
of the population of the country – not just civil servants and paid figureheads – get behind
the strategy and live it out in their everyday dealings with the outside world‖[2]. David Lightle,
country branding expert, acknowledges that it is ―better to have a unified image‖ of the
nation, which means that there must be domestic buy -in before the brand can be promoted
(as cited by PRSJ 2010)[64]. This was the case in London and Toronto, due to a lack of
sensitization, residents rejected urban branding campaigns in their area[2].
However the literature clearly demonstrates the importance of public institutions.
Lightle points out for instance, that successful branding is in part due to infrastructure and
policy commitments by governments (PRSJ 2010). Improvements to any nation brand, and
further development of the field itself therefore requires critical focus on the role of
government institutions, government policies and general public systems. One argument
that is clearly placed throughout the literature is that branding requires coordination and
cooperation across all sectors and systems of government[13]. In the corporate world on the
other hand, marketing does not require the coordination of all the internal systems of the
producer (unless it is the producer itself, and not the product, that is being marketed).
Further, marketing an individual product does not require the participation of the staff in
that company. For instance, staff members at the Pepsi-Cola Company® do not need to
consume their own products for target consumers to buy into their marketing campaign
because they don‘t affect the company‘s brand image the way the local population of a
country can affect the nation brand. It is clear then how the population can play a role in
public branding and that the virtues of acknowledging the ‗people factor‘ are incontestable.
Nation branding is also a highly politicized activity since ―only the government has the
authority and legitimacy to establish the parameters of a nation branding strategy‖ [6] and
also since the development of a nation branding strategy can lead to changes in the public
and political agenda. In nation branding, an effective campaign requires that a number of
critical institutional and operational changes take place within the government system.
Specifically, ministries, agencies, departments and their staffs must adapt to the branding
program by undergoing restructuring exercises, skills training, technology upgrades and
hierarchical shifts among others. It may also be the case that new structures, guidelines and
policies are instituted to accommodate and enhance the branding exercise. This is unlike
marketing where a product can be branded and advertised with no alterative effects on a
corporate organization‘s systems, procedures, internal operations, hierarchical structure etc
(as demonstrated by the Pepsi example above). In corporate branding, where an entire
institution is being branded or rebranded, the need for organizational and operational
changes is far less than those required in the government system, due particularly to the
bureaucratic nature of the latter. In this way, corporate and product branding can be seen as
an activity emanating outward from the executive members of a corporate entity, while](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-35-320.jpg)
![22 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
nation branding manifests as an activity emanating outward from the primary stakeholders,
which are public institutions. This also underscores the idea that branding policies should
primarily be the work of public managers, not marketing managers.
3.2.9.1 The Role of the Diaspora
Complementing the role of public institutions, the wider public can play a unique role
in nation branding campaigns. At home, the population can be mobilized to carry out
various activities that enhance the brand proposition. Overseas, the Diaspora can also be
mobilized to improve the nation brand if the necessary level of coordination and
communication is applied. A unique example comes from 2008 New York where over
Colombian-Americans living in the crowded metropolitan district, played a role in the
―Branding Colombia‖ campaign by handing out a combined total of over 100,000 Colombian
roses to passersby on Colombian Pride Day, November 17 [32]. The event received
overwhelming international media attention but had an even greater impact to a very
important target audience of Columbia: US citizens. Colombia‘s image suffers from
frequently being highlighted in the media as a drug haven, controlled by rebel and
paramilitary groups, and subject to guerrilla warfare and high levels of extortion. So, on the
part of each individual it was a simple gesture, but the combined efforts of the group had a
profound impact on offering a new image of Colombians.
The role of the Diaspora is often overlooked in the development goals of different
countries, perhaps due to the principle of proximity where, their distance fr om the
homeland renders their participation limited or nonexistent. However, if appropriate
policies are implemented then governments can not only mobilize the Diaspora in a
meaningful way but ensure that they make long-term economic and social contributions to
their home country. Members of the Diaspora are an important subset of Brand
Ambassadors and should be treated with the same value as brand ambassadors at home.
3.2.10 Public-Private Partnerships
Establishing public-private partnerships can be useful in a number of ways, such as
providing operational support (especially funding and technology) or offering testimonials
that compliment the nation‘s business environment and regulatory systems, among others.
Such partnerships are important for validating identity claims since the nation can reference
successful companies as examples in its nation branding campaign. This was done during
the New France campaign, where the French government exploited partnerships with the
private sector. One aspect of this partnership saw company executives collaborate with the
government to promote the government‘s policies and the corporate environment[30]. Public-
private partnerships are also invaluable, for enhancing national associations with corporate
sub-brands. This is explored further in section 3.1.1.2.
3.2.11 Message Alignment
A consistent message is more appealing to target audiences because it appears more
genuine. Take for instance, a proposal to promote Korea under the tag ―Green Ko rea‖. As
Chairman of the Korean Presidential Council on Nation Branding explains, promoting Korea
as a ―green‖ country would not be convincing since Korea is ―recognized as a fast-developing
economy, heavily dependent on heavy industries and electronics‖[31]. Such a program would](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-36-320.jpg)
![June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 23
probably be successful in New Zealand or Alaska, but the Chairman notes that ―Green
Korea‖ would appear disingenuous.
The newly developed mother brand should therefore establish connections with
existing labels[2]. It should also exploit areas of synergy among sub-brands[34] so that all
brand messages are consistent. In the absence of such alignment, the scenario as verbalised
by Dinnie (2008b) may obtain where a nation has difficulty nation balancing messages of
bucolic rural scenery (which appeals to travellers) with an image of skyscrapers and
widespread technological development (which appeals to foreign investors).
The International Marketing Council of South Africa highlights message consistency
as an important consideration especially in a context where domestic brands or local
organizations may have ―already developed their own brand platforms‖ and brand
messages[34].
3.2.12 Dealing with Opposition & Controversy
One of the most critical phases in launching a nation branding program will be
gaining support for the program. Nation branding can be a controversial issue in many
states, since it involves certain reallocation of scarce government resources. Opposition,
criticisms and controversy are discussed issues in the policy domain where governments
have to contend with widespread public pressure and dissent. Some approaches to restoring
confidence in a policy include sensitization drives whereas others involve public
participatory decision-making. In the latter, the public is invited to contribute to the policy
development through various ways. They may play a critical role in the formulation of the
policy or they may be invited to participate in the process in other meaning ways. This last
approach is about ensuring the public can claim some level of ownership over the program.
Public policy scholarship shows that publics will take a policy more seriously if they believe
they can affect it.
3.2.13 External Influences
External influences can have either a positive or negative impact on the br anding
initiative and affect the success of the program. External influences, namely international
media and international personalities such as political figures (who by virtue of their
position, are considered credible sources of information) can help co ncretize disseminate
ideas about a nation, but this is only helpful if they bolster the intended national image.
Particularly troubling is the case where the public is misinformed due to the logical
fallacy of appeal to authority. The case of Jamaica is a fitting example. In 2012, Zimbabwean
leader, Robert Mugabe described Jamaican males as drug abusers who are always drunk[35].
The comments sparked outrage among the local population who deemed the
characterizations false and inappropriate. One commentator confesses that worldwide,
people believe old ―stereotypes of the island nation as a tropical paradise where laid -back
people smoke [marijuana] in the sun all day‖[36], but comments from a supposedly credible
authority can help detract from the realities and concretize old (often fallacious) perceptions.
The same is true for Germany, which is constantly pounced on by negative comments in the
Italian press and from Italian leaders about its people and their culture[37].
To protect their markets and their image, countries have become more creative in
their policies to the outside world. China, the largest film market outside of the US, has](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-37-320.jpg)
![24 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
Case: District 9
In 2012, a US movie-studio released District 9, a production about extraterrestrial beings stranded on
Earth who develop a relationship with a local population for survival. The population, Nigerians, were
depicted as corrupt, cannibalistic, prostitutes, and gangsters, which Nigerian officials believed promoted
stereotypes and damaged images of the Nigerian people. Some Nigerians believed these comments were
hypocritical since the Nigerian movie industry, called Nollywood, uses similar characterizations of the
population, sometimes worse (Karimi 2009). Nonetheless, the Nigerian Information Minister called for
movie houses not to screen the film for its degenerating representation of Nigerians (Castro 2009). The
Nigerian case highlights several issues. First, is that international media can be considered an external
influencer and influence worldwide perceptions about a country. Second, if local media depicts its own
country and population in certain ways then aligning international perceptions with the intended brand
position may be compromised. The impact of self-depictions on international audiences is great so
countries should be carefulnot to brand against themselves.
demanded that Hollywood produce movies that feature heavily on Chinese culture and
customs, in return local regulators have offered greater access to the Chinese market[38].
In terms of tracking other external actors and project influencers, public policy theory
advocates a priori force-field analysis in policy design. In this analysis, external forces that
can either support or destroy the program are identified and keen attention is paid to the
various groups.
3.2.14 Role of International Indices
International indices reflect both domestic and international perceptions (and
realities) about a country in key development areas. Indices that focus on conditions of
health, security, the economy, human rights, democracy, the environment etc, are among the
most recognized and frequently referenced indices. Some of the mo st widely known indices
include the Corruptions Perception Index (CPI), the Doing Business Report (DBR); and
various Human and Social Indices produced by Amnesty International and other agencies.
The Corruptions Perception Index measures how corrupt a country is perceived based
on survey responses by international partners. Some countries recurrently feature in the
―Highly Corrupt‖ brand of the index, an extreme end of the spectrum that suggests public
officials are corrupt or easily bribed etc. Amnesty International, explores matters related to
human rights and security such as police brutality, state violence etc., and the Doing
Business Report assesses how easy it is to navigate the local business environment or to
complete common transactions such as applying for and setting up utilities, obtaining
various licences and registrations etc. These indices provide critical insights which investors,
travellers and the general public use to form opinions about the economic, political, legal
and social realities of a nation; invariably impacting on the nation brand.
By reviewing these ranks, ratings or index placements, brand strategists can better
understand what impression the country has on the rest of the world and which perceptions
positively or negatively affect the nation brand.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-38-320.jpg)
![June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 25
3.2.15 Monitoring & Evaluation
There is a debate among scholars and practitioners regarding the most appropriate
and effective way to measure the strength of a nation brand. This is especially important for
the monitoring and evaluation stage of a branding campaign. The most recognized and
frequently referenced index is the Anholt-Gfk Roper Nation Brand Index (NBI), developed
in 2005. It scores countries based on a six -category checklist: people, tourism, exports,
governance, investment and immigration, and culture and heritage. These are represented
in the Anholt Nation Brand Hexagon.
The people aspect considers the hospitality, friendliness and general appeal of the
population; tourism looks at what level of interest there is to visit the country in question
and asks what is the tourism appeal of its various attractions; exports considers to what
extent the country-of-origin effect influences consumer behaviour; governance looks at
opinion regarding the competency of the government and its stance on issues such as human
rights, international peace and security and environmental protection; culture measures
perceptions of the country‘s heritage and the essence of their creative products (music, film
and the arts), it also gauges the impact of sporting and cultural activities; and immigration
and investment reflects the nation‘s economic and business situation as well as its ability to
attract financial and human resources, all of which speaks to the extent foreigners would
consider living, studying and working in that country [39].
Although the NBI is the most recognized index for brand evaluation, several scholars
and practitioners have criticized it as weak. Brand consultant, Thomas Cromwell argues that
the methodology requires ―an enormous undertaking to comprehensively understand global
perceptions through polling data‖[8]. Another critic argues that that the NBI methodology
suffers from a sampling problem where citizens from only 20 countries are used to represent
the world. Moreover, the perceptions of the sample population may be irrelevant in cases
when are nation is developing a regional brand. One writer points out too that while a brand
cannot change abruptly, audiences do make new associations with a country in shorter
timeframes but the metrics used in the NBI method
cannot detect or adequately measure these associations.
The writer goes further by arguing that asking only three
to five questions per index is inadequate and questions
such as ―Do you want to have a person from this country
as a close friend?‖ are inapt[40]. Data triangulation is also
proposed as an alternative to global internet surveys. In
this method, views and opinions from social media
websites, blogs, newspaper columns and other platforms
are triangulated to give an understanding of the
perceptions held by different populations. Criticisms are
advanced in the literature that standardized
questionnaires, while allowing for meaningful comparisons, do not offer much insight, since
results may be skewed by the omission of important attributes when developing the survey
instrument[41].
Another important index, which positions itself as a more comprehensive and
competitive index of nation brands is produced by East-West Communications. Referred to
as the East-West Global Index 200, this measure assesses how a collection of 8 territories
and 192 UN members are perceived in the international media. This is done by tracking
Figure 3:3 Nation Brand
Hexagon](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-39-320.jpg)
![26 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
major international media outlets including The Economist, the New York Times, the
Washington Post, the China Morning (Hong Kong) and the Straits (Asia), as well as other
regional publications. The East-West group offers annual indices that reflect long-term
perceptions as well as quarterly indices that capture the dialogue on current issues or short -
term affairs such as government decisions or recent local events in the country[42].
Between these competing methodologies, i.e., the perception-based method of online
polling in the NBI and the data triangulation method used in media-analysis by the East-
West group, results vary:
Table 3-1 Comparison between the results of the NBIand GI200
Rank NBIa
East Westb
1 Germany Singapore
2 United Kingdom Hong Kong
3 Canada Malaysia
4 France Taiwan
5 Australia Australia
6 Italy United Arab Emirates
7 Sw itzerland Qatar
8 Japan Monaco
9 Sw eden Canada
10 United States United Kingdom
a
NBI I ndex (Q4, 2007). Source: Anholt Nation Brands I ndex™ © 2005-2008 Simon Anholt
b
East WestI ndex. Source: East West Global Index 200 © 2008 East West Communications
Nonetheless, considering the top-ranked countries, the East-West index reports the
US, UK, Australia, France and Japan as the most media-cited countries while the NBI index
reports a similar list of countries also having the highest rankings[42]. The discrepancy
between these measures signifies uncertainty and lack of consensus on how to measure the
potency of a nation brand.
The Samsung Economic Research Institute (SERI)[59] in Korea, collaborating with the
Presidential Council on Nation Branding (PCNB) has developed a newer model referred to
as the NBDO - the Nation Brand Dual Octagon. The model claims to bridge the gap between
indices that emphasize image such as the Nation Brands Index (NBI) and FutureBrands™
Country Brand Index (CBI) and those that emphasize substance, such as those developed by
the World Economic Forum (WEF) and the International Institute for Management
Development (IMD). The NBDO model, assess eight subcategories including economy,
science and technology, hard infrastructure, institutions, heritage, modern culture,
citizenry and celebrity. It assesses all substance elements using statistics from WEF, IMD
and UNESCO, and it assesses all image elements via surveys.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-40-320.jpg)
![4 Case Studies
A number of countries have already launched nation branding initiatives. Some of the
most organized and well documented branding campaigns are those mounted by Korea,
Kenya and South Africa. Germany is also included to assess the impact of its unique history
on its nation brand. The approaches adopted by these countries encompass more than just
mere ad campaigns but manifest as holistic and comprehensive strategies that factor in all
aspects of the society, governance and the economy, the culture, land and natural resources,
and the strength and stability of its institutions and industries.
§4.1 South Africa
4.1.1 Development of Brand South Africa
The development of Brand South Africa is well documented. At the time of its
conception, ―there were no strong country brands with major marketing drives behind
them‖[34] so there was little in terms of global best practices or case studies to rely on. This
forced the brand strategists at the International Marketing Council of South Africa (IMC) to
be particularly innovative in their approach. The Brand South Africa initiative was a four-
phase initiative as identified below:
4.1.1.1 Developing the brand position (i.e., the mother brand)
Phase I was research intensive and involved interrogation of all relevant research on
the nation, This phase was research intensive, involving the interrogation of all relevant
research on the nation and consultations with domestic and international stakeholders. This
phase relied on interviews, specialist focus groups and workshops with target stakeholders
to understand what the essence of Brand South Africa was and how different groups related
to it. One step in this phase was testing various positioning statements amongst the brand
influencers, the local population and departing tourists.
4.1.1.2 Defining the relationships between mother brand and sub-brands
In Phase II, an important consideration of the IMC was for consistency across all
messages about the country. This involved understanding the depth of the mother-brand[34],
its elements and the mandate of its sub-brands. The Council would later exploit
complementarities and areas of synergy among mother-brand and sub-brands. This phase
calls for sub-brands to, in effect, modify their brands (some of which were already well
established) to be more in-line with the newly developed mother-brand.
4.1.1.3 Defining the campaigning strategy
During Phase III, the team identified two components to their Brand South Africa
operations. The first component was an international portfolio, incorporating niche media
advertising, e-marketing, documentaries, and outbound missions, among others. The second,
a domestic portfolio, was a campaign to improve national pride and demonstrate the brand
promise through their everyday interactions; this component involved mass media
advertising, and the help of brand ambassadors and thought and community leaders.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-41-320.jpg)
![28 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
4.1.1.4 Brand progress assessment
The final stage, like in any project management scheme was monitoring and
evaluation. This phase was to check that stated objectives were being met. In the case of
South Africa, two studies were conducted to understand the progress made by the Brand on
the domestic and international fronts. The first study included a national perception audit
which set out to measure how well the South African population delivered on selected
attributes of the brand. The measures were essentially developed to determine to what
extent the brand promise, and brand proposition were entrenched in the minds and
attitudes of the people. The second study was an international brand equity study. Due to
the existence of only a limited number of comparable studies (i.e. a look at South Africa‘s
brand health compared to other nations), the IMC commissioned its own study to gather
data for this aspect of the monitoring and evaluation efforts. The international brand equity
study explored how Brand South Africa was performing on an international level and
whether its performance met the expectations of the IMC.
4.1.2 Brand South Africa today
Today, the Brand Africa Organization dubbed South Africa the Most Valuable African
Nation Brand, and the IMC is constantly trying to upgrade their expertise in branding
practices by sharing experiences and engaging in dialo gue with fellow African nations (See
for instance the Ghana-South Africa Nation Branding Forum, which was a state-level
exchange on nation branding practices).
§4.2 Kenya
4.2.1 Development of Brand Kenya
The Brand Kenya initiative had its start in 2008, when the nation branding program
was launched. With the mission ―to enhance Kenyan national image and identity‖, the Brand
Kenya Board was established, and designated as the leading organization of this program.
Following a "rigorous country diagnostic", the Board developed a National Brand Master
Plan, which would guide all future projects, activities and stages of the branding program.
The diagnosis took place around five pillars: people, places, products, politics and
economy[13]. The exercise provided new insights into new branding opportunities and
potential strategies for building and positioning Brand Kenya. Some components of the
National Brand Master Plan include:
4.2.2 Components of Brand Kenya
4.2.2.1 Nation Brand Vision
Nation Brand Vision – This is ―a statement of the country‘s aspired position going
into the future‖[13]. For Kenya, this was a quest for modernity balanced with respect for
heritage and values. The Brand Kenya Board developed a national positioning statement to
capture what position Kenya hoped the country could hold among all nations.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-42-320.jpg)
![June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 29
4.2.2.2 Nation Brand Proposition
National Brand Proposition – This can be thought of as the brand promise, which
captures the essence of the Kenya brand, through reference to one particular characteristic
of the country. To be effective, this proposition had to be authentic and believable. The
Board identified the welcoming and hospitable spirit of Kenyan‘s as a natural characteristic
which was captured in one word: ―generosity‖. The Board developed the propositional
statement: "Kenya bursting with generosity, rewarding beyond imagination."
4.2.2.3 Nation Brand Values
National Brand Values – This speaks to the ideals governing how the people and the
country will build relationships and interact with others. As identified in the literature, the
values must be demonstrated in everyday interactions and relationships such as in business
and the public service.
4.2.2.4 National Tagline
National Tagline – This is a statement, crafted as a compelling message that can
quickly be referenced by citizens and foreigners (with slight variations if necessary). The
―Make it Kenya‖ tagline chosen by the Board invites the world to make Kenya their preferred
destination for trade, investment, recreation, residence and corporate headquarters.
4.2.2.5 Visual Identity
Visual Identity – This is simply the national brand logo. Common practice around the
world is to use the national colours, iconic landmarks or other renowned country symbols as
inspiration or basis for the brand logo. Kenya constructed its national logo around a
modernized version of the shield found on its national flag.
§4.3 Germany
4.3.1 Brand Germany Rationale
The German case is particularly important for understanding how a country tries to
brand itself with the baggage of an already infamous national image. Whereas other
countries can begin a branding campaign from the ground up, considering only what is
consistent with their national goals, Germany had a potent historical background to contend
with and perceptions of the nation are still strongly influenced by its national history.
Following World War II and their role in the historical event, Germany suffered a damaging
blow to their international image[2]. At home, many Germans had no national pride, until
German officials made a decisive call to launch a nation branding campaign that would not
only help shape the international image of the nation, but also impact on nationalism and
social capital at home.
4.3.2 Brand Germany Nation Branding Approach
To tackle world perceptions and give the nation a rebooted image, a nation branding
campaign was devised. ―Land of Ideas‖, launched during the 2006 World Cup series, could
be seen as an attempt at reclaiming history and the narrative about the country [2]. A major](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-43-320.jpg)
![30 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy
component of the German campaign was removing old stereotypes, increasing pub lic
awareness and emphasizing new, fresh and exciting prospects for the nation. The campaign
was spearheaded by FC Deutschland, a newly established public -private committee
comprising top executives from public sector groups and from leading German corporations.
The campaign featured provocative images of partially clothed supermodels and bold catch
phrases which painted Germans in a new light; it was a significant contrast to the dull and
boring image they were widely thought to hold before.
4.3.3 Achievements of Brand Germany
The Brand Germany attempt was largely a success. Germany moved from 7 th to 2nd
place on the Nation Brand Index (2006), the nation saw a 14% increase in exports and 33%
increase in tourist booking[43]. Despite these numbers, there were a number of challenges
which still persist today. The Brand continues to take a beating from Italian leaders, who
constantly describe the country in a negative light. This has slowed the rate of progress in its
rebranding campaign and has even impacted German industries, some of which have tried
to avoid association with the country by marketing their products under alternate names in
different markets; e.g. Opel is sold under the name Vauxhall in the UK to avoid any loss of
profits as a result of COO[37 ]. This factor suggests that Brand Germany has a long way to go
before it can capitalise on sub-brand association, but this can still be seen as a positive future
path as opposed to a presage of the Brand‘s prospects.
§4.4 Case Study Conclusion
The cases used in this research contribute to a greater understanding of how countries
had undertaken nation branding. A summary of their initiatives are presented below.
Table 4-1 Comparison of country case approach
South Africa Kenya Germany
Focused largelyon establishing
relationships between mother
brands andsub-brands
Launched a four-phase project
on nation branding
Focused largely on the
development of brand symbols
Identified four elements in its
nation brand master plan which
were later developed and
executed as part of the overall
brandingstrategy
Focused largely on establishing
associations between
population and vibrant images
Focused on the superficial
imagery and sensory
associations with the nation
and its people
In none of the cases was there evidence of institutional or organizational reform or
restructuring to accommodate the nation branding initiative. Compared to the theories,
principles, themes and perspectives previously identified in this research, the cases
identified here do not focus on branding from a policy perspective but took a more
marketing approach.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-44-320.jpg)
![June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 31
5 Results & Discussion
The framework was developed using an evolutionary process of synthesis,
interpretation, selective omission and amalgamation. The approach essentially applied a
―survival of the fittest‖ approach to the data selection and analysis which saw the elimination
of elements that were anomalies among the compendium ofviews, theories and perspectives.
§5.1 Data Sources
Following the approach outlined in the methodology, several articles were selected for
review and analysis. The initial search using the phrase <nation branding> generated
3,890,000 results from the Google search engine Hong Kong server[44] this was reduced to
226,000 results when the Boolean phrase <“nation branding” AND framework OR model>
was queried. After setting the language parameters to ―English‖, and allowing the search
servers to automatically omit similar results, the query returned 780 pages. A quick scan of
these results revealed that many were related to conferences, expositions, seminars, social
media groups or other notices. Thus, using a second-order search query, the Boolean phrase
was updated as follows: <nation branding OR country branding AND framework OR
model NAND amazon NAND wikipedia NAND expo NAND conference NAND seminar>.
These parameters refined the search results to just a few score, which were further filtered
using the framework for literature selection highlighted in the methodology.
This entire process was repeated with queries to scholarly databases. Duplicate results
were eliminated by cross-referencing and the final selection of literature was then subjected
to the research methods identified earlier (thematic analysis, data triangulation etc).
§5.2 Nation Branding Framework
Several results were produced by this research. The first set of results concern the
scope and definition of nation branding (this satisfies the inquiry of Research Question #1),
the second set of results speak to new phenomenon discovered by this study, the third set
comprises the related terminology and the fourth set of results produces a nation branding
policy implementation framework. These are presented below:
5.2.1 Nation Branding Scope and Definition
There are worrying differences in the literature regarding the definition and scope of
nation branding. This is where a policy implementation model should begin i.e., with an
analysis of the definition and scope of the practice. The Anholt Nation Brand Index captures
what is now the most recognized definition of the term; however the concept has far
reaching ramifications that cannot be defined, explained or even resolved solely by this
index, developed primarily by marketing practitioners.
This research resolves that government and public policy are an inherent feature of
nation branding programs and that government institutions are hierarchically superior to
marketing practitioners where the legitimacy and authority to develop and launch a nation
branding program are concerned. As such, the concept known as nation branding should
defined in ways more suitable to public managers. The first step is including the word
‗public‘ in the terminology as this immediately highlights the immense role and critical](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/rohanwright-nationbrandingframeworkcomplete-chapter5included-200712144330/85/Nation-Branding-Framework-Complete-Chapter-5-Included-45-320.jpg)
![Notes & References
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Nation Branding Framework - Complete (Chapter 5 Included)
- 1. Classification Code: Confidentiality Grade: PUBLIC A Dissertation Submitted to China University of Geosciences for the Degree of Master of Public Policy Developing a Nation Branding Framework from a Public Policy Perspective Student ID: LSYG20110020 Student Name: Rohan Keith Wright Major: Public Policy (Master) Supervisor: Zhang Zhi College: Public Administration Date: May 2014
- 2. ii 单位代码: 10491 学号: LSYG20110020 在中国地质大学公共政策硕士学位要求下完成论文 基于公共政策方针的国家品牌化结构研究 作者姓名 Rohan Keith Wright 专业名称 公共政策硕士 学院名称 公共管理学院 指导老师 张志 投稿日期 2014 年 7 月 中国地质大学 (武汉) 湖北省武汉市鲁磨路 388 号 邮政编码: 430074
- 3. iii 中国地质大学（武汉） 研究生学位论文原创性声明 China University of Geosciences Statement of Originality 本人郑重声明：本人所呈交的硕士学位论文《基于公共政策方针的家 品牌化结构研究》，是本人在导师的指导下，在中国地质大学（武 汉）攻读硕士学位期间独立进行研究工作所取得的成果。论文中除已 注明部分外不包含他人已发表或撰写过的研究成果。 本人所呈交的硕士学位论文没有违反学术道德和学术规范，没有侵权 行为，并愿意承担由此而产生的法律责任和法律后果。 I solemnly declare that the thesis entitled "Developing a Nation Branding Framework from a Public Policy Perspective" is my independent research, achieved under the guidance of supervisors during my graduate program. This thesis does not include the works of other authors except for where specifically noted. I commit that this Master‘s thesis conforms to international academic ethics and I accept full responsibility for any errors, omissions or legal consequences arising from academic infringement or negligence. 论文作者签名 Author Signature 2014 年 7 月 日期/Date
- 4. iv 中国地质大学（武汉） 学位论文使用授权书 China University of Geosciences Statement of Authority of Access 在有关的研究论文《基于公共政策方针的国家品牌化结构研究》本人 授权中国地质大学 可采用影印、缩印、数字化或其它复制手段保存 本学位论文；学校可向国家有关部门或机构送交本学位论文的电子版 全文，编入有关数据库进行检索、下载及文献传递服务；同意在校园 网内提供全文浏览和下载服务。 涉密论文解密后适用于本授权书。 In regards to the thesis ―Developing a Nation Branding Framework from a Public Policy Perspective”, I authorize China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) to preserve this dissertation by means of photocopy, micro-printing, digitalization and other means. China University of Geosciences has the right to submit this thesis to relevant state departments or institutions. This thesis would be permitted to be loaded in relevant databases, where readers can view, download, and transmit its contents. I also agree to the service of browsing and downloading of this thesis on the University local network. When dissertations marked as secret are declassified, then this authorization will apply to it. 论文作者签名 Author Signature 2014 年 7 月 日期/Date
- 5. 作者简介 Author Profile Rohan Keith Wright 背景：牙买加罗升·赖特先生是一位热衷社会 和政治的评论员，被西印度群岛大学（莫纳， 西印度群岛）授予国际关系与公共部门管理一 级荣誉 学士学位。赖特 拥有众多奖项， 包括 2009 年的西印度群岛大学卓越校长奖学金， 西 印 度 群 岛 大 学 联 合 课 程 助 学 金 ， 以 及 Nethersole 和格莱斯顿·米尔奖最佳表现及 最 高 总 成 绩 的 学 士 学 位 项 目 获 得 者 。 他 于 2011 年在牙买加外交部和卫生部实习，被授 予了政府奖学金在中国地质大学（CUG）攻读 研究生学位。目前是公共政策硕士学位的候选 人。 学业成就：赖特已经完成了一系列的政策相关 课程，包括治理和公共决策，博弈论，现代项 目管理与公共部门经济学;实现了平均课程标 记为 91.4％; 平均学分绩 点 4.175; 总学分 51; 总学时 816。 联系 Contact 电子邮件 eMail: research@rohankw.com 网站 Online: http://rohankw.com/research Background Mr Rohan K Wright of Jamaica is an avid social and political commentator who was awarded a BSc in International Relations and Public Sector Management with First Class Honours from the University of the West Indies, Mona (UWI). Wright has previously interned at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Health and was also the recipient of numerous awards including the 2009 UWI Principals Scholarship for Excellence, the UWI co- curricular bursary, and the Nethersole and Gladstone Mill Awards for best performance and highest overall grades in the BSc program respectively. In 2011, he was awarded a government scholarship to pursue graduate studies and is currently a candidate for the degree Masters of Public Policy at the China University of Geosciences, Wuhan. Academic Achievement Wright has completed a range of policy -related courses including Governance & Public Policy Making, Game Theory, Modern Project Management and Public Sector Economics; he achieved an average course mark of 91.4%; grade point average 4.175; total credits 51; total credit hours 816.
- 6. Contents 目录 vii List of Figures viii List of Acronyms ix Abstract x 摘要 xi 1 Introduction 1 §1.1 Research Context.........................................................................1 §1.2 Research Statement....................................................................2 §1.3 Research Aim..............................................................................3 §1.4 Thesis Structure..........................................................................3 2 Nation Branding Today 5 §2.1 Theoretical Development............................................................ 7 §2.2 Problems & Criticisms ................................................................8 §2.3 Conclusion ................................................................................ 10 3 Nation Branding Policy Analysis 11 §3.1 Methodological Framework.......................................................11 §3.2 Theoretical & Conceptual Considerations................................ 16 4 Case Studies 27 §4.1 South Africa ..............................................................................27 §4.2 Kenya ......................................................................................28 §4.3 Germany....................................................................................29 5 Results & Discussion 31 §5.1 Data Sources..............................................................................31 §5.2 Nation Branding Framework.....................................................31 §5.3 Discussion .................................................................................34 6 Conclusion 52 §6.1 Research Overview....................................................................52 §6.2 Results Summary......................................................................52 §6.3 Research Limitations................................................................53 §6.4 Recommendations....................................................................53 §6.5 Future Research Considerations...............................................54 Acknowledgements 55 致谢 56 Notes & References 57
- 7. vii 目录 数据列表 viii 缩略词列表 ix 摘要 （中文） x 1 介绍 1.1 研究背景································································································1 1.2 研究陈述 ······························································································ 2 1.3 研究目的 ······························································································ 3 1.4 论文结构 ······························································································ 3 2 文献综述 5 2.1 理论发展 ······························································································ 7 2.2 问题与批评··························································································· 8 2.3 结论····································································································10 3 展国家品牌策略分析 11 3.1 方法框架 ·····························································································12 3.2 理论与概念的思考················································································16 4 案例研究 27 南非 ·········································································································27 肯尼亚 ···································································································· 28 德国 ········································································································ 29 5 研究结果与讨论 31 5.1 综述····································································································31 5.2 国家品牌化结构 ···················································································31 5.3 讨论··································································································· 34 6 结论 52 6.1 综述····································································································52 6.2 研究结果概要 ······················································································52 6.3 研究局限性··························································································53 6.4 建议····································································································53 6.5 未来研究考虑 ····················································································· 54 致谢 （英文） 55 致谢 （中文） 56 参考文献 57
- 8. viii List of Figures Figure 1:1 Comprehensive research framework 3 Figure 3:1 Research methodology process diagram 12 Figure 3:2 Framework for literature selection 13 Figure 3:3 Nation Brand Hexagon 25 Figure 5:1 Nation Branding Policy Implementation Framework 33 Figure 5:2 Pure Public Brand Model (Flat) 47 Tables Table 3-1 Comparison between the results of the NBI and GI200 26 Table 4-1 Comparison of country case approach 30 Table 5-1 Comparison of Nation Brands to Chemical Elements 47
- 9. ix List of Acronyms CARICOM Caribbean Community CBI Country Brand Index (FutureBrand™) CCTV China Central Television COO Country of Origin Effect DBR Doing Business Report FDI Foreign Direct Investments FIFA International Federation of Football Association FIST Fully Inclusive Stakeholder Approach GI200 Global Brands Index 200 (East-West Communications) ICT Information Communications Technology IMC International Marketing Council of South Africa IMD International Institute for Management Development JAMPRO Jamaica Promotions Corporation JTB Jamaica Tourist Board LPP Legal and Policy Protections NBDO Nation Brand Dual Octagon NBI Nation Brands Index (Anholt-Gfk Roper) NCCS Non-Corporate Country Sub-Brand NTO National Tourism Organization PCNB Korea‟s Presidential Council on Nation Branding RT Russia Today SERI Samsung Economic Research Institute SIDS Small-Island Developing States TAR Track and React Exercise of Program Monitoring UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization WEF World Economics Forum
- 10. x Abstract DEVELOPING A NATION BRANDING FRAMEWORK FROM A PUBLIC POLICY PERSPECTIVE Rohan Keith Wright, MSc Public Policy Zhang Zhi, Academic Advisor Public policy theory has long focused on economic and political means of attracting investments to improve social welfare and meet the needs of its people. Over the decades, governments have mobilized resources and exploited assets in an effort to boost exports, attract resources and amass geopolitical influence. Today, governments are exploring new forms of capital that can be exploited to meet their development needs; one such is a nation brand. While its origins can be traced to the marketing school, nation branding is now a rapidly developing concept in the policy school. For a time, policy makers remained sceptical that the principles of marketing could be translated to the domain of public policy to help solve some of government‘s greatest development concerns. Now, a number of governments have bought into the idea and they acknowledge this approach as a viable alternative to traditional investment and resource solicitation methods. But the scope and definition of the term is vague and the exact process and mechanisms for developing a nation brand is unclear. To resolve this concern, the marketing practices of nation branding must be integrated with the theories of the policy implementation process. Using data triangulation, and several case studies, this research explores the practices and prescriptions of nation branding and their overlap with the policy process. This research proves that only governments have the authority and legitimacy to launch a nation branding program and that a sustained amount of concerted action on the part of the nation, from micro-level institutions such as the population and the Diaspora to macro-level institutions such as Ministries and other public institutions is not only essential but imperative. The framework developed by this research demonstrates the intersection of marketing and public policy theory and highlights the implications of policy and public institutions on the branding process. The framework is an 8-phase implementation plan, with 24 activities and 4 sub- activities that prescribe the methods for governments to cultivate and maintain a positive and sustainable nation brand. Keywords: Nation Branding, Policy, Implementation, Framework May 2014
- 11. xi 摘要 基于公共政策方针的 国家品牌化结构研究 Rohan Keith Wright, 公共政策硕士 公共政策理论是长期以来专注于吸引投资以改善社会福利和满足人民需求的经济和政治 手段。几十年来，各国政府都在努力调动资源和利用资产来扩大出口，以吸引资源和积累地 缘政治影响力。今天，各国政府都在探索可以被利用来满足自身发展需要的资本形式；其中 之一即民族品牌。 尽管它的起源可以追溯到营销学，而现在民族品牌在政策学上是一个发展迅速的概念。 一时间，政策制定者仍持怀疑态度，市场营销的原理可以转化为公共政策的领域来帮助解决 政府一些最大的发展问题。现在，一些国家的政府都在引入这一方法，他们也承认这种方法 是一种可行的替代传统的投资和资源的招标方法。但这个词的范围和定义是模糊的，以及发 展一个民族品牌的确切过程和机制尚不清楚。 要解决这一问题，国家品牌的营销实践必须与政策执行过程中的理论整合。使用数据的 三角交叉和若干案例研究，本研究探讨了民族品牌和与其政策过程重叠的实践和处方。本研 究证明，只有政府能权威和合法性地推出一个民族品牌计划并以国家的角色采取持续的协调 一致的行动。从微观层面的机构，如有关人口和移民的，到宏观层面的机构，如作为政府的 各部委以及其他公共机构，不仅是必要的而且是必须的。通过本研究制定的框架表明，市场 营销和公共政策理论的交叉点，并强调政策和公共机构在塑造品牌化过程中的影响。该框架 是一个八级实施计划，包括 24 个活动和 4 个附加规定，通过这种方式政府可以培养和保持一 个积极的和可持续的民族品牌。 关键词：民族品牌，品牌塑造，政策，实施，框架 二 O 一四年 五月
- 13. The beginning of knowledge is the discovery of something we do not understand. - Frank Herbert (1920-1986)
- 15. 1 Introduction §1.1 Research Context Countries are engaged in perpetual competition to improve their standing in the world. Accordingly, over the past two or so decades, international competition among states to secure a share of world‘s limited financial and technical resources and to garner greater political influence has increased. Today, policy makers, particularly from emerging countries understand that ―countries can be seen as a brand‖[1] and are making ―overt attempts to attract foreign investments and increase exports through nation branding‖ [1]. With the advent of information communications technology (ICT) such as the internet, mobile phones and laptop computers, the arena for this competition is also rapidly changing. More countries are employing mass-media marketing techniques to develop interest in their nation brand and Aronczyk (2013) believes that governments see this as ―a natural next step‖, since modern technological and political developments had already set the stage[1]. The reality is that every country‘s ability to attract investments and resources is affected by the efforts of competing nations, so policy makers must realise the importance having a potent nation brand can have for country differentiation and ultimately for the prosperity of its industries, markets and constituents. Nation branding, a term coined in 1996[1] and promoted actively by marketing experts even today, is now a rapidly developing concept in the public policy scholarship which seeks to address the aforementioned concerns. It manifests itself as a hybrid of thoughts, particularly between the corporate school of product branding, the marketing school of destination and place branding and the policy school of public diplomacy and foreign policy. At first consideration, the concept may not seem novel. Indeed, just as corporations employ marketing and advertising schemes to position their products and companies in an increasingly competitive and globalized environment, so too have governments always attempted to market their unique features and characteristics to attract investments and resources, typically towards an economic or political agenda, as such the approach can be thought of as ‗marketing a country towards a political and economic end‘[1]. Nonetheless, preliminary research undertaken by this thesis proves that the definition and scope of nation branding is significantly more extensive that it appears. From a practitioner‘s perspective, nation branding requires a plethora of multidisciplinary tools and techniques to develop and launch. From a scholarly perspective it is still highly misunderstood, and discordant theoretical prescriptions bloat the literature. Essentially, the concept is a complex and multifaceted school of thought, desirous of urgent theoretical development. Further, because of the limited, but nonetheless increasing research in this area, policy positions on nation branding are either non-existent or ill-defined; many countries develop their nation branding policies impulsively or through innovation as opposed to reliance on best-practices, scholarly prescriptions or practical precedents. This thesis will contribute to closing that gap which hinders the theoretical and practical development of the field, and misleads government officials and branding practitioners on the nation branding process.
- 16. 2 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy §1.2 Research Statement Despite the multidisciplinary interest in the concept, nation branding is having a difficult time in terms of its theoretical and practical development. The simplistic yet vague terminology used in its application has frequently been cited as the culprit. There is no mechanism in the literature outlining the requisite activities, institutions, policies and programs to successfully develop, launch and manage a nation branding initiative. Moreover, research in the field is led primarily by marketing practitioners, so the concept tends to lack integrated theories from related disciplines such as public policy. As Sun (2009) explains, the nation branding literature discusses a range of factors and concepts ―but no organizing mechanism to connect these factors exists to explore the dynamics underlying nation branding‖[1]. This thesis attempts to fill that gap by developing a nation branding framework. This tool will connect themes, theories and perspectives on nation branding to determine what are the main elements of a nation brand, how they interrelate, and also how they can be manipulated in a programmatic approach towards positive economic and social outcomes. 1.2.1 Observations & Assumptions This research and its methodology are based on several critical observations: (1) The literature does not put forward any concordant definition of nation branding or a model that has proven successful in any part of the world; (2) The nation branding concept is led primarily by branding practitioners, which limits the discourse to marketing perspectives; (3) The prescriptions and models identified in the literature can be integrated with knowledge from other fields to develop a nation branding framework; (4) Many countries have not yet capitalised on their nation brand and lack the programs, institutions and policy frameworks necessary to do so; and (5) Many countries have launched nation branding programs which lack a well-defined strategy or policy framework for them to be effective. 1.2.2 Research Significance As there are over two hundred recognized nations in the world, governments are on a continuous and desperate journey to gain political and economic traction as a means of improving their standing in the international economy, not just through increasing tourists arrivals and foreign direct investments (FDIs) but also technology, human resources and social capital. One of the first steps in competing in this arena is to launch a comprehensive strategy for defining and promoting a nation image. This research will contribute to the limited body of knowledge on nation branding techniques but more importantly, it will develop a framework for designing and executing a nation branding program. As no na tion branding frameworks were found in the literature, this research is completely innovative and will make an original contribution to the field. In terms of specific implications for practitioners, researchers, public managers, governments and stakeholders (internal and external) this thesis will:
- 17. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 3 Play a critical role in directing the discourse on nation branding; Produce a further understanding of what constitutes the nation brand; Develop a policy implementation framework for nation brand development; Clarify the importance, significance and dynamics of nation brands; and Produce new terminology to explain the phenomena identified. Additionally, strategic implications of nation branding will be exposed and suggestions for further research not within the scope of this research will be presented. §1.3 Research Aim The ultimate aim of this research is “to develop a nation branding policy implementation framework”. As noted above, there are no best practice templates or models[5] of nation branding. This requires the interrogation of a range of cases, sources and literature which can be analysed through a policy perspective to develop the framework. To resolve these issues and satisfy the aim of this paper, the research was guided by a predefined list of questions. These include an investigation into what constitutes the scope, definition and research content of nation branding, identification of what tools and methods are necessary for measuring the strength of a nation brand, and an inquiry into the requisite tools and procedures for maintaining a potent nation brand. To respond to specific concerns in the literature, this research will also explicate the role of stakeholders in the nation branding process, and the theories and practices most powerful for developing, launching, maintaining and measuring a nation brand. §1.4 Thesis Structure Based on the above stated research requirements and expected outputs, this thesis is delimited as shown in Figure 1:1 Comprehensive research framework below: Figure 1:1 Comprehensive research framework
- 18. 4 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy As demonstrated graphically above, Chapter 1 introduces the research background and context, research aim and research questions as well as specific research objectives; it also explains the research significance. Chapter 2 focuses on the specific problems that this thesis addresses. It captures the dialogue, claims and major theories regarding the concept and outlines the theoretical development and current trends taking place in the field, it identifies the problems and issues that this research sought to resolve. Based on the specific problems and objectives identified in the preceding sections, Chapter 3 then outlines the tools, techniques and strategies employed to resolve the research problem. This is followed by the research results in Chapter 4 which not only presents the major outcomes and responses to the aforementioned research questions, but also a discussion of these findings with necessary justification of the analytical conclusions made. The research concludes with Chapter 5, a summary of the primary results, with necessary recommendations, prescriptions, and future research considerations.
- 19. 2 Nation Branding Today Country differentiation is imperative in a 21st century global village. Van Ham (2001) posits that a country without keen management of its image and reputation stands to experience difficulty in attracting economic and political attention[2]. But nation brand management has implications that reach far beyond the economic [2][5][7 ] and it can significantly impact on a nation‘s prosperity. Countries have long made attempts to attract investments, increase exports and improve their social situation. In the past, countries could make passionate appeals to the international community for aid and assistance, or negotiate agreements with multilateral lending organizations or with other states. But at present, the growing need for resources has changed the way in which investors approach opportunities and also how nations solicit these investments. Traditional methods still exist, but the advent of the internet and improvements in information communications technology (ICT) tools have introduced a wider array of platforms through which nations can communicate with potential investors, travellers, development partners etc., while simultaneously opening portals through which investors can pitch their investment ideas to suitable host countries. These countries are carefully selected based on their absolute and comparative advantages, which means that countries with similar offerings (i.e., investment protection, security, a stable business environment and economy, abundant natural resources, superior ICT infrastructure and technology offerings and a talented human resource pool etc.), are now engaged in an ever - growing competition to attract investments and development funds. In addition to investment solicitation for development, countries are also attempting to improve their geopolitical status, international influence, and regional clout to achieve specific political agenda regionally and internationally. The impact of increased investment inflows and a stronger and more powerful international presence is undeniably invaluable to this cause, but with the aforementioned competition it can only be achieved if countries are clearly differentiated from one another. This requires the cultivation of a specific national identity, i.e., a nation brand, which can be mounted as a beacon for attracting human, technical and financial resources and increasing social capital at home and respect for the country abroad. To this end, a number of governments have embarked on impressive drives to improve the power and value of their brand, evidenced by the increasing trend to hire branding consultants and embark on sophisticated nation branding campaigns[8]. This is owed to the fact that all countries have an identity and reputation which play critical roles in investors‘ assessments of their prospects for growth, development and investment returns. With billions of investor and tourist dollars traded every day and massive developments taking place in the vital sectors and industries, governments are patently more cognizant of the importance of being involved in these changes. If governments hope to safeguard the interests of their constituents and continue to execute their various governmental functions effectively, then this alternative method of inward investment solicitation does not only offer many opportunities but it is also imperative. The present obstacle is therefore crafting that a distinguishable international presence that can compete with other countries taking the same approach. While this activity is described in various ways by branding firms across the world[9], a true standard for doing this remains lost within a volume of misconceptions, conceptual misunderstandings and vague descriptions and terminology[1][9][10], so what would certainly be a herculean task on its
- 20. 6 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy own has been further convoluted to nebulous end. If established, a solid international presence – provided it is packed with enough potency to positively influence the opinions and perceptions of a country to positive end – can serve as a global beacon for attracting the much needed attention, funding and support that can drive a country‘s development needs. It is important to note however that this activity is beyond tourism marketing. It is even larger than what would be described from a foreign policy perspective. Here we discuss what Simon Anholt described as nation branding[11]. At first glance, the term may conjure up what many regard as a common tactic by governments around the world, but as the literature proves it is a highly ambiguous term, whose scope and definition lacks the level of scrutiny and theoretical expansion that has expanded other concepts in the discipline. Notwithstanding, nation branding has become an increasingly researched concept over the last decade and a half[8][12]. Governments are always on the search for new means of attracting catalysts of development, namely tourists, investors, and skilled human resources and as they become increasingly aware of the importance of their nation as a brand[8], it has become not only a tool but also an asset. Today, some scholars employ the term national reputational capital in reference to the unique form of capital that can be gained from a well developed brand reputation. Expert Simon Anholt, credited with coining the term in the late 1990s, has advised a number of governments including the Netherlands, Latvia, Croatia, Jamaica, Chile, Tanzania and Sweden and has noted a significant increase in the number of countries inquiring about nation branding techniques and strategies since early 2000 [8]. This not only reflects the growth of the field generally, but also an increased appreciation for the role that a nation brand can play in development. It also shows that governments do in fact regard nation branding as an alternative form of image promotion, separate from say tourism marketing or public diplomacy. As a newly recognized asset, it has certainly gained much consideration over a relatively short space of time. A major challenge now is assessing the strength of a nation brand. There are new metrics and measures being developed that attempt to index and quantify the strength of nation brands, but only recently has there been a veritable explosion of literature [8]. Compounding this challenge is that, as the literature suggests, governments and marketing experts take a greater level of interest in nation branding than scholars in other fields. So, the nation branding concept has been slow to garner the level of research attention needed to propel its importance in academia. Fan (2008) concurs that as an emerging field, nation branding is being led more by practitioners than by academic researchers. This means the field is being expanded in practice but is supported by limited theoretical research leaving the concept virtually unexplored and undeveloped theoretically and conceptually[4][12]. In fact, a number of works available today that directly references the nation branding concept (outside of Simon Anholt‘s research) was only published post 2010 and the first available textbook on the subject, authored by Dr Keith Dinnie was published only in 2008. Nation branding, like other fields of practice, stands to benefit from the injection of meaningful theories devised by academicians around the world but it has a long way to go in its theoretical and conceptual development and this thesis seeks to make a contribution to closing that research gap.
- 21. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 7 §2.1 Theoretical Development During the earliest discussions about image management for investment solicitation, the literature postulated that nation branding - which was yet to be termed as such - could be applied by countries as a strategy for gaining national reputational capital. This form of capital, representing the amalgamation of global perceptions about a country, could be a beacon for investors, tourists, human and technical resources, international aid or any other form of development resource. Today, countries use nation branding as a signal that they have entered the world economy [2] and are ready to re-enter the current economic and political sphere and participate in a new way. In trying to understand the process of nation branding, scholars reference the practices of the related marketing and branding fields; specifically product branding, corporate branding and place branding. Indeed, before governments and scholars began speaking about nation branding, the concept of branding in other respects was already well established. For instance, brand strategists in manufacturing companies have long used brand development to stimulate interest in their products and services. Consid er two companies, both producing bottled water. When these products enter the market, consumers will make a choice between them based on factors such as price, functionality (performance of the good), perceived quality of the good and its physical appearance (i.e. packaging). Marketing experts at both these companies must therefore devise ways of enhancing the appeal of these factors by stimulating interest in their own products to compete effectively in the market. This means that they must differentiate their goods and services by developing a brand (Kotler and Gertner 2002)[1] and promoting that brand image. As Sun (2009) explains, the brand management literature defines a brand as ―a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or any combination of these that are used to identify the goods and services of one seller or group of sellers to differentiate them from those of a competitor‖[1]. This is known as product branding and it is especially necessary in a world where products and product features can easily be duplicated, as seen in the example earlier. Therefore, to increase their presence in the market, companies associate their products with a catalogue of colours, symbols, logos, slogans and shapes, which helps consumers to differentiate products. Similar practice has also taken place in the corporate world where the trend of corporate branding has long taken place. As the term suggests, it relates to the branding of corporate entities. It is similar to product branding in the sense that is attempts to build a brand identity and associate it to a particular product with the objective of differentiating that product from similar products in the same category. The difference however is that branded products are targeted at consumers whereas corporate brands are targeted at ―an expanded set of stakeholders including employees, investors, suppliers, partners, regulators and local communities‖ (Hatch and Schultz 2003)[1]. Branding has also been applied to locations where parallels have been made between places and products and how they can be branded[9]. But, similar to nation branding, the idea is not to attract traditional buyers and consumers but to attract a wider range of settlers, customers, visitors, traders, investors and human capital. The practice is often confused with the traditional concept of tourism marketing, which in fact has a more limited focus, i.e., on the natural landscape, the food and culture, and local tourist attractions, but the concepts are not the same. In nation branding, emphasis is placed on its resource offerings and its
- 22. 8 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy unique flair and lifestyle, but more importantly the reputation of the nation‘s systems, its social and economic environment and its political landscape. A common mistake made by countries is offering generic qualities that can be found in almost any nation, namely an educated human resource pool, a youthful population, and an attractive landscape and scenery [13]. This approach disregards how the target audience perceives the country itself, which could render the marketing campaign useless. Indeed, brand strategists (even in related fields) have identified that the core essence and brand message of any country must be different from those of competing nations. But most potential customers demand more than hospitality and natural scenery, they are also interested in the nation‘s economic, political and social stability, domestic security, enforcement of basic freedoms and respect. 2.1.1 Current Trends Earlier publications on the concept put the nation branding discourse largely under the domain of marketing, with some references to public diplomacy and international relations. Recently, journal articles on nation branding have reflected a shift in the scholarly focus of the field. A growing number of scholars have either hinted at or directly posited the need for greater public participation in branding activities (both on the level of the people and the level of public institutions). Anholt, 2010 (as cited by Teslik 2007) identifies greater emphasis being placed on the behavioural aspects of managing the national image, dismissing claims that the focus should be on the use of logos and catch phrases[45]. Today a number of scholars agree that a critical component in any nation branding initiative is greater involvement of the population and public institutions. In fact, as the novelty and complexity of the concept leaves much to be explored, many more scholars are introducing scholarly perspectives and research developments of related fields into nation branding. §2.2 Problems & Criticisms Nation branding is a fairly new and theoretically underdeveloped field of inquiry [1][7 ]. Nonetheless the literature is inundated with criticisms and concerns, particularly with regards to the terminology and methodology that defines the concept. There is a debate among scholars and practitioners regarding the most appropriate tools and practices for branding a nation. But a major point of confusion and a recurring phenomenon across the literature is how vaguely defined are the terms nation brand and nation branding. The multifarious definitions presented in the literature has rendered the term vague. Within the marketing domain, Sun (2009) argues that the ―brand management literature fails to provide a concordant definition of brand or branding‖[1] which could suggest why nation branding has suffered in its theoretical development. Retrospectively, Simon Anholt explains that the term ―nation brand‖ was coined out of his observation that country reputations (just like cities and regions) behave like corporate and product images which play a crucial role in the progress and development of the product or entity they represent[9]. Marketing consulting firms adopted this idea and morphed it into a ―promise that the images of countries can be directly manipulated using the techniques of marketing communications‖[9], a claim which has never been supported by any article, research, case study or other work[7 ], suggesting that countries cannot advertise into a new reputation. Further is that nation branding has be en reduced by brand consultants to an operation of simply creating a catalogue of stationery items such as
- 23. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 9 professional logos, business cards and letterheads etc.; practices which could simply be regarded as just ―good housekeeping‖ and not the true essenc e of nation branding. As more scholars move toward describing nation branding as a comprehensive process inclusive of stakeholder input and public participation, one researcher advances an opposing view which characterises it as ―the production of symbols, signs, territories and spaces for consumption‖[14]. As for tactics, Szondi argues that nation branding is built on the use of logos, slogans, advertisements, brochures and e-marketing. This essentially reduces the conceptualisation of nation branding to country promotion using traditional marketing methods, i.e., with visual elements comprising signs and logos. This perspective is directly in contrast to the commonly proposed definition of nation branding that looks beyond the visual and symbolic elements of a nation to encapsulate the social, political and economic spheres. The incongruity in perspectives may be provoked by faulty terminology. Olins (2004) highlights the fact that ―connecting marketing and branding terms to the concept of nations‖ invokes a sense of scepticism among policymakers, academics and diplomats[15]. Anholt (2007) explains that the related terminology is often seen as cynical or too market-oriented, which continues to be a key challenge for the development of the concept[6]. As elucidated by Dinnie (2009a), ―integrating a marketing and communications approach to the objectives and ambitions of policymakers may present serious challenges‖[6] and Anholt, who coined the term, admits that nation branding is an erroneous expression since it misrepresents itself as a promise that governments can directly manipulate perceptions about their country and its people[8]. Scholars have since introduced the terms ‗competitive identity‘ and ‗reputation management as alternative descriptors. Another scholar introduces the term national reputational capital, describing nation branding as ―the strategic self-presentation of a country with the aim of creating reputational capital through economic, political and social interest promotion at home and abroad‖. Other scholars avoid the details of the conceptualisation by articulating a general rather than comprehensive definition of the term. Fan (2008) for instance describes nation branding as simply ―the management of a nation‘s image and reputation‖, or ― the practice of applying brand and marketing communication techniques to promote a nation‘s image‖[10]. Nation branding is akin to image management, on a larger scale, and so some authors have placed emphasis on the visual and symbolic elements of the nation, with an exclusive ―focus on the marketable elements of a country‘s culture and people‖[10]. Other scholars see nation branding as just an extension of the familiar ―brand‖ concept, an ideological product of the corporate world[2] which has no place in public policy or governance. With the multitude of perspectives in the literature, it will take some time before the concept crosses the disciplinary divide and is accepted as a valid principle by economists, public managers and government officials generally.
- 24. 10 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy §2.3 Conclusion Having an identifiable global image can improve the economic, political and social situation of a nation. Countries have long employed tactics in the form of public diplomacy, international relations, diplomatic engagement and other government-level activities. However as the global landscape for information dissemination and communication changes, governments have been on a quest to discover new ways of global image management. In response, scholars have pointed to the branding practices commonly employed for products and services as an alternative and suggested that a nation can be branded in the same way. Despite criticisms and scepticism about this practice, nation branding has grown into a hugely profitable industry, but it is still theoretical underdeveloped. Being a product primarily of the marketing school of thought, nation branding is patently inundated with corporate and business-related perspectives and jargons which have little effect in enhancing its cross-disciplinary appeal. As such, the main (non-marketing) inquirers into this field, mainly public administrators and policy scholars, value the proposition but are sceptical of its validity and applicability as a tool of governance. A significant focus has now been placed on understanding the critical considerations for the implementation of a potent nation brand and the implementation of a strategic branding initiative.
- 25. 3 Nation Branding Policy Analysis Initial scoping of the literature highlighted the limited theoretical and conceptual development of the nation branding field. Nonetheless, this research is conducted under the principle that the range of theories, perspectives and practical experiences that exist in other public policy domains such as economics, project management and public diplomacy etc. can help inform the development of a nation branding framework. The methodological approach and research orientation adopted by this research is outlined below. §3.1 Methodological Framework This section identifies the research tools that were applied to systematically manipulate the research data and answer the research questions. The first option of methodological approaches was do develop a framework based on case analyses where the research would investigate the experiences of countries that had already launched nation branding initiatives and develop a framework based on their most frequently employed policy strategies and approaches. Undesirably, this inductive this option would eliminate scholarly perspectives – albeit limited – and force the researcher to obtain data primarily from public records. In the absence of a coordinated nation branding infrastructure, which is the case in many countries, it would not be feasible to obtain these records and not in the quantities sufficient enough to inform a policy framework. The second option was to interview scholars and branding and marketing experts, but this option would not factor in the experiences of countries that have already launched nation branding initiatives. Additionally, this research route would not fit within the predefined temporal or budgetary constraints of the study since completing an appropriate number of interviews would produce a large quantity of uncategorized qualitative data requiring more resources than available to the researcher. The third option, which was ultimately employed, was a qualitative, exploratory method of data collection and analysis. Through this option, both scholarly perspectives and practical experiences were assessed. As described graphically in Figure 3:1, the preliminary literature led to refinement of the research aim, questions and objectives. Then by applying a framework for literature selection, a comprehensive literature review was performed o n the most relevant pieces of work on the topic. Thematic analysis was performed to identify themes and patterns from among the theoretical prescriptions and data triangulation was applied to all other secondary sources including books, online reports, press releases, government records, newspaper reports and information posted by the nation branding responsible organization in different countries. Case studies and other secondary data sources were also subject to data triangulation. After identifying and later filtering the array of tools presented in the literature, the final elements were compiled into a device for nation branding. This device, developed as a nation branding framework identifies the tools and procedures necessary for the development and execution of a nation branding program. Further details of each phase are described below.
- 26. 12 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy Figure 3:1 Research methodology process diagram
- 27. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 13 3.1.1 Data Collection For data collection, traditional research sources (newspapers, databases, books, journal articles etc), were consulted. These were sourced via standard search engine queries, scholarly database searches and government portals. To ensure data was collected from a wide cross-section of the available literature, non-traditional data sources were also reviewed, including posts by corporate entities. 3.1.1.1 Literature Selection In selecting literature, variables such as data format, publication date, authorship and content were important considerations that varied from source to source to capture a wide cross section of all available data sources. Preliminary literature review looked at exploring the development of the concept, current research trends and dominant theories. This was critical for refining the research objectives. This preliminary literature review was conducted using a standard search engine query with such key words as: <nation branding> and <nation branding framework>, with variations like country/nation and model/framework etc. Upon arriving at a clearer understanding of what the concept entails, a more specific search strategy was applied. Subsequent rounds of data gathering involved queries to academic databases and research portals. Literature was then filtered as described graphically in Figure 3:2. This was necessary since data triangulation requires a wide range of data sources, collected over a wide span of time and from different locations. Therefore, to capture the most potent and relevant pieces of literature, a series of criteria was set up to determine whether a particular source of information should be included in the research or omitted for lack of relevance. Figure 3:2 Framework for literature selection 3.1.1.2 Case Studies Several countries have launched what they dub a nation branding program/initiative; this research is informed in part by the lessons learned from these cases. While cases are invaluable to this research, one drawback is that not all cases are well-documented. Requests to obtain public records from some of these countries were made, but the majority of data regarding their nation branding experience was gathered from electronic reports and records.
- 28. 14 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy The countries selected as major cases were Kenya, South Africa and Germany. Based on scoping of the literature, it appeared that these countries had the most active and highly organized nation branding programs. Information regarding the nation branding exercises in these countries was readily available as public record (especially via a domestic nation branding web portal). This made it easy to track developments in their nation branding activities. Another country frequently mentioned in this research is Jamaica. Jamaica was selected as it has one of the most recognized nation brands in the world but ironically has an unstructured nation branding policy strategy. 3.1.2 Methods of Data Manipulation Data analysis will be performed using two conventional social science research methods: thematic analysis and data triangulation. The specific application of these research methods is explained in sub-sections 3.1.2.1 and 3.1.2.2: 3.1.2.1 Thematic Analysis Thematic analysis has been practiced by researchers and scholars for decades; it is the most common approach in content analysis and is now a conventional practice in qualitative research[16][17 ]. Thematic analysis is a qualitative research method that is used to identify, analyse and report themes (patterns) within a body of literature[5]. This method is useful since it reveals patterns and themes which are not imposed by the researcher[5]. Since there are no preset categories or labels and no predetermined themes, then critical and thorough reading of the literature allows the researcher to identify these themes as they emerge. Thematic analysis, although quite a conventional research method, is not often demarcated as such. In fact, several examples can be found in scholarly works were researchers refer to thematic analysis by other terms, such as discourse analysis. There are also cases where scholars explain the process without actually referring to it as thematic analysis, for instance Braun & Wilkinson (2003) state in their research that data would be ―subjected to qualitative analysis of commonly recurring themes‖[18]. What the researchers described here is actually thematic analysis. This research method played a critical role in the development of the nation branding framework as it produced a list of themes, patterns, common perspectives and prescriptions that explained the nation branding process and gave insight into what procedures and tools should be employed during its implementation. 3.1.2.2 Data Triangulation In social science research triangulation involves observing a phenomenon from at least two different perspectives[20]. Specifically, it combines data captured by different sources in different places and at different times or by different people[20]. Since it involves data obtained from different types of sources[5], triangulation is one means of validating research findings and increasing the credibility of research results. Since this component of the research focused on triangulating patterns across country case studies and scholarly prescriptions and theories, the qualitative and quantitative data that supported this study was compiled from carefully filtered literature. (See Figure 3:2 Framework for literature selection).
- 29. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 15 3.1.3 Developing the Framework A comprehensive search of the literature reveals no existing nation branding framework. The development of such framework therefore required the synthesis of theories, prescriptions, scholarly opinions, and lessons learned. This thesis is composed of several important analytical and research components. First, it applied thematic analysis and data triangulation to the available literature to develop a theoretical framework for nation branding. Second, using the theories and themes captured by the theoretical framework, a policy framework was drafted which was a comprehensive outline of the tools and procedures required for developing and executing a nation branding program. Third, a graphical representation of the framework was developed to better represent the interconnectedness of the processes involved. Producing suitable graphics to represent the framework is an important stage of the framework development process as it helps the reader to visualise the interrelatedness of the theoretical threads in a clear diagrammatic representation of the concept[22]. Other successful constructs such as Maslow‘s pyramidal hierarchy of needs and Bruner‘s spiral theory of learning are frequently referenced as examples of diagrammatic representations which have ancho red the theoretical and practical development of their respective fields. Such representations must be accompanied by an updated catalogue of terminology; a principle which was adopted by this research. 3.1.3.1 Theoretical Framework A theoretical framework is meant to be an organized compilation of the main concepts, ideas and theories regarding the phenomenon under observation[23]. Sinclair (2007) likens a theoretical framework to a map or travel plan where users can determine where they are, where they want to go, and how best they can arrive there. In the context of scholarly inquiry, a theoretical framework is an assemblage of accounts, experiences, suggestions, theories, prescriptions and expert opinions. It provides a general representation of the relationships between various elements of the phenomenon[24] and also an explicit statement regarding the theoretical assumptions surrounding that phenomenon[25]. In the present study, the theories explored were about nation branding on one hand and the policy process on the other. The activity was aided by questions adopted from research by Slevin & Basford (1999). The questions explored: The researcher‘s current knowledge about the phenomenon; The type of knowledge available (empirical, tacit, intuitive, moral, practical etc); Whether the theory is proven through theory -linked research; Other theories with possible relevance to the phenomenon; and How these theories can be applied in practice. The resulting framework linked the researcher to a wider body of knowledge in related fields that offer insight into what a nation branding framework should look like. However the volume and face value of this information leave it largely meaningless when scrutinised wholesale. So, it is the responsibility of the researcher to synthesize the views, opinions, observations and existing theories so that a more refined and narrow representation of the data is created. Application of thematic analysis at this point is critical.
- 30. 16 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy As Sinclair (2007) points out, the synthesis of themes and perspectives require information permutations and amalgamations on the part of the researcher which leads to a more scientifically sound body of data. Once developed, the theoretical framework allowed the researchers to move from describing the phenomena to making generalizations about it[25]. This is ideal since these generalizations would later inform the nation branding framework. 3.1.3.2 Policy Implementation Theories In the development of a nation branding framework, the researcher had to consider nation branding as a policy process, rather than a marketing activity. In this sense, the adoption of policy implementation theories was necessary to describe the phenomenon and to understand and explain the activity. There are several approaches to policy implementation including structural, procedural, behavioural and political approaches. In terms of theories, scholars have long attempted to identify the particular factors that account for both policy success and implementation failure (See for instance Ostrom 2007; Sabatier 2007). These theories are identified throughout the research discussion. 3.1.3.3 Nation Branding Theories A range of nation branding theories exist in the literature. Scholars have posited a number of perspectives and view regarding the effects and benefits of nation branding with a significant amount of research effort placed on understanding the scope and validity of the concept. Papers written from a policy perspective often focus on the viability of nation branding, and the sustainability of a nation brand. A number of theories concerning the process of nation branding helped inform the development of the implementation framework. By integrating these two theoretical datasets, i.e., the public policy and marketing schools of thought, the researcher was able to develop a nation branding implementation framework. Considering nation branding as a policy process, the research produced a device that systematically outlined the steps, tools and procedures required in nation branding. As expressed in the methodological framework, this process began with the identification of relevant literature to support the theoretical assumptions, then thematic analysis and data triangulation, and then finally, through a process ofcritical policy analysis, all applicable theories and practices were integrated into one nation branding model. §3.2 Theoretical & Conceptual Considerations The literature highlights several themes and prescriptions that are critical considerations of nation branding strategists. In the interest of understanding nation branding as a policy process, the following themes (captured from both marketing and policy-based literature) will be analysed from a policy lens. These themes were deduced through data triangulation and are explained as follows: 3.2.1 Brand Channels According to the Anholt-Gfk Roper Nation Brand Index (NBI), six factors affect the nation brand. The global population takes these factors into consideration when estimating the strength of a nation brand. Known as brand channels, these factors are the means through which nations communicate with publics. They comprise Tourism promotion and
- 31. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 17 first-hand visitor experiences; Product exports, which act as brand ambassadors through the country-of-origin effect (COO); examples include Mercedes - Made in Germany and Red Stripe Beer - Made in Jamaica; cultural exports which appeal to audiences inclined to the creative and culinary arts. Cultural exchange activities led by famous musicians, athletes, actors/actresses and other cultural icons can impact on the nation brand, especially if their creative products (i.e., paintings, works of poetry and musical recordings etc.) are promoted too; nationals also play a significant part in building the brand. They may be average members of the local population or Diaspora or well-known individuals with public profiles; policy i.e. the country‘s domestic and foreign policy direction as reported in the international media can affect perceptions of that country on themes such as democracy, security, economy, human rights etc; and finally investment solicitation strategies help international audiences understand what the nation‘s business and corporate environments are best suited for in terms of investments activities. Expansion of foreign companies into the country is also indicative of particular strengths. 3.2.2 Strategic Positioning Positioning is a core branding activity wherein an organization‘s offerings and image are designed to occupy a distinctive place in the mind of the target audience[26]. A brand cannot be sustainable without effective positioning[27 ]. A good brand position rests on three qualities namely, uniqueness, i.e., the message should be distinctive and distinguishable from all others; prevalence, which speaks to how widespread the message is among the target audience; and strength, which assesses the potency of the nation brand. These qualities can be achieve by employing any one or a combination of the six approaches to positioning as identified by Aaker & Shansby 1982[27 ], these are: positioning by use, user, attribute, category, price/quality and competitiveness. 3.2.3 Positioning Attributes There are six defining attributes of a national image that affect domestic and international perceptions of the brand. These elements may be internal in nature (i.e., from the perspective of the local population) or external (i.e., from the perspective of the global population). The elements include reputation, which speaks to the credibility of the nation‘s identity claims; image which speaks to what the nation projects to the rest of the world; identity, which refers to cultural beliefs, commonalities and shared psychological bonds among a group of people[4]; self-perception concerns how the people of a nation regard themselves, for instance nationals from developed countries may perceive themselves as economically superior, independent, or generally more powerful compared to nationals from developing countries who may perceive themselves as players in the international political economy. A range of self-perceptions claims may be made by the people of a nation and concern a multitude of areas such as the economy, society and behaviour etc. The stereotype element appears in this grouping since it refers to the imagery and the descriptions evoked by a nation. The quality of a stereotype is that it is a label attributed to all members of the defined group, in this case the nation. It can be a positive statement about the nation such as ―Chinese have superior maths skills‖ or a negative statement such as ―Chinese produce inferior goods‖. But, as can be seen in these examples, the danger of a stereotype is that it makes a general classification which may not always be true. Certain stereotypes can therefore be damaging to a nation‘s brand. Finally, symbols constitute the tangible and
- 32. 18 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy intangible elements that define the nation; this category includes the national colours, the national flag, national sub-brands and the nation‘s motto etc. To understand how these elements play into the strength of a nation brand, consider the case of South Sudan – a ‗new‘ country, with a provisional name, a flag and an anthem. A simple territorial border will not ascribe it any particular identifying attribute, so the world will continue to see South Sudan as ―just another African country‖[28], because it has lacks an identity, and several of the aforementioned elements. 3.2.4 Cultural Export Outlets Some countries have developed various forms of cultural export outlets, which are entities that promote their national philosophy and ideology through their every day course of business. Examples of such outlets include the Chinese Confucius Institutes and the German Goethe Institute. Denmark has pioneered the world‘s first smartphone application targeted at international media, which acts as a cultural export outlet. The app features Danish cuisine, architecture and lifestyle in the hopes that foreigners will be inspired to explore the country. From a policy perspective, these outlets are more than just export outlets, they constitute an important avenue through which the policy managers can communicate with their audience and also receive feedback. They facilitate sensitization, exposure and enlightenment in a way that would be rather expensive and difficult to coordinate through traditional methods. 3.2.5 Exploiting Mutual Image Transference Due to the reciprocity between product and provenance[29], it is possible to use sub- brands to promote the nation brand and vice versa[30]. This tactic is about exploiting the country-of-origin (COO) effect, and is possible through the principle of mutual image transference where a product or service is evaluated based on its origin, or where the evaluation of a product can link back to the production characteristics (i.e., superior/inferior) of the export nation. However it can have negative implications if the association made between the mother-brand and the sub-brand is poor. Japan readily comes to mind as a country with strong brand associations. The Asian nation benefits from associations with international consumer brands Sony, Toshiba and Honda and these has positioned Japan as a technological leader in the minds of many overseas consumers, investors and tech enthusiasts. But there is a challenge: some corporations have promoted their marks as international brands, a deliberate marketing strategy to be unreferenced alongside any particular country and be seen as a ubiquitous global brand. Telecommunications giant Nokia is one example. Mobile phone consumers around the world are familiar with the brand name, but most are unaware that Nokia is actually a Finnish company. If Finland was launching a nation branding initiative, close collaboration with this brand could prove invaluable in building the image of the local talent, research, economy, and technological achievements etc. Korea could benefit from a closer relationship with its leading international corporate brands Samsung and LG[31]. Some countries have no high profile export brands with which to establish associations[6]. However, these nations can still exploit the COO pheno menon. Take for instance Poland, which lacks an internationally recognizable brand product[6]. Poland has the opportunity to selectively promote particular brands and cultivate the proper associations with its nation brand. This was successfully done by Fiji, where Fiji Water has
- 33. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 19 attracted a massive following across North America and other overseas markets. Although many of its consumers are ignorant of the country‘s geography, economy, and politics, the product fetches a premium in some markets and has ―do ne much to promote the brand of Fiji globally‖[29]. 3.2.6 Audience Profiling (Message Receivers) Mounting a message on an international platform follows an assumption that the international audience is so homogenous that the message will be easily understand (and in the same way) by everyone. This is a fallacy which can have negative implications for a nation branding campaign if special care is not taken to understand the interpretive culture of the target audience. Semiotics, the study of signs and communication, describes the communications process as a series of activities from message encoding to decoding. This background makes it clear the reason audience profiling is an important consideration when devising a nation brand. Not only are different audiences informed in different ways (i.e., through popular media, stories, folklore, books and periodicals, current affairs etc.), but due to cultural differences, they also interpret the information they receive differently too. Audience perspectives and opinions about world affairs and accordingly about different countries, can vary significantly from one target group to another, so it is important that brand strategists understand the interpretive culture of their target audience to launch better campaigns that are better tailored to different target audiences. To better understand what impact perceptions can play on the communications goals of branding campaigns, it is important to understand the range of perception types [4] between two countries as explained in the following statements below: What Country A thinks of Country B What Country B thinks of Country A What A thinks B thinks of them, and What B thinks A thinks of them Due to the perception discrepancies, as highlighted in the example above, brand strategists must make critical decisions on how to communicate to different audiences. One consideration is whether an emotional or rational/factual message will have greater impact and what elements of the nation brand warrant greater emphasis over the othe r. Rational messages have a greater impact on FDI audiences while tourists and foreign workers are more receptive to emotional messages[15]. In rational messages, facts and quantifiable data such as statistics and rates are used while emotional messages place an emphasis on hedonic elements such as exquisite cuisine and natural scenery. Market research can help brand strategists develop the appropriate communication based on the characteristics of the target audience[15]. 3.2.7 Systemic Problems Systemic and institutional problems are certain hindrances to effective nation branding. Among the problems are lack of continuity in branding campaigns, organizational power plays, internal politics and stakeholder conflicts (such as differences in ideals, goals and professional opinions) and lack of technical and operational resources, among others. Identifying potential difficulties, whether institutional, operational or systemic is essential. For instance, during the design and implementation phase of the nation branding program, there may be contention between government officials and branding consultants
- 34. 20 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy on what is better for the nation[2], a disconnect that can lead to campaign failure and waste of resources. Such areas of difference must be addressed before the program goes into effect. 3.2.8 Role of Stakeholders Cornelissen (2004) explains that stakeholders are those parties or groups ―that are themselves affected by the operations of a program but can equally have an impact on it‖ [6]. By this definition, stakeholders must be both message drivers (i.e., play a part in the performance and operations of the initiative) and also be impacted by the message or program. Since stakeholders can be at either of these extremes or fall squarely in the middle, brand strategists must come to a clear understanding of who are the stakeholders and what will be their primarily role in the nation branding program. A critical component of this consideration is the impact that various policy players can have on the success of the program. A common problem in policy implementation is competition. 3.2.8.1 Stakeholder salience Stakeholders can be found across a broad spectrum of the population, and can even include nondomestic partners too. An important consideration when determining the rota of stakeholders will be their hierarchy in the nation branding program. Stakeholders can: (1) be considered as full equals, sharing equal responsibly and equal authority in the program; or (2) adhere to a vertical hierarchy where some have greater influence and say in the program than others. In response to an interview question, one respondent suggested that stakeholder input be included in the consultation (exploratory stage) of the program, but excluded from the actual development/formulation of the brand[6]. Stakeholder identification and grading of salience is identified as an important step in establishing relationships and communications. Mitchell et al., (1997) put forward the power, legitimacy and urgency framework[6] which reveals that power has the greatest effect on salience, followed by urgency and finally legitimacy, but the Fully Inclusive Stakeholder Approach, FIST, is an alternative whereby all stakeholders are fully recognized and included in the project[6]. 3.2.9 Role of the Public The public is indeed part of the aforementioned stakeholder group but is addressed separately in this research because of the overwhelming focus placed on the role of the local population specifically. The literature pays attention to the importance of having the general population on board with the branding exercise, for several reasons. Hasan (2009) notes that the success of a nation branding program depends on the ―active partic ipation, ownership and support‖[32] of the population, who is expected to live the brand. But it is also important to understand the current behaviour, interests and lifestyle of the population as a nation branding strategy must be developed around the people rather than imposed on themError! Bookmark not defined.. Since citizens of a country are socialized in a particular way, they already project a natural image that must be met with a natural brand. Dinnie (2007) argues that a people cannot ―adapt their natural behaviour to fit an artificially created brand‖[15]. This was the situation in the 1990s when the British government sought to implement ―Cool Britannia‖, a program with ultimately failed because the majority of the population did not fit the characteristics described in the brand proposition of cutting edge fashion, fashion, arts, design etc. (Gilmore 2002)[27 ]. This situation is likened to the
- 35. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 21 imposition of a new code-of-conduct on staff in an organization. Although change management tools would certainly be necessary, participation and behavioural change is much easier manipulated in the case of a corporation than a nation. Aronczyk (2013) adds to the debate by highlighting that all places already have a brand, but that it only needs to be owned and managed but that connections must always be made with pre-existing labels. An important factor when developing a nation branding strategy is the involvement of the people and public institutions. As in any policy process, success is ―correlated with coherent willingness of dominant groups‖[33], meaning when the public is part of the nation branding strategy, it will perform better. This is captured by one scholar who argues that nation branding does better when ―public speaks to publics; when a substantial proportion of the population of the country – not just civil servants and paid figureheads – get behind the strategy and live it out in their everyday dealings with the outside world‖[2]. David Lightle, country branding expert, acknowledges that it is ―better to have a unified image‖ of the nation, which means that there must be domestic buy -in before the brand can be promoted (as cited by PRSJ 2010)[64]. This was the case in London and Toronto, due to a lack of sensitization, residents rejected urban branding campaigns in their area[2]. However the literature clearly demonstrates the importance of public institutions. Lightle points out for instance, that successful branding is in part due to infrastructure and policy commitments by governments (PRSJ 2010). Improvements to any nation brand, and further development of the field itself therefore requires critical focus on the role of government institutions, government policies and general public systems. One argument that is clearly placed throughout the literature is that branding requires coordination and cooperation across all sectors and systems of government[13]. In the corporate world on the other hand, marketing does not require the coordination of all the internal systems of the producer (unless it is the producer itself, and not the product, that is being marketed). Further, marketing an individual product does not require the participation of the staff in that company. For instance, staff members at the Pepsi-Cola Company® do not need to consume their own products for target consumers to buy into their marketing campaign because they don‘t affect the company‘s brand image the way the local population of a country can affect the nation brand. It is clear then how the population can play a role in public branding and that the virtues of acknowledging the ‗people factor‘ are incontestable. Nation branding is also a highly politicized activity since ―only the government has the authority and legitimacy to establish the parameters of a nation branding strategy‖ [6] and also since the development of a nation branding strategy can lead to changes in the public and political agenda. In nation branding, an effective campaign requires that a number of critical institutional and operational changes take place within the government system. Specifically, ministries, agencies, departments and their staffs must adapt to the branding program by undergoing restructuring exercises, skills training, technology upgrades and hierarchical shifts among others. It may also be the case that new structures, guidelines and policies are instituted to accommodate and enhance the branding exercise. This is unlike marketing where a product can be branded and advertised with no alterative effects on a corporate organization‘s systems, procedures, internal operations, hierarchical structure etc (as demonstrated by the Pepsi example above). In corporate branding, where an entire institution is being branded or rebranded, the need for organizational and operational changes is far less than those required in the government system, due particularly to the bureaucratic nature of the latter. In this way, corporate and product branding can be seen as an activity emanating outward from the executive members of a corporate entity, while
- 36. 22 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy nation branding manifests as an activity emanating outward from the primary stakeholders, which are public institutions. This also underscores the idea that branding policies should primarily be the work of public managers, not marketing managers. 3.2.9.1 The Role of the Diaspora Complementing the role of public institutions, the wider public can play a unique role in nation branding campaigns. At home, the population can be mobilized to carry out various activities that enhance the brand proposition. Overseas, the Diaspora can also be mobilized to improve the nation brand if the necessary level of coordination and communication is applied. A unique example comes from 2008 New York where over Colombian-Americans living in the crowded metropolitan district, played a role in the ―Branding Colombia‖ campaign by handing out a combined total of over 100,000 Colombian roses to passersby on Colombian Pride Day, November 17 [32]. The event received overwhelming international media attention but had an even greater impact to a very important target audience of Columbia: US citizens. Colombia‘s image suffers from frequently being highlighted in the media as a drug haven, controlled by rebel and paramilitary groups, and subject to guerrilla warfare and high levels of extortion. So, on the part of each individual it was a simple gesture, but the combined efforts of the group had a profound impact on offering a new image of Colombians. The role of the Diaspora is often overlooked in the development goals of different countries, perhaps due to the principle of proximity where, their distance fr om the homeland renders their participation limited or nonexistent. However, if appropriate policies are implemented then governments can not only mobilize the Diaspora in a meaningful way but ensure that they make long-term economic and social contributions to their home country. Members of the Diaspora are an important subset of Brand Ambassadors and should be treated with the same value as brand ambassadors at home. 3.2.10 Public-Private Partnerships Establishing public-private partnerships can be useful in a number of ways, such as providing operational support (especially funding and technology) or offering testimonials that compliment the nation‘s business environment and regulatory systems, among others. Such partnerships are important for validating identity claims since the nation can reference successful companies as examples in its nation branding campaign. This was done during the New France campaign, where the French government exploited partnerships with the private sector. One aspect of this partnership saw company executives collaborate with the government to promote the government‘s policies and the corporate environment[30]. Public- private partnerships are also invaluable, for enhancing national associations with corporate sub-brands. This is explored further in section 3.1.1.2. 3.2.11 Message Alignment A consistent message is more appealing to target audiences because it appears more genuine. Take for instance, a proposal to promote Korea under the tag ―Green Ko rea‖. As Chairman of the Korean Presidential Council on Nation Branding explains, promoting Korea as a ―green‖ country would not be convincing since Korea is ―recognized as a fast-developing economy, heavily dependent on heavy industries and electronics‖[31]. Such a program would
- 37. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 23 probably be successful in New Zealand or Alaska, but the Chairman notes that ―Green Korea‖ would appear disingenuous. The newly developed mother brand should therefore establish connections with existing labels[2]. It should also exploit areas of synergy among sub-brands[34] so that all brand messages are consistent. In the absence of such alignment, the scenario as verbalised by Dinnie (2008b) may obtain where a nation has difficulty nation balancing messages of bucolic rural scenery (which appeals to travellers) with an image of skyscrapers and widespread technological development (which appeals to foreign investors). The International Marketing Council of South Africa highlights message consistency as an important consideration especially in a context where domestic brands or local organizations may have ―already developed their own brand platforms‖ and brand messages[34]. 3.2.12 Dealing with Opposition & Controversy One of the most critical phases in launching a nation branding program will be gaining support for the program. Nation branding can be a controversial issue in many states, since it involves certain reallocation of scarce government resources. Opposition, criticisms and controversy are discussed issues in the policy domain where governments have to contend with widespread public pressure and dissent. Some approaches to restoring confidence in a policy include sensitization drives whereas others involve public participatory decision-making. In the latter, the public is invited to contribute to the policy development through various ways. They may play a critical role in the formulation of the policy or they may be invited to participate in the process in other meaning ways. This last approach is about ensuring the public can claim some level of ownership over the program. Public policy scholarship shows that publics will take a policy more seriously if they believe they can affect it. 3.2.13 External Influences External influences can have either a positive or negative impact on the br anding initiative and affect the success of the program. External influences, namely international media and international personalities such as political figures (who by virtue of their position, are considered credible sources of information) can help co ncretize disseminate ideas about a nation, but this is only helpful if they bolster the intended national image. Particularly troubling is the case where the public is misinformed due to the logical fallacy of appeal to authority. The case of Jamaica is a fitting example. In 2012, Zimbabwean leader, Robert Mugabe described Jamaican males as drug abusers who are always drunk[35]. The comments sparked outrage among the local population who deemed the characterizations false and inappropriate. One commentator confesses that worldwide, people believe old ―stereotypes of the island nation as a tropical paradise where laid -back people smoke [marijuana] in the sun all day‖[36], but comments from a supposedly credible authority can help detract from the realities and concretize old (often fallacious) perceptions. The same is true for Germany, which is constantly pounced on by negative comments in the Italian press and from Italian leaders about its people and their culture[37]. To protect their markets and their image, countries have become more creative in their policies to the outside world. China, the largest film market outside of the US, has
- 38. 24 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy Case: District 9 In 2012, a US movie-studio released District 9, a production about extraterrestrial beings stranded on Earth who develop a relationship with a local population for survival. The population, Nigerians, were depicted as corrupt, cannibalistic, prostitutes, and gangsters, which Nigerian officials believed promoted stereotypes and damaged images of the Nigerian people. Some Nigerians believed these comments were hypocritical since the Nigerian movie industry, called Nollywood, uses similar characterizations of the population, sometimes worse (Karimi 2009). Nonetheless, the Nigerian Information Minister called for movie houses not to screen the film for its degenerating representation of Nigerians (Castro 2009). The Nigerian case highlights several issues. First, is that international media can be considered an external influencer and influence worldwide perceptions about a country. Second, if local media depicts its own country and population in certain ways then aligning international perceptions with the intended brand position may be compromised. The impact of self-depictions on international audiences is great so countries should be carefulnot to brand against themselves. demanded that Hollywood produce movies that feature heavily on Chinese culture and customs, in return local regulators have offered greater access to the Chinese market[38]. In terms of tracking other external actors and project influencers, public policy theory advocates a priori force-field analysis in policy design. In this analysis, external forces that can either support or destroy the program are identified and keen attention is paid to the various groups. 3.2.14 Role of International Indices International indices reflect both domestic and international perceptions (and realities) about a country in key development areas. Indices that focus on conditions of health, security, the economy, human rights, democracy, the environment etc, are among the most recognized and frequently referenced indices. Some of the mo st widely known indices include the Corruptions Perception Index (CPI), the Doing Business Report (DBR); and various Human and Social Indices produced by Amnesty International and other agencies. The Corruptions Perception Index measures how corrupt a country is perceived based on survey responses by international partners. Some countries recurrently feature in the ―Highly Corrupt‖ brand of the index, an extreme end of the spectrum that suggests public officials are corrupt or easily bribed etc. Amnesty International, explores matters related to human rights and security such as police brutality, state violence etc., and the Doing Business Report assesses how easy it is to navigate the local business environment or to complete common transactions such as applying for and setting up utilities, obtaining various licences and registrations etc. These indices provide critical insights which investors, travellers and the general public use to form opinions about the economic, political, legal and social realities of a nation; invariably impacting on the nation brand. By reviewing these ranks, ratings or index placements, brand strategists can better understand what impression the country has on the rest of the world and which perceptions positively or negatively affect the nation brand.
- 39. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 25 3.2.15 Monitoring & Evaluation There is a debate among scholars and practitioners regarding the most appropriate and effective way to measure the strength of a nation brand. This is especially important for the monitoring and evaluation stage of a branding campaign. The most recognized and frequently referenced index is the Anholt-Gfk Roper Nation Brand Index (NBI), developed in 2005. It scores countries based on a six -category checklist: people, tourism, exports, governance, investment and immigration, and culture and heritage. These are represented in the Anholt Nation Brand Hexagon. The people aspect considers the hospitality, friendliness and general appeal of the population; tourism looks at what level of interest there is to visit the country in question and asks what is the tourism appeal of its various attractions; exports considers to what extent the country-of-origin effect influences consumer behaviour; governance looks at opinion regarding the competency of the government and its stance on issues such as human rights, international peace and security and environmental protection; culture measures perceptions of the country‘s heritage and the essence of their creative products (music, film and the arts), it also gauges the impact of sporting and cultural activities; and immigration and investment reflects the nation‘s economic and business situation as well as its ability to attract financial and human resources, all of which speaks to the extent foreigners would consider living, studying and working in that country [39]. Although the NBI is the most recognized index for brand evaluation, several scholars and practitioners have criticized it as weak. Brand consultant, Thomas Cromwell argues that the methodology requires ―an enormous undertaking to comprehensively understand global perceptions through polling data‖[8]. Another critic argues that that the NBI methodology suffers from a sampling problem where citizens from only 20 countries are used to represent the world. Moreover, the perceptions of the sample population may be irrelevant in cases when are nation is developing a regional brand. One writer points out too that while a brand cannot change abruptly, audiences do make new associations with a country in shorter timeframes but the metrics used in the NBI method cannot detect or adequately measure these associations. The writer goes further by arguing that asking only three to five questions per index is inadequate and questions such as ―Do you want to have a person from this country as a close friend?‖ are inapt[40]. Data triangulation is also proposed as an alternative to global internet surveys. In this method, views and opinions from social media websites, blogs, newspaper columns and other platforms are triangulated to give an understanding of the perceptions held by different populations. Criticisms are advanced in the literature that standardized questionnaires, while allowing for meaningful comparisons, do not offer much insight, since results may be skewed by the omission of important attributes when developing the survey instrument[41]. Another important index, which positions itself as a more comprehensive and competitive index of nation brands is produced by East-West Communications. Referred to as the East-West Global Index 200, this measure assesses how a collection of 8 territories and 192 UN members are perceived in the international media. This is done by tracking Figure 3:3 Nation Brand Hexagon
- 40. 26 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy major international media outlets including The Economist, the New York Times, the Washington Post, the China Morning (Hong Kong) and the Straits (Asia), as well as other regional publications. The East-West group offers annual indices that reflect long-term perceptions as well as quarterly indices that capture the dialogue on current issues or short - term affairs such as government decisions or recent local events in the country[42]. Between these competing methodologies, i.e., the perception-based method of online polling in the NBI and the data triangulation method used in media-analysis by the East- West group, results vary: Table 3-1 Comparison between the results of the NBIand GI200 Rank NBIa East Westb 1 Germany Singapore 2 United Kingdom Hong Kong 3 Canada Malaysia 4 France Taiwan 5 Australia Australia 6 Italy United Arab Emirates 7 Sw itzerland Qatar 8 Japan Monaco 9 Sw eden Canada 10 United States United Kingdom a NBI I ndex (Q4, 2007). Source: Anholt Nation Brands I ndex™ © 2005-2008 Simon Anholt b East WestI ndex. Source: East West Global Index 200 © 2008 East West Communications Nonetheless, considering the top-ranked countries, the East-West index reports the US, UK, Australia, France and Japan as the most media-cited countries while the NBI index reports a similar list of countries also having the highest rankings[42]. The discrepancy between these measures signifies uncertainty and lack of consensus on how to measure the potency of a nation brand. The Samsung Economic Research Institute (SERI)[59] in Korea, collaborating with the Presidential Council on Nation Branding (PCNB) has developed a newer model referred to as the NBDO - the Nation Brand Dual Octagon. The model claims to bridge the gap between indices that emphasize image such as the Nation Brands Index (NBI) and FutureBrands™ Country Brand Index (CBI) and those that emphasize substance, such as those developed by the World Economic Forum (WEF) and the International Institute for Management Development (IMD). The NBDO model, assess eight subcategories including economy, science and technology, hard infrastructure, institutions, heritage, modern culture, citizenry and celebrity. It assesses all substance elements using statistics from WEF, IMD and UNESCO, and it assesses all image elements via surveys.
- 41. 4 Case Studies A number of countries have already launched nation branding initiatives. Some of the most organized and well documented branding campaigns are those mounted by Korea, Kenya and South Africa. Germany is also included to assess the impact of its unique history on its nation brand. The approaches adopted by these countries encompass more than just mere ad campaigns but manifest as holistic and comprehensive strategies that factor in all aspects of the society, governance and the economy, the culture, land and natural resources, and the strength and stability of its institutions and industries. §4.1 South Africa 4.1.1 Development of Brand South Africa The development of Brand South Africa is well documented. At the time of its conception, ―there were no strong country brands with major marketing drives behind them‖[34] so there was little in terms of global best practices or case studies to rely on. This forced the brand strategists at the International Marketing Council of South Africa (IMC) to be particularly innovative in their approach. The Brand South Africa initiative was a four- phase initiative as identified below: 4.1.1.1 Developing the brand position (i.e., the mother brand) Phase I was research intensive and involved interrogation of all relevant research on the nation, This phase was research intensive, involving the interrogation of all relevant research on the nation and consultations with domestic and international stakeholders. This phase relied on interviews, specialist focus groups and workshops with target stakeholders to understand what the essence of Brand South Africa was and how different groups related to it. One step in this phase was testing various positioning statements amongst the brand influencers, the local population and departing tourists. 4.1.1.2 Defining the relationships between mother brand and sub-brands In Phase II, an important consideration of the IMC was for consistency across all messages about the country. This involved understanding the depth of the mother-brand[34], its elements and the mandate of its sub-brands. The Council would later exploit complementarities and areas of synergy among mother-brand and sub-brands. This phase calls for sub-brands to, in effect, modify their brands (some of which were already well established) to be more in-line with the newly developed mother-brand. 4.1.1.3 Defining the campaigning strategy During Phase III, the team identified two components to their Brand South Africa operations. The first component was an international portfolio, incorporating niche media advertising, e-marketing, documentaries, and outbound missions, among others. The second, a domestic portfolio, was a campaign to improve national pride and demonstrate the brand promise through their everyday interactions; this component involved mass media advertising, and the help of brand ambassadors and thought and community leaders.
- 42. 28 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy 4.1.1.4 Brand progress assessment The final stage, like in any project management scheme was monitoring and evaluation. This phase was to check that stated objectives were being met. In the case of South Africa, two studies were conducted to understand the progress made by the Brand on the domestic and international fronts. The first study included a national perception audit which set out to measure how well the South African population delivered on selected attributes of the brand. The measures were essentially developed to determine to what extent the brand promise, and brand proposition were entrenched in the minds and attitudes of the people. The second study was an international brand equity study. Due to the existence of only a limited number of comparable studies (i.e. a look at South Africa‘s brand health compared to other nations), the IMC commissioned its own study to gather data for this aspect of the monitoring and evaluation efforts. The international brand equity study explored how Brand South Africa was performing on an international level and whether its performance met the expectations of the IMC. 4.1.2 Brand South Africa today Today, the Brand Africa Organization dubbed South Africa the Most Valuable African Nation Brand, and the IMC is constantly trying to upgrade their expertise in branding practices by sharing experiences and engaging in dialo gue with fellow African nations (See for instance the Ghana-South Africa Nation Branding Forum, which was a state-level exchange on nation branding practices). §4.2 Kenya 4.2.1 Development of Brand Kenya The Brand Kenya initiative had its start in 2008, when the nation branding program was launched. With the mission ―to enhance Kenyan national image and identity‖, the Brand Kenya Board was established, and designated as the leading organization of this program. Following a "rigorous country diagnostic", the Board developed a National Brand Master Plan, which would guide all future projects, activities and stages of the branding program. The diagnosis took place around five pillars: people, places, products, politics and economy[13]. The exercise provided new insights into new branding opportunities and potential strategies for building and positioning Brand Kenya. Some components of the National Brand Master Plan include: 4.2.2 Components of Brand Kenya 4.2.2.1 Nation Brand Vision Nation Brand Vision – This is ―a statement of the country‘s aspired position going into the future‖[13]. For Kenya, this was a quest for modernity balanced with respect for heritage and values. The Brand Kenya Board developed a national positioning statement to capture what position Kenya hoped the country could hold among all nations.
- 43. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 29 4.2.2.2 Nation Brand Proposition National Brand Proposition – This can be thought of as the brand promise, which captures the essence of the Kenya brand, through reference to one particular characteristic of the country. To be effective, this proposition had to be authentic and believable. The Board identified the welcoming and hospitable spirit of Kenyan‘s as a natural characteristic which was captured in one word: ―generosity‖. The Board developed the propositional statement: "Kenya bursting with generosity, rewarding beyond imagination." 4.2.2.3 Nation Brand Values National Brand Values – This speaks to the ideals governing how the people and the country will build relationships and interact with others. As identified in the literature, the values must be demonstrated in everyday interactions and relationships such as in business and the public service. 4.2.2.4 National Tagline National Tagline – This is a statement, crafted as a compelling message that can quickly be referenced by citizens and foreigners (with slight variations if necessary). The ―Make it Kenya‖ tagline chosen by the Board invites the world to make Kenya their preferred destination for trade, investment, recreation, residence and corporate headquarters. 4.2.2.5 Visual Identity Visual Identity – This is simply the national brand logo. Common practice around the world is to use the national colours, iconic landmarks or other renowned country symbols as inspiration or basis for the brand logo. Kenya constructed its national logo around a modernized version of the shield found on its national flag. §4.3 Germany 4.3.1 Brand Germany Rationale The German case is particularly important for understanding how a country tries to brand itself with the baggage of an already infamous national image. Whereas other countries can begin a branding campaign from the ground up, considering only what is consistent with their national goals, Germany had a potent historical background to contend with and perceptions of the nation are still strongly influenced by its national history. Following World War II and their role in the historical event, Germany suffered a damaging blow to their international image[2]. At home, many Germans had no national pride, until German officials made a decisive call to launch a nation branding campaign that would not only help shape the international image of the nation, but also impact on nationalism and social capital at home. 4.3.2 Brand Germany Nation Branding Approach To tackle world perceptions and give the nation a rebooted image, a nation branding campaign was devised. ―Land of Ideas‖, launched during the 2006 World Cup series, could be seen as an attempt at reclaiming history and the narrative about the country [2]. A major
- 44. 30 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy component of the German campaign was removing old stereotypes, increasing pub lic awareness and emphasizing new, fresh and exciting prospects for the nation. The campaign was spearheaded by FC Deutschland, a newly established public -private committee comprising top executives from public sector groups and from leading German corporations. The campaign featured provocative images of partially clothed supermodels and bold catch phrases which painted Germans in a new light; it was a significant contrast to the dull and boring image they were widely thought to hold before. 4.3.3 Achievements of Brand Germany The Brand Germany attempt was largely a success. Germany moved from 7 th to 2nd place on the Nation Brand Index (2006), the nation saw a 14% increase in exports and 33% increase in tourist booking[43]. Despite these numbers, there were a number of challenges which still persist today. The Brand continues to take a beating from Italian leaders, who constantly describe the country in a negative light. This has slowed the rate of progress in its rebranding campaign and has even impacted German industries, some of which have tried to avoid association with the country by marketing their products under alternate names in different markets; e.g. Opel is sold under the name Vauxhall in the UK to avoid any loss of profits as a result of COO[37 ]. This factor suggests that Brand Germany has a long way to go before it can capitalise on sub-brand association, but this can still be seen as a positive future path as opposed to a presage of the Brand‘s prospects. §4.4 Case Study Conclusion The cases used in this research contribute to a greater understanding of how countries had undertaken nation branding. A summary of their initiatives are presented below. Table 4-1 Comparison of country case approach South Africa Kenya Germany Focused largelyon establishing relationships between mother brands andsub-brands Launched a four-phase project on nation branding Focused largely on the development of brand symbols Identified four elements in its nation brand master plan which were later developed and executed as part of the overall brandingstrategy Focused largely on establishing associations between population and vibrant images Focused on the superficial imagery and sensory associations with the nation and its people In none of the cases was there evidence of institutional or organizational reform or restructuring to accommodate the nation branding initiative. Compared to the theories, principles, themes and perspectives previously identified in this research, the cases identified here do not focus on branding from a policy perspective but took a more marketing approach.
- 45. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 31 5 Results & Discussion The framework was developed using an evolutionary process of synthesis, interpretation, selective omission and amalgamation. The approach essentially applied a ―survival of the fittest‖ approach to the data selection and analysis which saw the elimination of elements that were anomalies among the compendium ofviews, theories and perspectives. §5.1 Data Sources Following the approach outlined in the methodology, several articles were selected for review and analysis. The initial search using the phrase <nation branding> generated 3,890,000 results from the Google search engine Hong Kong server[44] this was reduced to 226,000 results when the Boolean phrase <“nation branding” AND framework OR model> was queried. After setting the language parameters to ―English‖, and allowing the search servers to automatically omit similar results, the query returned 780 pages. A quick scan of these results revealed that many were related to conferences, expositions, seminars, social media groups or other notices. Thus, using a second-order search query, the Boolean phrase was updated as follows: <nation branding OR country branding AND framework OR model NAND amazon NAND wikipedia NAND expo NAND conference NAND seminar>. These parameters refined the search results to just a few score, which were further filtered using the framework for literature selection highlighted in the methodology. This entire process was repeated with queries to scholarly databases. Duplicate results were eliminated by cross-referencing and the final selection of literature was then subjected to the research methods identified earlier (thematic analysis, data triangulation etc). §5.2 Nation Branding Framework Several results were produced by this research. The first set of results concern the scope and definition of nation branding (this satisfies the inquiry of Research Question #1), the second set of results speak to new phenomenon discovered by this study, the third set comprises the related terminology and the fourth set of results produces a nation branding policy implementation framework. These are presented below: 5.2.1 Nation Branding Scope and Definition There are worrying differences in the literature regarding the definition and scope of nation branding. This is where a policy implementation model should begin i.e., with an analysis of the definition and scope of the practice. The Anholt Nation Brand Index captures what is now the most recognized definition of the term; however the concept has far reaching ramifications that cannot be defined, explained or even resolved solely by this index, developed primarily by marketing practitioners. This research resolves that government and public policy are an inherent feature of nation branding programs and that government institutions are hierarchically superior to marketing practitioners where the legitimacy and authority to develop and launch a nation branding program are concerned. As such, the concept known as nation branding should defined in ways more suitable to public managers. The first step is including the word ‗public‘ in the terminology as this immediately highlights the immense role and critical
- 46. 32 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy importance that public systems (i.e, government agencies, ministries and departments) play in the process. It also underscores the fact that the branding exercise does not only consider the nation‘s natural resources or touristic features but also things such as livelihood, government policies, cultural practices and the people. As opposed to nation branding, a definitional phrase inclusive of the word ―public‖ disconnects the term from its chiefly tourism marketing and corporate branding associations, linking it more closely with ideas of public policy and governance. This research proposes the following terminology: (1) Public Brand: the composite of all symbolic and behavioural elements, artefacts, and external perceptions about a government, its governance systems, and its constituents that clearly distinguishes the population and their offerings of one nation from those of another, offering worldwide differentiation among nations (2) Public Branding: is a deliberate and strategic attempt at synchronizing national behaviours, practices, government policies and objectives with the national image and reputation, external and self perceptions, reputation and identity of the nation towards the development of solid image position that facilitate differentiation between nations and complements the features and offerings of different states This research has hitherto employed the term nation branding to facilitate understanding of the more widely understood concept, however the term public brand will be employed henceforth.
- 47. 5.2.2 Nation Branding Framework Figure 5:1 Nation Branding Policy Implementation Framework
- 48. §5.3 Discussion A discussion of the nation branding framework follows: NATION BRANDING FRAMEWORK STAGE I – AUDITS & CONTEXT ASSESSMENT For most countries, the information required to complete these audits can be supplied by public records and statistics. In other cases, input from high-level officials will be necessary. Step 1 RESOURCE AUDIT Since a successful nation branding policy requires strong operational and institutional support, a resource audit will help in understanding the nation’s resource make-up and operational infrastructure. For any country, such support would typically be offered by public institutions as well as public and private stakeholders. Completing a resource audit will allow brand policy makers an opportunity to assess possible areas of exploitable assets. 1-1 Organizational Audit – Identifies what organizations related to nation brand promotion currently operate within the nation context (including those headquartered overseas, such as diplomatic missions or Diaspora associations), with details on their mandate and resource base. Also important to be included in this audit is a review of their activity history. Most countries will identify the national tourism organization (NTO) and the national export promotion agency in its organizational audit, but the complete rota of organizations and public institutions will differ from country to country. Identification of all organizations and their mandate can later on be used in the development of a restructuring plan that can reduce areas of overlap and redundancy across all government agencies and public bodies. 1-2 Program Audit – A program audit will identify all current and planned programs and activities that are directly or indirectly related to nation branding. It looks at the nation‟s vision statements, long-term development goals and commitments to international treaties etc. Essentially, the program audit identifies what national programs and legal or economic obligations influence or impact the national image such as national development goals, previously ratified international treaties, even agreements with international lending or monetary agencies etc. The aim of a programaudit is largely to identify what aspects of the nation‟s policy infrastructure will impact the execution of a branding initiative. By performing this audit, nation branding policy strategists can later identify opportunities for project integration or any points of synergy that can be exploited. 1-3 Management Audit – Overcoming the challenge of having multiple actors, leaders and public managers will be a critical task. Performing a management audit will help in the identification of the main drivers and managers of the brand program, brand message and brand proposition. Distinct management groups should be identified so that authority over the branding program (and group responsibilities) can be effectively assigned later on if necessary. This will help to reduce redundancies and overlaps in project authority and
- 49. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 35 responsibility, an important consideration especially in a context where public institutions are already criticised for being too ineffective due to their overly bureaucratic nature. Step 2 BRAND AUDIT This is an investigation into how the nation is currently represented to target audiences. It involves understanding how the people of the home nation represent themselves, what the available international indices and metrics reflect about the local situation and what opinions target audiences hold about the nation and its features. In particular it should assess what image of its public systems (security, health, education, justice, legal and governance etc.) is being promoted. 2-1 Behavioural Audit – It is important to understand the beliefs, aspirations and ideals of a people to understand how genuinely they reflect the brand promise. Since the brand proposition captures the essence of the brand and it is the people that convey this essence, then brand strategists should invest adequate resources to understand domestic self- perceptions and how the population of the home nation see the world and vice-versa. This audit explores what particular lifestyle is associated with nation. This is an important step in developing an authentic public brand, one that truly exemplifies the spirit of the people, e.g. the French are often associated with ideas of romance, chicness, sophistication and an appreciation for wine. 2-2 Brand Index Assessment – International indices reflect the state and situation of a number of important development indicators. Taking these indices into consideration can give insight into how the system of government, security, business, economy and politics is perceived by the rest of the world. By investigating how a nation fares in these areas, brand strategists can understand what elements significantly impact the intended brand proposition. For instance, if the brand vision is to be a leading host of corporate headquarters, then the nation may want to rank prominently on the Doing Business Report (DBR). On the other hand, careful manipulation of brand messages can project low rankings in a positive manner. For instance, a nation that has a low ranking on the measure of “ease of establishing a business” could construe this difficulty as part of the “prestige of that business environment”, something akin to joining an elite club. Additionally, governments may be reflected negatively on paper but in reality have pretty fair systems, it all depends on the methodology of the index and the reporting measures it adopts. An assessment of brand indices can therefore help governments prioritize items on its brand policy agenda. 2-3 Audience Profiling – Different audiences are informed in different ways and they have perspectives and opinions that are influenced by and based on various sources of information. While some insight can be gathered by basic market research, a state-level perspective is essential to ensuring the sustainability of the brand message. For this reason, international relations will play an important role and the nation‟s ministry of foreign affairs must contribute its expertise in this area to help brand managers understand the unique relationships between target groups. The case may be that Country A gathers its opinions of Country B based on their historical relationship or transferred perceptions (i.e., from political sources, official authorities, even movies or the internet). Understanding these relationships and the source of these opinions will provide critical insight into what the brand message should be. Take for instance the cases of China-Japan, US-Iraq, and
- 50. 36 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy Pakistan-India etc., which view each other with an element of suspicion due to various diplomatic or historical reasons. By profiling target audiences, public brand strategists can determine whether an emotional or rational message will have greater impact and to what audience. Emotional messages (based on feelings and emotional appeals) are contrast to rational messages (based on fact, statistics and verifiable truths). Audiences will respond differently to both types; not in all cases will both be effective. 2-4 Market Analysis – A critical factor for a potent nation brand is that is has an element of uniqueness. It is therefore crucial for nation brand managers to assess the activities, programs and developments being made in other nations to reduce the possibility of brand promise overlaps. Although there will certainly be some similarities in brand promises, nations must consider the status of other nation brands to avoid unintentionally promoting patently similar ideals. In this case countries must complete to hold a convincing brand position. Specifically, governments should aim to develop a brand promise monopoly where each country holds a unique brand promise completely distinguishable fromall other brand propositions. (This is further developed in 5.3.3Brand Promise Monopoly). Step 3 BRAND EXPORT MACHINERY EVALUATION The Brand Export Machinery is a collective of tools that will disseminate the brand message; it includes brand ambassadors, export channels and association with sub-brands. 3-1 Export Channels – These are avenues through which the nation‟s brand, culture, ideology and politics are promoted. Typical channels include TV, radio, billboards and public engagement. Recently, social media networks and cell-phone applications have emerged as another way to connect with target audiences (See for instance Denmark’s Nation Branding Smartphone Application). One of the less recognized but equally useful export channels is event hosting which offers nations the opportunity to mount a unique event with a specifically crafted message and theme to highlight the things most relevant to their brand. Examples include French Connection and the Air Jamaica Jazz & Blues Festival. For this to work, governments will need to develop partnerships with the right promoters and event organizers etc, and interest them in the principles of the wider nation branding program. Alternatively, countries may wish to exploit international events such as FIFA World Cup, the Olympics, International Conventions or the Ms World Pageant as brand channels since they may not possess the necessary resources to reach an international audience on their own. Essentially, each country must think about what avenue it will exploit in order to attract attention to its brand. Although prevalence is an important consideration, brand strategists should focus not necessarily on the largest platforms but those most effective for brand promotion. Identifying a reliable and effective brand channel is essential to mounting a branding campaign. For the United States, a major component of its brand export machinery is Hollywood where images of the American way-of-life, justice, security, education and its legal and political system are mounted to the tune of enhancing or even destroying perceptions of the country. Other nations have developed their own export channel, like Russia and China launching Russia Today (RT) and China Central Television (CCTV) respectively. These national mouthpieces are ideal export channels since they not only disseminate the nation‟s ideology but are controlled by the brand strategists.
- 51. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 37 3-2 Brand Ambassadors – This group may include athletes, musicians, actors, the diplomatic corps and nationals overseas (such as tourists, seasonal workers, international students and the Diaspora generally). Although most brand ambassadors are „natural‟, in that, by virtue of their occupations, they naturally assume the role of a national ambassador, e.g. musicians or international students, brand strategists may also identify specific individuals from among the population and charge them with the specific role of being the „face‟ of the brand, for instance. These individuals, sort of ambassador designates, would feature prominently in the larger branding campaign, including ad placements, testimonials and promotional media. Examples of well-known brand ambassadors include athlete Usain Bolt and musician Bob Marley for Jamaica or actor Jackie Chang and media mogul Yang Lan for China. Each brand ambassador can represent a different aspect of the brand message (a politician will have a different brand impact than an actor or singer for instance) also, not all ambassadors will represent the nation as per the intended brand proposition; some may perform undesirable acts that destroy the nation brand. These facts underscore the need to identify all ambassador groupings and bring then into the larger brand campaign. Also important to note when assessing brand ambassadors is what rules or terms influences their ambassadorial conduct. Perhaps they are bound by Terms of Reference (TOR) , a Code of Conduct, local laws or even international regulations (especially for natural ambassadors), which specify what re their privileges, rights and necessary behavioural conduct. 3-3 Build Brand Portfolio – Brand policy managers should ask what symbols are currently associated with the nation brand. Further, they should investigate what are the current sub- brands and corporate brands in the country. Corporate and country sub-brands represent an ideal; they invoke certain feelings which, if integrated into the branding campaign, can be powerful associations to bridge and enhance the mother-brand. Building the brand portfolio means identifying all national symbols and corporate and public sub-brands operating within the country context. The importance of this is demonstrated through reference to the country-of-origin effect (COO) where audiences make associations between nations and the goods/services they produce. If a company has the reputation of producing inferior quality goods, then the overall brand of the company will suffer, not just the particular (inferior) model. Equally, if a nation is often associated with inferior products then all products emanating from that country will be branded with the same inferiority. An example of this is the “Made in China” tag, which has serious implications for that country‟s nation brand due to its long-standing negative connotations. Some well-known country sub-brands include Samsung and LG for Korea and Blue Mountain Coffee for Jamaica, while non- corporate country sub-brands (NCCS) include football clubs Real Madrid and Manchester United as two examples. Countries can exploit associations with these sub-brands as a means of enhancing the image of its people, industries, lifestyle or economy. One example of an association poised to yield positive results is Finland and their telecoms brand Nokia. STAGE II – IDENTIFY BRANDING REQUIREMENTS Stage II is about assessing both the operational needs, policy needs and message needs. It speaks to the identification of the specific technological, textual, graphical, audiovisual, institutional, operational, organizational, and policy requirements of the branding initiative. Stage II requires governments to make the crucial decision of what exactly the brand will be, which requires an overt
- 52. 38 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy declaration of the brand promise, and brand vision (which must be inline with all other national development goals). It includes: Step 4 NEEDS DIAGNOSTICS Up to this point, all relevant information regarding the resource base of the country, the context within which the branding program will be developed and the means through which the brand will be promoted would have been identified (as per steps 1-3). Upon data integration, brand policy strategists can proceed to assess what are their message needs and also what reforms or restructuring activities must be implemented to address program deficiencies. The needs assessment is geared towards message identification and context setting, where changes to the current systems, procedures and policies are effected to align operational support systems with the requirements of the branding program. 4-1 Brand SWOT Analysis – From the audits performed above, brand strategists can identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats at play. This activity of the needs assessment step therefore takes the form of a SWOT analysis and is more critical than steps 1-3, which are exploratory in nature. The SWOT analysis requires critical assessment of the audit reports to pinpoint specific resource deficiencies or program opportunities. Take the case for instance of a country which does not have many sub-brands in its portfolio. As there is no opportunity to capitalise on an existing brand, this could be considered a brand weakness; but, it could also be construed as an opportunity, since brand strategists would have the flexibility of highlighting specific local brands that meet the requirements of the target audiences and then incorporate these brands into the national campaign. Through critical appraisal of the audit reports, the brand policy team can better structure implementation plans to compensate or account for possible threats or opportunities. 4-1(1)Force Field Analysis – One aspect of the SWOT analysis exercise should be a force field analysis. This would necessarily reveal which stakeholder or observer groups are proponents or opponents of the initiative, i.e., which could be regarded as a threat and which could provide opportunities for programsuccess. 4-2 Restructuring Consideration – Nation branding is different from most other national policies in that a significant and widespread program of restricting and reform is necessary before policy implementation. Based on the audits in Stage I, a focus on restricting considerations will reveal what adjustments, improvements or restructuring must be undertaken to increase the effectiveness of the branding program. Restructuring should take place on two primary levels: institutional and operational. As these are explained, it is important to consider that restructuring will invariably result in the reallocation of resources including but not limited funds (financial resources), staff (human resources) even equipment, skills or technology (technical resources). Restructuring plans can also extend to policies, national guidelines or even legal considerations. 4-2(1)Institutional Restructuring – This refers to aligning the relevant departments with the requirements of the nation branding program. It will eliminate redundancies, establish clear lines of authority/responsibility and prepare the relevant organizations or institutions for their role under the new initiative. Overlapping areas of responsibility (especially in a policy context) will damage the nation branding program as lines of
- 53. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 39 authority become blurred and activities suffer haphazard execution. For instance, if the audit reveals that two or more organizations have overlapping branding operation, then restructuring exercise will be necessary to determine which organization should take the helm on that particular project. In Jamaica for example, two government agencies: the Jamaica Exporters Association and the Jamaica Bureau of Standards, developed and launched different versions of Brand Jamaica Certification Marks; seals that are placed on the packaging of authentic Jamaican products. However each organization established unique criteria for what constitutes an “authentic” Jamaican product. This inconsistency blurs the national standards on what is considered an authentic Jamaican product and serves to dilute the nation brand. The need for institutional restructuring will be particularly important in nation contexts with a wide range of institutions regulating different aspects of the nation brand, especially those with a powerful national tourism organization (NTO) and several other institutions like the national export promotion agency that concern over the nation brand. 4-2(2)Operational Upgrading – This refers to the introduction of new technology or systems that support the operational functions of the initiative. Operational upgrading is different from institutional restructuring in that the former deals with introducing new technologies and procedures while the latter deals primarily with making systemic adjustments to structures that already exist (e.g., hierarchical structure, reporting structure, range of authority and responsibility etc.). Operational upgrading would include staff training, for instance, or the establishment of a nation branding website that documents and disseminates information regarding the nation‟s branding activities. 4-3 Establish Message Requirements – The message requirements refer to the textual and audiovisual elements that will give the brand portability. It should be based on extensive consultations and surveys but should also be closely related to the current realities of the country as well as the government‟s future aspirations. The elements include the brand vision, brand proposition, brand values. In some cases, the message requirements will be static, unless there is an unforeseen punctuation in the nation brand that either detracts from the current message or provides an opportunity to enhance it. In other cases, the message requirements will change as the program progresses. This approach is necessary when a head-on approach to the message may appear disingenuous and not have as great an appeal as a message catalogue that gradually and subtly attempts to improve the national image. Two important steps are: 4-3(1)Identify Target Audience Requirements – Similar to diplomatic engagements; all communication out of the branding campaign requires a specifically tailored narrative to be effective. There are several things to consider, such as 1) whether target audiences will be more receptive to rational versus emotional messages and 2) the history of relationships and previous interactions shared between home nation and target groups. Such details can only be captured in a review completed in part by the nation‟s foreign ministry or diplomatic council. It is necessary to review these interactions as they will invariably impact on the target nation and how well the message is received. Failure to factor in these parameters can result in suspicions
- 54. 40 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy about the brand message or feelings on the part of the target nation that the message is disingenuous or with ulterior motives. 4-3(2)Develop Message Catalogue – This stage is about developing tangible representations of the public brand. It involves determining what messages will be broadcast, the national tagline, the national logo and the specific colours and symbols that will be used throughout the campaign. Following on the long-tail theory, it is best that the message catalogue extends to public sub-brands too; therefore government Ministries and departments will also need to upgrade their organizational brand to support the national brand. Great care should be taken to develop the nation‟s message catalogue since it will be as prominent and important to the nation‟s persona as a nation flag, crest or emblem. See for instance the Brand Colombia campaign where all public institutions referenced the phrase “with passion” in their organizational tagline. It was used across all sectors from culture to agriculture. The message catalogue is very important as it gives portability to the brand message. It answers the question of which tangible references will be used to promote the message, i.e., through which symbols, individuals, textual and graphical elements and even over what platforms. 4-4 Establish Legal & Policy Protections – As only the government has the legitimacy and the authority to launch a nation branding program, it is also the only institution that can apply for or set the relevant legal and policy protections or guidelines to protect the nation brand. Legal and policy protections (LPPs) include the establishment of new legislation that deals with certifying bodies (refer the case of Jamaica having two different criteria for the same certification mark), or it may new codes that deal with prescriptions on ambassadorial conduct or policies regulating the operation of Diaspora groups or associations. LPPs can also include the application of relevant trademarks and patents seals for the elements which will be used in the branding campaign; it even extends to national icons of symbols which may be at risk of exploitation by another country or corporate entity. (See the case of two Americans who applied for various classes of patent protections over the Steelpan Drum, a musical instrument indigenous to the Caribbean country of Trinidad and Tobago, or the corporate entity which was filed against by the Italian government for their use of the iconic sculpture Michelangelo in their promotional activities). Establishing LPPs deters countries and corporate entities from exploiting symbols that are closely associated with a particular nation. LPPs ensure that a nation can receive compensation and damages in the case of certain violations by ensuring that the brand and its associated elements are offic ially recognized and backed by legal terms. It is encourages longevity and continuity of the program by validating the initiative and establishing government sanctioned protections. STAGE III – PRE-IMPLEMENTATION Once the audits in Stage I have been completed and the public brand strategists have clarified their vision for the brand and established the brand requirements then certain preparatory steps need to be taken. The pre-implementation stage helps identify any kinks in the original branding proposal and grants the public brand strategists a bird’s eye view of how the plan will be executed. Step 5 DEVELOP & APPROVE IMPLEMENTATION PLANS 5-1 Craft Campaign Strategy – Each country may wish to mount activities specifically crafted by their own marketing and public policy teams. Implementation activities speak to what
- 55. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 41 activity or activities will be mounted to address specific aspects of the brand message. For instance, if the country wanted to bring attention to its culture, a specific activity could include hosting a cultural exposition that invites international participation, or if the country wanted to send a message of patriotismor bring attention to a particular national celebration, festival or other observance, they could rally the Diaspora to wear their national colours on a specific day. To take advantage of „free‟ media spots such as coverage in the news or online viral videos, captivating and unconventional approaches are advisable. Banal approaches are uninspiring and may not generate interest in the nation or its brand proposition. New activities can be added after implementation however an initial proposal is necessary for envisioning the infancy periods of the program implementation and setting the tone for future activities. This stage should also outline specific milestones and objectives that will later be used for evaluation purposes. A timeline is also necessary to outline activities such as staff training, technology upgrades and transitioning (in the case of restructuring). 5-2 Assess Implementation Feasibility – This stage calls for a review of the implementation plan including nation-particular implementation activities as developed in Activity 5-1. This activity should lead to an estimation of the resource burden of the implementation program (technical, human, financial and otherwise). Once completed, governments must then determine whether the necessary financial and resource commitments are within their means and whether the necessary legal and policy obligations can be met. These long-term commitments must then be made official as is covered in the subsequent step. 5-3 Obtain Project Approval – Hitherto, the audits and assessments, plans, decisions and specific implementation activities can be considered the national brand implementation blueprint (specific to each country). To validate the implementation plan, a policy paper should be prepared and kept for reference among the program directors. This policy paper will serve as an action plan, and help program managers keep track of their progress, thus playing a key role in program implementation and evaluation. Summary papers should also be submitted to the media as part of the wider public sensitization program; even program detractors and all other groups with special stake in the initiative should review the plans. STAGE IV – IMPLEMENTATION Having a clear outline, with all preparations made, sets the stage for implementation of the program. The actual implementation plan will differ by country but all will most likely include: restructuring, mobilisation of resources and necessary policy execution. The order in which these activities occur will also be dependent on the specific timeline of activities developed by the brand policy managers. Although identified later on (i.e. in Stage V), two other activities, namely monitoring/evaluation and documentation exercises should begin immediately upon implementation, at least in limited fashion. Step 6 PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION A formal launch of the branding program can attract huge international media attention. Taking this route equates to free media attention over various networks, which is useful if the national strategy requires a loud start. The challenge will be ensuring that the media reports on it positively, so as to compliment the efforts. On the other hand, country-specific characteristics may call for a soft-launch, which is a quiet start to the branding exercise. In this approach, activities are not aggressive, instead they are subtle. A soft approach is particularly useful for avoiding the extreme criticisms and debate
- 56. 42 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy that a hard launch may bring to the initiative; this is related to earlier discussions about maintaining an authentic brand message and reducing scepticism that it is genuine. Intentionally subjecting the nation to such criticisms should be a carefully managed affair or completely avoided as it can distort the brand proposition and bring unwanted attention to different aspects of the brand . Whatever the case, a launch signals to outside markets that the nation is embarking on a new project, but it should also involve sensitisation drives to help the local population know and understand the planned changes and activities and to attract their support. 6-1 Mobilization of Resources – This refers to the activation of all stakeholder groups, the distribution (or reallocation) of funds/resources, training or reassignment of staff etc. All tools and resources necessary for the nation branding program are mobilized to their respective positions and given directives or activity schedules. 6-1(1)Public Sensitization – Resource mobilization also involves constant communication to the public. They too must be informed of various plans and activities and they should also be aware of the brand promise. As public institutions are also charged with maintaining the authenticity of the brand, they will be expected to undertake various tasks and carry out their operations in a way that complements the brand vision and brand proposition. The public must therefore act as a watchdog over these institutions, demanding change or improvements where necessary. It is critical that publics are aware of the program and that they are invited to participate in various ways. 6-2 Brand Deployment – This is the deployment of the brand message catalogue, which will help bring attention to the various details of the nation brand promise and brand values . It involves the dissemination of all tangible and intangible brand representations such as textual and visual brand messages. 6-3 Initiate Post-Launch Activities – Some activities can only take place after a formal launch or start of the program. These activities would have been identified in Stage III and are activated here. These activities can include STAGE V – BRAND PRESERVATION To track progress and identify problems, program monitoring should be launched in earnest. This stage involves progress reviews, feedback gathering and necessarily program adjustments. Step 7 PROGRAM MONITORING & RESPONSE Program monitoring is an ongoing exercise where feedback channels are monitored for significant changes. When such program changes are recorded, then appropriate action should be taken to ensure a smooth and continued program operation. The monitoring and response stage of the nation branding framework includes a complete review of all predetermined milestones and objectives to verify whether the initiative is on track or if it is inefficient. It involves comparison of all intended and actual budgetary allocations (time, money, resources etc) as well as challenges and responses. 7-1 Feedback Monitoring – This is an on-going exercise whereby all data inflows regarding the nation brand and the branding initiative are tracked and necessary reactions performed. Public managers should be skilled enough to detect trends in the data stream so that their actions are not always post-facto, instead proactive monitoring of trends is advisable.
- 57. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 43 7-1(1)Monitor Direct Feedback Channels, which include direct communications to the program mangers (emails, phone calls etc), online postings such as in forums or on social media networks as well as letters to the Editor, or even calls to radio talk-shows. Feedback can also be collected through channels specifically setup by the program managers such as surveys, questionnaires, interviews or a simple messaging tool on a nation branding webportal. 7-1(2)Monitor Indirect Feedback Channels, which extends to reviewing trends in statistical data, ranks and other international indices. These are indirect forms of feedback to the branding exercise; they reflect progress being made by the country but without acknowledging the role of the nation branding program and, although published for public consumption, are not necessarily communicated directly to the program managers of individual countries. 7-2 Program Response – A dedicated team of researchers must monitor all feedback channels and identify the most critical program changes, which are then passed on to the program managers for appropriate action. Just as program monitoring and feedback collection is an ongoing exercise, adapting the program must also be continuous. Rapid responses to program feedback ensure that the nation branding program and the brand message remains current and fresh. If the response is delayed or inappropriate then any progress made developing the nation brand of the brand message can be lost. Step 8 PROGRAM EVALUATION & DOCUMENTATION The final stage in the policy framework regards evaluation of actual implementation activities and documentation of the actual policy process. 8-1 Policy Evaluation – This is an ongoing exercise that should provide an overview of the program efficiency. It involves assessing how closely to the stated/predetermined plans the actual project remained. To do this, comparisons must be made between actual and projected allocations of time, money and other resources as swell as challenged that arose and how they were handled. The aim of the program evaluation is to determine to what extent stated objectives were being met. Failure to meet such objectives could signify project derailment or project failure and would require urgent correction. 8-2 Prepare Process Documentation – An important activity to be undertaken during the program evaluation should actually have begun in earnest. It involves documentation of all activities undertaken by the project with relevant qualitative data (photos, text, samples, reports, memos etc) and quantitative data (statistics) to provide a comprehensive description of the program, major activities and events and its progress. Documentation is necessary for ensuring continuity of the branding program and for knowledge transfer (both intergovernmental and intra-governmental. The information contained in the project documentation can be used not only by government officials, stakeholders and future managers of the branding program but it will also be invaluable records for scholars, researchers and practitioners in various fields. Details of the branding program that are not confidential or regarded as state secrets must be shared with fellow states to improve common understanding of nation branding and encourage further research in the area.
- 58. 5.3.1 Nation Branding Framework Summary STAGE I: AUDITING & CONTEXT ASSESSMENT Step 1: Resource Audit Activity Main Task Issues to Resolve/Guiding Questions Activity Outcome Component Outcome 1-1 Organizational Audit Comprehensive audit of all organizations that directly influence the nation brand What organizations are responsible for nation branding, what is their structure, mandate and budgetary structure Nation Branding organization roster Which individuals or programs are the main influencers or drivers of the PB program 1-2 Program Audit Audit of all current and planned programs What is the national vision statement of development goal, what programs that affect the nation brand are planned or underway Identify competing or complementary programs 1-3 Management Audit Identification of main message/program drivers Who currently ‘manages’ the nation brand,which groups or individuals are the main message proponents and program supporters, what are their motives and interests,what resources can they contribute and what is their current influence over the media and target audiences Authority and responsibility chart of all stakeholders Step 2: Context Analysis Activity Main Task Issues to Resolve/Guiding Questions Activity Outcome Component Outcome 2-1 Behavioural Audit Survey home nation (HN) What is the essence of the brand, what lifestyle is associated with the brand, how do the people live their everyday lives and what are theirworldviews, beliefs and aspirations A generalisation of the spirit or essence of the people and what they most embody To determine upon w hat platform the nation branding programw ill be launched,what are the characteristics of the nation, its people, the target audience and competing nations 2-2 Public Indices Assessment Review domestic, regional and international indices, ranks, ratings and indicators Where is the country performing well, w hat indices reflect positively/negatively on the country, are these indices consistent with the government’s self-assessment Determine how international indicators reflect the different sectors of the HN 2-3 Audience Profiling Survey target audience (TA) Identify the perception relationships between HN and TA (e.g. what HN thinks of TA; what TA thinks of HN, w hat HN believes TA thinks of it, and what TA believes NH thinks of it, etc) Who are the targeted message receivers, how are they are informed, and what perceptions or stereotypes do they hold about HN 2-4 Market Analysis Identify brand competition What similarities exist between the brand messages in competing nations; who are the main brand competitors,what is their brand proposition and what nation branding activities are they engaged in Identify similar nation brand messages or competing nations
- 59. June 2014 Rohan KWright Developing a Nation Branding Frameworkfrom a Public Policy Perspective 45 Step 3: Brand Export Machinery Evaluation Activity Main Task Issues to Resolve/Guiding Questions Activity Outcome Component Outcome 3-1 Brand Export Channels Identify brand channels What brand channels exist andwhich are most powerfulfor promoting the nation’s unique brand message (locally & overseas) Through what avenues can the message best be promoted Through what avenues can the brand be promoted and what sub-brands can be integrated into the larger program. 3-2 Brand Ambassador Identification Identify brand ambassadors Which individuals or groups of individuals represent the brand (directly/indirectly and officially/unofficially), what qualities do they have that can be exploited (artistic works, talents, achievements etc) How are they influenced (i.e. community or thought leader, code-of-conduct, terms of reference etc. Who are the ‘faces’ of the brand and what support can they contribute to the program 3-3 Portfolio Assessment Identify sub-brands that compliment the mother-brand What local sub-brands, symbols, icons or landmarks compliment the mother-brand and can be exploited What sub-brands enhance the mother-brand and vice-versa STAGE II: IDENTIFY UNIQUEBRANDING REQUIREMENTS Step 4: Needs Assessment Activity Main Task Issues to Resolve/Guiding Questions Activity Outcome Component Outcome 4-1 Brand SWOT Analysis Critical analysis of audit reports Based on the inventory or resources and the audits carried out above, what strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats exist Identify potential areas of threat or opportunity Identify possible opportunities and threats, aswell as operational, institutional and message requirements 4-2 Restructuring Consideration Analyse audits to Identify what programs, institutions or policies require restructuring What restructuring activities are required to account for or correct technology, training or expertise deficiencies What operational and institutional upgrades or restructuring are necessary 4-3 Establish Message Requirements Develop message catalogue What are the audiovisual and textual elements that w ill promote the brand message, how will the message be packaged and disseminated Develop catalogue of elements that w ill give portability to the brand message
- 60. 46 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy STAGE III: PROGRAM PRE-IMPLEMENTATION Step 5: Develop & Review Implementation Plan Activity Main Task Issues to Resolve/Guiding Questions Activity Outcome Component Outcome 5-1 Craft Campaign Strategy Develop timeline of specific implementation activities What specific implementation activities such as hosting an event or rallying the Diaspora for a campaign w ill be launched; what is the timeline (short-term and long-term) for the implementation of staff training, technology upgrades and transitioning Summary of all event and activity plans including campaign timeline A policy paper structured as a comprehensive long-term nation branding implementation handbook 5-2 Assess Implementation Feasibility Calculate overall costs of a long- term program implementation Is it practicable to launch a nation branding program given the current and projected situation (resources, context etc); what is the project cost of the program (time, money, technology, human, etc) Long-term budget and resource needs outline 5-3 Obtain Project Approval Prepare Policy Implementation Paper A description of all necessary policies, legislations and/or regulations that must be in effect for the program implementation; state-level approval for disbursement of program funds Compliance w ith and nation branding proposal among relevant stakeholders STAGE IV: PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION Step 6: Program Implementation Activity Main Task Issues to Resolve/Guiding Questions Activity Outcome Component Outcome 6-1 Mobilize Resources Activate and deploy resources Directives communicated to all relevant individuals and organizations; allocate resources to respective positions All resources readied and in position to carry out further plan Formal commencement of the branding programw ith all process and resources initialised and deployed 6-2 Brand Deployment Launch tangible brand elements campaign Widespread dissemination of the key elements of the brand message increased attention paid to the brand message; increased brand visibility 6-3 Initiate Post- launch Activities Mount events and activities What specific events or activities will be hosted to demonstrate the brand promise; through whatways will public institutions and the w ider population accept and demonstrate the nation brand Nation branding events, activities and programs commencement
- 61. June2014 Developing a Nation Branding Framework from a Public Policy Perspective Rohan Keith Wright Results & Discussion | 47 5.3.2 Pure Public Brand Model Critical analysis of the data gathered through the triangulation exercise in this research suggests that a nation brand is most potent when there are high levels of synchronicity among the reputation, identity, image, self-perception, stereotype and symbols of a nation. To better understand this, a cross-disciplinary comparison is drawn between a public brand and the structure of a chemical element. The comparison, shown in Table 5-1 Comparison of Nation Brands to Chemical Elements below reveals that nation brands share several characteristics with chemical elements. Table 5-1 Comparison of Nation Brands to Chemical Elements CHEMICAL ELEMENT NATION BRAND Atom Brand Atom Electrons Reputation, image, identity, self-perception, stereotype, symbols Protons, Neutrons Population, domestic stakeholders A chemical element is a pure substance that contains only one type of atom, each atom is comprised of a cluster of protons and neutrons, orbited by electrons. Applying this analogy to nation brands, then a pure brand can be achieved if each brand atom contains synchronous ―brand electrons‖, i.e., if the reputation, image, identity, self-perception, stereotype and symbols among both domestic and overseas audiences are all consistent. In other words, when all these align in such a way that the nation‘s self perception is equivalent to the image held by persons overseas, then the brand representation is less tarnished and moves closer toward being a pure public brand. This is the strongest, most potent ―version‖ of a nation brand. This idea is presented graphically below: Figure 5:2 Pure Public Brand Model (Flat) Pure Public Brand Model
- 62. 48 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy As shown above, a pure public brand exists when there is synchronicity and alignment between the dominant domestic perceptions and the dominant foreign (external) perceptions about a nation. If the perceptions and opinions between these two categories differ, then the brand is not pure. For example, there could be a case where the domestic population assess themselves differently from their overseas interests (investors, tourists etc), the brand managers or even the nation‘s own Diaspora. This means that different ―versions‖ of the nation brand exist among different sects. In this case there is no ‗one‘ true brand, so the potency of the brand is lost. On the other hand, if all v iews and perspectives among these groups are somehow synchronized then we can call this a pure nation brand. Synchronization of the brand does not necessarily mean that all interested groups accept the projected brand image; it simply means that there are no other dominant or competing ―brand electrons‖ affecting their impression of the nation brand; much the way someone may know all the principles, tenets and beliefs of a religious practice but not necessarily accept them as truth. 5.3.2.1 Argument for a Pure Public Brand There are several benefits to a pure public brand. Some of the main arguments are: One unified view/impression – It may be distracting if a country has several different impressions on different markets. For this, developing a pure brand bring all ideas and perceptions about the country in one unified outlook. Pure brand are easier to manipulate – If only one image and one message is received by interested parties and the nation‘s brand managers control the content and dissemination of that package, then they have a greater chance of manipulating that image towards their development goals. Conversely, if several competing images and messages exist across different groups, then mounting a drive to effectively influence perceptions of the nation brand become more resource intensive and more complicated to orchestrate. It is easier to manipulate a common idea then contend with several messages for different audiences. Unquestionable brand position – A pure brand signals to outside markets and also to the local population exactly what the nation stands for and what capacities define it. 5.3.2.2 Possible Criticisms Public Brand There are a number of possible criticisms that may be laid against a move towards developing a pure public brand. Some of the most powerful arguments are: Pure Public Brand too rigid – The development of a pure brand means that images, perceptions and perspectives on a country are now synchronized across all markets and groups (both domestic and foreign). A pure brand may therefore limit the discourse on what a particular nation is capable of or what it stands for. It may reduce the features, capacities, interests, attributes and qualities of a nation and it public systems to a very narrow idea. Pure brands limit message opportunities – Having several message across different groups could provide an opportunity to communicate a unique message to various target groups, based on their particular needs and interests. A pure brand would therefore limit the opportunities to communicate specifically-tailored messages to unique markets.
- 63. The combination of these positive and negative attributes of a public brand is something for policy strategists to consider when investing in the cultivation of a brand atom. This research proposes the following terminology: (1) Pure Public Brand: A pure public brand is one in which a nation’s combined self-perception, symbols and identity claims are consistent with the images, stereotypes and reputational beliefs held by external parties (2) Brand Atom: A composite of all internal positional elements (identity, symbols and self-perception), all external positional elements (image, stereotypes and reputational beliefs), and all brand core elements (3) Brand Electron: Any of the various rudiments comprising the public brand atom; they are the smallest identifiable aspects of a nation brand that are perceived, recognized, remembered, transmitted, believed to exist or otherwise acknowledged by the consuming external and domestic audiences (4) Brand Core: At the nucleus of the brand atom are those groups that not only represent the brand but are also affected by it. These stakeholder groups include the entire gamut of public institutions and local entities, the government and private organizations operating within the country context The abovementioned elements are all related to a pure public brand.
- 64. 50 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy 5.3.3 Brand Promise Monopoly Whereas in the corporate world, consumers can impulsively choose between two products that purport to do the same thing or provide the same benefits, the brand policy domain is different. In the latter, nations tend to hold more distinctive images which make them more easily promoted to different audiences. However there may be the case where two or more countries have the same brand proposition. A brand promise monopoly corrects this situation whereby each nation projects a unique message and holds an exclusive brand promise among all other nations. The strength of a brand promise monopoly is palpable in the case of small-island developing states. Commonly referred to as SIDS, these countries have similar geographic, demographic and economic situations; they have relatively low GDP reports and have populations ranging from a few thousand to just a few million. A specific example of this category of countries is the Caribbean region where SIDS share several economic, social, political and resource characteristics that are not peculiar to any one nation. There may be the case where, in a public branding initiative, several of these countries employ statements, propositions and policies that are quite similar to other countries in the region. It is already the case where many national campaigns put forward ―generic, undifferentiated claims for their sandy beaches, sunny climate, laidback lifestyle, and so on‖ (Dinnie 2008). While the claims and information may certainly be fact, this approach does not support the development of a distinctive national identity or a distinctive nation brand proposition. Holding a monopoly on a brand promise is therefore a viable approach in establishing a clearly distinguishable brand among all other nations. 5.3.3.1 Possible Criticisms One criticism that may be laid against the development of a brand promise monopoly is in balancing the demands of a national identity with the demands of a unified regional identity (as is the case with many SIDS, for instance the Caribbean Community has a long- established regional integration movement known as CARICOM, the Caribbean Community). The 8 Step Nation Branding Policy Implementation Framework developed by this research puts forward that close investigation into regional plans (such as a regional integration movement) must be factored in any nation brand initiative. This will be completed during Stage I, Activity 1.2: Program Audit and must outline what commitments and obligations currently impact the development of a truly unique national identity without compromising the commitments already made to any regional integration program. The example of Caribbean SIDS can be extrapolated to all countries that must develop an exclusive international personality, reputation and identity, that is, a brand promise monopoly. This research proposes the following definition: Brand Promise Monopoly: A monopoly that exists over a particular message or brand promise and which can be attributed to only one specific nation or public brand.
- 65. 5.3.4 Brand Management Control Spectrum Who controls the brand? Who are the main drivers and influences of the brand? These are critical questions that must be posed by brand managers and policy strategies. Based on the findings of this research, it is critical that stakeholder salience be determined prior or program launch. A Brand Stakeholder Spectrum is proposed whereby brand policy strategists, determine who are (or will be) the main message drivers and message receivers of the program (it is linked somewhat to setting the stakeholder salience). From a policy perspective, a vertical hierarchy for program management means some entities will be relegated to a primarily observer status while others are given full operational control and decision-making authority. This may have the effect of not only alienating valuable stakeholders from the process but also upsetting other stakeholders who believe they ought to have a greater stake in the program management. Following analysis of the main arguments regarding stakeholder inclusion, this research concludes that a control spectrum is useful at each stage of the branding initiative. It follows the wisdom of the public policy school which postulates that regular change to the management of a program or parts thereof, while sometimes chaotic can also produce favourable outcomes. Provided that all leaders adopt the predefined program guidelines then there should be a fairly predictable outcome regardless of which authority controls which stage or activity of the program implementation. With these views, a spectrum-model hierarchal approach to stakeholder salience is prescribed. Although superficially of the same structure, a spectrum- model hierarchical approach is critically dissimilar to a horizontal hierarchal approach where all entities have the same influence, autonomy, decision-making powers and authority as the other. Instead, the spectrum-model focuses on activities rather than designation of powers.
- 66. 52 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy 6 Conclusion §6.1 Research Overview Research in politics, marketing, economics and international relations all suggest that a critical factor in improving national competitiveness is through effective placement and promotion of a country, its political ideology, business environment, natural resources, social situation and other features that give it a competitive advantage over other countries. Language Limits Conceptual Development - The development of nation branding as a theory and practice is hindered by the superfluous use of marketing jargons. If nation branding is to gain greater validity as a public policy concern, then it must communicate to public managers. This requires the use of policy -related terms and concepts. Role & Importance of Nation Branding - Many countries maintain a positive brand but these may not be preferred from among other competing brands. It is therefore important to for countries to develop and maintain their own brand image and take control of the narrative about the country. The importance of this practice is summed up in the assertion that unless governments take control of their own image then they risk allowing their brand to be managed by outside parties, including but not limited to other governments, corporate institutions, and private individuals etc. §6.2 Results Summary Below is a summary of the main findings of the inquiry into nation branding. Nation Branding is an 8-step policy process - The nation branding framework produced by this research is a 5-stage, 8-step research-intensive policy program constituting 24 primary activities and 4 sub-activities. Nation Branding involves significant policy coordination and government input - Although nation branding is promoted primarily by marketing experts and involves a wide range of business-related terminology and concepts, the entire process of nation branding involves a significant injection of research at the governmental level, policy implementation, coordination of public institutions and public stakeholders (including the domestic population, overseas Diaspora groups etc). Scholarly development of the nation branding field is hindered by practitioners - Two factors limit the development of the nation branding field. First, by focusing on the ‗marketing‘ elements of nation branding, the policy implications are often overlooked by governments. Second, the use of industry-specific terminology has slowed the discourse on nation branding in related fields which limits current research to the marketing domain and less so to public policy. Symbols do not constitute the brand - Contrary to what is suggested by scholarly articles on the issue, this research posits that symbols are not critical factors in the development of a nation brand. This research also puts forward that these audiovisual, textual and graphical representations of the brand are helpful for brand portability and reaffirming the brand vision among stakeholders and brand managers since the entire brand message and brand vision can be stripped down and concentrated into a series of images, emotional messages or other sensory elements. It shows however that while symbols and other visual elements complement the larger brand message and proposition, they are
- 67. mostly ornamental devices that represent national policies, economic and political decisions and common perceptions about a country but they do not constitute the brand and are not true determining factors in the success of branding initiatives. Public branding is about controlling the narrative - All countries already have a brand, though they may not be well-defined or distinct. The aim of public branding is therefore not simply to apply new (or redefined) labels to the nation context, but to control the narrative on the nation entirely. A nation brand is not sustainable w ithout a brand promise monopoly - While all countries can develop a great brand composition, having an imitable nonexclusive brand message is unsustainable. Countries should foster a brand promise monopoly. New terminology and concepts were produced by this research to describe the phenomena identified in the data. These include Brand Atom, Brand Core, Brand Promise Monopoly and Pure Public Brand. §6.3 Research Limitations For the most part, this research adhered to the methodology as presented during the proposal phase. Nevertheless, several research limitations and unforeseen complications were encountered, the most significant of which are identified below: Limited case-study documentation – A significant hindrance to the completion of the nation branding framework was the limited volume of information on actual nation branding programs. A discussion of practical examples (as in a detailed case study), would help in the identification of policies, strategies and practices most widely adopted in NB. Limited policy-related research – Virtually no previous research from a public policy perspective that was found in the literature; most were from a marketing perspective. Prior policy research into nation branding would provide a greater scope of information that could help in the development of the nation branding policy implementation framework. §6.4 Recommendations The following recommendations are based on the limitations and issues identified during the writing of this research: 6.4.1 Recommendations for Researchers: Scholars should avoid superfluous descriptors – Nation branding as a concept and practice is suffering at the hands of marketing and policy scholars who, due to the wide disparity in professional opinion about nation branding, limit the development of the field as a viable instrument in social, economic and political advancement. Since governments are the primary documentation of their branding activities and outcomes. The lack of proper documentation has been cited by this research as a major limitation in the development of the nation branding framework. A nation branding framework should precede any plans – Many countries embarked on nation branding policies without necessary research, national guidelines or policy frameworks. Countries ought first to adapt the principles of a nation branding framework before initiating a nation branding program.
- 68. 54 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy 6.4.2 Recommendations for Public Managers: Countries should keep better documentation – While the infantile nature of nation branding as a theoretical and practical consideration of countries could be cited as an excuse, countries ought to keep better documentation of their branding activities and outcomes. The lack of proper documentation has been cited by this research as a major limitation in the development of the nation branding framework. A nation branding framework should precede any plans – Many countries embarked on nation branding policies without necessary research, national guidelines or policy frameworks. Countries ought first to adapt the principles of a nation branding framework before initiating a nation branding program. §6.5 Future Research Considerations While the scope of this paper did not allow for research in related areas, several possible research topics arising from the inquiry include (stated as topic sentences): “Getting the Diaspora to buy-into nation branding programs” “Reconciling the nation branding with the regional identity” “Is a pure public brand the best brand” “Who pays? - The macroeconomic (individual) costs of nation branding”
- 69. Acknowledgements In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful My God, thank you for all you have done for me, the opportunities you have provided me and the people you have put in my life. Thank you for your guiding hand, especially when I know not that I am lost; and thank you for your mercies on me and my family. This thesis was made possible thanks to several individuals and entities: my mother, Jacqueline Wright, whose article entitled ―Brand Jamaica is being captured‖ (2005), sparked my initial interest in the idea of nation branding as a tool for national development; my advisor, Zhang Zhi of the Department of Public Administration who provided practical suggestions on the organization of this paper; lecturer in the Department of Economics and Marketing Zhou Ling for providing critical revisions to the content of this paper; the Governments of Jamaica and the People‘s Republic of China for awarding me a scholarship to pursue graduate studies in public policy; my lecturers at the China University of Geosciences who offered excellent courses which impacted the quality of my analysis and data interpretation in this research, my colleagues who I have learned so much from and surely I extend great appreciation to my fellow scholars around the world whose work in this area not only influenced the design and structure of this thesis but are also cited herein.
- 70. 56 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for theDegree Master of Public Policy 致谢 奉至仁至慈的上帝之名 我的上帝,感谢你为我所做的一切,你提供给我的机会和你放在我生命中 的人。谢谢您的指引，特别是当我不知道自己曾经迷惘;并感谢您对我和我的 家人的怜悯。 本研究之所以能够成文要感谢一些个人和实体：我的母亲，杰奎琳·赖 特，她的一篇题为“牙买加品牌的捕获”（2005），激发了我对民族品牌作为 国家发展工具的想法的最初兴趣; 我的导师，中国地质大学公共管理学院张志 老师对本文的组织提供了切实可行的建议; 经济学和市场营销学系的周玲老师 提供重要的修订本文件的内容；牙买加和中华人民共和国政府授予我奖学金以 攻读公共政策研究生学位; 我在中国地质大学的老师和同事提供的优良的课程 品质对本研究的分析及数据解释有着重大影响，也对影响了本文的设计和结构 以及引用世界各地在这一领域工作的学者的相关成果表示诚挚的感谢。
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