A Review On Sentiment Analysis And Emotion Detection From Text

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s13278-021-00776-6
REVIEW PAPER
A review on sentiment analysis and emotion detection from text
Pansy Nandwani1
· Rupali Verma1
Received: 6 April 2021 / Revised: 25 June 2021 / Accepted: 10 July 2021 / Published online: 28 August 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Austria, part of Springer Nature 2021
Abstract
Social networking platforms have become an essential means for communicating feelings to the entire world due to rapid
expansion in the Internet era. Several people use textual content, pictures, audio, and video to express their feelings or
viewpoints. Text communication via Web-based networking media, on the other hand, is somewhat overwhelming. Every
second, a massive amount of unstructured data is generated on the Internet due to social media platforms. The data must be
processed as rapidly as generated to comprehend human psychology, and it can be accomplished using sentiment analysis,
which recognizes polarity in texts. It assesses whether the author has a negative, positive, or neutral attitude toward an item,
administration, individual, or location. In some applications, sentiment analysis is insufficient and hence requires emotion
detection, which determines an individual’s emotional/mental state precisely. This review paper provides understanding into
levels of sentiment analysis, various emotion models, and the process of sentiment analysis and emotion detection from text.
Finally, this paper discusses the challenges faced during sentiment and emotion analysis.
Keywords Affective computing · Natural language processing · Opinion mining · Pre-processing · Word embedding
1 Introduction
Human language understanding and human language gen-
eration are the two aspects of natural language processing
(NLP). The former, however, is more difficult due to ambi-
guities in natural language. However, the former is more
challenging due to ambiguities present in natural language.
Speech recognition, document summarization, question
answering, speech synthesis, machine translation, and other
applications all employ NLP (Itani et al. 2017). The two
critical areas of natural language processing are sentiment
analysis and emotion recognition. Even though these two
names are sometimes used interchangeably, they differ in a
few respects. Sentiment analysis is a means of assessing if
data is positive, negative, or neutral.
In contrast, Emotion detection is a means of identifying
distinct human emotion types such as furious, cheerful, or
depressed. “Emotion detection,” “affective computing,”
“emotion analysis,” and “emotion identification” are all
phrases that are sometimes used interchangeably (Munezero
et al. 2014). People are using social media to communicate
their feelings since Internet services have improved. On
social media, people freely express their feelings, arguments,
opinions on wide range of topics. In addition, many users
give feedbacks and reviews various products and services
on various e-commerce sites. User's ratings and reviews on
multiple platforms encourage vendors and service provid-
ers to enhance their current systems, goods, or services.
Today almost every industry or company is undergoing
some digital transition, resulting in vast amounts of struc-
tured and unstructured increase data. The enormous task for
companies is to transform unstructured data into meaning-
ful insights that can help them in decision-making (Ahmad
et al. 2020)
For instance, in the business world, vendors use social
media platforms such as Instagram, YouTube, Twitter, and
Facebook to broadcast information about their product and
efficiently collect client feedback (Agbehadji and Ijabad-
eniyi 2021). People’s active feedback is valuable not only
for business marketers to measure customer satisfaction and
keep track of the competition but also for consumers who
want to learn more about a product or service before buying
* Pansy Nandwani
pansynandwani.phd19cse@pec.edu.in;
pansynandwani1992@gmail.com
* Rupali Verma
rupali@pec.edu.in
1
Computer Science and Engineering Department, Punjab
Engineering College, Chandigarh, India

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it. Sentiment analysis assists marketers in understanding
their customer's perspectives better so that they may make
necessary changes to their products or services (Jang et al.
2013; Al Ajrawi et al. 2021). In both advanced and emerging
nations, the impact of business and client sentiment on stock
market performance may be witnessed. In addition, the rise
of social media has made it easier and faster for investors to
interact in the stock market. As a result, investor's sentiments
impact their investment decisions which can swiftly spread
and magnify over the network, and the stock market can be
altered to some extent (Ahmed 2020). As a result, sentiment
and emotion analysis has changed the way we conduct busi-
ness (Bhardwaj et al. 2015).
In the healthcare sector, online social media like Twitter
have become essential sources of health-related informa-
tion provided by healthcare professionals and citizens. For
example, people have been sharing their thoughts, opin-
ions, and feelings on the Covid-19 pandemic (Garcia and
Berton 2021). Patients were directed to stay isolated from
their loved ones, which harmed their mental health. To save
patients from mental health issues like depression, health
practitioners must use automated sentiment and emotion
analysis (Singh et al. 2021). People commonly share their
feelings or beliefs on sites through their posts, and if some-
one seemed to be depressed, people could reach out to them
to help, thus averting deteriorated mental health conditions.
Sentiment and emotion analysis plays a critical role in
the education sector, both for teachers and students. The
efficacy of a teacher is decided not only by his academic cre-
dentials but also by his enthusiasm, talent, and dedication.
Taking timely feedback from students is the most effective
technique for a teacher to improve teaching approaches (San-
geetha and Prabha 2020). Open-ended textual feedback is
difficult to observe, and it is also challenging to derive con-
clusions manually. The findings of a sentiment analysis and
emotion analysis assist teachers and organizations in taking
corrective action. Since social site's inception, educational
institutes are increasingly relying on social media like Face-
book and Twitter for marketing and advertising purposes.
Students and guardians conduct considerable online research
and learn more about the potential institution, courses and
professors. They use blogs and other discussion forums to
interact with students who share similar interests and to
assess the quality of possible colleges and universities. Thus,
applying sentiment and emotion analysis can help the stu-
dent to select the best institute or teacher in his registration
process (Archana Rao and Baglodi 2017).
Sentiment and emotion analysis has a wide range of
applications and can be done using various methodologies.
There are three types of sentiment and emotion analysis
techniques: lexicon based, machine learning based, and deep
learning based. Each has its own set of benefits and draw-
backs. Despite different sentiment and emotion recognition
techniques, researchers face significant challenges, including
dealing with context, ridicule, statements conveying several
emotions, spreading Web slang, and lexical and syntactical
ambiguity. Furthermore, because there are no standard rules
for communicating feelings across multiple platforms, some
express them with incredible effect, some stifle their feel-
ings, and some structure their message logically. Therefore,
it is a great challenge for researchers to develop a technique
that can efficiently work in all domains.
In this review paper, Sect. 2, introduces sentiment analy-
sis and its various levels, emotion detection, and psycho-
logical models. Section 3 discusses multiple steps involved
in sentiment and emotion analysis, including datasets, pre-
processing of text, feature extraction techniques, and vari-
ous sentiment and emotion analysis approaches. Section 4
addresses multiple challenges faced by researchers during
sentiment and emotion analysis. Finally, Sect. 5 concludes
the work.
2 Background
2.1 Sentiment analysis
Many people worldwide are now using blogs, forums, and
social media sites such as Twitter and Facebook to share
their opinions with the rest of the globe. Social media has
become one of the most effective communication media
available. As a result, an ample amount of data is generated,
called big data, and sentiment analysis was introduced to
analyze this big data effectively and efficiently (Nagamanjula
and Pethalakshmi 2020). It has become exceptionally crucial
for industry or organization to comprehend the sentiments of
the user. Sentiment analysis, often known as opinion mining,
is a method for detecting whether an author’s or user’s view-
point on a subject is positive or negative. Sentiment analysis
is defined as the process of obtaining meaningful informa-
tion and semantics from text using natural processing tech-
niques and determining the writer’s attitude, which might be
positive, negative, or neutral (Onyenwe et al. 2020). Since
the purpose of sentiment analysis is to determine polarity
and categorize opinionated texts as positive or negative,
dataset’s class range involved in sentiment analysis is not
restricted to just positive or negative; it can be agreed or
disagreed, good or bad. It can also be quantified on a 5-point
scale: strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, or strongly
agree (Prabowo and Thelwall 2009). For instance, Ye et al.
(2009) applied sentiment analysis on reviews on European
and US destinations labeled on the scale of 1 to 5. They
associated 1-star or 2-star reviews with the negative polarity
and more than 2-star reviews with positive polarity. Gräbner
et al. (2012) built a domain-specific lexicon that consists
of tokens with their sentiment value. These tokens were

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gathered from customer reviews in the tourism domain to
classify sentiment into 5-star ratings from terrible to excel-
lent in the tourism domain. Moreover, Sentiment analysis
from the text can be performed at three levels discussed in
the following section. Salinca (2015) applied machine learn-
ing algorithms on the Yelp dataset, which contains reviews
on service providers scaled from 1 to 5. Sentiment analysis
can be categorized at three levels, mentioned in the follow-
ing section.
2.1.1 Levels of sentiment analysis
Sentiment analysis is possible at three levels: sentence level,
document level, and aspect level. At the sentence-level or
phrase-level sentiment analysis, documents or paragraphs
are broken down into sentences, and each sentence’s polar-
ity is identified (Meena and Prabhakar 2007; Arulmurugan
et al. 2019; Shirsat et al. 2019). At the document level, the
sentiment is detected from the entire document or record
(Pu et al. 2019). The necessity of document-level senti-
ment analysis is to extract global sentiment from long texts
that contain redundant local patterns and lots of noise. The
most challenging aspect of document-level sentiment clas-
sification is taking into account the link between words
and phrases and the full context of semantic information
to reflect document composition (Rao et al. 2018; Liu et al.
2020a). It necessitates a deeper understanding of the intri-
cate internal structure of sentiments and dependent words
(Liu et al. 2020b). At the aspect level, sentiment analysis,
opinion about a specific aspect or feature is determined. For
instance, the speed of the processor is high, but this prod-
uct is overpriced. Here, speed and cost are two aspects or
viewpoints. Speed is mentioned in the sentence hence called
explicit aspect, whereas cost is an implicit aspect. Aspect-
level sentiment analysis is a bit harder than the other two as
implicit features are hard to identify. Devi Sri Nandhini and
Pradeep (2020) proposed an algorithm to extract implicit
aspects from documents based on the frequency of co-occur-
rence of aspect with feature indicator and by exploiting the
relation between opinionated words and explicit aspects.
Ma et al. (2019) took care of the two issues concerning
aspect-level analysis: various aspects in a single sentence
having different polarities and explicit position of context
in an opinionated sentence. The authors built up a two-stage
model based on LSTM with an attention mechanism to solve
these issues. They proposed this model based on the assump-
tion that context words near to aspect are more relevant and
need greater attention than farther context words. At stage
one, the model exploits multiple aspects in a sentence one
by one with a position attention mechanism. Then, at the
second state, it identifies (aspect, sentence) pairs according
to the position of aspect and context around it and calculates
the polarity of each team simultaneously.
As stated earlier, sentiment analysis and emotion analy-
sis are often used interchangeably by researchers. However,
they differ in a few ways. In sentiment analysis, polarity
is the primary concern, whereas, in emotion detection, the
emotional or psychological state or mood is detected. Sen-
timent analysis is exceptionally subjective, whereas emo-
tion detection is more objective and precise. Section 2.2
describes all about emotion detection in detail.
2.2 Emotion detection
Emotions are an inseparable component of human life.
These emotions influence human decision-making and
help us communicate to the world in a better way. Emo-
tion detection, also known as emotion recognition, is the
process of identifying a person’s various feelings or emo-
tions (for example, joy, sadness, or fury). Researchers have
been working hard to automate emotion recognition for the
past few years. However, some physical activities such as
heart rate, shivering of hands, sweating, and voice pitch also
convey a person’s emotional state (Kratzwald et al. 2018),
but emotion detection from text is quite hard. In addition,
various ambiguities and new slang or terminologies being
introduced with each passing day make emotion detection
from text more challenging. Furthermore, emotion detection
is not just restricted to identifying the primary psychological
conditions (happy, sad, anger); instead, it tends to reach up
to 6-scale or 8-scale depending on the emotion model.
2.2.1 Emotion models/emotion theories
In English, the word 'emotion' came into existence in the
seventeenth century, derived from the French word 'emo-
tion, meaning a physical disturbance. Before the nineteenth
century, passion, appetite, and affections were categorized
as mental states. In the nineteenth century, the word 'emo-
tion' was considered a psychological term (Dixon 2012). In
psychology, complex states of feeling lead to a change in
thoughts, actions, behavior, and personality referred to as
emotions. Broadly, psychological or emotion models are
classified into two categories: dimensional and categorical.
Dimensional Emotion model This model represents emo-
tions based on three parameters: valence, arousal, and power
(Bakker et al. 2014. Valence means polarity, and arousal
means how exciting a feeling is. For example, delighted
is more exciting than happy. Power or dominance signi-
fies restriction over emotion. These parameters decide the
position of psychological states in 2-dimensional space, as
illustrated in Fig. 1.
Categorical Emotion model
In the categorical model, emotions are defined discretely,
such as anger, happiness, sadness, and fear. Depending upon

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the particular categorical model, emotions are categorized
into four, six, or eight categories.
Table 1 demonstrates numerous emotion models that
are dimensional and categorical. In the realm of emotion
detection, most researchers adopted Ekman and Plutchik’s
emotion model. The emotional states defined by the models
make up the set of labels used to annotate the sentences or
documents. Batbaatar et al. (2019), Becker et al. (2017),
Jain et al. (2017) adopted Ekman’s six basic emotions. Sai-
lunaz and Alhajj (2019) used Ekman models for annotating
tweets. Some researchers used customized emotion models
by extending the model with one or two additional states.
Roberts et al. (2012) used the Ekman model to annotate the
tweets with the 'love' state. Ahmad et al. (2020) adopted the
wheel of emotion modeled by Plutchik for labeling Hindi
sentences with nine different Plutchik model states, decreas-
ing semantic confusion, among other words. Plutchik and
Ekman’s model's states are also utilized in various hand-
crafted lexicons like WordNet-Affect (Strapparava et al.
2004) and NRC (Mohammad and Turney 2013) word–emo-
tion lexicons. Laubert and Parlamis (2019) referred to the
Shaver model because of its three-level hierarchy structure
of emotions. Valence or polarity is presented at the first
level, followed by the second level consisting of five emo-
tions, and the third level shows discrete 24 emotion states.
Some researchers did not refer to any model and classified
the dataset into three basic feelings: happy, sad, or angry.
Figure 2 depicts the numerous emotional states that can
be found in various models. These states are plotted on a
four-axis by taking the Plutchik model as a base model. The
most commonly used emotion states in different models
include anger, fear, joy, surprise, and disgust, as depicted in
the figure above. It can be seen from the figure that emotions
on two sides of the axis will not always be opposite of each
other. For example, sadness and joy are opposites, but anger
is not the opposite of fear.
3 Process of sentiment analysis
and emotion detection
Process of sentiment analysis and emotion detection comes
across various stages like collecting dataset, pre-processing,
feature extraction, model development, and evaluation, as
shown in Fig. 3.
3.1 Datasets for sentiment analysis and emotion
detection
Table 2 lists numerous sentiment and emotion analysis
datasets that researchers have used to assess the effec-
tiveness of their models. The most common datasets are
SemEval, Stanford sentiment treebank (SST), international
survey of emotional antecedents and reactions (ISEAR)
in the field of sentiment and emotion analysis. SemE-
val and SST datasets have various variants which differ
in terms of domain, size, etc. ISEAR was collected from
multiple respondents who felt one of the seven emotions
(mentioned in the table) in some situations. The table
shows that datasets include mainly the tweets, reviews,
Fig. 1 Dimensional model of
emotions

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Table 1 Emotion models defined by various psychologists
Emotion model Type of model No. of states Psychological states Representations Discussion
Ekman model (Ekman 1992) Categorical 6 Anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise – Ekman’s model consisted of six emotions,
which act as a base for other emotion models
like Plutchik model
Plutchik Wheel of Emotions (Plutchik 1982) Dimensional – Joy, pensiveness, ecstasy, acceptance, sadness,
fear, interest, rage, admiration, amazement,
anger, vigilance boredom, annoyance, sub-
mission, serenity, apprehension, contempt,
surprise, disapproval, distraction, grief,
loathing, love, optimism, aggressiveness,
remorse, anticipation, awe, terror, trust,
disgust
Wheel Plutchik considered two types of emotions:
basic (Ekman model + Trust +Anticipation)
and mixed emotions (made from the combina-
tion of basic emotions). Plutchik represented
emotions on a colored wheel
Izard model (Izard 1992) – 10 Anger, contempt, disgust, anxiety, fear, guilt,
interest, joy, shame, surprise
– –
Shaver model (Shaver et al. 1987) Categorical 6 Sadness, joy, anger, fear, love, surprise Tree Shaver represented the primary, secondary
and tertiary emotions in a hierarchal manner.
The top-level of the tree presents these six
emotions
Russell’s circumplex model (Russell 1980) Dimensional – Sad, satisfied, Afraid, alarmed, frustrated,
angry, happy, gloomy, annoyed, tired,
relaxed, glad, aroused, astonished, at ease,
tense, miserable, content, bored, calm,
delighted, excited, depressed, distressed,
serene, droopy, pleased, sleepy
– Emotions are presented over the circumplex
model
Tomkins model (Tomkins and McCarter
1964)
Categorical 9 Disgust, surprise-Startle, anger-rage, anxiety,
fear-terror, contempt, joy, shame, interest-
Excitement
– Tomkins identified nine different emotions out
of which six emotions are negative. Most of
the emotions are defined as a pair
Lövheim Model (Lövheim 2012) Dimensional – Anger, contempt, distress, enjoyment, terror,
excitement, humiliation, startle
Cube Lövheim arranged the emotions according to
the amount of three substances (Noradrena-
line, dopamine and Serotonin) on a 3-D cube

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feedbacks, stories, etc. A dimensional model named
valence, arousal dominance model (VAD) is used in the
EmoBank dataset collected from news, blogs, letters, etc.
Many studies have acquired data from social media sites
such as Twitter, YouTube, and Facebook and had it labeled
by language and psychology experts in the literature. Data
crawled from various social media platform's posts, blogs,
e-commerce sites are usually unstructured and thus need
to be processed to make it structured to reduce some addi-
tional computations outlined in the following section.
3.2 Pre‑processing of text
On social media, people usually communicate their feel-
ings and emotions in effortless ways. As a result, the data
obtained from these social media platform's posts, audits,
comments, remarks, and criticisms are highly unstruc-
tured, making sentiment and emotion analysis difficult
for machines. As a result, pre-processing is a critical
stage in data cleaning since the data quality significantly
impacts many approaches that follow pre-processing.
Fig. 2 Illustration of various emotional models with some psychological states
Fig. 3 Basic steps to perform
sentiment analysis and emotion
detection

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Table 2 Datasets for sentiment analysis and emotion detection
Dataset Data size Sentiment/emotion analysis Sentiments/emotions Range Domain
Stanford Sentiment Treebank
(Chen et al. 2017)
118,55 reviews in SST-1 Sentiment analysis Very positive, positive, negative,
very negative and neutral.
5 Movie reviews
9613 reviews in SST-2 Sentiment analysis Positive and negative 2 Movie reviews
SemEval Tasks (Ma et al. 2019;
Ahmad et al. 2020)
SemEval- 2014 (Task 4): 5936
reviews for training and 1758
reviews for testing
Sentiment analysis Positive, negative and neutral 3 Laptop and Restaurant reviews
SemEval-2018 (Affects in dataset
Task): 7102 tweets in Emotion
and Intensity for ordinal clas-
sification (EI-oc)
Emotion analysis Anger, Joy, sad and fear 4 Tweets
Thai fairy tales (Pasupa and Ayut-
thaya 2019)
1964 sentences Sentiment analysis Positive, negative and neutral 3 Children tales
SS-Tweet (Symeonidis et al.
2018)
4242 Sentiment Analysis Positive strength and Negative
strength
1 to 5 for positive
and −1to −5 for
negative
Tweets
EmoBank (Buechel and Hahn
2017)
10,548 Emotion analysis Valence, Arousal Dominance
model (VAD)
– News, blogs, fictions, letters etc.
International Survey of Emotional
Antecedents and Reactions
(ISEAR) (Seal et al. 2020)
Around 7500 sentences Emotion analysis Guilt, Joy, Shame, Fear, sadness,
disgust
7 Incident reports.
Alm gold standard data set
(Agrawal and An 2012)
1207 sentences Emotion analysis happy, fearful, sad, surprised and
angry-disgust(combined)
5 Fairy tales
EmoTex (Hasan et al. 2014) 134,100 sentences Emotion analysis Circumplex model – Twitter
Text Affect (Chaffar and Inkpen
2011)
1250 sentences Emotion analysis Ekman 6 Google news
Neviarouskaya Dataset
(Alswaidan and Menai 2020)
Dataset 1: 1000 sentences and
Dataset 2: 700 sentences
Emotion analysis Izard 10 Stories and blogs
Aman’s dataset (Hosseini 2017) 1890 sentences Emotion analysis Ekman with neutral class 7 Blogs

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The organization of a dataset necessitates pre-processing,
including tokenization, stop word removal, POS tagging,
etc. (Abdi et al. 2019; Bhaskar et al. 2015). Some of these
pre-processing techniques can result in the loss of crucial
information for sentiment and emotion analysis, which must
be addressed.
Tokenization is the process of breaking down either
the whole document or paragraph or just one sentence
into chunks of words called tokens (Nagarajan and Gan-
dhi 2019). For instance, consider the sentence “this place
is so beautiful” and post-tokenization, it will become 'this,'
"place," is, "so," beautiful.’ It is essential to normalize the
text for achieving uniformity in data by converting the text
into standard form, correcting the spelling of words, etc.
(Ahuja et al. 2019).
Unnecessary words like articles and some prepositions
that do not contribute toward emotion recognition and sen-
timent analysis must be removed. For instance, stop words
like "is," "at," "an," "the" have nothing to do with senti-
ments, so these need to be removed to avoid unnecessary
computations (Bhaskar et al. 2015; Abdi et al. 2019). POS
tagging is the way to identify different parts of speech in a
sentence. This step is beneficial in finding various aspects
from a sentence that are generally described by nouns or
noun phrases while sentiments and emotions are conveyed
by adjectives (Sun et al. 2017).
Stemming and lemmatization are two crucial steps of pre-
processing. In stemming, words are converted to their root
form by truncating suffixes. For example, the terms "argued"
and "argue" become "argue." This process reduces the
unwanted computation of sentences (Kratzwald et al. 2018;
Akilandeswari and Jothi 2018). Lemmatization involves
morphological analysis to remove inflectional endings from
a token to turn it into the base word lemma (Ghanbari-Adivi
and Mosleh 2019). For instance, the term "caught" is con-
verted into "catch" (Ahuja et al. 2019). Symeonidis et al.
(2018) examined the performance of four machine learning
models with a combination and ablation study of various
pre-processing techniques on two datasets, namely SS-Tweet
and SemEval. The authors concluded that removing numbers
and lemmatization enhanced accuracy, whereas removing
punctuation did not affect accuracy.
3.3 Feature extraction
The machine understands text in terms of numbers. The
process of converting or mapping the text or words to real-
valued vectors is called word vectorization or word embed-
ding. It is a feature extraction technique wherein a document
is broken down into sentences that are further broken into
words; after that, the feature map or matrix is built. In the
resulting matrix, each row represents a sentence or docu-
ment while each feature column represents a word in the
dictionary, and the values present in the cells of the feature
map generally signify the count of the word in the sentence
or document. To carry out feature extraction, one of the most
straightforward methods used is 'Bag of Words' (BOW), in
which a fixed-length vector of the count is defined where
each entry corresponds to a word in a pre-defined dictionary
of words. The word in a sentence is assigned a count of 0
if it is not present in the pre-defined dictionary, otherwise a
count of greater than or equal to 1 depending on how many
times it appears in the sentence. That is why the length of
the vector is always equal to the words present in the diction-
ary. The advantage of this technique is its easy implemen-
tation but has significant drawbacks as it leads to a sparse
matrix, loses the order of words in the sentence, and does not
capture the meaning of a sentence (Bandhakavi et al. 2017;
Abdi et al. 2019). For example, to represent the text “are you
enjoying reading” from the pre-defined dictionary I, Hope,
you, are, enjoying, reading would be (0,0,1,1,1,1). However,
these representations can be improved by pre-processing of
text and by utilizing n-gram, TF-IDF.
The N-gram method is an excellent option to resolve
the order of words in sentence vector representation. In an
n-gram vector representation, the text is represented as a
collaboration of unique n-gram means groups of n adjacent
terms or words. The value of n can be any natural number.
For example, consider the sentence “to teach is to touch a
life forever” and n = 3 called trigram will generate 'to teach
is,' 'teach is to,' 'is to touch,' 'to touch a,' 'touch a life,' 'a life
forever.' In this way, the order of the sentence can be main-
tained (Ahuja et al. 2019). N-grams features perform better
than the BOW approach as they cover syntactic patterns,
including critical information (Chaffar and Inkpen 2011).
However, though n-gram maintains the order of words, it
has high dimensionality and data sparsity (Le and Mikolov
2014).
Term frequency-inverse document frequency, usu-
ally abbreviated as TFIDF, is another method commonly
used for feature extraction. This method represents text
in matrix form, where each number quantifies how much
information these terms carry in a given document. It is
built on the premise that rare terms have much information
in the text document (Liu et al. 2019). Term frequency
is the number of times a word w appears in a document
divided by the total number of words W in the document,
and IDF is log (total number of documents (N) divided by
the total number of documents in which word w appears
(n)) (Songbo and Jin 2008). Ahuja et al. (2019) imple-
mented six pre-processing techniques and compared two
feature extraction techniques to identify the best approach.
They applied six machine learning algorithms and used
n-grams with n = 2 and TF-IDF for feature extraction over
the SS-tweet dataset and concluded TF-IDF gives better
performance over n-gram.

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The availability of vast volumes of data allows a deep
learning network to discover good vector representations.
Feature extraction with word embedding based on neural
networks is more informative. In neural network-based
word embedding, the words with the same semantics or
those related to each other are represented by similar vec-
tors. This is more popular in word prediction as it retains
the semantics of words. Google’s research team, headed by
Tomas Mikolov, developed a model named Word2Vec for
word embedding. With Word2Vec, it is possible to under-
stand for a machine that “queen” + “female” + “male”
vector representation would be the same as a vector rep-
resentation of “king” (Souma et al. 2019).
Other examples of deep learning-based word embed-
ding models include GloVe, developed by researchers at
Stanford University, and FastText, introduced by Face-
book. GloVe vectors are faster to train than Word2vec.
FastText vectors have better accuracy as compared to
Word2Vec vectors by several varying measures. Yang
et al. (2018) proved that the choice of appropriate word
embedding based on neural networks could lead to signifi-
cant improvements even in the case of out of vocabulary
(OOV) words. Authors compared various word embed-
dings, trained using Twitter and Wikipedia as corpora with
TF-IDF word embedding.
3.4 Techniques for sentiment analysis and emotion
detection
Figure 4 presents various techniques for sentiment analysis
and emotion detection which are broadly classified into a
lexicon-based approach, machine learning-based approach,
deep learning-based approach. The hybrid approach is a
combination of statistical and machine learning approaches
to overcome the drawbacks of both approaches. Transfer
learning is also a subset of machine learning which allows
the use of the pre-trained model in other similar domain.
3.4.1 Sentiment analysis techniques
Lexicon-based approach This method maintains a word dic-
tionary in which each positive and negative word is assigned
a sentiment value. Then, the sum or mean of sentiment val-
ues is used to calculate the sentiment of the entire sentence
or document. However, Jurek et al. (2015) tried a different
approach called the normalization function to calculate the
sentiment value more accurately than this basic summation
and mean function. Dictionary-based approach and corpus-
based approach are two types of lexicon-based approaches
based on sentiment lexicon. In general, a dictionary main-
tains words of some language systemically, whereas a corpus
is a random sample of text in some language. The exact
meaning applies here in the dictionary-based approach and
corpus-based approach. In the dictionary-based approach,
Fig. 4 Techniques for sentiment analysis and emotion detection

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81 Page 10 of 19
a dictionary of seed words is maintained (Schouten and
Frasincar 2015). To create this dictionary, the first small set
of sentiment words, possibly with very short contexts like
negations, is collected along with its polarity labels (Bern-
abé-Moreno et al. 2020). The dictionary is then updated by
looking for their synonymous (words with the same polar-
ity) and antonymous (words with opposite polarity). The
accuracy of sentiment analysis via this approach will depend
on the algorithm. However, this technique does not contain
domain specificity. The Corpus-based approach solves the
limitations of the dictionary-based approach by including
domain-specific sentiment words where the polarity label is
assigned to the sentiment word according to its context or
domain. It is a data-driven approach where sentiment words
along with context can be accessed. This approach can cer-
tainly be a rule-based approach with some NLP parsing
techniques. Thus corpus-based approach tends to have poor
generalization but can attain excellent performance within a
particular domain. Since the dictionary-based approach does
not consider the context around the sentiment word, it leads
to less efficiency. Thus, Cho et al. (2014) explicitly handled
the contextual polarity to make dictionaries adaptable in
multiple domains with a data-driven approach. They took
a three-step strategy: merge various dictionaries, remove
the words that do not contribute toward classification, and
switch the polarity according to a particular domain.
SentiWordNet (Esuli and Sebastiani 2006) and Valence
Aware Dictionary and Sentiment Reasoner (VADER) (Hutto
and Gilbert 2014) are popular lexicons in sentiment. Jha
et al. (2018) tried to extend the lexicon application in multi-
ple domains by creating a sentiment dictionary named Hindi
Multi-Domain Sentiment Aware Dictionary (HMDSAD)
for document-level sentiment analysis. This dictionary can
be used to annotate the reviews into positive and negative.
The proposed method labeled 24% more words than the
traditional general lexicon Hindi Sentiwordnet (HSWN),
a domain-specific lexicon. The semantic relationships
between words in traditional lexicons have not been exam-
ined, improving sentiment classification performance. Based
on this premise, Viegas et al. (2020) updated the lexicon by
including additional terms after utilizing word embeddings
to discover sentiment values for these words automatically.
These sentiment values were derived from “nearby” word
embeddings of already existing words in the lexicon.
Machine Learning-based approach There is another
approach for sentiment analysis called the machine learn-
ing approach. The entire dataset is divided into two parts
for training and testing purposes: a training dataset and a
testing dataset. The training dataset is the information used
to train the model by supplying the characteristics of differ-
ent instances of an item. The testing dataset is then used to
see how successfully the model from the training dataset has
been trained. Generally, the machine learning algorithms
used for sentiment analysis fall under supervised classifica-
tion. Different kinds of algorithms required for sentiment
classification may include Naïve Bayes, support vector
machine (SVM), decision trees, etc. each having its pros
and cons. Gamon (2004) applied a support vector machine
over 40,884 customer feedbacks collected from surveys. The
authors implemented various feature set combinations and
achieved accuracy up to 85.47%. Ye et al. (2009) worked
with SVM, N-gram model, and Naïve Bayes on sentiment
and review on seven popular destinations of Europe and the
USA, which was collected from yahoo.com. The authors
achieved an accuracy of up to 87.17% with the n-gram
model. indent Bučar et al. (2018) created the lexicon called
JOB 1.0 and labeled news corpora called SentiNews 1.0
for sentiment analysis in Slovene texts. JOB 1.0 consists
of 25,524 headwords extended with sentiment scaling from
– 5 to 5 based on the AFINN model. For the construction of
corpora, data were scraped from various news Web media.
Then, after cleaning and pre-processing of data, the annota-
tors were asked to annotate 10,427 documents on the 1–5
scale where one means negative and 5 means very positive.
Then these documents were labeled with positive, negative,
and neutral labels as per the specific average scale rating.
The authors observed that Naïve Bayes performed better
as compared to the support vector machine (SVM). Naive
Bayes achieved an F1 score above 90% in binary classifica-
tion and an F1 score above 60% for the three-class classifica-
tion of sentiments. Tiwari et al. (2020) implemented three
machine learning algorithms called SVM, Naive Bayes,
and maximum entropy with the n-gram feature extraction
method on the rotten tomato dataset. The training and test-
ing dataset constituted 1600 reviews in each. The authors
observed a decrease in accuracy with higher values of n in
n-grams such as n = four, five, and six. Soumya and Pramod
(2020) classified 3184 Malayalam tweets into positive and
negative opinions using different feature vectors like BOW,
Unigram with Sentiwordnet, etc. The authors implemented
machine learning algorithms like random forest and Naïve
Bayes and observed that the random forest with an accuracy
of 95.6% performs better with Unigram Sentiwordnet con-
sidering negation words.
Deep Learning-based Approach In recent years, deep
learning algorithms are dominating other traditional
approaches for sentiment analysis. These algorithms detect
the sentiments or opinions from text without doing feature
engineering. There are multiple deep learning algorithms,
namely recurrent neural network and convolutional neu-
ral networks, that can be applied to sentiment analysis and
gives results that are more accurate than those provided by
machine learning models. This approach makes humans free
from constructing the features from text manually as deep
learning models extract those features or patterns them-
selves. Jian et al. (2010) used a model based upon neural

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networks technology for categorizing sentiments which
consisted of sentimental features, feature weight vectors,
and prior knowledge base. The authors applied the model
to review the data of Cornell movie. The experimental
results of this paper revealed that the accuracy level of the
I-model is extraordinary compared to HMM and SVM.
Pasupa and Ayutthaya (2019) executed five-fold cross-val-
idation on the children’s tale (Thai) dataset and compared
three deep learning models called CNN, LSTM, and Bi-
LSTM. These models are applied with or without features:
POS-tagging (pre-processing technique to identify different
parts of speech); Thai2Vec (word embedding trained from
Thai Wikipedia); sentic (to understand the sentiment of the
word). The authors observed the best performance in the
CNN model with all the three features mentioned earlier.
As stated earlier, social media platforms act as a signifi-
cant source of data in the field of sentiment analysis. Data
collected from this social sites consist lot of noise due to
its free writing syle of users. Therefore, Arora and Kansal
(2019) proposed a model named Conv-char-Emb that can
handle the problem of noisy data and use small memory
space for embedding. For embedding, convolution neural
network (CNN) has been used that uses less parameters in
feature representation. Dashtipour et al. (2020) proposed a
deep learning framework to carry out sentiment analysis in
the Persian language. The researchers concluded that deep
neural networks such as LSTM and CNN outperformed the
existing machine learning algorithms on the hotel and prod-
uct review dataset.
Transfer Learning Approach and Hybrid Approach
Transfer learning is also a part of machine learning. A
model trained on large datasets to resolve one problem can
be applied to other related issues. Re-using a pre-trained
model on related domains as a starting point can save time
and produce more efficient results. Zhang et al. (2012) pro-
posed a novel instance learning method by directly mod-
eling the distribution between different domains. Authors
classified the dataset: Amazon product reviews and Twitter
dataset into positive and negative sentiments. Tao and Fang
(2020) proposed extending recent classification methods in
aspect-based sentiment analysis to multi-label classification.
The authors also developed transfer learning models called
XLNet and Bert and evaluated the proposed approach on
different datasets Yelp, wine reviews rotten tomato dataset
from other domains. Deep learning and machine learning
approaches yield good results, but the hybrid approach can
give better results since it overcomes the limitations of each
traditional model. Mladenović et al. (2016) proposed a fea-
ture reduction technique, a hybrid framework made of sen-
timent lexicon and Serbian wordnet. The authors expanded
both lexicons by addition some morphological sentiment
words to avoid loss of critical information while stemming.
Al Amrani et al. (2018) compared their hybrid model made
of SVM and random forest model, i.e., RFSVM, on ama-
zon’s product reviews. The authors concluded RFSVM,
with an accuracy level of 83.4%, performs better than SVM
with 82.4% accuracy and random forest with 81% accuracy
individually over the dataset of 1000 reviews. Alqaryouti
et al. (2020) proposed the hybrid of the rule-based approach
and domain lexicons for aspect-level sentiment detection to
understand people’s opinions regarding government smart
applications. The authors concluded that the proposed tech-
nique outperforms other lexicon-based baseline models by
5%. Ray and Chakrabarti (2020) combined the rule-based
approach to extract aspects with a 7-layer deep learning
CNN model to tag each aspect. The hybrid model achieved
87% accuracy, whereas the individual models had 75%
accuracy with rule-based and 80% accuracy with the CNN
model.
Table 3 describes various machine learning and deep
learning algorithms used for analyzing sentiments in multi-
ple domains. Many researchers implemented the proposed
models on their dataset collected from Twitter and other
social networking sites. The authors then compared their
proposed models with other existing baseline models and
different datasets. It is observed from the table above that
accuracy by various models ranges from 80 to 90%.
3.4.2 Emotion detection techniques
Lexicon-based Approach Lexicon-based approach is a key-
word-based search approach that searches for emotion key-
words assigned to some psychological states (Rabeya et al.
2017). The popular lexicons for emotion detection are Word-
Net-Affect (Strapparava et al. 2004 and NRC word–emotion
lexicon (Mohammad and Turney 2013). WordNet-Affect is
an extended form of WordNet which consists of affective
words annotated with emotion labels. NRC lexicon consists
of 14,182 words, each assigned to one particular emotion
and two sentiments. These lexicons are categorical lexicons
that tag each word with an emotional state for emotion clas-
sification. However, by ignoring the intensity of emotions,
these traditional lexicons become less informative and less
adaptable. Thus, Li et al. (2021) suggested an effective
strategy to obtain word-level emotion distribution to assign
emotions with intensities to the sentiment words by merg-
ing a dimensional dictionary named NRC-Valence arousal
dominance. EmoSenticNet (Poria et al. 2014) also consists
of a large number assigned to both qualitative and quantita-
tive labels. Generally, researchers generate their lexicons and
directly apply them for emotion analysis, but lexicons can
also be used for feature extraction purposes. Abdaoui et al.
(2017) took the benefit of using online translation tools to
create a French lexicon called FEEL (French expanded emo-
tion lexicon) consisting of more than 14,000 words with both
polarity and emotion labels. This lexicon was created by

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Table 3 Work on sentiment analysis
Reference Level Technique Feature extraction Learning algorithm Domain Dataset Results
Songbo and Jin (2008) Sentence Machine learning – Centroid classifier,
K-nearest Classifier,
Winnow Classifier,
Naïve Bayes, SVM
House, movie and
education
Chn- sentiCorp Micro F1 = 90.60% with
SVM and IG and macro
F1 = 90.43%.
Moraes (2013) Aspect level Machine learning and
deep learning
Bag of words Artificial neural net-
work (ANN), Naïve
Bayes, SVM
Movies, Books, GPS,
Cameras
– Accuracy = 86.5% on
movie dataset, 87.3% on
GPS dataset, 81.8% on
book dataset 90.6% on
camera dataset with ANN.
Tang et al. (2015) Document-level Deep learning Word embeddings
to dense docu-
ment vector
UPNN (user product
neutral network)
based on CNN
Movies Dataset collected
from yelp dataset
and IMDB
Accuracy = 58.5% with
UPNN (no UP) and 60.8%
with UPNN on Yelp 2014.
Dahou et al. (2016) – Deep learning Word embed-
ding built from
Arabic corpus
Convolutional neural
network (CNN)
Book, movie, restaurant
etc.
LABR book reviews,
Arabic sentiment
tweet dataset, etc
Accuracy= 91.7% on and
Accuracy = 89.6% unbal-
anced HTL and LABR
dataset, respectively.
Ahuja et al. (2019) Sentence Machine learning TF-IDF, n-gram KNN, SVM, logistic
regression, NB, ran-
dom forest
– SS-tweets Accuracy = 57% with TF-
IDF and logistic regres-
sion and accuracy = 51%
with n-gram and random
forest.
Untawale and Choud-
hari (2019)
– Machine learning – Naïve Bayes and ran-
dom forest
movie reviews Rotten tomatoes,
reviews from
Times of India, etc
Naïve Bayes required more
time and memory than
random forest.
Shamantha et al. (2019) - Machine learning – Naïve bayes, SVM and
random forest
Twitter Twitter Accuracy = above 80% with
Naïve Bayes (3features)
on 200 tweets.
Goularas and Kamis
(2019)
– Machine learning – Random forest and
SVM
– – Accuracy = 95% with
random forest.
Nandal et al. (2020) Aspect level Machine learning – SVM with different
kernels: linear, radial
basis function (RBF),
and polynomial
– Amazon reviews Mean square error = 0.04
with radial basis func-
tion and 0.11 with linear
kernel.
Sharma and Sharma
(2020)
– Machine learning and
deep learning
– Deep artificial neural
network and SVM
Twitter Twitter Positive emotion rate =
87.5 with the proposed
algorithm.
Mukherjee et al. (2021) Sentence level Machine learning and
Deep Learning with
negation prediction
process
TF IDF Naïve Bayes, support
vector machines, arti-
ficial neural network
(ANN), and recurrent
neural network (RNN)
Cellphone reviews Amazon reviews Accuracy = 95.30%
with RNN + Nega-
tion and 95.67% with
ANN+negation.

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increasing the number of words in the NRC emotion lexicon
and semi-automatic translation using six online translators.
Those entries obtained from at least three translators were
considered pre-validated and then validated by the manual
translator. Bandhakavi et al. (2017) applied a domain-spe-
cific lexicon for the process of feature extraction in emotion
analysis. The authors concluded that features derived from
their proposed lexicon outperformed the other baseline fea-
tures. Braun et al. (2021) constructed a multilingual corpus
called MEmoFC, which stands for Multilingual Emotional
Football Corpus, consisting of football reports from English,
Dutch and German Web sites and match statistics crawled
from Goal.com. The corpus was created by creating two
metadata tables: one explaining details of a match like a
date, place, participation teams, etc., and the second table
consisted of abbreviations of football clubs. Authors dem-
onstrated the corpus with various approaches to know the
influence of the reports on game outcomes.
Machine Learning-based Techniques Emotion detec-
tion or classification may require different types of machine
learning models such as Naïve Bayes, support vector
machine, decision trees, etc. Jain et al. (2017) extracted the
emotions from multilingual texts collected from three dif-
ferent domains. The authors used a novel approach called
rich site summary for data collection and applied SVM and
Naïve Bayes machine learning algorithms for emotion clas-
sification of twitter text. Results revealed that an accuracy
level of 71.4% was achieved with the Naïve Bayes algo-
rithm. Hasan et al. (2019) evaluated the machine learning
algorithms like Naïve Bayes, SVM, and decision trees to
identify emotions in text messages. The task is divided into
two subtasks: Task 1 includes a collection of the dataset
from Twitter and automatic labeling of the dataset using
hashtags and model training. Task 2 is developing a two-
stage EmotexStream that separates emotionless tweets at the
first stage and identifies emotions in the text by utilizing the
models trained in the task1. The authors observed accuracy
of 90% in classifying emotions. Asghar et al. (2019) aimed
to apply multiple machine learning models on the ISEAR
dataset to find the best classifier. They found that the logistic
regression model performed better than other classifiers with
a recall value of 83%.
Deep Learning and Hybrid Technique Deep learning
area is part of machine learning that processes informa-
tion or signals in the same way as the human brain does.
Deep learning models contain multiple layers of neurons.
Thousands of neurons are interconnected to each other,
which speeds up the processing in a parallel fashion. Chat-
terjee et al. (2019) developed a model called sentiment and
semantic emotion detection (SSBED) by feeding sentiment
and semantic representations to two LSTM layers, respec-
tively. These representations are then concatenated and
then passed to a mesh network for classification. The novel
approach is based on the probability of multiple emotions
present in the sentence and utilized both semantic and
sentiment representation for better emotion classification.
Results are evaluated over their own constructed dataset
with tweet conversation pairs, and their model is compared
with other baseline models. Xu et al. (2020) extracted fea-
tures emotions using two-hybrid models named 3D con-
volutional-long short-term memory (3DCLS) and CNN-
RNN from video and text, respectively. At the same time,
the authors implemented SVM for audio-based emotion
classification. Authors concluded results by fusing audio
and video features at feature level with MKL fusion tech-
nique and further combining its results with text-based
emotion classification results. It provides better accuracy
than every other multimodal fusion technique, intending to
analyze the sentiments of drug reviews written by patients
on social media platforms. Basiri et al. (2020) proposed
two models using a three-way decision theory. The first
model is a 3-way fusion of one deep learning model with
the traditional learning method (3W1DT), while the other
model is a 3-way fusion of three deep learning models with
the conventional learning method (3W3DT). The results
derived using the Drugs.com dataset revealed that both
frameworks performed better than traditional deep learn-
ing techniques. Furthermore, the performance of the first
fusion model was noted to be much better as compared to
the second model in regards to accuracy and F1-metric.
In recent days, social media platforms are flooded with
posts related to covid-19. Singh et al. (2021) applied
emotion detection analysis on covid-19 tweets collected
from the whole world and India only with Bidirectional
Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT)
model on the Twitter data sets and achieved accuracy 94%
approximately.
Transfer Learning Approach In traditional approaches,
the common presumption is that the dataset is from the same
domain; however, there is a need for a new model when
the domain changes. The transfer learning approach allows
you to reuse the existing pre-trained models in the target
domain. For example, Ahmad et al. (2020) used a transfer
learning technique due to the lack of resources for emotion
detection in the Hindi language. The researchers pre-trained
a model on two different English datasets: SemEval-2018,
sentiment analysis, and one Hindi dataset with positive, neu-
tral, conflict, and negative labels. They achieved a score of
0.53 f1 using the transfer learning and 0.47 using only base
models CNN and Bi-LSTM with cross-lingual word embed-
ding. Hazarika et al. (2020) created a TL-ERC model where
the model was pre-trained over source multi-turn conversa-
tions and then transferred over emotion classification task on
exchanged messages. The authors emphasized the issues like
lack of labeled data in multi-conversations with the frame-
work based on inductive transfer learning.

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Table 4 shows that most researchers implemented mod-
els by combining machine learning and deep learning tech-
niques with various feature extraction techniques. Most of
the datasets are available in the English language. However,
some researchers constructed the dataset of their regional
language. For example, Sasidhar et al. (2020) created the
dataset of Hindi-English code mixed with three basic emo-
tions: happy, sad, and angry, and observed CNN-BILSTM
gave better performance compared to others.
3.5 Model assessment
Finally, the model is compared with baseline models based
on various parameters. There is a requirement of model eval-
uation metrics to quantify model performance. A confusion
matrix is acquired, which provides the count of correct and
incorrect judgments or predictions based on known actual
values. This matrix displays true positive (TP), false nega-
tive (FN), false positive (FP), true negative (TN) values for
data fitting based on positive and negative classes. Based on
these values, researchers evaluated their model with metrics
like accuracy, precision, and recall, F1 score, etc., mentioned
in Table 5.
4 Challenges in sentiment analysis
and emotion analysis
In the Internet era, people are generating a lot of data in the
form of informal text. Social networking sites present vari-
ous challenges, as shown in Fig. 5, which includes spelling
mistakes, new slang, and incorrect use of grammar. These
challenges make it difficult for machines to perform senti-
ment and emotion analysis. Sometimes individuals do not
express their emotions clearly. For instance, in the sentence
“Y have u been soooo late?”, 'why' is misspelled as 'y,' 'you'
is misspelled as 'u,' and 'soooo' is used to show more impact.
Moreover, this sentence does not express whether the person
is angry or worried. Therefore, sentiment and emotion detec-
tion from real-world data is full of challenges due to several
reasons (Batbaatar et al. 2019).
One of the challenges faced during emotion recognition
and sentiment analysis is the lack of resources. For example,
some statistical algorithms require a large annotated dataset.
However, gathering data is not difficult, but manual labeling
of the large dataset is quite time-consuming and less reliable
(Balahur and Turchi 2014). The other problem regarding
resources is that most of the resources are available in the
English language. Therefore, sentiment analysis and emo-
tion detection from a language other than English, primarily
regional languages, are a great challenge and an opportunity
for researchers. Furthermore, some of the corpora and lexi-
cons are domain specific, which limits their re-use in other
domains.
Another common problem is usually seen on Twitter,
Facebook, and Instagram posts and conversations is Web
slang. For example, the Young generation uses words like
'LOL,' which means laughing out loud to express laughter,
'FOMO,' which means fear of missing out, which says anxi-
ety. The growing dictionary of Web slang is a massive obsta-
cle for existing lexicons and trained models.
People usually express their anger or disappointment in
sarcastic and irony sentences, which is hard to detect (Ghan-
bari-Adivi and Mosleh 2019). For instance, in the sentence,
“This story is excellent to put you in sleep,” the excellent
word signifies positive sentiment, but in actual the reviewer
felt it quite dull. Therefore, sarcasm detection has become a
tedious task in the field of sentiment and emotion detection.
The other challenge is the expression of multiple emo-
tions in a single sentence. It is difficult to determine vari-
ous aspects and their corresponding sentiments or emotions
from the multi-opinionated sentence. For instance, the
sentence “view at this site is so serene and calm, but this
place stinks” shows two emotions, 'disgust' and 'soothing'
in various aspects. Another challenge is that it is hard to
detect polarity from comparative sentences. For example,
consider two sentences 'Phone A is worse than phone B'
and 'Phone B is worse than Phone A.' The word ’worse’ in
both sentences will signify negative polarity, but these two
sentences oppose each other (Shelke 2014).
5 Conclusion
In this paper, a review of the existing techniques for both
emotion and sentiment detection is presented. As per the
paper’s review, it has been analyzed that the lexicon-based
technique performs well in both sentiment and emotion
analysis. However, the dictionary-based approach is quite
adaptable and straightforward to apply, whereas the corpus-
based method is built on rules that function effectively in a
certain domain. As a result, corpus-based approaches are
more accurate but lack generalization. The performance of
machine learning algorithms and deep learning algorithms
depends on the pre-processing and size of the dataset. None-
theless, in some cases, machine learning models fail to
extract some implicit features or aspects of the text. In situ-
ations where the dataset is vast, the deep learning approach
performs better than machine learning. Recurrent neural
networks, especially the LSTM model, are prevalent in sen-
timent and emotion analysis, as they can cover long-term
dependencies and extract features very well. But RNN with

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Table 4 Work on emotion detection
Reference Approach Feature extraction Models Datasets Emotion model No of emotions Results
Chaffar and Inkpen
(2011)
Machine learning Bag of words,
N-grams, WordN-
etAffect
Naïve Bayes, decision
tree, and SVM
Multiple dataset Ekman with neutral
class, Izard
10 Acuracy = 81.16% on
Aman’s dataset and
71.69% on Global
dataset
Kratzwald et al. (2018) Deep learning with
transfer learning
approach
Customised embed-
ding GloVe
Sent2Affect Literary tales, election
tweet Isear Headlines
General tweets
– – F1-score = 68.8% on
literary dataset with
pre-trained Bi-LSTM
Sailunaz and Alhajj
(2019)
Machine learning NAVA (Noun Adverb,
verb and Adjective)
SVM, Random forest,
Naïve Bayes
ISEAR Guilt, Joy, Shame,
Fear, sadness, disgust
6 Accuracy = 43.24% on
NAVA text with Naïve
Bayes.
Shrivastava et al.
(2019)
Deep learning Word2Vec Convolutional neural
network
TV shows transcript – 7 Training accuracy =
80.41% and 77.54%
with CNN (7 emo-
tions)
Batbaatar et al. (2019) Deep learning Word2Vec, GloVe,
FastText, EWE
SENN ISEAR, Emo Int, elec-
toral tweets, etc
– – Acuracy = 98.8% with
GloVe+EWE and
SENN on emotion
cause dataset
Ghanbari-Adivi and
Mosleh (2019)
Deep learning DoctoVec Ensemble classi-
fier, tree-structured
parzen estimator
(TPE) for tuning
parameters
wonder, anger, hate,
happy , sadness, and
fear
6 OANC, Crowd-
Flower,
ISEAR,
99.49 on regular sen-
tences
Xu et al. (2020) Deep learning-based
Hybrid Approach
– 3DCLS model for
visual , CNN-RNN
for text and SVM
for text
Moud and IEMOCAP Happy, sad, angry,
neutral
4 Accuracy = 96.75%
by fusing audio and
visual features at fea-
ture level on MOUD
dataset
Adoma et al. (2020) Pretrained transfer
models (machine
learning and deep
learning)
– BERT, RoBERTa, Dis-
tilBERT, and XLNet
ISEAR shame, anger,fear,
disgust,joy, sadness,
and guilt
7 Accuracy = 74%, 79%
, 69% for RoBERTa,
BERT, respectively.
Chowanda et al. (2021) Machine learning and
Deep learning
sentistrength, N-gram
and TF IDF
Generalised linear
model, Naïve Bayes,
fast-large margins,
etc.
Affective Tweets Anger, fear, sadness,
joy
4 Accuracy = 92% and
recall = 90% with
the generalized linear
model
Dheeraj and Ram-
akrishnudu (2021)
Deep learning Glove Multi-head attention
with bidirectional
long short-term
memory and convo-
lutional neural net-
work (MHA-BCNN)
Patient doctor interac-
tions from Webmd
and Healthtap
platforms
Anxiety, addiction,
obsessive cleaning
disorder (OCD),
depression, etc
6 Accuracy = 97.8% using
MHA-BCNN with
Adam optimizer

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attention networks performs very well. At the same time, it
is important to keep in mind that the lexicon-based approach
and machine learning approach (traditional approaches) are
also evolving and have obtained better outcomes. Also, pre-
processing and feature extraction techniques have a signifi-
cant impact on the performance of various approaches of
sentiment and emotion analysis.
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Table 5 Evaluation metrics
Evaluation metric Description Equation
Accuracy It’s a statistic that sums up how well the model performs in all classes. It’s help-
ful when all types of classes are equally important. It is calculated as the ratio
between the number of correct judgments to the total number of judgments.
(TP+TN)/(TP+TN+FP+FN)
Precision It measures the accuracy of the model in terms of categorizing a sample as posi-
tive. It is determined as the ratio of the number of correctly categorized Positive
samples to the total number of positive samples (either correctly or incorrectly).
TP/(TP+FP )
Recall This score assesses the model’s ability to identify positive samples. It is deter-
mined by dividing the number of Positive samples that were correctly catego-
rized as Positive by the total number of Positive samples.
TP/(TP+FN)
F-measure It is determined by calculating the harmonic mean of precision and recall. (2*Precision*Recall)/
(Precision+Recall) =
(2*TP)/((2*TP)+FP+FN)
Sensitivity It refers to the percentage of appropriately detected actual positives and it quanti-
fies how effectively the positive class was anticipated.
TP/((TP+FN))
Specificity It is the complement of sensitivity, the true negative rate which sums up how
effectively the negative class was anticipated. The sensitivity of an imbalanced
categorization may be more interesting than specificity.
TN/(FP+TN)
Geometric-mean (G-mean) It is a measure that combines sensitivity and specificity into a single value that
balances both objectives.
√
(Specificity ∗ Sensitivity)
Fig. 5 Challenges in sentiment analysis and emotion detection

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