08 Lecture Ppt

Cell Division Ensures the Passage of Genetic Information 8-

8.1 Cell division is involved in both asexual and sexual reproduction Somatic cells - body cells make up most of the organism Asexual reproduction - increase in number of somatic cells or the number unicellular organisms Germ cells - found only in testes and ovaries, they produce sperm or eggs Sexual reproduction – requires the production of eggs and sperm 8-

8.2 Prokaryotes reproduce asexually In bacteria and archaea, reproduction consists of duplicating the single chromosome, located in the nucleoid, and distributing a copy to each daughter cell 8-

Figure 8.2 Prokaryotes use binary fission to reproduce 8-

Somatic Cells Have a Cell Cycle and Undergo Mitosis and Cytokinesis 8-

8.3 The eukaryotic cell cycle is a set series of events Interphase - the time when a cell performs its usual functions Figure 8.3A Stages of the cell cycle. 8-

M (Mitotic) Stage Cell division occurs during the M stage and encompasses both division of the nucleus and division of the cytoplasm Mitosis - nuclear division in the cell cycle Cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm 8-

Figure 8.3B Cytokinesis is a noticeable part of the cell cycle 8-

8.4 Eukaryotic chromosomes are visible during cell division When a eukaryotic cell is not undergoing division, the DNA within a chromosome is a mass of thin threads called chromatin Before nuclear division chromatin condenses, 2 identical chromatids are sister chromatids 8-

Figure 8.4A A condensed duplicated chromosome 8-

Somatic Cells Are Diploid (2n) Diploid (2n) - includes two chromosomes of each kind During mitosis, a 2n nucleus divides to produce daughter nuclei that are also 2n A dividing cell is called the parent cell and the new cells are called the daughter cells 8-

Gametes Are Haploid (n) Haploid (n) number of chromosomes, contains only one chromosome of each kind Half the diploid number Figure 8.4B When sister chromatids separate, each daughter nucleus gets a chromosome 8-

8.5 Mitosis maintains the chromosome number Before mitosis, DNA has replicated, each double helix is in a chromatid and the chromosomes consist of sister chromatids attached at a centromere The centrosome - the microtubule-organizing center of the cell divides before mitosis Spindle fibers separate the sister chromatids of the duplicated chromosomes 8-

8- Figure 8.5 Phases of mitosis in animal cells and plant cells

Figure 8.5 Phases of mitosis in animal cells and plant cells 8-

8.6 Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm Cytokinesis follows mitosis in most cells Cytokinesis in plant cells occurs by a process different than in animal cells Cell plate - newly formed plasma membrane that expands outward 8-

Figure 8.6A Cytokinesis in an animal cell 8-

Figure 8.6B Cytokinesis in plant cells 8-

Cancer Is Uncontrolled Cell Division 8-

8.7 Cell cycle control occurs at checkpoints The cell cycle has checkpoints that can delay the cell cycle until all is well Apoptosis - programmed cell death 8-

Figure 8.7 Cell cycle checkpoints 8-

8.8 Signals affect the cell cycle control system Signaling molecules stimulate or inhibit Kinases remove phosphate from ATP and add it to another molecule Cyclins combine with kinases Control system for cell division control whether kinases and cyclins are present 8-

Figure 8.8A Internal signals of the cell cycle are kinases and cyclins 8-

Figure 8.8B A cell-signaling pathway activates the control system to produce kinases and cyclins 8-

Cell Cycle Inhibition Contact Inhibition - In a culture, cells divide until they line a container in a sheet and then stop dividing Cells “remember” number of divisions Telomere - repeating DNA base sequence Each time a cell divides some portion of a telomere is lost When telomeres become too short, chromosomes fuse and do not duplicate 8-

8.9 Cancer cells have abnormal characteristics A mutation (a DNA change) causes a cell to divide uncontrollably or ignore apoptosis Carcinogenesis - development of cancer Characteristics of cancer cells Lack differentiation Have abnormal nuclei Form tumors Metastasis - establishing new tumors Angiogenesis - formation of new blood vessels 8-

Figure 8.9 Development of breast cancer 8-

APPLYING THE CONCEPTS—HOW BIOLOGY IMPACTS OUR LIVES 8.10 Protective behaviors and diet help prevent cancer Behaviors that help prevent cancer Don’t smoke Use sunscreen Avoid radiation Be tested for cancer Be aware of occupational hazards Carefully consider hormone therapy Dietary guidelines to reduce cancer risk Increase consumption of foods rich in vitamins A and C Limit consumption of salt-cured, smoked, or nitrite-cured foods Include vegetables from the cabbage family Be moderate in the consumption of alcohol Maintain a healthy weight 8-

Meiosis Produces Cells That Become the Gametes in Animals and Spores in Other Organisms 8-

8.11 Homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis Karyotype - picture of chromosomes in numbered pairs called homologous chromosomes or homologues X and Y chromosomes are the sex chromosomes because they contain the genes that determine gender Autosomes - all the pairs of chromosomes except the sex chromosomes 8-

Figure 8.11 A karyotype shows that the chromosomes occur as pairs 8-

Meiosis Occurs during the production of the sperm and egg Requires two divisions Meiosis I - the chromosomes of each homologous pair separate Meiosis II - the sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome separate 8-

8.12 Synapsis and crossing-over occur during meiosis I Synapsis - homologous chromosomes come together and line up side by side forming a tetrad Crossing-over - during synapsis, nonsister chromatids exchange genetic material 8-

Figure 8.12A Synapsis of homologues 8-

Figure 8.12B Crossing-over of nonsister chromatids 8-

8.13 Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation Fertilization , the union of a male and a female gamete, enhances genetic variation Sexual reproduction brings about genetic variation, and some offspring may have a better chance of survival and reproductive success than others 8-

Figure 8.13 Independent assortment increases genetic variation 8-

8.14 Meiosis requires two division cycles Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase occur during both meiosis I and meiosis II No replication of DNA occurs during a period called interkinesis between meiosis I and II 8-

Figure 8.14A Phases of meiosis I 8-

Figure 8.14B Phases of meiosis II 8-

8.15 The life cycle of most multicellular organisms includes both mitosis and meiosis Life cycle - in sexually reproducing organisms, all the reproductive events from one generation to the next Spermatogenesis in males, occurs in the testes and produces sperm Oogenesis in females, occurs in the ovaries and produces eggs Zygote - product of the sperm and egg joining during fertilization, has homologous pairs of chromosomes 8-

Figure 8.15A Life cycle of humans 8-

Figure 8.15B Life cycle of plants Figure 8.15C Life cycle of algae 8-

8.16 Meiosis can be compared to mitosis 8-

Chromosomal Abnormalities Can Be Inherited 8-

8.17 An abnormal chromosome number is sometimes traceable to nondisjunction Polyploidy - a eukaryote has three or more complete sets of chromosomes Aneuploidy - an organism has more or less than the normal number of chromosomes Monosomy only one of a type of chromosome Trisomy three of a type of chromosome Nondisjunction - in meiosis I homologues do not separate and both go into the same daughter cell, or in meiosis II sister chromatids fail to separate and both daughter chromosomes go to the same gamete 8-

Figure 8.17A Nondisjunction of chromosomes during meiosis I of oogenesis, followed by fertilization with normal sperm 8-

Figure 8.17B Nondisjunction of chromosomes during meiosis II of oogenesis, followed by fertilization with normal sperm 8-

8.18 Abnormal chromosome numbers cause syndromes Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome) Over 90% of individuals with Down syndrome have three copies of chromosome 21 Abnormal Sex Chromosome Inheritance Turner syndrome females are born with only a single X chromosome A male with Klinefelter syndrome has two or more X chromosomes in addition to a Y chromosome 8-

8.19 Abnormal chromosome structure also causes syndromes Various agents in the environment, such as radiation, certain organic chemicals, or viruses, can cause chromosomes to break Deletion - an end of a chromosome breaks off or two simultaneous breaks lead to the loss of an internal segment Duplication - the presence of a particular chromosome segment more than once in the same chromosome Inversion - a segment of a chromosome is turned 180 degrees Translocation - the movement of a chromosome segment from one chromosome to another nonhomologous chromosome 8-

Figure 8.19 Types of chromosomal mutations 8-

Connecting the Concepts: Chapter 8 All cells receive DNA from preexisting cells through the process of cell division Mitosis is part of the cell cycle, and there are negative consequences if the cell cycle comes out of synchronization Meiosis is part of the production of gametes, which have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell Sexual reproduction increases genetic variability 8-

08 Lecture Ppt

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08 Lecture Ppt