09 Lecture Animation Ppt
- 1. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. G 1 (growth) G 0 G 2 (growth and final preparations for division) S (growth and DNA replication) M Cytokinesis T elophase Anaphase Metaphase Late prophase Prophase Interphase G 1 checkpoint Cell cycle main checkpoint. If DNA is damaged, apoptosis will occur. Otherwise, the cell is committed to divide when growth signals are present and nutrients are available. M checkpoint Spindle assembly checkpoint. Mitosis will not continue if chromosomes are not properly aligned. G 2 checkpoint Mitosis checkpoint. Mitosis will occur if DNA has replicated properly. Apoptosis will occur if the DNA is damaged and cannot be repaired. . M G 2 G 1 © SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
- 2. Outline The Cell Cycle Interphase Mitotic Stage Cell Cycle Control Apoptosis Mitosis & Cytokinesis Mitosis in Animal Cells The Cell Cycle & Cancer Prokaryotic Cell Division
- 3. The Cell Cycle An orderly set of stages from the first division to the time the daughter cells divide Just prior to next division: The cell grows larger The number of organelles doubles The DNA is replicated The two major stages of the cell cycle: Interphase Mitosis
- 4. The Cell Cycle Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. G 1 (growth) G 0 G 2 checkpoint Mitosis checkpoint. Mitosis will occur if DNA has replicated properly. Apoptosis will occur if the DNA is damaged and cannot be repaired. S (growth and DNA replication) M Cytokinesis T elophase Anaphase Metaphase Late prophase Prophase Interphase G1 checkpoint Cell cycle main checkpoint. If DNA is damaged, apoptosis will occur. Otherwise, the cell is committed to divide when growth signals are present and nutrients are available. M checkpoint Spindle assembly checkpoint. Mitosis will not continue if chromosomes are not properly aligned. M G 2 G 1 G 2 (growth and final preparations for division)
- 5. Animation Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
- 6. Animation Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
- 7. Regulation at the G1 Checkpoint Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. a. P P RB protein RB protein E2F E2F E2F CDK not present E2F not released released E2F E2F binds to DNA. DNA cell cycle proteins phosphorylated RB CDK present b. P P P P breakdown of p53 no DNA damage DNA damage phosphorylated p53 DNA repair proteins apoptosis p53 binds to DNA. DNA DNA p53
- 8. Animation Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
- 9. Interphase Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase Cell performs its usual functions Time spent in interphase varies by cell type Nerve and muscle cells do not complete the cell cycle (remain in the G0 stage)
- 10. Interphase Interphase consists of: G1, S and G2 phases G 1 Phase: Recovery from previous division Cell doubles its organelles Cell grows in size Accumulates raw materials for DNA synthesis (DNA replication) S Phase: DNA replication Proteins associated with DNA are synthesized Chromosomes enter with 1 chromatid each Chromosomes leave with 2 identical chromatids each G 2 Phase: Between DNA replication and onset of mitosis Cell synthesizes proteins necessary for division
- 11. Mitotic (M) Stage Includes: Mitosis (karyokinesis) Nuclear division Daughter chromosomes distributed to two daughter nuclei Cytokinesis Cytoplasm division Results in two genetically identical daughter cells
- 12. Cell Cycle Control Cell cycle controlled by internal and external signals A signal is a molecule that either stimulates or inhibits a metabolic event. External signals Growth factors Received at the plasma membrane Cause completion of cell cycle Internal signals Family of proteins called cyclins Increase and decrease as cell cycle continues Without them cycle stops at G 1 , M or G 2 (checkpoints) Allows time for any damage to be repaired
- 13. Apoptosis Apoptosis is programmed cell death It involves a sequence of cellular events: fragmenting of the nucleus, blistering of the plasma membrane engulfing of cell fragments . Apoptosis is caused by enzymes called caspases. Mitosis and apoptosis are opposing forces Mitosis increases cell number Apoptosis decreases cell number
- 14. Apoptosis Cells harbor caspases in check by inhibitors Can be unleashed by internal or external signals Signal protein P53 Stops cycle at G 1 when DNA damaged Initiates DNA attempt at repair If successful, cycle continues to mitosis If not, apoptosis is initiated
- 15. Apoptosis Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. apoptotic cell cell fragment DNA fragment Cell rounds up, and nucleus collapses. Chromatin condenses, and nucleus fragments. Plasma membrane blisters, and blebs form. Cell fragments contain DNA fragments. blebs Courtesy Douglas R. Green/LaJolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology
- 16. Animation Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
- 17. Mitosis: Preparation DNA is in very long threads Chromosomes Stretched out and intertangled between divisions DNA is associated with histone proteins Collectively called chromatin Before mitosis begins: Chromatin condenses (coils) into distinctly visible chromosomes Each species has a characteristic chromosome number Humans 46 Corn 20 Goldfish 94
- 18. Animation Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
- 19. Chromosome Number The diploid (2n) number includes two sets of chromosomes of each type Humans have 23 different types of chromosomes Each type is represented twice in each body cell (Diploid) Only sperm and eggs have one of each type (haploid) The number for humans is=23 Two representatives of each type Makes a total of 2=46 in each nucleus One set of 23 from individual’s father (paternal) Other set of 23 from individual’s mother (maternal)
- 20. Chromosome Numbers of Some Eukaryotes Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
- 21. Chromosome Structure At end of S phase: Each chromosome internally duplicated Consists of two identical DNA chains Sister chromatids (two strands of genetically identical chromosomes) Attached together at a single point (called centromere) During mitosis: Centromeres holding sister chromatids together simultaneously break Sister chromatids separate Each becomes a daughter chromosome Sisters of each type distributed to opposite daughter nuclei
- 22. Duplicated Chromosome Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. centromere sister chromatids one chromatid a. b. kinetochore 9,850 © Andrew Syred/Photo Researchers, Inc.
- 23. Mitosis in Animal Cells Just outside nucleus is the centrosome This is the microtubule organizing center Organizes the mitotic spindle Contains many fibers Each composed of a bundle of microtubules In animals, contains two barrel-shaped centrioles Oriented at right angles to each other within centrosome Each with 9 triplets of microtubules arranged in a cylinder Centrosome was also replicated in S-phase, so now two centrosomes
- 24. Mitosis in Animal Cells: Prophase Prophase Chromatin has condensed Chromosomes distinguishable with microscope Visible double (two sister chromatids attached at centromere) Nucleolus disappears Nuclear envelope disintegrates Spindle begins to take shape Two centrosomes move away from each other Form microtubules in star-like arrays – asters
- 25. Mitosis in Animals Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Animal cell(Early prophase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase): © Ed Reschke; Animal cell(Prometaphase): © Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.; Plant cell(Early prophase, Prometaphse): © Ed Reschke; Plant cell(Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase): © R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited; Plant cell(Telophase): © Jack M. Bostrack/Visuals Unlimited; Plant Cell at Interphase centromere aster kinetochore polar spindle fiber chromosomes cell wall 25µm centrosome lacks centrioles MITOSIS centrosome has centrioles Animal Cell at Interphase nuclear envelope fragments chromatin condenses nucleolus disappears Early Prophase Centrosomes have duplicated. Chromatin is condensing into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope is fragmenting. Prophase Nucleolus has disappeared, and duplicated chromosomes are visible. Centrosomes begin moving apart, and spindle is in process of forming. Prophase Nucleolus has disappeared, and duplicated chromosomes are visible. Centrosomes begin moving apart, and spindle is in process of forming. 20 µm duplicated chromosome 20 µm spindle fibers forming spindle pole 9 µm kinetochore spindle fiber cleavage furrow spindle fibers 20µm 16µm kinetochore spindle fiber Anaphase Sister chromatids part and become daughter chromosomes that move toward the spindle poles. In this way, each pole receives the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the parent cell. Metaphase Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes are aligned at the metaphase plate (center of fully formed spindle). Kinetochore spindle fibers attached to the sister chromatids come from opposite spindle poles. chromosomes at metaphase plate 6.2µm 6.2µm 20µm 6.2µm spindle pole lacks centrioles and aster Telophase Daughter cells are forming as nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear. Chromosomes will become indistinct chromatin. daughter chromosome 20µm nucleolus cell plate 6.6µm
- 26. Animation Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
- 27. Mitosis in Animal Cells: Prometaphase Prometaphase Centromere of each chromosome develops two kinetochores Specialized protein complex One over each sister chromatid Physically hook sister chromatids up with specialized microtubules (kinetochore fibers) These connect sisters to opposite poles of mother cell
- 28. Mitosis in Animal Cells: Metaphase & Anaphase Metaphase Chromosomes are pulled around by kinetochore fibers Forced to align across equatorial plane of cell Appear to be spread out on a piece of glass Metaphase plate Represents plane through which mother cell will be divided Anaphase Centromere dissolves, releasing sister chromatids Sister chromatids separate Now called daughter chromosomes Pulled to opposite poles along kinetochore fibers
- 29. Mitosis in Animal Cells: Telophase Telophase Spindle disappears Now two clusters of daughter chromosomes Still two of each type with all types represented Clusters are incipient daughter nuclei Nuclear envelopes form around the two incipient daughter nuclei Chromosomes uncoil and become diffuse chromatin again Nucleolus reappears in each daughter nucleus
- 30. Cytokinesis: Animal Cells Division of cytoplasm Allocates mother cell’s cytoplasm equally to daughter nucleus Encloses each in it’s own plasma membrane Often begins in anaphase Animal cytokinesis: A cleavage furrow appears between daughter nuclei Formed by a contractile ring of actin filaments Like pulling on a draw string Eventually pinches mother cell in two
- 31. Cytokinesis in Animal Cells Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 2 m 2 m contractile ring cleavage furrow © R.G. Kessel and C.Y. Shih, Scanning Electron Microscopy in Biology: A Students' Atlas on Biological Organization, 1974 Springer-Verlag, New York
- 32. Cytokinesis: Plant Cells Rigid cell walls outside plasma membrane do not permit furrowing Begins with formation of a cell plate Many small membrane-bounded vesicles Eventually fuse into one thin vesicle extending across the mother cell The membranes of the cell plate become the plasma membrane between the daughter cells Contents of vesicles become the middle lamella between the two daughter cells Daughter cells later secrete primary cell walls on opposite sides of middle lamella
- 33. Cytokinesis in Plant Cells Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. nuclei cell wall V esicles containing cell wall components fusing to form cell plate cell plate forming microtubules cell plate forming © Katherine Esau; 9.8d: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.
- 34. Function of Mitosis Permits growth and repair. In plants it retains the ability to divide throughout the life of the plant In mammals, mitosis is necessary: Fertilized egg becomes an embryo Embryo becomes a fetus Allows a cut to heal or a broken bone to mend
- 35. Stem Cells Many mammalian organs contain stem cells Retain the ability to divide Red bone marrow stem cells divide to produce various types of blood cells Therapeutic cloning to produce human tissues can begin with either adult stem cells or embryonic stem cells Embryonic stem cells can be used for reproductive cloning , the production of a new individual
- 36. Two Types of Cloning Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. G0 cells from animal to be cloned a. Reproductive cloning remove G 0 nucleus remove and discard egg nucleus fuse egg with G 0 nucleus culture embryonic stem cells Implant embryo into surrogate mother Clone is born egg remove G0 nucleus remove and discard egg nucleus nervous blood muscle G 0 somatic cells b. Therapeutic cloning fuse egg with G0 nucleus culture embryonic stem cells egg
- 37. The Cell Cycle and Cancer Abnormal growth of cells is called a neoplasm Benign neoplasms are not cancerous Encapsulated Do not invade neighboring tissue or spread Malignant neoplasms are cancerous Not encapsulated Readily invade neighboring tissues May also detach and lodge in distant places – metastasis Results from mutation of genes regulating the cell cycle Carcinogenesis – development of cancer Tends to be gradual May be years before cell is obviously cancerous
- 38. Characteristics of Cancer Cells Lack differentiation Are nonspecialized Are immortal (can enter cell cycle repeatedly) Have abnormal nuclei May be enlarged May have abnormal number of chromosomes Extra copies of genes Form tumors Mitosis controlled by contact with neighboring cells – contact inhibition Cancer cells have lost contact inhibition
- 39. Characteristics of Cancer Cells Undergo metastasis Original tumor easily fragments New tumors appear in other organs Undergo angiogenesis Formation of new blood vessels Brings nutrient and oxygen to tumor
- 40. Progression of Cancer Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. primary tumor New mutations arise, and one cell (brown) has the ability to start a tumor. Cancer in situ. The tumor is at its place of origin. One cell (purple) mutates further. Cancer cells now have the ability to invade lymphatic and blood vessels and travel throughout the body. New metastatic tumors are found some distance from the primary tumor. lymphatic vessel blood vessel lymphatic vessel blood vessel
- 41. Cancer Cells vs. Normal Cells Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
- 42. Origins of Cancer: Oncogenes Mutations in DNA repair mechanisms Oncogenes Proto-oncogenes promote the cell cycle in various ways Tumor suppressor genes inhibit the cell cycle in various ways Both normally regulated in coordination with organism’s growth plan If either mutates, may lose control and become oncogene
- 43. Origins of Cancer: Telomerase Chromosomes normally have special material at each end called telomeres (end parts) These get shorter each cell division When they get very short The cell will no longer divide Almost like running out of division tickets Telomerase is an enzyme that adds telomeres Mutations in telomerase gene: Keeps adding new telomeres Allow cancer cells to continually divide Like counterfeit tickets
- 44. Causes of Cancer Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. d: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc. activated signaling protein growth factor receptor protein signaling protein phosphate b. Effect of growth factor P P P proto-oncogene Codes for a growth factor, a receptor protein, or a signaling protein in a stimulatory pathway. If a proto-oncogene becomes an oncogene, the end result can be active cell division. tumor suppressor gene Codes for a signaling protein in an inhibitory pathway. If a tumor suppressor gene mutates, the end result can be active cell division. c. Stimulatory pathway and inhibitory pathway 1,100X d. Cancerous skin cell gene product promotes cell cycle Stimulatory pathway Inhibitory pathway gene product inhibits cell cycle growth factor Activates signaling proteins in a stimulatory pathway that extends to the nucleus. a. Influences that cause mutated proto-oncogenes (called oncogenes) and mutated tumor suppressor genes Heredity Radiation sources Pesticides and herbicides Viruses oncogene
- 45. Animation Please note that due to differing operating systems, some animations will not appear until the presentation is viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide Show view). You may see blank slides in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views. All animations will appear after viewing in Presentation Mode and playing each animation. Most animations will require the latest version of the Flash Player, which is available at http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
- 46. Prokaryotic Cell Division Prokaryotic chromosome a ring of DNA Folded up in an area called the nucleoid 1,000 X length of cell Replicated into two rings prior to division Replicate rings attach to plasma membrane Binary fission Splitting in two between the two replicate chromosomes Produces two daughter cells identical to original cell – Asexual Reproduction
- 47. Binary Fission of Prokaryotes Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5. New cell wall and plasma membrane has divided the daughter cells. 1. Attachment of chromosome to a special plasma membrane site indicates that this bacterium is about to divide. 2. The cell is preparing for binary fission by enlarging its cell wall, plasma membrane, and overall volume. 3. DNA replication has produced two identical chromosomes. Cell wall and plasma mem- brane begin to grow inward. 4. As the cell elongates, the chromosomes are pulled apart. Cytoplasm is being distributed evenly.. (All): © Stanley C. Holt/Biological Photo Service. chromosome cell wall plasma membrane cytoplasm 200 nm 200 nm 200 nm
- 48. Functions of Cell Division Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
- 49. Review The Cell Cycle Interphase Mitotic Stage Cell Cycle Control Apoptosis Mitosis & Cytokinesis Mitosis in Animal Cells The Cell Cycle & Cancer Prokaryotic Cell Division
- 50. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. G 1 (growth) G 0 G 2 (growth and final preparations for division) S (growth and DNA replication) M Cytokinesis T elophase Anaphase Metaphase Late prophase Prophase Interphase G 1 checkpoint Cell cycle main checkpoint. If DNA is damaged, apoptosis will occur. Otherwise, the cell is committed to divide when growth signals are present and nutrients are available. M checkpoint Spindle assembly checkpoint. Mitosis will not continue if chromosomes are not properly aligned. G 2 checkpoint Mitosis checkpoint. Mitosis will occur if DNA has replicated properly. Apoptosis will occur if the DNA is damaged and cannot be repaired. . M G 2 G 1 © SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.;