1. Introduction (Microbiology)
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Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms too small to be seen with the naked eye. It includes the study of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses. The field is divided into areas like bacteriology, mycology, and virology. Microbiology is important because microorganisms can cause infectious diseases, aid in bioremediation and decomposition, and are used to synthesize drugs, hormones, and enzymes.
1. Introduction (Microbiology)
- 3. Microbiology • Microbiology is the study of living things so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. • Microbiology • From Greek word • Mīkros = “small” • Bios = “life” • Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (Father of microbiology) Microorganism • Microorganisms are microscopic organism that exists as single cells or clusters. • It had been on earth for some 4000 millions years • 5 × 1030 microbial cells exist on earth
- 4. Branches of microbiology • Bacteriology: the study of bacteria • Mycology: the study of fungi • Protozoology: the study of protozoa • Phycology: the study of algae • Parasitology: the study of parasites • Virology: the study of virology • Nematology: the study of nematodes
- 5. Branches of microbiology • Microbial physiology (growth, metabolism and structure) • Microbial ecology • Microbial genetics (gene organized and regulates) • Microbial taxonomy (classification) • Molecular microbiology (molecular principles) • Epidemiology and public health microbiology (spread and control of diseases) • Food microbiology (foods products and drinks) • Agricultural and veterinary microbiology (increase yield and, control pest and diseases) • Environmental microbiology (beneficial and harmful effects)
- 6. Why we need to study microbiology? • Synthesis of drugs, hormones and enzymes • Bioremediation (Degrade organic materials and detoxify pollutants) • Photosynthesis and decomposition • Human use of microorganism (learn and excel in knowing information about microorganisms, their diseases, treatment and preventive measures) • Infectious diseases
- 7. Basic terminology Abscess: A classic host response to bacterial infection Acidophiles: Bacteria that prefer acidic condition Alkaliphile: Optimum external higher pH for growth Antibiotic: Microbial produced substances that has antimicrobial properties Antibody: A serum protein produced in response to an antigen in which has the property of combining specifically with that antigen Antiseptic: Chemical agent for disinfection that is mild enough to used on human skin or tissues
- 8. Antibiotic resistance: Ability of bacteria to withstand against the killing effect of antimicrobial agents Anaerobe: Can survive and proliferate in the absence of oxygen Antigen: Molecule which is able to react specifically with antibody Aseptic: Absence of infectious microorganisms Attenuated: Organism whose pathogenicity has greatly reduced Biofilm: Complex system of microorganism and their surrounding polysaccharide matrix Budding: A mode of vegetative reproduction Capsule: A loose, gel like structure on the surface of some bacteria
- 9. Cellular immunity: T cell dependent host response to bacteria Chemotherapy: Use of drug or other chemical substance for the treatment of disease Contamination: Presence of microorganism on objects, in the environment, or in samples Communicable disease: Infectious disease that is capable of spreading from person to person Commensalism: Symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and the other is unharmed Disinfection: Elimination or inhibition of pathogenic microorganisms in or on object Endemic: Disease that occurs commonly all the year round
- 10. Endogenous: Originating or produced within and organism or one of its part Endospore: Highly resistance spore found within certain bacteria Endotoxin: Lipopolysaccharide compound of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria Epidemiology: Study of distribution and determinants of diseases in populations Etiology: Cause or origin or a disease Epizootic: Outbreaks occurring in animal population Exogenous: Originating outside an organism, infection can be exogenous or endogenous origin
- 11. Facultative anaerobe: An organism which can grow in the absence of oxygen, but utilized when available Fermentation: Metabolic process where by microbes gain energy from the breakdown and assimilations of organic and inorganic nutrients Fission: Divide at center of the cell by forming a cell septum that constricts mother cells into two equal-size daughters Flagellum: Organelle of bacterium motility Food-born diseases: illness resulting from the ingestion of harmful products in food Food poisoning: A condition that occurs after ingesting preformed toxin
- 12. Gastritis: Inflammation of stomach Generation time: The time taken for population of cells to double in the time under specific conditions Genome: A collection of genetic material and genes of the organism Genome replication: The synthesis of multiple copies of a virus genome Growth medium: An aqueous solution (may be solidified with agar) containing all the nutrients necessary for microbial growth Growth optimum: The condition at which an organism grows fastest Hemolysis: The lysis of RBC
- 13. Halophile: Organism that requires NaCl for growth Host: Organism affected by pathogen Hypha (pl. Hyphae): Single filament of mycelium Incidence: Number of people developing a specified disease or becoming infected at a specified period of time Infection: Invasion of host organism by microorganism Infectious disease: Illness caused by a pathogen, which invades body tissue and cause damage Infectious agent: Any bacterium, virus, protozoan, prion or other agent that can cause infection or disease in a human, animal or other host. Inoculum: Term given to the cells used to seed a new culture
- 14. In vivo: Procedures performed inside of the living organism In vitro: Procedures performed outside of the living organism Immunogenicity: Capacity to elicit adaptive immunity against pathogen Life cycle: The stage or successive stages in the growth and development of an organism Lyophilization: The process of simultaneously freezing and drying materials under a vacuum Mode of infection: Method or pathway used by pathogen to invade host Mycelium: A tangled mass of branching hyphae Mycosis: Disease caused by a fungus
- 15. Neutrophil: Microbial species that grows best in the neutral range of external pH, generally pH 6.8 Nosocomial infections: Infection that are acquired in hospitals Normal flora: Population of microbes that normally reside in the host Nutrient: An organic or inorganic compound that is used as by microorganism Nucleoid: Term for the bacterium chromosomes Obligate anaerobe: An organism that is incapable of growth in the presence of oxygen Opportunistic: Causing disease in patients with impaired immunity
- 16. Pandemic: It is an epidemic that affects all or most countries in the world at the same time Parasite: Organism that lives on or in another organism, benefited from it Paronychia: An infection involving the folds of tissue surrounding the nail Pasteurization: A mild heating used to destroy pathogens and spoilage organisms present in the food and drink Pathogenicity: Ability of pathogen to cause disease Pathogen: An organism capable of invading the body and causing disease Petri dish: Standard vessel comprises a circular dish with an average overlapping dish
- 17. Phagocytosis: Ingestion and digestion of particulate matter by cell Plague: Clearer areas in a lawn of bacteria or in a monolayer of cultured cells caused by the cytopathic effects of virus infection Plasmid: An autonomous DNA molecule capable of replicating itself independently Pleomorphic: Lacking a regular shape, no cell wall Prevalence: Frequency of a diseased in a population Protoplast: Cell that has had cell wall removed Portal of entry: Site at which the pathogen enters the host and establishes the primary infection Protozoa: A group of single celled eukaryotes with certain animal like characteristics
- 18. Psychrophile: An organism which can grow at the optimum temperature of 15 ºC or lower and a maximum at temperature of 20 ºC Pure culture: Culture containing one type of organism which is free from contaminant Redox potential: Measure of the thermodynamic tendency of an ion or molecule to accept or donate one or more electrons Resolution: Capacity of an instrument to discern detail Saprophyte/Saprobe: An organism that feeds on dead and decaying organism materials Sepsis: A serious condition resulting from the presence of harmful microorganisms in the blood or other tissues and the body’s response to their presence, potentially leading to the malfunctioning of various organs, shock, and death.
- 19. Septum: A partition that separates a cell into two compartments Sporulation: Process by which the spores are formed from vegetatively growing bacteria due to nutrient depletion Starvation: An environmental condition in which bacteria do not grow at all due to the lack of an essential nutrient Sterilization: The process by which all microorganisms present on or in it are destroyed or removed Systemic infection: An infection that extends to involve internal organ or tissues Taxonomy: Science of classifying living organism Toxin: A molecule that cause pathogenic changes to the host cells that may result in disease
- 20. Taxoid: A toxin, which has been treated so as to inactivate its toxicity but which is still capable of including immunity to the active toxin Vaccine: A preparation of dead or inactivated living pathogens or their products used to provide protective immunity Vaccination: It is a practice of using modified (killed or attenuated) microorganisms, or proteins, to induced immunity to a particular disease without actually causing disease Vector: It’s a living creature that can transmit infection from one host to another Virion: Extra cellular virus particle, these particles may be only nucleoprotein or the nucleoprotein may be surrounding by an envelope consisting of lipid and protein
- 21. Virulence: Disease-causing properties of pathogenic species Virus replication: Synthesis of new virus particles includes both replication of the genome and assembly of virus particles Viruses: Submicroscopic entities, composed of nucleic acid and protein, capable of being introduced into specific living cells and reproducing inside such cells Zoonosis: An infection or infectious disease of vertebrate animals that is transmissible under neutral conditions to humans Zoospore: A free living and flagellated reproductive structure of fungi
- 22. • Microbiology is the science which covers the various information regarding infection, host system and control methods. 1. Nosocomial infections (also known as hospital infection): Need to know information about patients susceptibility Most causative agents are their environments and control methods
- 23. 2. Immunization We should know basic history of immunization Vaccine types: attenuated, inactivated, sub unit and toxic vaccines Safety issues and risk 3. Immune response Basic information about non-specific and specific defense of host Non-specific– Skin, mucous membrane, chemicals, Phagocytosis, interferons, inflammation, fever Specific – Lymphocytes, Antibodies
- 24. 4. Specific immune response and specific lab techniques Information about microbial antigens, different classes of antibodies and their general role General information about agglutination and precipitation reactions in serological test 5. Basic epidemiology Information learn regarding incidence, prevalence and reservoirs Disease transmission like contact, vehicle and vector
- 25. 6. Basic disease information Longevity/severity – Acute, chronic, sub-chronic and latent Transmission – Communicable, Non-communicable Extent of body effect – Local , systematic State of host when infected – Primary and secondary 7. Controlling microbial growth Control microbial growth through chemical methods; i.e., their actions, types and general precaution Physical methods; i.e., heat, cold, filtration and radiation Antibiotics – their mechanism of action, spectrum of activity and antibiotic resistance
- 26. • Ancient human believes that divine wrath and supernatural forces are responsible for the diseases and death. • Later, different concepts are portrayed by ancient such as influence of environment, bodily constitution and faulty diet. • The Roman philosopher Lucratitus and the physician Girolamo Fracastora suggested that disease was caused by invisible living creatures. • The earlier microscopic observation appears to have been made between 1625 to 1630 on bees by Italian Francesco Stelluti, using microscope supplied by Galileo.
- 27. • He spent his money and time in preparing lenses • In 1671, he constructed first simple microscope • Through, his, microscope he examined skin, hair and his on blood • He published reported to British royal society in 1673. • In 1676, he sent information to Royal society about discovery of tiny one-celled animals in rainwater • In 1680, society elected him as member • Disapproves spontaneous generation in 1683
- 28. • He introduced the idea of pasteurization (Conventional, Flash and Ultra high) • He established relationship between microorganism and disease, and concept of destroying microorganisms to stop the transmission of communicable diseases • Tackled problem of French beverage industry from avoiding wine turn sour by heating the wine gently at 42 ºC would kill the bacteria that produced lactic acid • Postulates germ theory of diseases that infectious diseases are due to the activities of microorganism • Developed techniques for culturing
- 29. • Cultured bacteria that cause Cholera • Developed Anthrax vaccine • Developed Rabies vaccine from the spinal fluid of infected rabbits • Coined the term Microbiology • Father of Bacteriology
- 30. • He examined the blood of infected sheet under the microscope and confirmed that anthrax was caused by a bacillus • In 1877, he used different techniques to isolate Bacillus anthracis, he used dry fixed bacterial cultures onto glass slides, stained the culture with dyes to observe them and photopgraphed through microscope • Worked on tuberculosis (TB) and awarded Nobel prize on 1905 for physiology and medicine • He invented hot air oven and stream sterilizer towards sterilization methods • Introduced four basic criteria known as “Koch’s postulates”
- 31. • “Koch’s postulates” 1. The organism must be found in the tissues of animals with the disease and not in disease-free animals. 2. The organism must be isolated from the diseased animal and grown in pure culture outside the body. 3. The cultured organism must be able to be transferred to a healthy animal, which will subsequently show signs of infections. 4. The organism must be able to be isolated from the infected animals.
- 33. • Limitations of “Koch’s postulates” 1. Infectious organism such as bacterium “Mycobacterium leprae”, some viruses and prions cannot be grown in artificial laboratory media. 2. Microorganism are normally part of normal flora of a host becomes capable of causing diseases when introduced into a different environment in the host (e.g., Staphyloccocus aureus) or when the host’s immune system is malfunctioning. E.g., Serratia marcescens
- 34. • Introduced method of vaccination for smallpox • He called his method Vaccination, using Latin word “vacca” meaning cow and “vaccinia” meaning Cow pox
- 35. • 348-322 BC: Aristotle and other believed that living organism could develop from non-living materials • 1590: Zacharias Janssen- developed first compound microscope
- 36. • 1660: Robert Hooke – Published “micrographia” drawing and detailed observations of biological materials made with the best compound microscope • 1676: Anton van Leeuwenhoek – 1st person to observe microorganism
- 37. • Spontaneous generation controversy • 1688: Francesco Redi (1626-1678) - was an Italian physician who refuted the idea of spontaneous generation by showing that rotting meat carefully kept from flies will not spontaneously produce maggots. • 1836: Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) - helped develop the cell theory of living organisms, namely that that all living organisms are composed of one or more cells and that the cell is the basic functional unit of living organisms.
- 38. • Joseph Lister (1827-1912) - introduced antiseptics in surgery. By spraying carbolic acid on surgical instruments, wounds and dressings, he reduced surgical mortality due to bacterial infection considerably. • He is known as father of antiseptic surgery • Roux and Yersin discovered Dipthera toxin • Ivanovasky found the existence of viruses • Walter reed demonstrated that yellow fever was caused by viruses • Medwar and Burnet developed the methods for immune suppression
- 39. • Zacharias and Hans janssen developed the first compound microscope • Eile Metchnikoff discovers the antibacterial activity of WBC called phagocytes • Paul Ehrlich discovered the treatment of Syphilis by using Arsenic. • Ruska develop a primitive electron microscope • Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin
Editor's Notes
- #43: Pathogens were identified, vaccines created, methodologies perfected, and foundations established that support modern research today