![Mitosis is conventionally divided into five phases: Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis is well underway by late telophase [Animations and videos listed on slide following figure]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/12lecturesppt-111108065058-phpapp02/85/12-lectures-ppt-16-320.jpg)
12 lectures ppt
- 1. Chapter 12 The Cell Cycle
- 2. Overview: The Key Roles of Cell Division The ability of organisms to reproduce best distinguishes living things from nonliving matter The continuity of life is based upon the reproduction of cells, or cell division
- 4. In unicellular organisms, division of one cell reproduces the entire organism Multicellular organisms depend on cell division for: Development from a fertilized cell Growth Repair Cell division is an integral part of the cell cycle, the life of a cell from formation to its own division
- 5. LE 12-2 Reproduction 100 µm Tissue renewal Growth and development 20 µm 200 µm
- 6. Concept 12.1: Cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells Cells duplicate their genetic material before they divide, ensuring that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the genetic material, DNA A dividing cell duplicates its DNA, allocates the two copies to opposite ends of the cell, and only then splits into daughter cells
- 7. Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material A cell’s endowment of DNA (its genetic information) is called its genome DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into chromosomes
- 8. Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus Somatic (nonreproductive) cells have two sets of chromosomes Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs) have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein that condenses during cell division
- 9. LE 12-3 25 µm
- 10. Distribution of Chromosomes During Cell Division In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids, which separate during cell division The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most closely attached
- 11. LE 12-4 Chromosome duplication (including DNA synthesis) 0.5 µm Centromere Sister chromatids Separation of sister chromatids Centromeres Sister chromatids
- 12. Eukaryotic cell division consists of: Mitosis, the division of the nucleus Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm Gametes are produced by a variation of cell division called meiosis Meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells that have only one set of chromosomes, half as many as the parent cell
- 13. Concept 12.2: The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle In 1882, the German anatomist Walther Flemming developed dyes to observe chromosomes during mitosis and cytokinesis To Flemming, it appeared that the cell simply grew larger between one cell division and the next Now we know that many critical events occur during this stage in a cell’s life
- 14. Phases of the Cell Cycle The cell cycle consists of Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis) Interphase (cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division) Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can be divided into subphases: G 1 phase (“first gap”) S phase (“synthesis”) G 2 phase (“second gap”)
- 15. LE 12-5 G 1 G 2 S (DNA synthesis) INTERPHASE Cytokinesis MITOTIC (M) PHASE Mitosis
- 16. Mitosis is conventionally divided into five phases: Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis is well underway by late telophase [Animations and videos listed on slide following figure]
- 17. LE 12-6ca G 2 OF INTERPHASE PROPHASE PROMETAPHASE
- 18. LE 12-6da METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS 10 µm
- 19. Video: Animal Mitosis Video: Sea Urchin (time lapse) Animation: Mitosis (All Phases) Animation: Mitosis Overview Animation: Late Interphase Animation: Prophase Animation: Prometaphase Animation: Metaphase Animation: Anaphase Animation: Telophase
- 20. The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look The mitotic spindle is an apparatus of microtubules that controls chromosome movement during mitosis Assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the centrosome, the microtubule organizing center The centrosome replicates, forming two centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell, as spindle microtubules grow out from them An aster (a radial array of short microtubules) extends from each centrosome
- 21. The spindle includes the centrosomes, the spindle microtubules, and the asters Some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes and move the chromosomes to the metaphase plate
- 22. LE 12-7 Microtubules Chromosomes Sister chromatids Aster Centrosome Metaphase plate Kineto- chores Kinetochore microtubules 0.5 µm Overlapping nonkinetochore microtubules 1 µm Centrosome
- 23. In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move along the kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at their kinetochore ends
- 24. LE 12-8b Chromosome movement Microtubule Motor protein Chromosome Kinetochore Tubulin subunits
- 25. Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite poles overlap and push against each other, elongating the cell In telophase, genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell
- 26. Cytokinesis: A Closer Look In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow In plant cells, a cell plate forms during cytokinesis Animation: Cytokinesis
- 27. LE 12-9a Cleavage furrow 100 µm Contractile ring of microfilaments Daughter cells Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)
- 28. LE 12-9b 1 µm Daughter cells Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM) New cell wall Cell plate Wall of parent cell Vesicles forming cell plate
- 29. LE 12-10 Nucleus Cell plate Chromosomes Nucleolus Chromatin condensing 10 µm Prophase. The chromatin is condensing. The nucleolus is beginning to disappear. Although not yet visible in the micrograph, the mitotic spindle is starting to form. Prometaphase. We now see discrete chromosomes; each consists of two identical sister chromatids. Later in prometaphase, the nuclear envelope will fragment. Metaphase. The spindle is complete, and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all at the metaphase plate. Anaphase. The chromatids of each chromosome have separated, and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the ends of the cell as their kinetochore micro- tubules shorten. Telophase. Daughter nuclei are forming. Meanwhile, cytokinesis has started: The cell plate, which will divide the cytoplasm in two, is growing toward the perimeter of the parent cell.
- 30. Binary Fission Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by a type of cell division called binary fission In binary fission, the chromosome replicates (beginning at the origin of replication), and the two daughter chromosomes actively move apart
- 31. LE 12-11_1 Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane Bacterial chromosome E. coli cell Two copies of origin Chromosome replication begins. Soon thereafter, one copy of the origin moves rapidly toward the other end of the cell.
- 32. LE 12-11_2 Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane Bacterial chromosome E. coli cell Two copies of origin Chromosome replication begins. Soon thereafter, one copy of the origin moves rapidly toward the other end of the cell. Replication continues. One copy of the origin is now at each end of the cell. Origin Origin
- 33. LE 12-11_3 Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane Bacterial chromosome E. coli cell Two copies of origin Chromosome replication begins. Soon thereafter, one copy of the origin moves rapidly toward the other end of the cell. Replication continues. One copy of the origin is now at each end of the cell. Origin Origin Replication finishes. The plasma membrane grows inward, and new cell wall is deposited. Two daughter cells result.
- 34. The Evolution of Mitosis Since prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes, mitosis probably evolved from binary fission Certain protists exhibit types of cell division that seem intermediate between binary fission and mitosis
- 35. LE 12-12 Bacterial chromosome Chromosomes Microtubules Prokaryotes Dinoflagellates Intact nuclear envelope Kinetochore microtubules Kinetochore microtubules Intact nuclear envelope Diatoms Centrosome Most eukaryotes Fragments of nuclear envelope
- 36. Concept 12.3: The cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system The frequency of cell division varies with the type of cell These cell cycle differences result from regulation at the molecular level
- 37. Evidence for Cytoplasmic Signals The cell cycle appears to be driven by specific chemical signals present in the cytoplasm Some evidence for this hypothesis comes from experiments in which cultured mammalian cells at different phases of the cell cycle were fused to form a single cell with two nuclei
- 38. LE 12-13 Experiment 1 Experiment 2 S S S G 1 G 1 M M M When a cell in the S phase was fused with a cell in G 1 , the G 1 cell immediately entered the S phase—DNA was synthesized. When a cell in the M phase was fused with a cell in G 1 , the G 1 cell immediately began mitosis—a spindle formed and chromatin condensed, even though the chromosome had not been duplicated.
- 39. The Cell Cycle Control System The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct cell cycle control system, which is similar to a clock The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received
- 40. LE 12-14 G 1 checkpoint G 1 S M M checkpoint G 2 checkpoint G 2 Control system
- 41. For many cells, the G 1 checkpoint seems to be the most important one If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G 1 checkpoint, it will usually complete the S, G 2 , and M phases and divide If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit the cycle, switching into a nondividing state called the G 0 phase
- 42. LE 12-15 G 1 G 1 checkpoint G 1 G 0 If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G 1 checkpoint, the cell continues on in the cell cycle. If a cell does not receive a go-ahead signal at the G 1 checkpoint, the cell exits the cell cycle and goes into G 0 , a nondividing state.
- 43. The Cell Cycle Clock: Cyclins and Cyclin-Dependent Kinases Two types of regulatory proteins are involved in cell cycle control: cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) The activity of cyclins and Cdks fluctuates during the cell cycle
- 44. LE 12-16a MPF activity G 1 G 2 S M S M G 2 G 1 M Cyclin Time Fluctuation of MPF activity and cyclin concentration during the cell cycle Relative concentration
- 45. LE 12-16b Degraded cyclin G 2 checkpoint S M G 2 G 1 Cdk Cyclin is degraded MPF Cyclin Cdk Molecular mechanisms that help regulate the cell cycle accumulation Cyclin
- 46. Stop and Go Signs: Internal and External Signals at the Checkpoints An example of an internal signal is that kinetochores not attached to spindle microtubules send a molecular signal that delays anaphase Some external signals are growth factors, proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide For example, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulates the division of human fibroblast cells in culture
- 47. LE 12-17 Petri plate Scalpels Without PDGF With PDGF Without PDGF With PDGF 10 mm
- 48. Another example of external signals is density-dependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop dividing Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence, in which they must be attached to a substratum in order to divide
- 49. LE 12-18a Cells anchor to dish surface and divide (anchorage dependence). When cells have formed a complete single layer, they stop dividing (density-dependent inhibition). If some cells are scraped away, the remaining cells divide to fill the gap and then stop (density-dependent inhibition). 25 µm Normal mammalian cells
- 50. Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence
- 51. LE 12-18b Cancer cells do not exhibit anchorage dependence or density-dependent inhibition. Cancer cells 25 µm
- 52. Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body’s control mechanisms Cancer cells form tumors, masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue If abnormal cells remain at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form secondary tumors
- 53. LE 12-19 Cancer cell Blood vessel Lymph vessel Tumor Glandular tissue Metastatic tumor A tumor grows from a single cancer cell. Cancer cells invade neighboring tissue. Cancer cells spread through lymph and blood vessels to other parts of the body. A small percentage of cancer cells may survive and establish a new tumor in another part of the body.