2010 smart hygiene solutions

Smart Hygiene Solutions
Examples of Hygiene Methods & Tools and Tips

1

Smart Hygiene Solutions
Examples of Hygiene Methods & Tools
and Tips

(Source: PLAN)

The first edition of this booklet was launched during the Global Handwashing
Day Campaign 2010. Each year in October, Global Handwashing Day is the
centerpiece of a week of activities that mobilise millions of people in more than
80 countries across all five continents to wash their hands with soap.
This booklet is the result of a successful cooperation between the Netherlands
Water Partnership (NWP), Unilever, Aqua for All, PLAN Nederland, IRC Interna-
tional Water and Sanitation Centre and all other organizations indicated under
Collaboration and Acknowledgement.

2 COLLABORATION

This publication is the result of a collaborative effort by a number of organisations:

International Water and Sanitation Centre

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3

We would like to thank the following organisations for their enthusiastic contribution to
this booklet:

Coordination/ main writers: Plan Nederland: Sharon Roose, Aqua for All: Elbrich Spijksma,
IRC: Tettje van Daalen, NWP: Mascha Singeling
Editing : Kathleen Shordt
Graphic Design : Grafisch ontwerpbureau Agaatsz bNO, Meppel
Financial Support : Unilever, Simavi, PLAN Nederland, Partners voor Water
Photos : PLAN International, IRC, Aqua for All, Unicef
Printing : High Trade, Zwolle

© 2010 KIT Publishers - Amsterdam
Kit Publishers
Mauritskade 63
PO Box 95001
1090 HA Amsterdam
W: www.kitpublishers.nl
E: publishers@kit.nl
ISBN 978 94 6022 127 9

4 TABLE OF CONTENT

FORWARD 5

SMART HYGIENE SOLUTIONS BOOKLET 7

WHAT IS HYGIENE? 8

WHAT IS HYGIENE PROMOTION? 12

METHODS OF HYGIENE PROMOTION 17

PARTICIPATORY STRATEGIES 18

SOCIAL MARKETING 22

TOTAL SANITATION 24

CLUBS 28

TOOLS ANDS TIPS FOR HYGIENE IMPROVEMENT 32

HAND WASHING 34

SAFE EXCRETA DISPOSAL 36

CLEAN WATER: TREATMENT, SAFE STORAGE AND ATTRACTION 38

MENSTRUAL HYGIENE 40

FOOD PREPARATION & STORAGE 42

VECTOR CONTROL 44

LITERATURE 51

FOREWORD 5

Approximately 120 million children are born in the developing world each year.
Halve of these children will live in households without access to improved
water and sanitation, which puts their survival and development at grave risk.
As a result of poor hygiene and lack of access to water and sanitation, 1.5 mil-
lion under five children die every year because of diarrhoeal diseases alone.
Vast improvement in water, sanitation and hygiene are needed to meeting
Millennium Development Goal Four- reducing death among children under
the age of five by two-thirds by 2015.
The importance of hygiene in water and sanitation programmes has often been
neglected. Too often improvement in hygiene was thought to follow automat-
ically once water and sanitation facilities are in place. But in practice improving
hygiene behaviour requires special attention.
Hand washing with soap is the most effective and inexpensive way to prevent
diarrhoeal and acute respiratory infections, which take the lives of millions of
children in developing countries every year. Yet, despite its lifesaving potential,
hand washing with soap is seldomly practiced and difficult to promote.
To achieve behaviour change at the scale that's required to meet Millennium
Development Goal 4, public and private sector organisations need to join
forces, bringing their expertise and resources to the table to create campaigns
that reach homes, schools and communities worldwide.
This is why Unilever through its lifebuoy brand has made the commitment to
change the hand washing behaviour of one billion people by 2015. Together
with a wide array of governments, international institutions, civil society or-
ganisations, NGOs, private companies and individuals around the globe,
Unilever works to deliver a positive impact to everyday health through the
hand washing campaign of its Lifebuoy product.
This booklet on Smart Hygiene Solutions, gives examples of approaches, tools
and tips that aim to improve hygiene behaviour and
environmental conditions. I hope this booklet helps
to develop interventions that lead to sustainable
changes in hygiene and contributes to the further
improvement of everyday health in developing
countries.

Dr Myriam Sidibe

Global Social Mission Manager for Lifebuoy
Unilever United Kingdom

SMART HYGIENE SOLUTIONS BOOKLET 7

The Smart Hygiene Solutions booklet is written for non-governmental organi-
sations (NGOs), community-based organisations (CBOs) and local health workers
who seek to help break the cycle of disease transmission by improving the hy-
giene conditions of communities and households in developing countries. This
booklet aims to assist them in developing smart hygiene promotion interven-
tions by offering an overview of different approaches and tools that intend to
improve hygiene behaviours and environmental conditions. It aims to inspire
the reader to find out more about the methods and tools presented in the
booklet. Like the previous booklets-- Smart Water, Sanitation, Water Harvest-
ing, Finance and Disinfection Solutions-- it is not written to serve as a manual,
but aims to provide the reader with useful links for further reading.
The first part of the booklet provides an introduction on the importance of
hygiene and the concept of hygiene promotion.
The next part describes several hygiene promotion methods and highlights
cases in which these methods have been used.
The final section of the booklet describes some smart tools and tips that facil-
itate good hygiene behaviour.
We sincerely hope that this booklet will inspire and assist people to make the
right choice for smart hygiene solutions that will contribute to improve the
hygiene behaviours and conditions of their target groups.

8 WHAT IS HYGIENE?

The importance of hygiene
The provision of safe water and sanitation is one of the keys to break the cycle
of poverty. Access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation has therefore
been included as a target in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
However, the risk is that if too much emphasis is given to the technical solutions
to increase the number of people gaining access to water and sanitation, while
the importance of hygiene in water and sanitation programmes is overlooked.
Promoting hygiene not only contributes to improved health outcomes but is a
crucial factor in the sustainability of water and sanitation programmes.

If health is the machinery of life, cleanliness is its tools and spare parts -
As'ad Khalil Dagher

Unhygienic behaviour has a tremendous impact on human health and develop-
ment. Diarrhoeal diseases and pneumonia together for example, are responsi-
ble for approximately 40 per cent (3.4 million children) of all under five deaths
around the world each year (UNICEF/WHO, 2009). A substantial part of this
can be prevented with safe hygiene practices.
The results of an overall analysis of WASH-interventions (3IE, 2009) point out
that hygienic behaviour is a vital element of the prevention of diarrhoeal diseases.
It indicated that more than one out of three cases of diarrhoeal disease (37%)
might be avoided in children younger than five years by consistent hand washing
with soap. The same study found that improving sanitation (34%) and ensuring
access to safe water at the point of use (29%) are of prime importance as well. Hy-
giene education on its own was related to a 27% reduction of diarrhoeal disease.

Figure 1: Effectiveness (%) of WASH interventions to reduce diarrhoea morbidity in children
under 5.

(Source: 3IE, 2009)

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The positive effects of hand washing with soap are not limited to the reduction
of diarrhoea. The rate of respiratory diseases was found to be almost one-fourth
less (25% reduction) as a result of hand washing with soap (Ensink & Curtis).
However, hygiene behaviour includes more than hand washing and its impact
on people’s health is therefore even greater than outlined above. Good per-
sonal and environmental hygiene for example are of prime importance for
reducing blinding Trachoma, a disease currently affecting 84 million people
worldwide of which 7.6 million are blind (WHO, 2005). For people suffering
from HIV/AIDS, hygiene measures are very important as well. Because their
resistance is lower for other diseases, people with HIV/AIDS more frequently
have diarrhoea and skin infections, both of which are often waterborne and
are related to poor hygiene (WSSCC, 2009).

What do we mean by hygiene?
The word hygiene refers to the practice of keeping oneself and one’s surrounding
clean, especially in order to prevent illness or the spread of disease. So, hygiene
refers to behaviours and practices that are used to break the chain of infection
transmission in the home and community. Good hygiene and sanitation prac-
tices are closely linked and often difficult to distinguish. Therefore it is impor-
tant to mention that in this booklet the word sanitation refers to the individual
management of human excreta and that sanitation in this sense is included in
the concept of hygiene as defined above. The concept of hygiene can be sub-
divided into different categories such as personal, water, food and environmen-
tal hygiene, and is not limited to the prevention of water related diseases alone.
However, because this booklet is part of a SMART Solutions Series on WASH, we
will focus largely on hygienic practices that aim to prevent water borne diseases.

Transmission and prevention of water borne diseases
Water borne diseases are also called faecal-oral diseases, since they are largely
caused by micro-organisms present in human or animal waste (faeces) finding
their way into humans via the mouth (orally). The transmission may happen
through drinking from a contaminated water supply (water-borne disease), but
more often faecal –oral diseases are spread via hands, clothes, food and utensils
for cooking, eating or drinking.

Water borne diseases are the main cause of diarrhoea and consequently the
main focus of hygiene promotion within the field of water and sanitation.

10

Figure 2: The F-diagram explains the fecal-oral transmission route and barriers.

Safe water barrier

Toilet barrier

Hygiene & hand-
washing barriers

(Source: Water1st.org)

Three crucial behaviours
It is widely recognised that for reducing the risk of diarrhoeal disease transmis-
sion, great attention needs to be given to three interventions that form a bar-
rier in the fecal-oral transmission route as shown in figure 2. These interventions
are:
. Hand washing with soap at critical times
. Ensuring access to safe drinking water at the point of use
. Safe disposal of faeces
Other hygiene practices are generally introduced once these primary interven-
tions are in place.

For the successful implementation of a hygiene promotion programme, it is
important to focus on only a small number of practices at one time. Therefore
it is necessary to focus on those practices that form the greatest health risk for
the community. This can be difficult if the community is not particularly inter-
ested in a crucial practice. Some projects begin with hygiene or sanitation activ-
ities in which the communities and community leaders have greatest interest.

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This might, for example, be cleaning public areas or building toilets. Then, the
other crucial hygiene practices are gradually introduced. Some projects spend
considerable time and resources on motivating people for the crucial hygiene
practices in which, at first, they had less interest, for example, hand washing
by men.

(Source: PLAN)

12 WHAT IS HYGIENE PROMOTION?

What do we mean by hygiene promotion
Hygiene promotion encourages people to replace their unsafe hygiene practices
with simple, safe alternatives. In many parts of the developing world these
practices are not traditionally seen as ways to prevent disease and therefore
must be actively promoted within water and sanitation projects.

How hygiene behaviours can best be stimulated, is subject to many studies
and discussions. The first generation of hygiene improvement programmes
consisted of top-down communication and educational activities that mainly
addressed the link between good hygiene and better health. This method is
known as hygiene education. In recent years it has become clear that providing
information on health alone is not sufficient to change people’s practices.
Knowledge is not enough. People can be strongly motivated to change their
behaviour by improvements in privacy, convenience, dignity, security, social
status resulting from changes in sanitation and hygiene as well as disgust with
the old practices (Jenkins and Sugden, 2006). Economic savings and incentives,
like lower costs for health care, can also play an important role in behavioural
change. These insights have led to new approaches that, as a group, are called
hygiene promotion. This bottom-up approach, if carried out correctly, takes into
account and challenges the different reasons that motivate or hold people back
from improving their hygiene behaviours. Hygiene education may be part of
this methodology; however, hygiene promotion includes additional elements.
Hygiene promotion builds upon the knowledge, behaviour and beliefs that
people already have. Hygiene promotion for improved sanitation practices also
includes a set of interventions that aim to make an end to open defecation and
create demand for sanitary facilities. The phrase sanitation promotion refers to
that particular branch.

Communication Channels for promoting Hygiene
Communication is at the heart of all smart hygiene promotion programmes.
The transfer of information (communication) has an important role in making
target populations aware of right hygienic practices and the benefits of invest-
ing in them. The essence of good communication is to bring across a clear mes-
sage through the right communication channel for the targeted audience. It’s
important to not overload the audience with too much information at one time
and to focus on a few messages only. There are different communication channels
to use based upon the programme objective and the audience:
. Interpersonal communication: This is an intensive, interactive and trust pro-
voking medium. It reaches only a small segment of the population at once.

13

But it is suitable for providing detailed information and helps to instantly
address important issues. It facilitates the creation of a supportive environ-
ment and allows for immediate feedback. The medium is appropriate to
communicate messages to an illiterate audience and can reach areas that
aren’t covered by mass media.
. Traditional media: Storytelling, folk dances, live theatre, songs etc. are tradi-
tional forms for the transfer of information and are still effective for trans-
mitting messages. This media enables the use of local customs and terms
that make it easy for the audience to relate to. It also allows for the involve-
ment of the community. This medium reaches only a small number of indi-
viduals at the same time.
. Graphics: Graphics can be used to support a message, which is also delivered
through another medium. When the target audience is exposed to the
graphic, it acts a reminder of the message they’ve received before. Graphics
provides basic information on the issue or the product at stake and its ben-
efits. Graphics can also be distributed in areas that have not been reached
by mass media.
. Print mass media: Print media is an important means for reaching a large
literate number of people in one stroke. Print media is considered to be trust-
worthy. It is suitable for providing detailed information, but focusing on the
key message is recommended for achieving optimum results. The use of vi-
suals makes a print message more effective. Print media is only accessible for
a literate audience.
. Audiovisual mass media (radio and television): Can be very powerful and have
the capacity of reaching a large literate and illiterate audience at once. The
images visible on television or created by radio make the message more
receptive and contribute to the credibility of the message as well. Commu-
nication via radio and television is suitable for both literates and illiterates.

Case Communication Channels: Radio Soap Pilika Pilika in Tanzania
Pilika Pilika is a weekly radio soap, which engages listeners in water, sanitation and
hygiene issues through the characters living in the hypothetical village of Jitazame.
The characters’ experiences are being used to highlight behaviours detrimental to
health and offer solutions to existing problems. The radio soap is backed up by a radio
talk show in which listeners call or write in with questions and experts are interviewed
giving practical advice on how to address problems raised in the soap opera. For ex-
ample, numerous listeners write in to request information on how to prevent collapsing
of latrines or instructions on how to make a Tippy Tap. The radio programme has

14

national coverage and is aired at prime time when most of the rural and peri-urban
communities listen to the radio.
The Pilika Pilika radio programme focuses on communities who have little access to
education and information on issues affecting their lives like health, water and educa-
tion. Monitoring and evaluation reveals that the programme provides for a crucial
platform for education, helping behaviour change and empowerment in rural and
peri-urban communities. Water and sanitation related health problems are addressed
in an easy and accessible way and the programme appears to be popular in many
communities.
(Source: Simavi)

Participatory methods
Most of the hygiene and sanitation promotion methods described in this book-
let are based on participation of groups or whole communities. To stimulate
this participation, different participatory methods can be used. Participatory
methods are interactive and often visual which encourage the involvement of
individuals in a group learning and action planning processes. They are de-
signed to build self-esteem and a sense of responsibility for decisions.

Examples of participatory methods are focussed group discussions (if carried
out correctly), community mapping and three pile sorting. With three pile sorting
participants are given a set of drawings showing different situations. For ex-
ample: about household hygiene practices or latrine use. They are then asked
to decide in small groups whether each picture is good, bad or in-between,
putting the drawings in piles according to their choice, and explaining their
choices.

To understand hygiene and sanitation issues fully, it is necessary to understand
why people do what they do and what physical, social, cultural or economic
constraints might influence their behaviour. There are many participatory
methods that can be used to gather this kind of information such as discussing
the history line in a group or health walks, school surveys and key informant
discussions.

15

(Source: PLAN)

During a health walks a study team of people from the community walks around
the town or village and marks on a map or makes a map with key information
such as where people get their drinking water, the condition of pumps, and
where open defecation takes place, who has toilets and so on. This information can
then be used in the planning to discuss what the ideal situation would be, what
needs to take place to achieve the ideal and how to change this behaviour.

The challenges of SMART hygiene promotion
Hygiene promotion is a delicate intervention because it aims to change people’s
behaviour that originates in local customs, taboos and beliefs. Facilitating be-
havioural change therefore requires an in-depth knowledge of the target
community. In order to be effective, hygiene promoters need to have well-de-
signed approaches that allow them to understand the motivations, concerns
and constraints of the community with regard to hygiene behaviour. These
determinants, also called enabling factors, need to be addressed in such a way
that the target community itself is able to bring about and continue new
healthy practices. Therefore, it is important to recognise that new behaviours
are not only controlled by motivation but also by opportunities and abilities.
These, in turn, are influenced by various factors such as gender, ethnicity, religion,
age, setting (rural versus urban), availability of water and so on. Concerning

16

gender one should not only focus on women and children, but also involve men
in order to have maximum impact. Because of the difference in hygiene prob-
lems and possible solutions in rural or urban settings hygiene and sanitation
should be promoted differently. It is also important to consider the cost and
effort required to try out a new practice. If the effort required seems too much
to people (for example, a lot more water has to be taken from a distant water
point), then it will be difficult to sustain a new practice.

Just as there are many challenges in hygiene promotion, so there are many
approaches and methods. SMART hygiene promotion involves choosing the
right methods for the community at stake and increasing their access to help-
ful tools and techniques. This booklet aims to assist in making a deliberate
choice for SMART hygiene promotion by offering an overview of the different
approaches and tools that facilitate good hygiene behaviour.

(Source: PLAN)

METHODS OF HYGIENE PROMOTION 17

This chapter will give some examples of methods and strategies that can be
used by development workers to promote safer hygienic and sanitation prac-
tices. This chapter will provide you with a short description of the most com-
monly used methods, tips and pitfalls and a case where this approach has been
used in practice. It is important to realize that the methods and strategies
presented here are described only briefly and that the overview is not exhaus-
tive. When handbooks and training manuals are available for a certain method
or strategy, this will be mentioned in the following sections.
To promote hygiene and sanitation, there are three main approaches: partici-
patory methods, social marketing strategies and community (and school) based
strategies. These approaches overlap somewhat; and thus, a social marketing
project might contain participatory activities. Similarly, a programme that is
community-based can have many participatory activities or social marketing
methods. What approaches or strategies are most suitable for a certain hygiene
promotion programme depends on the local conditions and specific objectives
of that programme and should be carefully planned by the implementing actors.
It may be helpful to understand the improvement of hygiene behaviours and
sanitation as a process, sometimes compared to a ladder. With respect to sani-
tation, people are expected to move along a continuum from open defecation
via improved facilities to the use of private hygienic toilets. On the hygiene
ladder people are expected to follow a continuum that ranges from no key be-
haviours at all to achieving a fully hygienic environment in the end. Both
processes are depicted in figure 4.

Figure 3: The Hygiene and Sanitation ladder. Most of the time, these processes
do not move step-by-step. Instead
of moving up the ladder one step
at the time, communities and
households will move up and
down and skip steps as circum-
stances dictate. It is the task of
the people involved in projects to
select interventions that respond
to the current set of behaviours
in the community and seek to
make sustainable moves up the
ladder. This booklet aims to pro-
vide information to help make
(Source: WSCC, 2010) these decisions.

18 PARTICIPATORY STRATEGIES

Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation (PHAST)

What is it?
Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation (PHAST) is designed to
promote hygiene behaviour, sanitation improvement and community manage-
ment of water and sanitation facilities. It does so by promoting health aware-
ness and understanding which leads to environmental and behavioural
improvements. PHAST builds on people’s ability to address and resolve their
own problems via participatory learning.

How does it work?
PHAST uses methods and materials that stimulate the participation of women,
men and children in the development process. The materials comprise of a se-
ries of images that refer to hygiene circumstances. Groups of people from the
community are asked to relate these images to the local situation and to share
how they feel this situation should be addressed. People are not provoked to
expose themselves and share their private experiences. When individual input
is required a method is available that allows the participants to vote in secret
(see page 28 for more information on Community Health Clubs).

PHAST uses seven steps to facilitate community planning and action:
1 Problem identification
2 Problem analyses
3 Planning for solutions
4 Selecting options
5 Planning for new facilities and behaviour change
6 Planning for monitoring end evaluation
7 Participatory evaluation

When to Use it?
The PHAST method can be used in communities where basic hygiene behaviour
and/or sanitation facilities are lacking or not entirely developed. PHAST can be
used in both rural and urban areas. The method can be adjusted to deal with
HIV/AIDS, alcohol and drug abuse as well. PHAST has been successfully used
within Community Health Clubs.

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Tips & Pitfalls
. PHAST is about facilitation and not about directing. Communities should determine
their own priorities for disease prevention.
. Skilled and trained facilitators are needed for PHAST. Community members must
invest time in the PHAST exercises.
. PHAST method has a tendency to become a talk shop. Make sure that plans reach
the implementation phase.
. PHAST relies heavily on graphic materials (toolkits) that should be produced locally
to suit the local circumstances.
. When financial resources are limited one can make good use of cheaper toolkits, for
example by bringing along paper and colouring pencils and let the community make
their own drawings.

Case PHAST: Katwe Urban Pilot Project, Uganda
In Uganda PHAST has been tested in the Katwe Urban Pilot Project (KUPP) in a low-in-
come peri-urban artisan community near the city of Kampala. Here, five extension
workers and 20 community members were trained in the methods.
The project goal was to improve environmental conditions by using the PHAST method
to stimulate community involvement, to raise awareness about health risks and to set
in motion some planning and action. At first the community, mostly men, was resistant
even to meet with field workers. However, little by little, community members began
attending meetings and using the graphic materials to discuss their problems.
Within six months of an initial visit by one field worker, the community built latrines,
organized the operation and maintenance of neglected communal drains, collected
tariffs to pay for maintenance workers for
drains and water points, and organized
their own system of monitoring commu-
nity sanitation. The community adopted
the graphic materials and discussion
techniques of the field worker in order
to continue the process of community
development in her absence.
(Source: WHO)

Further Reading
Download PHAST manual on:
http://www.who.int/water_sanita-
(Source: PLAN)

tion_health/hygiene/envsan/phaste
p/en/index.html

20 PARTICIPATORY STRATEGIES

Children’s Hygiene And Sanitation Training (CHAST) & Participatory Hygiene
and Sanitation Education (PHASE)

What is it?
Because the PHAST approach was initially designed for adults, it has been re-
vised and adapted to suit the needs of young children. Both the Children’s Hy-
giene And Sanitation Training (CHAST) and the Participatory Hygiene and
Sanitation Education (PHASE) approach are based on the premise that personal
hygiene practices are usually acquired during childhood, and that it is much
easier to change the habits of children than those of adults. While children have
less knowledge and experience, fewer responsibilities and a different percep-
tion of time and the future, they are also naturally inquisitive and eager to learn.
The CHAST and PHASE materials take advantage of these natural attributes.
CHAST and PHASE encourage children to actively participate in open discussions
and, wherever possible, to share their experiences and ideas with other children
and their family. CHAST does this in a community environment and PHASE in
a school environment.

How does it work?
In the CHAST/PHASE exercises, children are encouraged to work independently
in pairs or in small groups, and then to present their thoughts and findings to
the larger group. Above all, CHAST/PHASE tools are meant to be fun, involving
games, exercises and role-plays that prompt the children to discuss and gen-
uinely understand the key issues related to personal cleanliness and hygiene.

Step-by-step activities:
1 Introduction/warming up
2 Problem identification
3 Problem analyses
4 Practicing good behaviour
5 Monitoring/ reflection/ follow up

When to use it?
PHASE can be used within schools where basic hygiene behaviour and/or sani-
tation facilities are lacking or not entirely developed. CHAST/PHASE can be used
in both rural and urban-based settings. School Health (Hygiene) Clubs should
be introduced as part of the approach (see page 30 for more information on
School Health Clubs).

21

Tips & Pitfalls
. If schools don’t provide the facilities children need for sanitation, hand washing and
water supply it may be very difficult for the children to acquire appropriate sanita-
tion and hygiene behaviour.
. Emphasis is not on instruction but on challenging the children to think for them-
selves and to facilitate them towards decision making.
. Continuing maintenance and provision for purchase of materials (soap, cleansing
materials, spare parts) should be planned carefully from the beginning.

Case PHASE: David Wamalwa, former PHASE Project Manager AMREF:
When we started the project in 1998 in the four pilot schools in Western Kenya, we
discovered that the performance of students improved considerably and cases of ab-
senteeism had reduced significantly. All this because of the simple awareness of the
importance of cleaning your hands! We called it ‘happy hands’.
Armed with the results from the pilot schools, in 2000 PHASE was scaled up to 247
schools in 10 districts in Kenya, reaching approximately 83,000 children. PHASE also
helped increase the use of tippy taps, latrines, dish racks and refuse pits, and the
treatment of water in the target communities. This helped us identify the three pil-
lars of PHASE: hand washing, greater access to water and safer human waste dis-
posal. Apart from school health clubs, information was also transmitted through the
Child to Parent component of PHASE. Pupils trained at school went back home and
passed information on hygiene and sanitation to
their parents and their community. The project also
included de-worming and construction of toilets
and hand washing points at schools.
By the end of the project in 2004, absenteeism,
diarrhoea, cases of intestinal worms and eye and
skin infections had greatly reduced in schools prac-
tising PHASE, compared with those that did not.
In 2009 the Ministry of Education also developed
and launched, what it calls the ‘Comprehensive
School Health Policy’ that is based on PHASE expe-
riences and lessons learned. (Source: AMREF)
(Source: AMREF)

Further Reading
. Download CHAST manual on:
http://ochaonline.un.org/OchaLinkClick.aspx?link=ocha&docId=1108772
. Download Children’s Hygiene And Sanitation Training (CHAST): A practical guide:
www.schools.watsan.net/Somalia%20final%20%20CHAST%20SSHE%20case%20
study_WE...
. Website about WASH in Schools: http://www.schools.watsan.net
. Website Children’s Hygiene And Sanitation Training (CHAST) in Somalia:
http://www.irc.nl/page/13170

22 SOCIAL MARKETING

What is it?
Social marketing, developed in retail businesses, became a strategy for hygiene
programming about 20 years ago. Marketing requires an understanding of what
the target audience wants. People have many competing priorities in life and
the behaviour being promoted needs to be perceived as a top priority. The target
audience must want and be able to change their behaviour. Social marketing
is developed around a “4P”framework:
1 Product may be an object (like a latrine) or a practice with objects (e.g. wash-
ing hands with soap).
2 Price: Products need to be affordable in terms of money and the extra effort
needed, for example, effort to carry more water home.
3 Place: The products must be easily available and communication must reach
the audiences.
4 Promotion requires understanding the motivations of audiences and the
channels of communication they trust.

How does it work?
There are five major stages in social marketing:
1 Planning: Define the desired behaviour. Break the target audience into
groups that will be reached in different ways such as mothers of young
children or fathers. Study the barriers and motivations for changing behaviour
and how to communicate this.
2 Plan different messages for each audience, for example, disgust with con-
tamination or desire to care for children or dignity. Study how to reach the
different audiences (radio, face-to-face communication, schools, etc.).
3 Pre-test and select the messages and ways of reaching the audiences.
4 Implementation: Bring together partners, train, produce materials/pro-
grammes, implement as planned.
5 Monitoring: Measure access to messages, frequency, problems and behaviour
change taking place. Change the plan when monitoring shows there are
problems.

When to use it?
Single and not too complex hygiene practices, such as hand washing with soap
at critical times or hygienic use of toilets may be promoted best through social
marketing approaches.

23

Tips & Pitfalls
Use formative research to develop the programme, including in-depth interviews, focus
group discussions and surveys, and trials with small groups.
. Social marketing of hand washing with soap has grown internationally mainly in
large-scale programmes. NGOs can apply the same approaches at local levels, using
a combination of local media and inter-personal contacts.

Case Social Marketing: Promoting hand washing with soap in Vietnam
The Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) has supported the Ministries of Health and
Education to carry out a social marketing programme promoting hand washing with
soap among women aged 15-49 and schoolchildren aged 6-10 in Vietnam. Research was
conducted with mothers and school children, teachers and also grandparents who also
take care of grandchildren. This gave insight into the minds and realities of caregivers
and children to better understand barriers and motivations to washing hands with
soap. For children, the research led to an education entertainment programme com-
bining mass media and interpersonal communications to reach children in the class-
rooms and in their homes. For women, promotion of hand washing with soap is done
through journals, television, and interpersonally by
the national women’s and youth unions. These or-
ganisations have influence and are respected. The
programme has reached almost two million peo-
ple up to 2010 and will expand.
(Source WSP)

(Source: PLAN)

Further Reading
. Download WELL factsheets: the process of sanitation marketing:
http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/Sanitation
%20marketing.htm
. Download WELL Factsheet Social Marketing: A Consumer-based Approach to Pro-
moting Safe Hygiene Behaviours: http://www.ilboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-
sheets/fact-sheets-htm/Social%20marketing.htm
. Website Unilevers hand washing campaign: www.lifebuoy.com
. Website Global Handwashing Partnership: http://globalhandwashing.org/

24 TOTAL SANITATION

Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS)

What is it?
Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) is a sanitation promotion strategy that
focuses on igniting a change in sanitation behaviour. CLTS focuses on the dan-
gers of open defecation and emphasizes the sense of disgust about this practice.
Social solidarity, help and cooperation among the households in the community
are a common and vital element in CLTS.

How does it work?
The goal of CLTS is for communities to reach the Open Defecation Free (ODF)
status. While there is considerable variation among CLTS programmes, the ap-
proach usually includes the following steps:
1 Discuss the impacts of open defecation with an external facilitator.
2 Visit sites of open defecation by community members and leaders.
3 Map out the areas of open defecation.
4 Work out how much human waste they produce in total.
5 The community draws up an action plan to tackle the situation.
6 Health and hygiene promotion sessions are carried out.
7 The facilitator and community work out an action plan.
8 Construction of latrines begins1. Members of the community who are not
abiding by the new rules are discouraged from this behaviour.
9 Latrines are now available to everyone and hygiene promotion continues.
10 The community is awarded ODF status and a sign is erected at the entrance
of the village.

When to Use it?
CLTS is used in areas where open defecation is a common practice. CLTS is easier
to launch in communities that have not been previously reached by other hy-
giene or sanitation interventions. When subsidies have been involved earlier,
people may have reservations about the CLTS approach. CLTS has been devel-
oped for rural areas. However, efforts are being made to adjust CLTS to urban
settings2.

1
In the ignition phase, emphasis is on reaching ODF status and thus on the quantity of
latrines. In a later stage the quality of latrines needs to be addressed, for example by
means of a social marketing campaign.
2
PLAN International has conducted a pilot on Urban Total Sanitation (UTS) in Bangladesh
and is currently starting up UTS in African Countries.

25

Tips & Pitfalls
. It is fundamental that CLTS involves no individual hardware subsidies and does not
prescribe latrine models.
. Learn local, crude words for ‘shit’ and use them to cut through the deadly silence
around open defecation.
. Emphasis on social control should not lead to harsh punishment of people who do
not participate.
. It is important to emphasise on practices such as cleaning and sustaining latrines.

Case Community Led Total Sanitation: How to say shit in Portuguese
“How do you say ‘shit’?” asks UNICEF WASH specialist Americo Muianga. Huge giggles
erupt from the crowd, along with the answer, “matudzi.”
Volunteers are drawn from the crowd to draw a map of their village. In Chibwe, the
villagers use a stick to outline the roads and houses in the sand. White maize powder
defines the major landmarks: the school, the water point, the road to the nearest clinic,
the local church. More volunteers are asked to stand where they live. From there they
are given grey ash and asked to mark where they defecate. Embarrassed chuckles fol-
low as piles of grey ash appear on the map.
“You then calculate the quantity of faeces for each week, month and year for each
household,” says Mr. Muianga. “Then you start discussing the quantity and where it
goes.” The tabulation is drawn on white butcher paper and held up for everyone to

(Source: PLAN)
see – 84,720 piles of faeces annually from 93 households. The giggles become laughs.
Then begins the ‘walk of shame’ in which village members are asked to physically go
to where the excreta is and see how it could infect the local water supply or contribute
to breeding grounds for flies and mosquitoes. They return to the shade of the trees for
a food demonstration. A plate of fresh food is
given to a volunteer to eat. After a few mouth-
fuls, the plate is put in the centre of the crowd,
along with some just-collected faeces. It does
not take long in the heat for the flies to move
back and forth between the two. Asked to resume
eating, the volunteer quickly refuses, shaking his
head in horror. No one chuckles. They get it.
(Source: Unicef)

Further Reading
. Download Handbook on CLTS (IDS and Plan International): http://www.commu-
nityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/handbook-community-led-total-sanitation
. Website CLTS: http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org

26 TOTAL SANITATION

School Led Total Sanitation

What is it?
School Led Total Sanitation (SLTS) is a variation or an addition to the Commu-
nity Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) method. In the SLTS method schools serve as
centers for change in the communities. School children bring home the lessons
learned on toilet use and hygiene behaviour and influence their families and
other children in the community.

The distinction between SLTS and Child Hygiene and Sanitation Training (CHAST)
is that SLTS focuses on the community via school children and emphasizes the
dangers of open defecation and a sense of disgust. CHAST focuses on children
and not 0n the community. Above all CHAST tools are meant to be fun.

How does it work?
The approach is built on the use of activity-oriented, participatory exercises to
raise awareness of sanitation issues among school children. Hygiene education
and CLTS-type sanitation promotion tools are used to encourage children to
change their hygiene and sanitation behaviour. As the process unfolds the
school environment becomes cleaner; the adults then see the improvements
at the school and instigate changes at home. Therefore, the children become
agents of change as their school leads the way in promotion of sanitation im-
provements within their community (WSSCC, 2010).

When to use it
SLTS can be used in situations where open defecation is still common and/or
toilets are not yet available in a community.

Tips & Pitfalls
. The success of the approach depends heavily upon the teachers training and moti-
vation. The teachers must be motivated to take a leading role.
. Preferably teachers should live in the community rather than on the school campus.
In this way the teachers will also bring the sanitation issue into the community.
. SLTS is can also be combined with Community Led Total Sanitation.
. (see CLTS for more tips & pitfalls).

27

Case SLTS: School Children lead sanitation drive in Nepal
Around the countryside of the Kaski district in Nepal, school children led their commu-
nities in a sanitation drive as the Eighth National Sanitation Action Week got underway
earlier this month. All 549 homes in the area of this Village Development Committee
have a toilet and there is no open defecation.
“Earlier when we went to our neighbours and told them about the benefits of con-
structing a latrine, they would chase us out as if we said something offensive,” says
eighth grader Madan Pokharel, the chairperson of the children’s club for Meghraj
Lower Secondary School. “But now, everybody takes pride in the fact that there isn’t
even cow-dung or trash on the roads in our village,” says the 14-year-old. “The children
were excited when we told them what we were planning to do in the village,” says Tika
Ram Lamsal, the headmaster of Meghraj Lower Secondary School and coordinator of
the total sanitation campaign for Ghachowk village. “We did all we could but it was
ultimately upon children like Madan who could better convince their parents,” he says.
Initially, UNICEF and the Water Supply and Sanitation Sub Divisional Office (WSSDO)
trained the teachers and offered to provide a toilet pan, pipes and technical support to
every household to construct a latrine. But soon, community members started buying
their own materials, and now most donor agencies are discouraging any direct inter-
ventions.
After the school students received
training from their teachers, they
began to campaign and educate
their parents and neighbours
about the benefits of construct-
ing a latrine and keeping their
community clean. The joint com-
mittee of students and adult
community members also share
responsibilities for trash collec-
(Source: Unicef)

tion, sweeping roads and clear-
ing the neighbourhood of
animal waste.
(Source: Unicef)

Further Reading
. Download Guidelines on School Led Total Sanitation. Steering Committee for Na-
tional Sanitation Action Department of Water Supply and Sewerage and UNICEF,
Nepal (2006): http://origin-www.unicef.org/wash/files/SLTS_Book_(Eng).pdf
. SLTS information on website IRC: http://www.irc.nl/page/40584

28 CLUBS

Community Health (Hygiene) Clubs

What is it?
Community Health Clubs (CHC) are free, voluntary, community-based organi-
sations formed to provide a forum for information and good practice relating to
improving family health. They vary in size and composition and are facilitated
by a health extension worker. The concept of a CHC combines participatory
health education with the strength of peer pressure and the desire to conform.
While CHCs are meant to address health issues in general, sanitation and hy-
giene behaviour can be starting points for all CHCs.

How does it work?
The CHC gathers regularly and discusses health improvement opportunities
that can be applied at home directly. This can involve changes like covering
stored water or building a latrine with locally available materials. In the fol-
lowing meeting the activities and results will be discussed and if no problems
arise from this appraisal a new issue will be discussed.

When to use it?
Community Health Clubs can be introduced in order to facilitate the implemen-
tation of PHAST, CLTS and other forms of hygiene and health promotion activi-
ties.

Tips & Pitfalls
. More than one CHC can be organized in a community.
. Mobilisation by political, religious and local leaders is a key factor for the successful
creation of CHCs.
. Membership cards and attendance certificates are important incentives for mem-
bers.
. Opportunities for income generation may be another incentive for members to join
the CHC.
. Community peer pressure and the member’s desire to conform to social norms are
paramount for the success of the CHC.
. Organise meetings at most convenient time and location for all members.

29

Case Community Health Club: Uganda
In Pader district, a hygiene and sanitation promotion project has been implemented
by an NGO called Health Integrated Development Organisation based in Gulu district.
The aim of the project was promoting sanitation and hygiene in nine satellite camps
where internally displaced people live.
Some of the CHC activities include: home improvement activities like digging latrines,
refuse pits, bath shelters and drying racks, formation of drama groups within the
clubs, inter- and intra-club competitions. Some of the achievements over a period of
two months in the nine camps were the construction of sanitation facilities in large
numbers: 500 pit latrines, 108 rubbish pits, 1223 drying racks, 228 hand washing facili-
ties and 658 bath shelters.
(Source: IRC)

(Source: PLAN)

Further Reading
. Download factsheets that can be used as education material within clubs:
http://www.connectinternational.nl/english/smartmodules/smart-dev/fact-sheets,
or http://www.cawst.org/en/resources/pubs/category/1-cawst-poster-series
. WELL Briefing Note 38 (2007). The Consensus Approach. Health Promotion Through
Community Health Clubs http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/Publications/
Briefing%20Notes/BN%2038%20Consensus.htm
. Website Community Health Club Approach: http://www.africaahead.org/

30 CLUBS

School Health Clubs (SHCs)

What is it?
School Health Clubs (SHCs) support the implementation of WASH programmes
in schools. The aim of SHCs is to involve children as advocates for hygiene and
sanitation practices in schools and the community. The formation of a SHC of-
fers the possibility of more interaction and participation than traditional top-
down teaching. It is therefore considered to be more effective for fostering
behavioural change. The concept of SHCs stems from the increasing recognition
of children as effective agents of change in the area of health and hygiene.

How does it work?
SHCs exist in many forms. For example: they may be part of a children’s parlia-
ment or school councils, they can be organized during school time and be led
by a teacher, or be organized as a peer-to-peer activity. The members of a SHC
may not only act as advocates for hygiene behaviour, but can also help to en-
sure that water and sanitation facilities in the schools are used and maintained
properly. The members of the SHC may be in charge of water collection, organ-
ise hand washing before eating and organise the cleaning of facilities. Members
of the SHC can also take part in public awareness campaigns,

When to use it?
SHCs can be usefully linked to other strategies. They can be established in
order to facilitate CHAST/PHASE, CLTS and other types of hygiene and health
promotion activities in schools.

Tips & Pitfalls
. SHCs with volunteers are often more motivated than clubs with appointed members.
. A SHC should consist of a representative group from the school population.
. Be careful to not confirm traditional gender roles by only having girls take care of
the toilets.
. Be careful to not put a too heavy burden on the members of the SHCs and be aware
of the risk that members of the health club may be exploited as cheap cleaning labour.
. The support of teachers is crucial for the existence of SHCs. Invest in teacher’s moti-
vation, knowledge and capacities. Motivate the school inspectorate and educational
managers.
. It is recommended to first concentrate on the improvement or construction of the
facilities. If facilities can hardly be used or maintained, a SHC will lose its motivation.
. Have follow-up visits from the NGO to the schools after the end of the project period
to help ensure sustainability.

31

Case School Health Clubs: Indonesia
Plan Indonesia has a WASH project that includes schools and school hygiene. One of
the objectives focuses on hygiene education outreach to children, as agents for be-
havioural change. In the project areas, school children try to motivate other children,
individuals and families to adopt hygiene practices. The project organized School Health
Clubs, in which students play the role of health worker and check on the other students.
The role of the health worker rotates between the different students. The students
check each other for instance on clean teeth and observe hand washing practices. When
at home, children act as agents of change and catalyse their families and friends.
Another part of the project is the publication of “Percik Junior”. This is a free magazine
for children. It was a group of children who thought of the idea, and children write
many of the articles. But there’s one big difference from other youth magazines: the
articles are all about water, sanitation and personal hygiene. The magazine is regularly
distributed in children clubs and schools in the communities. The magazines include
information and experiences from children about clean water, healthy environment
and good health habits. Earlier publications have focused, for instance, on saving water,
garbage treatment, hand washing with soap and personal hygiene. More children are
motivated to practice good health habits in school and at home and other members
of their families are starting to learn good health habits.
(Source: PLAN Indonesia)

(Source: PLAN)

Further Reading
. Download songs about hygiene: http://www.irc.nl/page/26444
. Website about WASH in Schools: http://www.schools.watsan.net
. Websites Unicef about WASH in Schools:
http://www.unicef.org/wash/schools/index.html &
http://www.unicef.org/wash/schools/files/raisingcleanhands_2010.pdf

32 TOOLS ANDS TIPS FOR HYGIENE IMPROVEMENT

Sustainable changes in hygiene behaviour are not only fostered by changes in
knowledge and feelings about the importance of hygiene, but also depend on
the knowledge and the availability of appropriate tools and practices that fa-
cilitate this behaviour.

As mentioned earlier in this booklet, the three crucial hygiene behaviours are:
hand washing with soap, ensuring access to safe drinking water at the point
of use and safe disposal of faeces. In the following chapter several tools and
tips for these three interventions will be described.

Because this booklet is part of a SMART solutions series on WASH, some addi-
tional hygiene tools and tips that relate to the provision of clean water and
environmental sanitation are explained as well, including the management of
waste water and food hygiene.

(Source: IRC)

34 HAND WASHING

Why is it necessary?
Hand washing with soap is one of the most important ways to prevent the
spread of infection and is the single most effective way of reducing diarrhoeal
illnesses: washing hands the correct way at the right times can reduce diarrhoea
by nearly 40%. Hand washing can also help to reduce respiratory problems by
25%, according to a study conducted jointly by UNICEF and the World Health
Organization.

What is good behaviour?
When to wash hands
It is commonly accepted that there are critical points at which you must wash
your hands – these are universal, not merely depending on the location:
. After defecating and preferably also after urinating / using the toilet.
. After cleaning children’s bottoms .
. Before preparing food.
. Before eating food.
The aim is to ensure hand washing with soap at each, not some, of these criti-
cal points.

How to wash hands correctly:
. Pour a bit of water on both hands.
. Put soap on hands.
. Rub hands well, at least three times all over (see below).
. Rinse well – rinsing away all of the soap.

Figure 4: How to wash hands correctly (2).

Globally around 1,500,000
to 1,700,000 lives could be
saved every year by pro-
moting hand washing with
soap after contact with
human excreta.

35

It is sometimes said that some people do not have access to soap. This is true,
although it is not as frequent a problem as might be thought. Most households
have soap, even if it is often for washing clothes only . Where soap simply isn’t
available, using a substance like ash is a reasonable substitute; however, the
goal is universal use of soap.

Example Smart Hand washing
Devices: The Tippy Tap
Lack of access to both piped water
supply and soap, especially in
schools, is a barrier to hand wash-
ing in the developing world. Vari-
ous smart hand washing devices,
made with commonly available
materials, have been developed to
overcome this problem. The Tippy
Tap is one of these devices.

Figure 5: Tippy tap.

(Source: IRC)

Further Reading
. Download WSP Enabling Technologies for Hand Washing with Soap Database:
http://www.wsp.org/wsp/global-initiatives/Global-Scaling-Up-Handwashing-
Project/Enabling%20Technologies%20for%20Handwashing%20with%20Soap
. Download: ‘Beyond tippy-taps: the role of enabling products in scaling up and sus-
taining handwashing’. Written by Jacqueline Devine for the South Asia Hygiene
practioners’ workshop, 1 – 4 February 2010, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
http://www.irc.nl/page/51606
. Website with information on the Tippy-Tap:
http://www.akvo.org/wiki/index.php/Tippy_Tap
. Website on how to build a Tippy-Tap:
http://www.wot.utwente.nl/publications/tippy-tap.pdf
. Website UNICEF Water, Environment and Sanitation Technical Guidelines Series:
Hygiene Promotion Manual. New York http://www.unicef.org/wes/files/hman.pdf

36 SAFE EXCRETA DISPOSAL

One gram of excreta can contain: 10,000,000 viruses, 1,000,000 bacteria, 1,000
parasite cysts and 100 parasite eggs. Even a small dose of excreta, transmitted
via fingers, flies, food or water, can make a person sick. If people defecate in the
open, or too close to a water source, their entire community is exposed to the
danger of infection and illness.
Many people believe that excrement of children is less dangerous than that of
adults. But all faeces contain small germs that can cause diseases in both chil-
dren and adults. Safe excreta disposal for adults and children is therefore of
prime importance for improving public health.

Human excreta should be completely removed from human contact through-
out the sanitation system (collection, transport and treatment). The use of a
latrine is the most important method to separate human excreta safely from
human contact in the first phase of the sanitation system. However other
methods are also possible. See the Smart Sanitation Solutions booklet for other
possibilities.

It is important to construct a latrine that is easy to use, clean and maintain.
This means that:
. The surface of latrine slabs needs to be smooth and easy to clean
. The distance between the footsteps and the drop hole needs to be appro-
priate in order to prevent the slab from becoming filthy.
. There should be ventilation, with openings in the walls or a space between
the roof and the walls.
. If applicable: the walls of the latrine should be plastered at least some dis-
tance from the floor to make cleaning easier.
. Prevent flies from entering by having a tight-fitting lid to close the drop hole
after use, a water-trap (P-trap). Catch flies through a screended, black painted
ventilation pipe exposed to the sunIf needed, add sawdust or ashes after use
to prevent the breeding of flies.
. Clean regularly with a broom and/or with water and detergent.
. It is recommended to always wear footgear when using a latrine.

37

Example Excreta Disposal: The Peepoo Bag
The absence of hygienic sanitation facilities poses an enormous problem for the resi-
dents of poor urban areas. Usually the living areas of the poor are not covered by any
urban sewerage plan and are overcrowded, which makes it impossible to construct
separate household latrines. The presence of public facilities may offer some relief, but
these facilities are often over-crowded, filthy or are so badly maintained that they don’t
offer a hygienic solution. The absence of sanitary facilities forces people to defecate in
the open, or to use a ‘flying toilet’ (a plastic bag that is thrown outside).
The Peepoo bag is a biodegradable plastic bag with a thin inner tube that is designed
to be used once for defecation and urination. Because of its design a used Peepoo is
clean to handle. Next to that a Peepoo is odour free for about 12-24 hours after use.
Each bag contains urea, which destroys the pathogens within 2-4 weeks and makes
the excreta safe to use as a fertilizer within a relatively short period of time. The value
of the fertilizer will be used to bear the costs of the collection and distribution service.
The introduction of the Peepoo bag has met with a wide range of reactions, from of-
fensive to hesitant to enthusiastic. The most frequent criticism is that the Peepoo bag
is still just a plastic bag, which does not contribute to human dignity. In response the
people behind Peepoo emphasise that the Peepoo is not meant to be a permanent
solution, but provides a contemporary solution
for as long as people are deprived of any alter-
native method for hygienic sanitation.
The Peepoo bag finds itself in its inception phase
and is still working on improvements of the con-
cept. The product has been launched on a small
scale in Kenya and Bangladesh. The first results
are encouraging.
(Source, Peepoo)

(Source: Peepoo)

Further Reading
. Download Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies (EAWAG):
http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publica-
tions_sesp/downloads_sesp/compendium_high.pdf
. Website with information about the Peepoo bag: www.peepoople.com
. Website with information about different sanitation options: Smart Sanitation
Solutions (2006) http://www.irc.nl/page/28448

38 CLEAN WATER: TREATMENT, SAFE STORAGE AND
ATTRACTION
A lot of people in developing countries do not have access to safe drinking water
supplies. They rely on open surface water or on wells that are not properly
constructed. As a result they run the risk of using water that is contaminated.
Even in case of a piped water supply, the water may not be safe. Treatment of
water at household level is therefore an important measure to improve the
access to safe water. But improving the quality of water alone is not sufficient.
Drinking water can become contaminated after collection, either during trans-
port or storage at the home. This recontamination often comes from inadequate
storage vessels, water ladles that are contaminated by the surface where ladles
rest, and direct contact with hands or animals.

The recommended strategy for improving household drinking water combines
two elements: water disinfection at the time of water collection or time of use
and prevention of recontamination by safe storage.

Water disinfection
There are many methods and products available for the disinfection of con-
taminated water. Currently, chlorination at the source and boiling water at home
are the most common methods of disinfection. But many alternatives for water
treatment are available. The booklet Smart Disinfections Solutions from this
Smart Solutions Series gives a broad overview of available alternatives for water
disinfection.

Safe storage
Safe storage requires that water containers are designed according to the
following criteria:
. Are made of a material that is durable, non-oxidizing, lightweight, easy to
clean, inexpensive and preferably locally produced.
. Hold appropriate standard volumes and preferably have volume indicators
for right use of disinfectants.
. Have a narrow opening that makes it easy to fill the container and add dis-
infectant, but prohibits dipping of hands or other utensils.
. Have a strong, tight-fitting lid.
. Water is poured out of the container, not dipped.
. Taps (if present) should be of non-rusting and durable material and be easy
to clean.
. Are non translucent or stored in a dark place to prevent the growth of algae
and bacteria.

39

. Are culturally acceptable.
. Have to be clean and disinfected before use.

Figure 6: The wrong and the right way to store water.

(Source: CAWST)

Further Reading
. Download Smart Disinfection Solutions (2010): http://www.kitpublishers.nl/smart-
. site.shtml?id=33740&ItemID=2842&ch=FAB Safe water treatment and storage in
Download Mintz, E., Reiff, F. & Tauxe, R. (1995).
the home. A practical new strategy to prevent waterborne disease. JAMA. 1995 Mar
22-29;273(12):948-53. http://www.uvm.edu/~bwilcke/reiff.pdf

40 MENSTRUAL HYGIENE

A comprehensive approach to menstrual hygiene promotion is still a neglected
area. The majority of women in the developing world don’t have access to
sanitary pads, disposal and private washing facilities, which are essential during
menstruation. They use rags that are washed quickly (without clean water and
soap) and dried in dark places. This is an unhealthy practice, which often leads
to infections and illness. Often these infections are left untreated due to shame
and ignorance. The problem is not only health, but one of basic human rights
and dignity. Sanitary facilities and waste management at schools are often so
poor that girls and female teachers prefer not to use these during their men-
struation period. This can result in missed classes and prolonged absences.

Girls need to change their menstrual pads regularly during the period of men-
struation especially in the first three days. When using rags they should be:
. Soft and clean.
. Washed with soap and dried directly under the sun (to make them germ free)
and preferably ironed (against insect eggs).
. Kept in a dry and clean place to use again.
. Should not be shared with others.

If a girl uses pads, she needs to throw them into a pit latrine, bury them, or
burn them after use. They should not be flushed down the toilet, as they will
cause blockage.

A confidential talk with teachers on how to manage menstrual flow during
school days and how to use school facilities would help girls and improve their
school attendance. At schools toilets should be available in which girl can change
their rags and pads safely, where water is available to wash their hands, and
where materials are available to dispose their pads, or in which to wrap their
rags.

41

Example: Sanitary Napkins Machine
Sanitary napkins are now becoming available in remote areas, often using local prod-
ucts for manufacture. Micro-credit programmes can support napkin production as an
entrepreneurial activity for women.
Mr A. Muruganantham from Coimbatore in India has designed, tested and imple-
mented a sanitary napkin-making machine that operates on a small scale. Contrary
to a large-scale production model this sanitary napkin-making machine can be made
available to a buyer for approximately Rs.65,000, (about 1.100 Euro). This allows
smaller players to adopt the business model propagated by him, and thus generates
more employment in the most neglected sections of society.
The technology used is simple and non-chemical as the machine uses purely me-
chanical processes such as grinding and defibration, pressing and sealing to convert
the raw material – pine wood pulp - into a napkin.
A patent has been obtained for this innovation. Over 125 such machines have been
delivered which are now functioning in 14 states of India. Enquiries have come in fur-
ther afield such as Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya Uganda, Nepal and Bangladesh.
Members of the Mahalaxmi Self Help Group in Chhattisgarh State, India, have taken
a loan from the bank of Women Self Help Groups to invest in a sanitary napkin-mak-
ing unit to create a business that employs up to five women. The new invention is ca-
pable to make 120 napkins per hour.
(Source: IRC)

(Source: IRC)

Further Reading
. Download ‘India Department of Drinking Water Supply -IN (2008)’. Sharing simple
facts useful information about menstrual health and hygiene. New Delhi, India,
UNICEF. P27-29 are on menstrual hygiene management in schools.
http://www.irc.nl/docsearch/title/168685
. Download other information about menstrual hygiene from the IRC website:
www.irc.nl (search menstrual hygiene).

42 FOOD PREPARATION & STORAGE

Millions of people fall ill as a result of eating unsafe food, particularly the at-risk
groups, such as infants, young children and elderly people. Proper food prepa-
ration and storage can prevent many diseases.
Food can be contaminated before it enters the household or within the house-
hold due to improper storage, handling or preparation. Some foods such as
meat, poultry, vegetables and milk are more likely to become contaminated.
Before entering the household, meat and poultry can become contaminated
with germs and worms from the animal from which it was taken. It can also
become contaminated during processing. Vegetables can become contaminated
when irrigated with contaminated water. In the house food can become con-
taminated when not stored safely, or due to poor hygiene while food is handled
and prepared. This can happen when hands are not washed before handling
cooked foods, or when contaminated water is used to wash foods that are eaten
raw. Therefore preventing stools from getting into the domestic environment
and hand washing are priorities for food hygiene as well.

The WHO promotes five key food hygiene messages:
1 Keep clean.
2 Separate raw and cooked food.
3 Cook thoroughly.
4 Keep food at safe temperatures or keep it less than a day.
5 Use safe water and safe raw materials.

Storage options and practices vary greatly between different communities. Many
people do not have access to a refrigerator let alone a freezer. Other methods
(Source: PLAN)

can be used to keep food cool like storing it underground, immersing it in cold
water or drying the food. These methods, however, all contain a certain contam-
ination risk. Buying food and slaughtering of animals on a daily basis is usually
a safer option.

Key lesson 1 “Keep clean”
It is important to keep cooking utensils clean. One
way to do so is to let cooking utensils dry on a drying
rack after washing them and to store the cooking
utensils at a high place, away from the ground. In
that way the utensils are less likely to become con-
taminated. (Source: PLAN)

43

Case Food Hygiene: The Democratic Republic of Congo
USAID cooperated with the Environmental Health Project and Action Against Hunger-
USA in an urban environmental health activity to reduce diarrhoea by improving san-
itary conditions in the public markets of Kinshasa. The four key strategies were to: (1)
increase the availability of safe drinking water, (2) improve sanitation facilities, (3) es-
tablish community management capacity, and (4) improve hygiene practices. Under
the project, "sanitation units" (consisting of toilets, showers, water points for washing
hands and water storage tanks) were constructed in seven markets, and 11 drinking
water points were established in locations where water was not previously available
to vendors and customers. Non-governmental organisations and private businesses
maintain these new facilities, generating funds by charging fees for their use. Health
education specialists use the water points and sanitation units as sites for teaching
the market community about hygiene.

The key results of the intervention were:
. Hand washing practices of market
restaurateurs and vendors improved
noticeably
. Sanitary display of market goods and
waste disposal practices improved sig-
nificantly
. Diarrhoeal disease prevalence among
young children of restaurateurs and
vendors decreased by 50% (from 25%
to 12%).
(Source: EH project USAID)

(Source: PLAN)

Further Reading
. Download Food hygiene manual: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/consumer/5keys/
en/http://www.ifh-homehygiene.org/2003/2PUBLIC/ifh_training_resource.pdf
. Download Home hygiene in Developing Countries Prevention of infection in the home
and the peri-domestic setting: A training resource on hygiene for teachers, commu-
nity nurses, community workers and health professionals in developing countries:
Sally F. Bloomfield and Kumar J. Nath (WASH & IFH): http://www.ifh-homehygiene.org/
2003/2PUBLIC/ifh_training_resource.pdf

44 VECTOR CONTROL

Vectors
Vectors may be defined as insects and other animals that are capable of carry-
ing disease causing microorganisms and transmitting these to humans and
animals. The presence of vectors is closely linked to hygienic circumstances. If
people do not keep their environment and themselves clean, their dwelling will
attract insects and animals that may cause or transmit diseases.

Figure 7: Different Vectors.

Vector Disease Caused (most common)

Mosquitoes Malaria, Dengue, Yellow Fever, Filariasis and Encephalitis
Non-biting flies Transmits: Dysentery, Typhoid, Polio and Trachoma
Biting Flies Sleeping Sickness (TseTse flies), Leishmaniasis (Sand flies) and
Onchoserciasis - commonly known as River Blindness- (Black flies)
Rodents Rabies, Salmonellosis, Lassa Fever and Leptospirosis
Fleas Plague and Typhus
Lice Typhus, Relapsing Fever and Skin Infections
Mites Scabies and other Skin Infections
Ticks Relapsing Fever, Q-fever
Bedbugs Anemia
Cockroaches Transmits: Polio, Amoebas and Intestinal Viruses
Snails Schistosomiasis -commonly known as bilharzia

(Source: The John Hopkins and IFRC Public Health Guide for Emergencies)

The next two paragraphs will describe tools that can be used to prevent the spread of
diseases caused by vectors.

46 VECTOR CONTROL

Disposal of waste water and drainage

Water collects in pools, for example from spilling at water points, splashing from
bathing, washing clothes and other domestic activities. These pools offer good
breeding places for flies and mosquitoes, which may spread diseases. In addition,
waste water often contains germs harmful to health. Wastewater should there-
fore be disposed off carefully. Water points and washing slabs have to be de-
signed in such a way that the waste water is channelled and absorbed into the
ground or drained away. Areas where waste water collects need to be kept dry
by building drainage and filling holes with earth or sand.

Waste water can be disposed off in several ways:
.It can be used for watering crops if the soil is sufficiently permeable. The
water running off from the water point or washing area can then be chan-
nelled through (hand dug) sloped trenches lined with plants, which will take
out the water from the soils.
.If a septic tank is already built and the size allows it, let the waste water flow
into this tank
.Construct a soak pit. In urban areas, a piped drainage system, such as small
bore sewerage or regular sewerage may be the best option.

Example 1: Drainage at water pump
Good drainage is not only important for the disposal of waste water, but is of major
importance for limiting the public health hazards of (heavy) rains and floods. If there
are areas where rainwater collects regularly then drains can be dug to ensure that these
areas stay dry. There are several ways to set up a drainage system, from lined open drains
to buried open-jointed pipe drains. Open or closed drains can be used to carry the water
to an infiltration field or a soak pit. A silt trap can be installed to remove solids. Drains
need to be inspected regularly and rubbish that blocks the drain needs to be removed.

The wrong way and the right
way of drainage.

(Source: PLAN)

47

Example 2: Soak pit
A soak pit, also known as a soak away or leach pit, is a covered, porous-walled chamber
that allows water to slowly soak into the ground with or without a piped inlet. The
soak pit can be left empty and lined with a porous material, or left unlined and filled
with coarse rocks and gravel. The rocks and gravel will prevent the walls from collaps-
ing and prevent breeding, but will still provide adequate space for the waste water. In
both cases, a layer of sand and fine gravel should be spread across the bottom to help
disperse the flow. The soak pit should be between 1.5 and 4m deep, but never less
than 1.5m above the ground water table. Soak pits are best suited to soils with good
absorptive properties; clay, hard packed or rocky soils are not appropriate. When the
performance of the soak pit deteriorates, the material inside the soak pit can be exca-
vated and refilled (do take hygiene measures into account). To allow for future access,
a removable lid should be used to seal the pit until it needs to be maintained.

Figure 8: Soak Pit.

(Source: AKVO)

Further Reading
. Download: Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies (EAWAG):
http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publica-
tions_sesp/downloads_sesp/compendium_high.pdf
. Download: Low cost drainage for emergencies. Oxfam Technical Brief.
http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/downloads/emerg_manuals/draft_oxfam
_tech_brief_drainage.pdf
. Website how to build a soak pit: http://www.akvo.org/wiki/index.php/Soak_Pit

48 VECTOR CONTROL

Solid Waste Disposal

Even though household waste usually does not contain as much germs as
excreta, it poses a threat to public health. Waste attracts flies, mosquitoes and
rats and offers them a breeding site. The presence of these vectors may spread
diseases. In order to prevent vectors from accessing the waste, refuse should
always be stored in a container with a tight fitting lid. This container needs to be
emptied regularly and be washed with soap or cleaned with dry earth or sand.

If communal refuse collection is not in place, the waste should be divided into
4 groups, which need to be disposed off separately.
1 Vegetable waste, such as leftovers from fruit and vegetables. These can be
used for compositing, animal food or in some cases in a biogas digester. Do
not add remnants of meat or fish to an open compost pile.
2 Plastic bags, containers, tins and glasses can be washed and reused. Problems
may arise when these items are not being reused. They do not break down
easily and may hold water and subsequently turn into a breeding site for
flies and mosquitoes. Therefore these materials should be buried in a covered
refuse pit.
3 Letters, newspapers, notebooks, magazines and other paper can be recycled
or reused for lighting fires. If paper needs to be thrown away, it can be added
to the refuse pit.
4 Dangerous waste such as batteries, used motor oil, kerosene and fuel are
hazardous to human health. Care must be taken to prevent this waste from
getting into ground water or in other water sources like rivers and streams.
This type of waste needs therefore to be put away in a separate pit, which
has a sealed base, is covered and is far away from water sources.

(Source: PLAN)

49

Example: Refuse Pits
Refuse that cannot be reused can be buried in a pit. When determining the location
of this pit the following considerations need to be taken in mind:
. The minimum safe distance from drinking water sources is site specific and should
be decided based upon local hydrological and hydro geological conditions.
. The pit needs to be constructed well above the highest likely groundwater level (in
the rainy season) in order to prevent contamination of the water supply. If a pit is
constructed for hazardous waste, this pit should preferably be situated on imper-
vious rock or clay and have a sealed base.
. The pit should be at least 20 meters away from the food preparation and living area.
. The pit should not be placed above any drainage pipe which discharges into surface
water or a drain field.
Further considerations when constructing a refuse pit are:
. The design period of a pit can be increased if the waste is compacted for example by
using a wooden pole.
. Children should not be allowed near waste pits.
. Animals need to be kept away from the waste pits.

Further Reading
. Download: Solid Waste Management in Emergencies. WHO Technical Note.
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/tn07/en/index.html
. Download: ‘Putting Integrated Sustainable Waste Management (ISWM) into practice'
http://www.waste.nl/content/search/?SearchText=putting+into+practice&Search
Button=Search
. Download: 'Solid waste management and the Millennium Development Goals'
http://www.cwgnet.net/documentation/skatdocumentation.2007-06-28.8568961372/
. Download: Waste Portal (work in progress) http://www.wasteportal.net/ gateway to
solid waste management information, focus on low- and middle-income countries

LITERATURE 51

Abdallah, S. and Burnham, G.M. (eds) (2004). The John Hopkins and IFRC
Public Health Guide for Emergencies. Baltimore: LearnWare International Cor-
poration. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACU086.pdf

Almedom et al., (1997). Hygiene evaluation procedures: approaches and
methods for assessing water- and sanitation-related hygiene practices. Interna-
tional Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries, Boston.
http://www.unu.edu/unupress/food2/UIN11E/UIN11E00.HTM

Curtis, V., et al. (1997) Dirt and diarrhoea: formative research in hygiene pro-
motion programmes. Health Policy and Planning: 12(2):122-131, Oxford University
Press. http://www.hygienecentral.org.uk/pdf/Formative%20research.pdf

Ensink J. and Curtis V. Well factsheet: Health impact of hand washing with soap.
http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/Hand-
washing.htm

IRC (2007). IRC Factsheet: How to promote measures to prevent water-borne
diseases? http://www.irc.nl/page/8904

IRC (2006). Children’s health clubs in schools. Opportunities and risks. Devel-
oped under the SSHE Global Sharing Project financed by UNICEF. December,
2006.
http://www.schools.watsan.net/redir/content/download/328/2769/file/school
%20health%20clubs%20final%20SSHE%20case%20study_WEB.pdf

Jenkins, M. and Sugden, S. (2006). Rethinking Sanitation: Lessons and inno-
vation for sustainability and success in the new millennium. Occasional Paper for
the Human Development Report 2006 (2006/27). UNDP.
http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2006/papers/jenkins%20and%20s
ugden.pdf

Kar, K. & Chambers, R. (2008). Handbook on Community-Led Total Sanitation.
IDS/Plan, Brighton/London. http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/re-
source/handbook-community-led-total-sanitation

Mintz, E., Reiff, F. & Tauxe, R. (1995). Safe water treatment and storage in the
home. A practical new strategy to prevent waterborne disease. JAMA. 1995 Mar
22-29;273(12):948-53. http://www.uvm.edu/~bwilcke/reiff.pdf

52

Peal, A.J. (2010). Hygiene promotion in South Asia; progress, challenges and
emerging issues. IRC. South Asia hygiene practitioners’ workshop. Dhaka, Feb-
ruary 2010. http://www.irc.nl/page/51851

UNICEF/WHO (2009). Diarrhoea: Why children are still dying and what can be
done. United Nations Children’s Fund/World Health Organization. New York/
Geneva. http://www.unicef.org/health/files/Final_Diarrhoea_Report_October
_2009_final.pdf

UNICEF (2008). UNICEF handbook on water quality. United Nations Children’s
Fund, New York.
http://www.unicef.org/wash/files/WQ_Handbook_final_signed_16_April_20
08.pdf

Vreede, E. de,(2004). CHAST in Somalia. IRC School Sanitation and Hygiene
Education Symposium. The way forward: Construction is not enough! Delft,
June 2004. http://www.irc.nl/page/13170

WELL (1998). DFID Guidance manual on water supply and sanitation pro-
grammes. WEDC/Loughborough University, Leicestershire.
http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/Publications/guidance-manual/
guidance-manual.htm

WHO (1997). The PHAST Initiative: A new approach to working with commu-
nities. World Health Organization, Geneva. Sawyer, R. Simpson, Hebert, M. and
Clarke, L.
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/phast/en/

WHO (1998). PHAST Step-by-Step Guide: a participatory approach for the
control of diarrhoeal disease. World Health Organization, Geneva. Sawyer, R.,
Simpson – Hebert, M. and Wood, R.
http://www.who.nt/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/phastep/en/

WHO (2005). State of the world’s sight: VISION 2020: the Right to Sight.
1999-2005. World Health Organization, Geneva.
http://www.vision2020.org/main.cfm?type=PUBLICATIONS

WSSCC (2009). WSSCC Reference Note: HIV/AIDS and WASH. http://www.wsscc.
org/fileadmin/files/pdf/publication/Ref_Note_HIV_AIDS_WASH_February_09.pdf

53

WSSCC (2010). Hygiene and sanitation software. An overview of approaches.
Water Supply & Sanitation Collaborative Council, Geneva. Peal, A., Evans, B. and
Voorden, C. van der,. http://www.wsscc.org/fileadmin/files/pdf/publication/
Hygiene_and_Sanitation_Software_WSSCC_2010.pdf.

3IE (2009). Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions to combat childhood
diarrhoea in developing countries International Initiative for Impact Evaluation.
Synthetic Review 001. Hugh Waddington. Snilstveit, B., White, H. and Fewtrell,
L. http://www.3ieimpact.org/page.php?pg=synthetic

References Cases
PHAST: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/en/
EOS96-11b.pdf

PHASE: http://www.amref.org/silo/files/phase-program-brochure.pdf

Social Marketing: http://www.irc.nl/page/51637

CLTS: http://www.unicef.org/mozambique/child_survival_5633.html

SLTS: http://www.unicef.org/wash/nepal_39817.html

Community Health Club: http://www.irc.nl/page/38717

School Health Clubs: http://www.webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://
www.dfid.gov.uk/media-room/case-studies/2009/childrens-magazine-makes-
healthy-reading-in-indonesia/

References Examples
Tippy Tap: http://www.akvo.org/wiki/index.php?Tippy_Tap

Safe Water Storage: http://www.cawst.org/en/resources/pubs/category/1-cawst-
poster-series

Peepoo Bag: http://www.peepoople.com

Sanitary Napkins Machine: http://www.irc.nl/page/51700 & http://www.new-

54

Food Hygiene: http://www.ehproject.org/PDF/Activity_Reports/AR-19%20%20
DRCongoReportFormatted.pdf

Soak Pit: http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikatio-
nen/publications_sesp/downloads_sesp/compendium_high.pdf

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