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tion. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2011expandingperspectivesforcomprehendingvisualimagesinmultimodaltextsserafini-150513195446-lva1-app6891/85/2011-expanding-perspectives-for-comprehending-visual-images-in-multimodal-texts-serafini-9-320.jpg)
2011 expanding perspectives for comprehending visual images in multimodal texts serafini
- 1. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 54(5) February 2011 doi:10.1598/JAAL.54.5.4 © 2011 International Reading Association (pp. ???–???) 342 To expand students’ interpretive repertoires, teachers need to extend their understanding of perspectives, theories, and practices used to comprehend visual images, graphic design, and multimodal texts. Frank Serafini Expanding Perspectives for Comprehending Visual Images in Multimodal Texts The texts that adolescents encounter today are often multimodal, mean- ing they incorporate a variety of modes, including visual images, hypertext, and graphic design elements along with written text. Expanding the perspec- tives students use to make sense of these multimodal texts is an important part of comprehension instruction. Moving beyond the traditional cognitive strategies often incorporated in instructional frameworks for comprehending written texts (e.g., predicting, summarizing, asking questions), I present three additional perspectives for comprehending multimodal texts: (1) art theory and criticism, (2) the grammar of visual design, and (3) media literacies. In order to help middle and high school teachers expand the strategies students draw from to interpret and understand visual images and multimodal texts, I provide examples from each perspective. Adolescents are increasingly exposed to texts that contain elaborate visual images, unusual narrative structures, complex design elements and unique formats (Goldstone, 2004; Kress, 2003). In addition, video games, websites, expository texts, magazines, textbooks, advertisements, picture books, and graphic novels require students to simultaneously process written text, visual images, and elements of design to construct meaning (Gee, 2007; Jewitt & Kress, 2003). Multimodal texts often dominate what middle and high school students read outside of school. As adolescents begin to work more frequently with these texts in school, teachers will need new instructional strategies, vocabularies, and knowledge to support comprehension processes (Anstey & Bull, 2006; Lankshear & Knobel, 2006). In educational contexts, it seems more progress has been made in identify- ing strategies required to comprehend written text than in identifying strat- egies to comprehend multimodal texts. Research has shown that particular cognitive strategies such as visualizing, summarizing, asking questions, and predicting are successful in supporting readers’ comprehension of written texts (Block & Pressley, 2001; Sweet & Snow, 2003). In conjunction with this body of research, pedagogical frameworks for teaching cognitive strategies have been proposed (Beers, 2003; Burke, 2001; Harvey & Goudvis, 2000; Santman, Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 54(5) February 2011 doi:10.1598/JAAL.54.5.4 © 2011 International Reading Association (pp. 342–350)
- 2. 343 ExpandingPerspectivesforComprehendingVisualImagesinMultimodalTexts and researchers have recommended using contempo- rary, complex, and postmodern picture books with adolescent readers (Anstey, 2002; Benedict & Carlisle, 1992; Golden & Gerber, 1990; Serafini & Giorgis, 2003; Sipe & Pantaleo, 2008). Anstey and Bull (2006) asserted that contempo- rary or postmodern picture books provide a bridge from the text-based literacies of the traditional mid- dle and high school classroom to the multiliteracies necessary for the future. To introduce students to the strategies necessary for comprehending multimodal texts, it is important that teachers understand how to take advantage of multimodal texts in general, and the visual images and design elements of complex picture books in particular (Serafini, 2008, 2009). Expanding Perspectives for Comprehending Visual Images Drawing from theories of visual grammar (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996), art history (Gombrich, 1961), perceptual psychology (Arnheim, 1974), iconogra- phy (Panofsky, 1955), visual design (Dondis, 1973), semiotics (Chandler, 2007), visual literacies (Elkins, 2008; Messaris, 1994) and media literacy (Alvermann & Hagood, 2000; Heiligmann & Shields, 2005), I present three perspectives readers may use when navi- gating and comprehending the visual images present- ed in multimodal texts: (1) art theory and criticism, (2) grammar of visual design, and (3) media litera- cies. These perspectives provide teachers with diverse lenses through which to focus students’ attention to visual aspects of the multimodal texts they encoun- ter. In addition, I provide instructional examples from each perspective to demonstrate how teachers might use the perspectives in classrooms to expand readers’ repertoire of comprehension strategies. Art Theory and Criticism All cultures have sign systems, or systems of meaning that determine the ways in which meaning and infor- mation is communicated and received (Geertz, 1983). Art, like literature, is a system of meaning, and we must “consider that there are facts, principles, rules, and ways of making and understanding art that are learned through an education system and/or a social 2005). However, the visual images contained in multi- modal texts, picture books in particular, require read- ers to use different strategies for constructing meaning than the aforementioned cognitive strategies. Unsworth and Wheeler (2002) asserted that if readers are to understand how images represent and construct meaning, they need knowledge of the vari- ous visual sign systems (e.g., photography, diagrams, graphs, typography, illustrations) used in their produc- tion and interpretation. In addition, Dalton and Proctor (2008) noted that research is needed to develop a “more robust model of comprehension that reflects the dy- namic nature of texts” (p. 320). As students encounter multimodal texts with greater frequency, they and their teachers will need to develop a metalanguage for dis- cussing the aspects of multimodal texts and the strate- gies used to understand them (Zammit, 2007). Multimodal Texts Calling students’ attention to the various components of multimodal texts is an important aspect of con- temporary reading instruction (Jewitt & Kress, 2003). Multimodal texts are more complex than texts that use written language as the primary semiotic resource (Kress, 2003; Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001). These challenging texts require that readers work across multiple sign systems and use different strategies for navigating and comprehending these texts. Written text and visual images are governed by distinct logics. That is, written text is governed by the logic of time or temporal sequence, whereas vi- sual images are governed by spatiality, composition, and simultaneity (Kress, 2003). In addition, meaning is derived from position in the temporal sequence of written text, whereas meaning is derived from the spatial relations or grammar of visual images (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996). Because of these differences, the cognitive strategies that focus on comprehend- ing written texts will not be sufficient to help read- ers comprehend the various modes of representation incorporated in multimodal texts. Picture books are multimodal texts that have been a stable feature of elementary classrooms for many years. However, the use of these multimodal texts has not been as frequent in middle and high school class- rooms. For several years, various reading educators
- 3. 344 JournalofAdolescent&AdultLiteracy54(5)February2011 where cultural ideologies are revealed. This level is associated with the ideological and cultural meanings of an image constructed in particular social, political, and historical contexts (Duncum, 2004). Using Panofsky’s three strata as a framework for making sense of multimodal texts, teachers may begin by calling students’ attention to the visual and design el- ements presented in picture books or other multimodal texts, creating an inventory of what is represented, and developing a vocabulary for naming and describing these various elements. One way to do this is by intro- ducing students to the basic elements of art and design (Dondis, 1973). Calling students’ attention to the ele- ments used to construct visual images (e.g., line, shape, pattern, texture, color) provides a focus and develops a working vocabulary for discussions about how various visual elements are perceived and eventually interpreted. To construct an iconographic analysis of the imag- es contained in a contemporary or postmodern picture book, students would be begin by creating an inventory of the objects, characters or actors, design features, and other images and visual elements of the book. Teachers would need to ensure that students are attending to all of the visual elements of individual images and design elements included in a multimodal text. Developing a vocabulary for naming what is per- ceived is an important aspect of interpreting the mean- ing of visual images. Lewis (1990) explained, “When we name things, we call them into being. We permit them to enter our consciousness but only in the garb in which we have dressed them” (p. 139). Naming the visual elements of a multimodal text is an initial as- pect of the comprehension process. In addition, this naming helps students and teachers develop a meta- language for describing and interpreting multimodal texts. This metalanguage allows readers to take a more critical reading position and interrogate the structures and components that authors, illustrators, and design- ers use to convey meanings (Zammit, 2007). I have introduced several versions of a “Noticings- Connections-Wonderings” (NCW) chart in various publications (Serafini, 2001, 2006; Serafini & Youngs, 2008). A revised version of this chart, “Noticings- Meanings-Implications,” calls students’ attention to the elements in a multimodal text (see Figure 1). The first column refers to Panofsky’s first level of meaning structure that determines how a culture sees and ex- periences the world” (Chanda, 2004, p. 86). Art historian and critic Panofsky (1955) devised a method for analyzing the meanings in Renaissance art often referred to as iconography and iconology. Panofsky defined iconography and iconology as a “branch of the history of art that concerns itself with the subject matter or meaning of works of art, as opposed to their form” (p. 26). Other theorists defined iconography as an in- vestigation into the content of the visual arts (Chanda, 2004) and as “image describing” that involves the inves- tigation of certain pictorial themes (van Straten, 1994, p. 3). Mitchell (1986) summarized iconology simply as the “science of icons” (p. 1). Panofsky (1955) detailed how his analytical method involved creating an inventory of various components of a piece of art, and then identifying conventional meanings and considering the underlying philosophi- cal ideas and interpretations constructed within the so- ciocultural context of its reception. Panofsky identified three strata, or levels, of meaning: (1) preiconographic, (2) iconographic, and (3) iconological. The first level, preiconographic, focuses on the interpretation of the primary or natural meaning and involves the identification of visual data with objects known from experience (Hasenmueller, 1978). This level also focuses on what is perceived at the denota- tive level (Barthes, 1977). The second level, iconographic, focuses on the interpretation of secondary or conventional mean- ings, which requires viewers to move beyond the lit- eral image to consider their experiences during the interpretive process. This level of meaning shifts the focus from the denotative level to the connotative level (Barthes, 1977). The third level, iconological, focuses on the in- terpretation of the intrinsic meaning and incorpo- rates the underlying principles and philosophical ideas Figure 1 Noticings-Meanings-Implications Chart What We Notice What It Might Mean Implications
- 4. 345 ExpandingPerspectivesforComprehendingVisualImagesinMultimodalTexts After particular elements have been noticed and named, teachers should ask students to consider and discuss what these elements mean at the level of the picture book itself, as well as the sociocultural context of the production and reception of the book. Rose (2001) stated that teachers need to help students con- sider multimodal texts at three interconnected sites of meaning making: production, the image itself, and viewing. By considering the visual and design ele- ments of multimodal texts across these sites, teachers will expand students’ interpretive repertoires to ad- dress the three strata of meanings. Teachers can use the NCW chart and the analytical guide to scaffold students’ use of comprehension strategies by calling attention to the elements and making the transition from the literal meaning to ideological implications. Grammar of Visual Design Kress and van Leeuwen (1996) devised an extensive taxonomy of the grammar and structures of visual design. Based on a structuralist orientation, they pro- vided educators with various lenses for attending to and interpreting visual images. Drawing from their work, I present three structures, or components, of visual grammar that are essential for comprehending and asks readers to describe and classify various ele- ments included in a visual image. The second column asks students to consider, through their experiences and knowledge, what these elements might mean. The third column asks students to consider what the visual elements might imply outside the text. Teachers can use this chart to help students move from what they notice to constructing meanings, and then to considering those meanings in the sociocultural con- texts in which meanings are generated. In addition, providing readers with a guide for analyzing visual and design elements can help draw their attention to overlooked elements. An example of a guide for examining contemporary picture books appears in Figure 2. Moving from what is noticed in the visual im- ages and design of a multimodal text to what these objects and elements mean and the inferences drawn to the world outside the text is an important aspect of the comprehension process (Serafini, 2003). The com- prehension of visual images always begins with the perception of the visuals that artists, illustrators, and graphic designers use to render a story and communi- cate to readers (Arnheim, 1974; van Leeuwen, 2005). If readers don’t attend to particular elements, they can’t draw from them during their interpretive processes. Figure 2 Guide for Analyzing Visual and Design Elements of a Contemporary Picture Book • What can you determine about the how the book’s size, format (e.g., square, horizontal, vertical), and the materials used in its construction are related to the book’s content? • What do you know about the author’s and artist’s previous work? • What expectations does the cover, including the title and illustration, set up for you as you approach the book? What does the cover suggest? • What media is used in the cover illustrations? • What fonts are used? Where is the text located on the page? How do the text and illustration(s) connect? • What do you think of the format of the images and their placement in the picture book? Where is the text located? Within the image? Separated by borders or white space? • Are the illustrations spreads, single-page images, collages, overlapping images, or portraits? • Do the series of images in the book change over the course of the book? Do they get bigger or smaller? • Is there a relationship between form and content? How does the design of the book enhance the content’s presentation? • Select a particular illustration to consider. Ask yourself the following questions: • What are the dominant colors? What effect do they have on you as reader? • Are there any recurring patterns? • Are there any anomalous elements (i.e., elements that stick out or seem out of place)? Are they important to consider? • Are the style and artistic choices appropriate? How do they add to the book’s meaning? • How are the illustrations framed? Are there thick borders or faded edges? • How is the story’s setting realized in the images? Realistically? Metaphorically?
- 5. 346 JournalofAdolescentAdultLiteracy54(5)February2011 positioned to look up, readers tend to view the char- acter as powerful. In contrast, when readers are po- sitioned to look down on a character, or a character is positioned to look down, readers tend to the view the character as less powerful than a character who is looking up. Attending to how perspective is used gives readers clues to the relationship among charac- ters and objects in a story or image, and the way the readers are being asked to consider these characters and objects. One effective instructional strategy teachers may use to call students’ attention to perspective is to find several images in contemporary picture books where characters or objects are positioned in various ways. The ensuing discussion should focus on how the vari- ous perspectives emphasize a particular relationship with different characters, as well as how readers are invited to interact with and understand these char- acters in different ways based on the character’s po- sitioning. Making students aware of how artists use positioning in picture books is an important concept for interpreting visual images. Visual Symbols Visual symbols represent ideas that are conventional- ized through their use in sociocultural contexts—for example, a rose signifies love or caring, a cross signi- fies Christian values, and the color red signifies an- ger. Visual symbols are constructed in social settings and used by artists to convey meanings beyond the literal level. A motif is a recurring pattern or visual that often refers to a theme or particular meaning. Identifying and interpreting these symbols and motifs requires readers to move beyond literal or denotative visual images and multimodal texts: (1) composition, (2) perspective, and (3) visual symbols. Composition How objects are organized and positioned in a visual image is called composition. The arrangement and placement of various objects determine their relative importance and how they interact with other ele- ments in an image. Three compositional techniques that artists and graphic designers employ to call at- tention to particular aspects of an image are (1) the relative size of the object, (2) color and contrast, and (3) foregrounding and focus. Figure 3 provides a guide for analyzing visual structures. Teachers should consider using the guide’s questions to call students’ attention to the compositional elements in a visual image. These questions will help develop a common vocabulary for discussing the composition of visual images and will focus students’ attention on what is available to interpret. Perspective How close or far away the viewer is positioned relative to the objects and participants in an image affects the viewer’s relationship to these visual elements. When the characters or actors in an image are positioned closely to the viewer, readers tend to feel a strong rela- tionship with them. In contrast, the farther away ob- jects and participants are positioned, the less readers are able to connect to them. Additionally, an artist may depict a particular character or object from straight on (face to face), or above or below the readers’ view. When readers are positioned to look up at a character, or a character is Figure 3 Guide for Analyzing Visual Structures • What is foregrounded, and what is included in the background? • What catches your eye first? • What are the dominant colors? What effect do they have on you as reader? • How is white, or negative, space used? Are the illustrations framed or full bleed? How does this position you as a viewer? • Is the image symmetrical or does one section (top-bottom, left-right) dominate the image? How does this add to the meaning of the image? • What is the artist trying to get you to look at through leading lines, colors, contrast, gestures, and lighting? • How are size and scale used? What is large? Why are certain elements larger than others? How does this add to the meaning of the image?
- 6. 347 ExpandingPerspectivesforComprehendingVisualImagesinMultimodalTexts to the objects and actors included within the visual components of an advertisement. Adolescents need to be aware the underlying structures and purposes of advertisements—that is, the ways advertisements work—to critically read an advertisement and under- stand its effects on themselves and their actions. According to Messaris (1997), images in adver- tisements play three important roles that can be dem- onstrated and discussed with students: 1. Elicit emotional responses by simulating the appearance of a real person and real events 2. Serve as photographic proof that something is real or actually occurred 3. Establish an implicit link between the product being sold and an abstract concept or idea, such as wealth, attractiveness, or good health. In addition, readers are invited to interact with the images and actors in advertisements in different ways depending on whether the images and actors look at or away from the reader. One of the primary distinctions in advertising is how the actors are positioned, where they are look- ing, and what they are focusing on. They may look directly at the reader, called a “demand,” or they may look away from the reader or at other actors, called an “offer” (Kress van Leeuwen, 1996). These forms of the gaze work in different ways to call readers’ atten- tion to the components of the advertisement and the product itself. In advertisements, positioning an actor to look directly at the viewer is a traditional attention-getting device. The viewer is forced to interact to the assumed demand made by the actor. This relates to the ways in which readers are asked to interact with others in real-world interpersonal communications. When ac- tors turn their backs on the viewer, there is an inferred exclusion of the viewer, positioning the viewer in the role of voyeur. The viewer, in an excluded position, is being asked to consider what the actors in the adver- tisements are doing or looking at. Figure 4 offers a guide for analyzing advertise- ments. Teachers may use the guide’s questions to ini- tiate discussions about how advertisements work and affect students as consumers. Using Rose’s (2001) interpretations to consider connections to the conno- tative levels of meaning (Barthes, 1977). Discussing the meanings associated with various symbols and motifs that are constructed during the reading of contemporary picture books focuses read- ers’ attention to these connotative elements. For more information on how to investigate symbols and mo- tifs, I have described in detail how visual symbols and motifs (e.g., street lamps, red hats, bars and windows) can be investigated using the picture books of Anthony Browne and other contemporary and postmodern au- thors and illustrators (Serafini, 2005, 2008, 2009). Media Literacies The term media literacy is defined in various contexts as the ability to critically understand, question, and evaluate how media work and produce meaning (Chauvin, 2003) and the ability to derive pleasure from mass media and choose selectively among pop- ular cultural icons (Alvermann, Moon, Hagood, 1999). Media literacy also involves the processes by which individuals take up cultural texts differently depending on their interests and positioning in vari- ous social and historical contexts (Messaris, 1997); and how production techniques of each medium interact with content elements to create meaning (Heiligmann Shields, 2005). An important aspect of media literacy is the inves- tigation and interrogation of advertisements in mass media (Williamson, 1978). From a semiotic perspec- tive, signs in advertisements draw from shared mean- ings, visual syntax, and cultural codes for conveying concepts and meanings. Understanding the underly- ing structures for conveying meaning is an important strategy for making sense of advertisements. Advertising, a central component of a capital- ist society, presents images of objects that consumers are supposed to desire, people whom consumers are supposed to envy, and a lifestyle that consumers are supposed to emulate (Sturken Cartwright, 2001). Modern societies produce more goods than are neces- sary for it to function; therefore, advertising is used to produce the drive and desire to consume prod- ucts that members of that society may not necessarily need or want. Advertising is used to invest commodi- ties with value, and these values are often attached
- 7. 348 JournalofAdolescentAdultLiteracy54(5)February2011 video games, magazines) readers will need to draw from a new set of strategies, vocabularies, and pro- cesses for interpreting these multimodal resources. Drawing from the perspectives of art theory and criticism, the grammar of visual grammar, and me- dia literacies provides teachers with an alternative set of strategies and interpretive processes for expanding readers’ interpretive repertoires. Each of the aforementioned perspectives requires readers to attend to the visual content of the images and designs of multimodal texts before making the transition to interpretations and critiques of these texts. This focus on the denotative or literal levels of images and texts provides readers with a founda- tion for comprehension. However, stopping at the literal level of meaning inhibits readers’ interpretive abilities as they analyze the connotative or figurative levels of these resources. Visual grammar, iconology, and media studies require that readers analyze texts at the site of production, image and reception, or audi- ence (Rose, 2001). Moving beyond the literal level of meaning requires that readers infer from other texts and contexts to make sense of what they read and view (Serafini Ladd, 2008). To successfully demonstrate effective strategies for making sense of multimodal texts, teachers must fa- miliarize themselves with the theories that go beyond traditional comprehension strategies. Incorporating aforementioned sites of meaning making, the guide also may be used to focus students’ attention on the image itself, as well as the production and reception of the advertisement. In conclusion, media literacy is defined in nu- merous ways and includes a wide variety of processes and abilities. It is designed to help readers understand the connections between media forms and structures, as well as the meanings being constructed. Raising students’ awareness of various media and how to in- terrogate these media is an important aspect of con- temporary literacy education. Implications The realities of today’s classroom and the realities of the outside world do not always align. In classrooms, monomodal texts such as classic novels and standard- ized test passages often dominate what adolescents are expected to read and comprehend. As literacy edu- cators move from the traditional texts used in class- rooms to the multimodal texts used beyond, they will need to be more intentional in their instruction to address the new strategies and theories that will be useful for making sense of these texts. As images come to dominate the texts that ado- lescents use to communicate and make sense of their world (e.g., Internet, textbooks, instructional DVDs, Figure 4 Guide for Analyzing Advertisements 1. Consider the company who created the advertisement and its possible intentions (i.e., site of production). a. What company produced the ad? b. What does this company primarily sell? c. What other products does the company sell? d. Why do you think the company has chosen to advertise its products here? e. What materials and resources were used to create the ad? 2. Consider the contents of the advertisement (i.e., site of the image itself). a. What is your first impression? b. What do you notice first? What seems to stand out for you? c. What are the visual and textual contents of the ad? d. Where is the product positioned in the advertisement? e. What is the catch or hook for this ad? What concept of the target audience does the advertisement appeal to (e.g., fear, vanity, needs)? 3. Consider the context of the advertisement (i.e., site of reception). a. Who might buy (magazine), see (billboard), or care about (target audience) this advertisement? b. Why is the advertisement located where it is? c. Why are you looking at the images in this context? To get information? To make a purchase? d. What background knowledge might be necessary to understand the ad? e. How is the advertisement distributed? Target audiences or general public?
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The authority of interpretive communities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gee, J.P. (2007). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy (Rev. ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Geertz, C. (1983). Local knowledge: Further essays in interpretive an- thropology (3rd ed.). New York: Basic. Golden, J.M., Gerber, A. (1990). A semiotic perspective of text: The picture story book event. Journal of Reading Behavior, 22(3), 203–219. doi:10.1080/10862969009547707 Goldstone, B.P. (2004). The postmodern picture book: A new subgenre. Language Arts, 81(3), 196–204. Gombrich, E.H. (1961). Art and illusion: A study in the psychology of pictorial representation (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Harvey, S., Goudvis, A. (2000). Strategies that work: Teaching com- prehension to enhance understanding. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. Hasenmueller, C. (1978). Panofsky, iconography, and semiotics. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 36(3), 289–301. Heiligmann, R., Shields, V.R. (2005). Media literacy, visual syntax, and magazine advertisements: Conceptualizing the consumption of reading by media literate subjects. Journal of Visual Literacy, 25(1), 41–66. art, media, and semiotic theories and interpretive strategies into the classroom requires teachers to read outside the traditional boundaries of educational course work and curricula. This requires a rethinking of the traditional experiences and readings currently assigned in today’s education classes at university. Concluding Remarks Students are constructed as readers of particular types by the reading practices available to them and the discourses that situate literacy practices (Luke Freebody, 1997). In other words, every classroom is a site for the production of meaning, and every inter- pretive community has some allegiance to a particular literary tradition or perspective (Fish, 1980). The role of progressive literacy education is to open up the interpretive spaces teachers provide through the expectations they set, the responses they endorse, the texts they select, and the strategies they demonstrate. To expand students’ interpretive repertoires, teachers need to extend their own understanding of a variety of perspectives, theories, and practices used to compre- hend visual images, graphic design, and multimodal texts. Each visual medium has its own language, struc- ture, or visual syntax that needs to be understood to be understood. Art theory and criticism, the grammar of visual design, and media literacies focus the readers’ at- tention on different aspects of multimodal texts. These perspectives also provide different analytical tools for interpreting and interrogating these texts. Moving be- yond the traditional boundaries of literacy theories and practices will help expand the perspectives and strate- gies readers and teachers may draw on to be fully liter- ate in today’s society. References Alvermann, D.E., Hagood, M.C. (2000). Critical me- dia literacy: Research, theory, and practice in “New Times.” The Journal of Educational Research, 93(3), 193–205. doi:10.1080/00220670009598707 Alvermann, D.E., Moon, J.S., Hagood, M.C. (1999). Popular culture in the classroom: Teaching and researching critical media lit- eracy. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Anstey, M. (2002). “It’s not all black and white”: Postmodern picture books and new literacies. Journal of Adolescent Adult Literacy, 45(6), 444–457. doi:10.1598/JAAL.45.6.1
- 9. 350 JournalofAdolescentAdultLiteracy54(5)February2011 Serafini, F. (2008). The pedagogical possibilities of postmodern picture books. The Journal of Reading, Writing Literacy, 2(3), 23–41. Serafini, F. (2009). Understanding visual images in picture books. In J. Evans (Ed.), Talking beyond the page: Reading and responding to contemporary picture books (pp. 10–25). London: Routledge. Serafini, F., Giorgis, C. (2003). Reading aloud and beyond: Fostering the intellectual life with older readers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Serafini, F., Ladd, S.M. (2008). The challenge of mov- ing beyond the literal in literature discussions. Journal of Language and Literacy Education [Online], 4(2), 6–20. Retrieved December 13, 2010, from www .coe.uga.edu/jolle/2008/challenge.pdf Serafini, F., Youngs, S. (2008). More (advanced) lessons in com- prehension: Expanding students’ understandings of all types of text. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Sipe, L.R., Pantaleo, S. (Eds.). (2008). Postmodern picturebooks: Play, parody, and self-referentiality. New York: Routledge. Sturken, M., Cartwright, L. (2001). Practices of looking: An in- troduction to visual culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sweet, A.P., Snow, C.E. (Eds.). (2003). Rethinking reading com- prehension. New York: Guilford. Unsworth, L., Wheeler, J. (2002). Re-valuing the role of images in reviewing picture books. Reading: Literacy and Language, 36(2), 68–74. van Leeuwen, T. (2005). Introducing social semiotics. London: Routledge. van Straten, R. (1994). An introduction to iconography (P. de Man, Trans.). London: Taylor Francis. (Original work pub- lished 1985) Williamson, J. (1978). Decoding advertisements: Ideology and meaning in advertising. London: Marion Boyars. Zammit, K. (2007). Popular culture in the classroom: Interpreting and creating multimodal texts. In R. Whittaker, M. O’Donnell, A. McCabe (Eds.), Advances in language and education (pp. 60–76). London: Continuum. Serafini teaches at Arizona State University, Phoenix, USA; e-mail serafini@asu.edu. Jewitt, C., Kress, G. (Eds.). (2003). Multimodal literacy. New York: Peter Lang. Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge. Kress, G., van Leeuwen, T. (1996). Reading images: The grammar of visual design. London: Routledge. Kress, G., van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal discourse: The modes and media of contemporary communication. London: Edward Arnold. Lankshear, C., Knobel, M. (2006). New literacies: Everyday practices classroom learning (2nd ed.). Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. Lewis, D. (1990). The constructedness of texts: Picture books and the metafictive. Signal: Approaches to Children’s Books, 62, 131–146. Luke, A., Freebody, P. (1997). Shaping the social practices of reading. In S. Muspratt, A. Luke, P. Freebody (Eds.), Constructing critical literacies: Teaching and learning textual practice (pp. 185–225). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton. Messaris, P. (1994). Visual literacy: Image, mind, reality. Boulder, CO: Westview. Messaris, P. (1997). Visual persuasion: The role of images in advertis- ing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Mitchell, W.J.T. (1986). Iconology: Image, text, ideology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Panofsky, E. (1955). Meaning in the visual arts. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Rose, G. (2001). Visual methodologies. London: Sage. Santman, D. (2005). Shades of meaning: Comprehension and interpre- tation in middle school. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Serafini, F. (2001). The Reading workshop: Creating space for readers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Serafini, F. (2003, February). Informing our practice: Modernist, transactional, and critical perspectives on children’s litera- ture and reading instruction. Reading Online, 6(6). Retrieved October 26, 2010, from www.readingonline.org/articles/ art_index.asp?HREF=serafini/index.html Serafini, F. (2005). Voices in the park, voices in the classroom: Readers responding to postmodern picture books. Reading Research and Instruction, 44(3), 47–65. Serafini, F. (with Serafini-Youngs, S.). (2006). Around the reading workshop in 180 days: A month-by-month guide to quality instruc- tion. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
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