– 272 –C H A P T E R T E Nk Introductionk Alber

– 272 –
C H A P T E R T E N
k Introduction
k Albert Ellis’s Rational Emotive
Behavior Therapy
k Key Concepts
View of Human Nature
View of Emotional Disturbance
A-B-C Framework
k The Therapeutic Process
Therapeutic Goals
Therapist ’s Function and Role
Client ’s Experience in Therapy
Relationship Between Therapist and Client
k Application: Therapeutic
Techniques and Procedures
The Practice of Rational Emotive Behavior
Therapy
Applications of REBT to Client Populations
REBT as a Brief Therapy
Application to Group Counseling
k Aaron Beck ’s Cognitive Therapy
Introduction
Basic Principles of Cognitive Therapy

The Client–Therapist Relationship
Applications of Cognitive Therapy
k Donald Meichenbaum’s Cognitive
Behavior Modifi cation
Introduction
How Behavior Changes
Coping Skills Programs
The Constructivist Approach to Cognitive
Behavior Therapy
k Cognitive Behavior Therapy
From a Multicultural Perspective
Strengths From a Diversit y Perspective
Shortcomings From a Diversit y Perspective
k Cognitive Behavior Therapy
Applied to the Case of Stan
k Summary and Evaluation
Contributions of the Cognitive Behavioral
Approaches
Limitations and Criticisms of the Cognitive
Behavioral Approaches
k Where to Go From Here
Recommended Supplementary Readings
References and Suggested Readings
Cognitive Behavior Therapy

– 273 –
A L B E R T E L L I S
ALBERT ELLIS (1913–2007)
was born in Pittsburgh but
escaped to the wilds of New
York at the age of 4 and lived
there (except for a year in New
Jersey) for the rest of his life. He
was hospitalized nine times as
a child, mainly with nephritis,
and developed renal glycosuria
at the age of 19 and diabetes at the age of 40. By rigor -
ously taking care of his health and stubbornly refusing
to make himself miserable about it, he lived an unusually
robust and energetic life, until his death at age 93.
Realizing that he could counsel people skillfully and
that he greatly enjoyed doing so, Ellis decided to become
a psychologist. Believing psychoanalysis to be the
deepest form of psychotherapy, Ellis was analyzed and
supervised by a training analyst. He then practiced psy-
choanalytically oriented psychotherapy, but eventually
he became disillusioned with the slow progress of his cl i-
ents. He observed that they improved more quickly once
they changed their ways of thinking about themselves
and their problems. Early in 1955 he developed rational
emotive behavior therapy (REBT). Ellis has rightly been
called the “grandfather of cognitive behavior therapy.”
Until his illness during the last two years of his life, he
generally worked 16 hours a day, seeing many clients for
individual therapy, making time each day for professional
writing, and giving numerous talks and workshops in
many parts of the world.

To some extent Ellis developed his approach as a
method of dealing with his own problems during his
youth. At one point in his life, for example, he had exag-
gerated fears of speaking in public. During his adoles-
cence he was extremely shy around young women. At
age 19 he forced himself to talk to 100 diff erent women
in the Bronx Botanical Gardens over a period of one
month. Although he never managed to get a date from
these brief encounters, he does report that he desen-
sitized himself to his fear of rejection by women. By
applying cognitive behavioral methods, he managed to
conquer some of his strongest emotional blocks (Ellis,
1994, 1997).
People who heard Ellis lecture often commented
on his abrasive, humorous, and fl amboyant style. He did
see himself as more abrasive than most in his work-
shops, and he also considered himself humorous and
startling in some ways. In his workshops he took delight
in giving vent to his eccentric side, such as peppering
his speech with four-letter words. He greatly enjoyed
his work and teaching REBT, which was his passion and
primary commitment in life. Even during his fi nal ill-
ness, he continued to see students at the rehabilitation
center where he was recuperating, sometimes teaching
from his hospital bed. One of his last workshops was to
a group of students from Belgium who visited him in
the hospital. In addition to pneumonia, he had had a
heart attack that morning, yet he refused to cancel this
meeting with the students.
Humor was an important part of his philosophy,
which he applied to his own life challenges. Through
his example, he taught people how to deal with serious
adversities. He enjoyed writing rational humorous songs

and said that he would have liked to be a composer had
he not become a psychologist.
Ellis married an Australian psychologist, Debbie
Joff e, in November 2004, whom he had called “the great-
est love of my life” (Ellis, 2008). Both of them shared the
same life goals and ideals and they worked as a team
presenting workshops. For more on the life of Albert
Ellis and the history of REBT, see Rational Emotive Behavior
Therapy: It Works for Me—It Can Work for You (Ellis, 2004a).
Co
ur
te
sy
o
f A
lb
er
t E
lli
s
In
st
it
ut
e
Introduction

As you saw in Chapter 9, traditional behavior therapy has
broadened and
largely moved in the direction of cognitive behavior therapy.
Several of the
more prominent cognitive behavioral approaches are featured in
this chapter,
including Albert Ellis’s rational emotive behavior therapy
(REBT), Aaron T.
Beck’s cognitive therapy (CT), and Donald Meichenbaum’s
cognitive behavior
– 274 –
AARON TEMKIN BECK (b. 1921)
was born in Providence, Rhode
Island. His childhood was char-
acterized by adversity. Beck’s
early schooling was interrupted
by a life-threatening illness, yet
he overcame this problem and
ended up a year ahead of his
peer group (Weishaar, 1993).
Throughout his life he struggled with a variety of fears:
blood injury fears, fear of suff ocation, tunnel phobia, anxi-
ety about his health, and public speaking anxiety. Beck
used his personal problems as a basis for understanding
others and developing his theory.
A graduate of Brown University and Yale School of
Medicine, Beck initially practiced as a neurologist, but
he switched to psychiatry during his residency. Beck is
the pioneering fi gure in cognitive therapy, one of the
most infl uential and empirically validated approaches

to psychotherapy. Beck’s conceptual and empirical
contributions are considered to be among the most
signifi cant in the fi eld of psychiatry and psychotherapy
(Padesky, 2006).
Beck attempted to validate Freud’s theory of
depression, but his research resulted in his parting
company with Freud’s motivational model and the
explanation of depression as self-directed anger. As
a result of this decision, Beck endured isolation and
rejection from many in the psychiatric community for
many years. Through his research, Beck developed
a cognitive theory of depression, which represents
one of the most comprehensive conceptualizations.
He found the cognitions of depressed persons to be
characterized by errors in logic that he called “cogni -
tive distortions.” For Beck, negative thoughts reflect
underlying dysfunctional beliefs and assumptions.
When these beliefs are triggered by situational events,
a depressive pattern is put in motion. Beck believes
clients can assume an active role in modif ying their
dysfunctional thinking and thereby gain relief from
a range of psychiatric conditions. His continuous
research in the areas of psychopathology and the
utility of cognitive therapy has earned him a place of
prominence in the scientific community in the United
States.
Beck joined the Department of Psychiatry of the
University of Pennsylvania in 1954, where he cur-
rently holds the position of Professor (Emeritus) of
Psychiatry. Beck’s pioneering research established
the ef ficacy of cognitive therapy for depression. He
has successfully applied cognitive therapy to depres-
sion, generalized anxiety and panic disorders, suicide,

alcoholism and drug abuse, eating disorders, marital
and relationship problems, psychotic disorders, and
personality disorders. He has developed assessment
scales for depression, suicide risk, anxiety, self-con-
cept, and personality.
He is the founder of the Beck Institute, which is a
research and training center directed by one of his four
children, Dr. Judith Beck. He has eight grandchildren and
has been married for more than 50 years. To his credit,
Aaron Beck has focused on developing the cognitive
therapy skills of hundreds of clinicians throughout the
world. In turn, they have established their own cogni-
tive therapy centers. Beck has a vision for the cognitive
therapy community that is global, inclusive, collabora-
tive, empowering, and benevolent. He continues to be
active in writing and research; he has published 17 books
and more than 450 articles and book chapters (Padesky,
2006). For more on the life of Aaron T. Beck, see Aaron T.
Beck (Weishaar, 1993).
A A R O N T . B E C K
Co
ur
te
sy
o
f B
ec
k
In

st
it
ut
e
fo
r C
og
ni
ti
ve
Th
er
ap
y
an
d
Re
se
ar
ch
B
al
a

Cy
nw
yd
, P
A
therapy (CBT). Cognitive behavior therapy, which combines
both cognitive
and behavioral principles and methods in a short-term treatment
approach,
has generated more empirical research than any other
psychotherapy model
(Dattilio, 2000a).
All of the cognitive behavioral approaches share the same basic
char-
acteristics and assumptions of traditional behavior therapy as
described in
C H A P T E R T E N k Cog n it i ve B ehav ior T herap y
275
Chapter 9. As is true of traditional behavior therapy, the
cognitive behavioral
approaches are quite diverse, but they do share these attributes:
(1) a collab-
orative relationship between client and therapist, (2) the
premise that psycho-
logical distress is largely a function of disturbances in cognitive
processes,
(3) a focus on changing cognitions to produce desired changes

in affect and
behavior, and (4) a generally time-limited and educational
treatment focusing
on specifi c and structured target problems (Arnkoff & Glass,
1992; Weishaar,
1993). All of the cognitive behavioral therapies are based on a
structured psy-
choeducational model, emphasize the role of homework, place
responsibility
on the client to assume an active role both during and outside of
the therapy
sessions, and draw from a variety of cognitive and behavioral
strategies to
bring about change.
To a large degree, cognitive behavior therapy is based on the
assumption
that a reorganization of one’s self-statements will result in a
corresponding re-
organization of one’s behavior. Behavioral techniques such as
operant condi-
tioning, modeling, and behavioral rehearsal can also be applied
to the more
subjective processes of thinking and internal dialogue. The
approaches include a variety of behavioral strategies (discussed
in Chapter 9) as
a part of their integrative repertoire.
Albert Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) was one of the fi rst
cognitive be-
havior therapies, and today it continues to be a major cognitive
behavioral ap-
proach. REBT has a great deal in common with the therapies
that are oriented

toward cognition and behavior as it also stresses thinking,
judging, deciding,
analyzing, and doing. The basic assumption of REBT is that
people contribute
to their own psychological problems, as well as to specifi c
symptoms, by the
way they interpret events and situations. REBT is based on the
assumption that
cognitions, emotions, and behaviors interact signifi cantly and
have a reciprocal
cause-and-effect relationship. REBT has consistently
emphasized all three of
these modalities and their interactions, thus qualifying it as an
integrative ap-
proach (Ellis, 1994, 1999, 2001a, 2001b, 2002, 2008; Ellis &
Dryden, 1997; Wolfe,
2007).
Ellis argued that the psychoanalytic approach is sometimes very
ineffi -
cient because people often seem to get worse instead of better
(Ellis, 1999, 2000,
2001b, 2002). He began to persuade and encourage his clients to
do the very
things they were most afraid of doing, such as risking rejection
by signifi cant
others. Gradually he became much more eclectic and more
active and directive
as a therapist, and REBT became a general school of
psychotherapy aimed at
providing clients with the tools to restructure their
philosophical and behav-
ioral styles (Ellis, 2001b; Ellis & Blau, 1998).
Although REBT is generally conceded to be the parent of
today’s cogni-

tive behavioral approaches, it was preceded by earlier schools
of thought. Ellis
acknowledges his debt to the ancient Greeks, especial ly the
Stoic philosopher
276 PA R T T WO k T he or ie s a nd Te c h n iq ue s of Cou n
s el i ng
Epictetus, who said around 2,000 years ago: “People are
disturbed not by events,
but by the views which they take of them” (as cited in Ellis,
2001a, p. 16). Ellis
contends that how people disturb themselves is more
comprehensive and pre-
cise than that: “People disturb themselves by the things that
happen to them,
and by their views, feelings, and actions” (p. 16). Karen
Horney’s (1950) ideas
on the “tyranny of the shoulds” are also apparent in the
conceptual framework
of REBT.
Ellis also gives credit to Adler as an infl uential precursor. As
you will re-
call, Adler believed that our emotional reactions and lifestyle
are associated
with our basic beliefs and are therefore cognitively created.
Like the Adlerian
approach, REBT emphasizes the role of social interest in
determining psycho-
logical health. There are other Adlerian infl uences on REBT,
such as the impor-
tance of goals, purposes, values, and meanings in human
existence.

REBT’s basic hypothesis is that our emotions stem mainly from
our be-
liefs, evaluations, interpretations, and reactions to life
situations. Through the
therapeutic process, clients learn skills that give them the tools
to identify and
dispute irrational beliefs that have been acquired and self-
constructed and are
now maintained by self-indoctrination. They learn how to
replace such ineffec-
tive ways of thinking with effective and rational cognitions, and
as a result they
change their emotional reactions to situations. The therapeutic
process allows
clients to apply REBT principles of change not only to a
particular presenting
problem but also to many other problems in life or future
problems they might
encounter.
Several therapeutic implications fl ow from these assumptions:
The focus
is on working with thinking and acting rather than primarily
with expressing
feelings. Therapy is seen as an educational process. The
therapist functions in
many ways like a teacher, especially in collaborating with a
client on homework
assignments and in teaching strategies for straight thinking; and
the client is a
learner, who practices the newly learned skills in everyday life.
REBT differs from many other therapeutic approaches in that it
does not
place much value on free association, working with dreams,

focusing on the cli-
ent’s past history, expressing and exploring feelings, or dealing
with transfer-
ence phenomena. Although transference and countertransference
may sponta-
neously occur in therapy, Ellis (2008) claimed “they are quickly
analyzed, the
philosophies behind them are revealed, and they tend to
evaporate in the pro-
cess” (p. 209). Furthermore, when a client’s deep feelings
emerge, “the client is
not given too much chance to revel in these feelings or abreact
strongly about
them” (p. 209). Ellis believes that such cathartic work may
result in clients feel-
ing better, but it will rarely aid them in getting better.
Key Concepts
View of Human Nature
Rational emotive behavior therapy is based on the assumption
that human
beings are born with a potential for both rational, or “straight,”
thinking
and irrational, or “crooked,” thinking. People have
predispositions for self-
preservation, happiness, thinking and verbalizing, loving,
communion with
277
others, and growth and self-actualization. They also have
propensities for self-

destruction, avoidance of thought, procrastination, endless
repetition of mis-
takes, superstition, intolerance, perfectionism and self-blame,
and avoidance
of actualizing growth potentials. Taking for granted that humans
are fallible,
REBT attempts to help them accept themselves as creatures who
will continue
to make mistakes yet at the same time learn to live more at
peace with them-
selves.
View of Emotional Disturbance
REBT is based on the premise that although we originally learn
irrational be-
liefs from signifi cant others during childhood, we create
irrational dogmas
by ourselves. We do this by actively reinforcing self-defeating
beliefs by the
processes of autosuggestion and self-repetition and by behaving
as if they are
useful. Hence, it is largely our own repetition of early-
indoctrinated irrational
thoughts, rather than a parent’s repetition, that keeps
dysfunctional attitudes
alive and operative within us.
Ellis contends that people do not need to be accepted and loved,
even
though this may be highly desirable. The therapist teaches
clients how to
feel undepressed even when they are unaccepted and unloved by
signifi cant
others. Although REBT encourages people to experience healthy
feelings of
sadness over being unaccepted, it attempts to help them fi nd

ways of over-
coming unhealthy feelings of depression, anxiety, hurt, loss of
self-worth, and
hatred.
Ellis insists that blame is at the core of most emotional
disturbances. There-
fore, to recover from a neurosis or a personality disorder, we
had better stop
blaming ourselves and others. Instead, it is important that we
learn to fully
accept ourselves despite our imperfections. Ellis (Ellis & Blau,
1998; Ellis &
Harper, 1997) hypothesizes that we have strong tendencies to
escalate our de-
sires and preferences into dogmatic “shoulds,” “musts,”
“oughts,” demands,
and commands. When we are upset, it is a good idea to look to
our hidden
dogmatic “musts” and absolutist “shoulds.” Such demands
create disruptive
feelings and dysfunctional behaviors (Ellis, 2001a, 2004a).
Here are three basic musts (or irrational beliefs) that we
internalize that in-
evitably lead to self-defeat (Ellis, 1994, 1997, 1999; Ellis &
Dryden, 1997; Ellis &
Harper, 1997):
• “I must do well and win the approval of others for my
performances or
else I am no good.”
• “Other people must treat me considerately, fairly, kindly, and
in exactly
the way I want them to treat me. If they don’t, they are no good

and they
deserve to be condemned and punished.”
• “I must get what I want, when I want it; and I must not get
what I don’t
want. If I don’t get what I want, it’s terrible, and I can’t stand
it.”
We have a strong tendency to make and keep ourselves
emotionally disturbed
by internalizing self-defeating beliefs such as these, which is
why it is a real
challenge to achieve and maintain good psychological health
(Ellis, 2001a,
2001b).
s el i ng
A-B-C Framework
The A-B-C framework is central to REBT theory and practice.
This model provides
a useful tool for understanding the client’s feelings, thoughts,
events, and behavior
(Wolfe, 2007). A is the existence of a fact, an activating event,
or the behavior or at-
titude of an individual. C is the emotional and behavioral
consequence or reaction
of the individual; the reaction can be either healthy or
unhealthy. A (the activat-
ing event) does not cause C (the emotional consequence).
Instead, B, which is the
person’s belief about A, largely causes C, the emotional
reaction.

The interaction of the various components can be diagrammed
like this:
A (activating event) ← B (belief) → C (emotional and
behavioral consequence)
↑
D (disputing intervention) → E (effect) → F (new feeling)
If a person experiences depression after a divorce, for example,
it may not be
the divorce itself that causes the depressive reaction but the
person’s beliefs
about being a failure, being rejected, or losing a mate. Ellis
would maintain that
the beliefs about the rejection and failure (at point B) are what
mainly cause the
depression (at point C) —not the actual event of the divorce (at
point A). Believ-
ing that human beings are largely responsible for creating their
own emotional
reactions and disturbances, showing people how they can
change their irratio-
nal beliefs that directly “cause” their disturbed emotional
consequences is at
the heart of REBT (Ellis, 1999; Ellis & Dryden, 1997; Ellis,
Gordon, Neenan, &
Palmer, 1997; Ellis & Harper, 1997).
How is an emotional disturbance fostered? It is fed by the self-
defeating
sentences clients continually repeat to themselves, such as “I
am totally to
blame for the divorce,” “I am a miserable failure, and
everything I did was

wrong,” “I am a worthless person.” Ellis repeatedly makes the
point that “you
mainly feel the way you think.” Disturbed emotional reactions
such as depres-
sion and anxiety are initiated and perpetuated by clients’ self-
defeating belief
systems, which are based on irrational ideas clients have
incorporated and in-
vented. The revised A-B-Cs of REBT now defi ne B as
believing, emoting, and
behaving. Because belief involves strong emotional and
behavioral elements,
Ellis (2001a) added these latter two components to the A-B-C
model.
After A, B, and C comes D (disputing). Essentially, D is the
application
of methods to help clients challenge their irrational beliefs.
There are three
components of this disputing process: detecting, debating, and
discriminat-
ing. First, clients learn how to detect their irrational beliefs,
particularly their
absolutist “shoulds” and “musts,” their “awfulizing,” and their
“self-downing.”
Then clients debate their dysfunctional beliefs by learning how
to logically and
empirically question them and to vigorously argue themselves
out of and act
against believing them. Finally, clients learn to discriminate
irrational (self-
defeating) beliefs from rational (self-helping) beliefs (Ellis,
1994, 1996). Cogni-
tive restructuring is a central technique of cognitive therapy
that teaches peo-
ple how to improve themselves by replacing faulty cognitions

with constructive
beliefs (Ellis, 2003). Restructuring involves helping clients
learn to monitor their
self-talk, identify maladaptive self-talk, and substitute adaptive
self-talk for
their negative self-talk (Spiegler, 2008).
279
Ellis (1996, 2001b) maintains that we have the capacity to
signifi cantly change
our cognitions, emotions, and behaviors. We can best
accomplish this goal by
avoiding preoccupying ourselves with A and by acknowledging
the futility of
dwelling endlessly on emotional consequences at C. Rather, we
can choose to
examine, challenge, modify, and uproot B—the irrational beliefs
we hold about
the activating events at A.
Although REBT uses many other cognitive, emotive, and
behavioral meth-
ods to help clients minimize their irrational beliefs, it stresses
the process of
disputing (D) such beliefs both during therapy sessions and in
everyday life.
Eventually clients arrive at E, an effective philosophy, which
has a practical
side. A new and effective belief system consists of replacing
unhealthy thoughts
with healthy ones. If we are successful in doing this, we also
create F, a new set

of feelings. Instead of feeling seriously anxious and depressed,
we feel health-
ily sorry and disappointed in accord with a situation.
In sum, philosophical restructuring to change our dysfunctional
personality
involves these steps: (1) fully acknowledging that we are
largely responsible
for creating our own emotional problems; (2) accepting the
notion that we
have the ability to change these disturbances signifi cantly; (3)
recognizing
that our emotional problems largely stem from irrational
beliefs; (4) clearly
perceiving these beliefs; (5) seeing the value of disputing such
self-defeating
beliefs; (6) accepting the fact that if we expect to change we
had better work
hard in emotive and behavioral ways to counteract our beliefs
and the dys-
functional feelings and actions that follow; and (7) practicing
REBT methods
of uprooting or changing disturbed consequences for the rest of
our life (Ellis,
1999, 2001b, 2002).
The Therapeutic Process
Therapeutic Goals
According to Ellis (2001b; Ellis & Harper, 1997), we have a
strong tendency not
only to rate our acts and behaviors as “good” or “bad,”
“worthy” or “unworthy,”
but also to rate ourselves as a total person on the basis of our
performances.
These ratings constitute one of the main sources of our

emotional disturbances.
Therefore, most cognitive behavior therapists have the general
goal of teaching
clients how to separate the evaluation of their behaviors from
the evaluation of
themselves—their essence and their totality—and how to accept
themselves in
spite of their imperfections.
The many roads taken in rational emotive behavior therapy lead
toward
the destination of clients minimizing their emotional
disturbances and self-
defeating behaviors by acquiring a more realistic and workable
philosophy of
life. The process of REBT involves a collaborative effort on the
part of both the
therapist and the client in choosing realistic and self-enhancing
therapeutic
goals. The therapist’s task is to help clients differentiate
between realistic and
unrealistic goals and also self-defeating and self-enhancing
goals (Dryden,
2002). A basic goal is to teach clients how to change their
dysfunctional emo-
tions and behaviors into healthy ones. Ellis (2001b) states that
two of the main
goals of REBT are to assist clients in the process of achieving
unconditional self-
acceptance (USA) and unconditional other acceptance (UOA),
and to see how these
s el i ng

are interrelated. As clients become more able to accept
themselves, they are
more likely to unconditionally accept others.
Therapist’s Function and Role
The therapist has specifi c tasks, and the fi rst step is to show
clients how they
have incorporated many irrational “shoulds,” “oughts,” and
“musts.” The ther-
apist disputes clients’ irrational beliefs and encourages clients
to engage in ac-
tivities that will counter their self-defeating beliefs and to
replace their rigid
“musts” with preferences.
A second step in the therapeutic process is to demonstrate how
clients
are keeping their emotional disturbances active by continuing to
think il-
logically and unrealistically. In other words, because clients
keep reindoc-
trinating themselves, they are largely responsible for their own
personality
problems.
To get beyond mere recognition of irrational thoughts, the
therapist takes
a third step—helping clients modify their thinking and minimize
their ir-
rational ideas. Although it is unlikely that we can entirely
eliminate the
tendency to think irrationally, we can reduce the frequenc y. The
therapist
confronts clients with the beliefs they originally
unquestioningly accepted

and demonstrates how they are continuing to indoctrinate
themselves with
unexamined assumptions.
The fourth step in the therapeutic process is to challenge cli ents
to develop
a rational philosophy of life so that in the future they can avoid
becoming the
victim of other irrational beliefs. Tackling only specifi c
problems or symptoms
can give no assurance that new illogical fears will not emerge.
It is desirable,
then, for the therapist to dispute the core of the irrational
thinking and to teach
clients how to substitute rational beliefs and behaviors for
irrational ones.
The therapist takes the mystery out of the therapeutic process,
teaching
clients about the cognitive hypothesis of disturbance and
showing how faulty
beliefs lead to negative consequences. Insight alone does not
typically lead to
personality change, but it helps clients to see how they are
continuing to sabo-
tage themselves and what they can do to change.
Client’s Experience in Therapy
Once clients begin to accept that their beliefs are the primary
cause of their
emotions and behaviors, they are able to participate effectively
in the cogni-
tive restructuring process (Ellis et al., 1997; Ellis & MacLaren,
1998). Because
psychotherapy is viewed as a reeducative process, clients learn
how to apply

logical thought, participate in experiential exercises, and carry
out behavioral
homework as a way to bring about change. Clients can realize
that life does
not always work out the way that they would like it to. Even
though life is not
always pleasant, clients learn that life can be bearable.
The therapeutic process focuses on clients’ experiences in the
present.
Like the person-centered and existential approaches to therapy,
REBT mainly
emphasizes here-and-now experiences and clients’ present
ability to change
the patterns of thinking and emoting that they constructed
earlier. The thera-
pist does not devote much time to exploring clients’ early
history and making
281
connections between their past and present behavior. Nor does
the therapist
usually explore clients’ early relationships with their parents or
siblings. In-
stead, the therapeutic process stresses to clients that they are
presently dis-
turbed because they still believe in and act upon their self-
defeating view of
themselves and their world.
Clients are expected to actively work outside the therapy
sessions. By work-

ing hard and carrying out behavioral homework assignments,
clients can learn
to minimize faulty thinking, which leads to disturbances in
feeling and behav-
ing. Homework is carefully designed and agreed upon and is
aimed at get-
ting clients to carry out positive actions that induce emotional
and attitudinal
change. These assignments are checked in later sessions, and
clients learn ef-
fective ways to dispute self-defeating thinking. Toward the end
of therapy, cli-
ents review their progress, make plans, and identify strategies
for dealing with
continuing or potential problems.
Relationship Between Therapist and Client
Because REBT is essentially a cognitive and directive
behavioral process, an
intense relationship between therapist and client is not required.
As with the
person-centered therapy of Rogers, REBT practitioners
unconditionally accept
all clients and also teach them to unconditionally accept others
and them-
selves. However, Ellis believes that too much warmth and
understanding can
be counterproductive by fostering a sense of dependence for
approval from
the therapist. REBT practitioners accept their clients as
imperfect beings who
can be helped through a variety of techniques such as teaching,
bibliotherapy,
and behavior modifi cation (Ellis, 2008). Ellis builds rapport
with his clients by
showing them that he has great faith in their ability to change

themselves and
that he has the tools to help them do this.
Rational emotive behavior therapists are often open and direct
in disclos-
ing their own beliefs and values. Some are willing to share their
own imper-
fections as a way of disputing clients’ unrealistic notions that
therapists are
“completely put together” persons. On this point, Wolfe (2007)
claims “it is
important to establish as much as possible an egalitarian
relationship, as op-
posed to presenting yourself as a nondisclosing authority fi
gure” (p. 186). Ellis
(2002) maintains that transference is not encouraged, and when
it does occur,
the therapist is likely to confront it. Ellis believes that a
transference relation-
ship is based on the irrational belief that the client must be
liked and loved by
the therapist, or parent fi gure.
Application: Therapeutic Techniques and Procedures
The Practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
Rational emotive behavior therapists are multimodal and
integrative. REBT
generally starts with clients’ distorted feelings and intensely
explores these
feelings in connection with thoughts and behaviors. REBT
practitioners tend to
use a number of different modalities (cognitive, imagery,
emotive, behavioral,
and interpersonal). They are fl exible and creative in their use
of methods, mak-

ing sure to tailor the techniques to the unique needs of each
client (Dryden,
s el i ng
2002). For a concrete illustration of how Dr. Ellis works with
the client Ruth
drawing from cognitive, emotive, and behavioral techniques, see
Case Approach
to Counseling and Psychotherapy (Corey, 2009a, chap. 8). What
follows is a brief
summary of the major cognitive, emotive, and behavioral
techniques Ellis de-
scribes (Ellis, 1994, 1999, 2004a; Ellis & Crawford, 2000; Ellis
& Dryden, 1997;
Ellis & MacLaren, 1998; Ellis & Velten, 1998).
COGNITIV E METHODS REBT practitioners usually
incorporate a forceful
cognitive methodology in the therapeutic process. They
demonstrate to cli-
ents in a quick and direct manner what it is that they are
continuing to tell
themselves. Then they teach clients how to deal with these self-
statements
so that they no longer believe them, encouraging them to
acquire a philoso-
phy based on reality. REBT relies heavily on thinking,
disputing, debating,
challenging, interpreting, explaining, and teaching. The most
effi cient way to
bring about lasting emotional and behavioral change is for
clients to change

their way of thinking (Dryden, 2002). Here are some cognitive
techniques
available to the therapist.
• Disputing irrational beliefs. The most common cognitive
method of REBT
consists of the therapist actively disputing clients’ irrational
beliefs and teach-
ing them how to do this challenging on their own. Clients go
over a particular
“must,” “should,” or “ought” until they no longer hold that
irrational belief,
or at least until it is diminished in strength. Here are some
examples of ques-
tions or statements clients learn to tell themselves: “Why must
people treat me
fairly?” “How do I become a total fl op if I don’t succeed at
important tasks I
try?” “If I don’t get the job I want, it may be disappointing, but
I can certainly
stand it.” “If life doesn’t always go the way I would like it to, it
isn’t awful, just
inconvenient.”
• Doing cognitive homework. REBT clients are expected to
make lists of their
problems, look for their absolutist beliefs, and dispute these
beliefs. They of-
ten fi ll out the REBT Self-Help Form, which is reproduced in
Corey’s (2009b)
Student Manual for Theory and Practice of Counseling and
Psychotherapy. They can
bring this form to their therapy sessions and critically evaluate
the disputation
of some of their beliefs. Homework assignments are a way of
tracking down
the absolutist “shoulds” and “musts” that are part of their

internalized self-
messages. Part of this homework consists of applying the A-B-C
model to many
of the problems clients encounter in daily life. Work in the
therapy session can
be designed in such a way that out-of-offi ce tasks are feasible
and the client has
the skills to complete these tasks.
In carrying out homework, clients are encouraged to put
themselves in risk-
taking situations that will allow them to challenge their self-
limiting beliefs.
For example, a client with a talent for acting who is afraid to
act in front of an
audience because of fear of failure may be asked to take a small
part in a stage
play. The client is instructed to replace negative self-statements
such as “I will
fail,” “I will look foolish,” or “No one will like me” with more
positive messages
such as “Even if I do behave foolishly at times, this does not
make me a foolish
person. I can act. I will do the best I can. It’s nice to be liked,
but not everybody
will like me, and that isn’t the end of the world.”
283
The theory behind this and similar assignments is that clients
often create
a negative, self-fulfi lling prophecy and actually fail because
they told them-

selves in advance that they would. Clients are encouraged to
carry out spe-
cifi c assignments during the sessions and, especially, in
everyday situations
between sessions. In this way clients gradually learn to deal
with anxiety and
challenge basic irrational thinking. Because therapy is seen as
an educational
process, clients are also encouraged to read REBT self-help
books, such as How
to Be Happy and Remarkably Less Disturbable (Ellis, 1999);
Feeling Better, Getting
Better, and Staying Better (Ellis, 2001a); and Rational Emotive
Behavior Therapy: It
Works for Me—It Can Work for You (Ellis, 2004a). They also
listen to and evaluate
tapes of their own therapy sessions. Making changes is hard
work, and doing
work outside the sessions is of real value in revising clients’
thinking, feeling,
and behaving.
• Changing one’s language. REBT contends that imprecise
language is one of
the causes of distorted thinking processes. Clients learn that
“musts,” “oughts,”
and “shoulds” can be replaced by preferences. Instead of saying
“It would be ab-
solutely awful if . . .”, they learn to say “It would be
inconvenient if . . .”. Clients
who use language patterns that refl ect helplessness and self-
condemnation can
learn to employ new self-statements, which help them think and
behave differ-
ently. As a consequence, they also begin to feel differently.
• Psychoeducational methods. REBT and most other cognitive
behavior therapy

programs introduce clients to various educational materials.
Therapists edu-
cate clients about the nature of their problems and how
treatment is likely to
proceed. They ask clients how particular concepts apply to
them. Clients are
more likely to cooperate with a treatment program if they
understand how the
therapy process works and if they understand why particular
techniques are
being used (Ledley, Marx, & Heimberg, 2005).
EMOTIV E TECHNIQUES REBT practitioners use a variety of
emotive proce-
dures, including unconditional acceptance, rational emotive role
playing, mod-
eling, rational emotive imagery, and shame-attacking exercises.
Clients are
taught the value of unconditional self-acceptance. Even though
their behavior
may be diffi cult to accept, they can decide to see themselves as
worthwhile
persons. Clients are taught how destructive it is to engage in
“putting oneself
down” for perceived defi ciencies.
Although REBT employs a variety of emotive techniques, which
tend to be
vivid and evocative in nature, the main purpose is to dispute
clients’ irrational
beliefs (Dryden, 2002). These strategies are used both during
the therapy ses-
sions and as homework assignments in daily life. Their purpose
is not simply to
provide a cathartic experience but to help clients change some
of their thoughts,

emotions, and behaviors (Ellis, 1996, 1999, 2001b, 2008; Ellis
& Dryden, 1997).
Let’s look at some of these evocative and emotive therapeutic
techniques in
more detail.
• Rational emotive imagery. This technique is a form of intense
mental prac-
tice designed to establish new emotional patterns (see Ellis,
2001a, 2001b). Cli-
ents imagine themselves thinking, feeling, and behaving exactly
the way they
would like to think, feel, and behave in real life (Maultsby,
1984). They can also
s el i ng
be shown how to imagine one of the worst things that could
happen to them,
how to feel unhealthily upset about this situation, how to
intensely experience
their feelings, and then how to change the experience to a
healthy negative
feeling (Ellis, 1999, 2000). As clients change their feelings
about adversities,
they stand a better chance of changing their behavior in the
situation. Such a
technique can be usefully applied to interpersonal and other
situations that
are problematic for the individual. Ellis (2001a, 2008)
maintains that if we keep
practicing rational emotive imagery several times a week for a
few weeks, we

can reach the point that we no longer feel upset over negative
events.
• Using humor. REBT contends that emotional disturbances
often result from
taking oneself too seriously. One appealing aspects of REBT is
that it fosters
the development of a better sense of humor and helps put life
into perspective
(Wolfe, 2007). Humor has both cognitive and emotional benefi
ts in bringing
about change. Humor shows the absurdity of certain ideas that
clients stead-
fastly maintain, and it can be of value in helping clients take
themselves much
less seriously. Ellis (2001a) himself tends to use a good deal of
humor to combat
exaggerated thinking that leads clients into trouble. In his
workshops and ther-
apy sessions, Ellis typically uses humorous songs, and he
encourages people
to sing to themselves or in groups when they feel depressed or
anxious (Ellis,
1999, 2001a, 2001b). His style of presenting is humorous and he
seems to enjoy
using words like “horseshit!”
• Role playing. Role playing has emotive, cognitive, and
behavioral compo-
nents, and the therapist often interrupts to show clients what
they are telling
themselves to create their disturbances and what they can do to
change their
unhealthy feelings to healthy ones. Clients can rehearse certain
behaviors to
bring out what they feel in a situation. The focus is on working
through the
underlying irrational beliefs that are related to unpleasant

feelings. For exam-
ple, Dawson may put off applying to a graduate school because
of his fears of
not being accepted. Just the thought of not being accepted to the
school of his
choice brings out intense feelings of “being stupid.” Dawson
role-plays an in-
terview with the dean of graduate students, notes his anxiety
and the specifi c
beliefs leading to it, and challenges his conviction that he
absolutely must be
accepted and that not gaining such acceptance means that he is a
stupid and
incompetent person.
• Shame-attacking exercises. Ellis (1999, 2000, 2001a, 2001b)
developed exer-
cises to help people reduce shame over behaving in certain
ways. He thinks
that we can stubbornly refuse to feel ashamed by telling
ourselves that it is
not catastrophic if someone thinks we are foolish. The main
point of these
exercises, which typically involve both emotive and behavioral
components,
is that clients work to feel unashamed even when others clearly
disapprove
of them. The exercises are aimed at increasing self-acceptance
and mature
responsibility, as well as helping clients see that much of what
they think of
as being shameful has to do with the way they defi ne reality for
themselves.
Clients may accept a homework assignment to take the risk of
doing some-
thing that they are ordinarily afraid to do because of what others
might think.

Minor infractions of social conventions often serve as useful
catalysts. For ex-
ample, clients may shout out the stops on a bus or a train, wear
“loud” clothes
285
designed to attract attention, sing at the top of their lungs, ask a
silly question
at a lecture, or ask for a left-handed monkey wrench in a
grocery store. By car-
rying out such assignments, clients are likely to fi nd out that
other people are
not really that interested in their behavior. They work on
themselves so that
they do not feel ashamed or humiliated, even when they
acknowledge that
some of their acts will lead to judgments by others. They
continue practicing
these exercises until they realize that their feelings of shame are
self-created
and until they are able to behave in less inhibited ways. Clients
eventually
learn that they often have no reason for continuing to let others’
reactions or
possible disapproval stop them from doing the things they
would like to do.
Note that these exercises do not involve illegal activities or acts
that will be
harmful to oneself or to others.
• Use of force and vigor. Ellis has suggested the use of force
and energy as a
way to help clients go from intellectual to emotional insight.

Clients are also
shown how to conduct forceful dialogues with themselves in
which they ex-
press their unsubstantiated beliefs and then powerfully dispute
them. Some-
times the therapist will engage in reverse role playing by
strongly clinging to
the client’s self-defeating philosophy. Then, the client is asked
to vigorously
debate with the therapist in an attempt to persuade him or her to
give up these
dysfunctional ideas. Force and energy are a basic part of shame-
attacking ex-
ercises.
BEH AV IOR A L TECHNIQUES REBT practitioners use most
of the standard be-
havior therapy procedures, especially operant conditioning,
self-management
principles, systematic desensitization, relaxation techniques,
and modeling.
Behavioral homework assignments to be carried out in real -life
situations are
particularly important. These assignments are done
systematically and are re-
corded and analyzed on a form. Homework gives clients
opportunities to prac-
tice new skills outside of the therapy session, which may be
even more valuable
for clients than work done during the therapy hour (Ledley et
al., 2005). Doing
homework may involve desensitization and live exposure in
daily life situa-
tions. Clients can be encouraged to desensitize themselves
gradually but also,
at times, to perform the very things they dread doing

implosively. For example,
a person with a fear of elevators may decrease this fear by
going up and down
in an elevator 20 or 30 times in a day. Clients actually do new
and diffi cult
things, and in this way they put their insights to use in the form
of concrete ac-
tion. By acting differently, they also tend to incorporate
functional beliefs.
R ESE A RCH EFFORTS If a particular technique does not
seem to be producing
results, the REBT therapist is likely to switch to another. This
therapeutic fl ex-
ibility makes controlled research diffi cult. As enthusiastic as
he is about cogni-
tive behavior therapy, Ellis admits that practically all ther apy
outcome studies
are fl awed. According to him, these studies mainly test how
people feel bet-
ter but not how they have made a profound philosophical-
behavioral change
and thereby get better (Ellis, 1999, 2001a). Most studies focus
only on cognitive
methods and do not consider emotive and behavioral methods,
yet the studies
would be improved if they focused on all three REBT methods.
s el i ng
Applications of REBT to Client Populations
REBT has been widely applied to the treatment of anxiety,
hostility, character

disorders, psychotic disorders, and depression; to problems of
sex, love, and
marriage (Ellis & Blau, 1998); to child rearing and adolescence
(Ellis & Wilde,
2001); and to social skills training and self-management (Ellis,
2001b; Ellis et al.,
1997). With its clear structure (A-B-C framework), REBT is
applicable to a wide
range of settings and populations, including elementary and
secondary schools.
REBT can be applied to couples counseling and family therapy.
In working
with couples, the partners are taught the principles of REBT so
that they can
work out their differences or at least become less disturbed
about them. In fam-
ily therapy, individual family members are encouraged to
consider letting go of
the demand that others in the family behave in ways they would
like them to.
Instead, REBT teaches family members that they are primarily
responsible for
their own actions and for changing their own reactions to the
family situation.
REBT as a Brief Therapy
REBT is well suited as a brief form of therapy, whether it is
applied to individu-
als, groups, couples, or families. Ellis originally developed
REBT to try to make
psychotherapy shorter and more effi cient than most other
systems of therapy,
and it is often used as a brief therapy. Ellis has always
maintained that the best
therapy is effi cient, quickly teaching clients how to tackle

practical problems of
living. Clients learn how to apply REBT techniques to their
present as well as
future problems. A distinguishing characteristic of REBT that
makes it a brief
form of therapy is that it is a self-help approach (Vernon, 2007).
The A-B-C
approach to changing basic disturbance-creating attitudes can be
learned in
1 to 10 sessions and then practiced at home. Ellis has used
REBT successfully
in 1- and 2-day marathons and in 9-hour REBT intensives (Ellis,
1996; Ellis &
Dryden, 1997). People with specifi c problems, such as coping
with the loss of a
job or dealing with retirement, are taught how to apply REBT
principles to treat
themselves, often with supplementary didactic materials (books,
tapes, self-
help forms, and the like).
Application to Group Counseling
Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) groups are among the most
popular in clin-
ics and community agency settings. Two of the most common
CBT group ap-
proaches are based on the principles and techniques of REBT
and cognitive
therapy (CT).
CBT practitioners employ an active role in getting members to
commit
themselves to practicing in everyday situations what they are
learning in the
group sessions. They view what goes on during the group as
being valuable, yet

they know that the consistent work between group sessions and
after a group
ends is even more crucial. The group context provides members
with tools they
can use to become self-reliant and to accept themselves
unconditionally as they
encounter new problems in daily living.
REBT is also suitable for group therapy because the members
are taught to
apply its principles to one another in the group setting. Ellis
recommends that
most clients experience group therapy as well as individual
therapy at some
287
point. This form of group therapy focuses on specifi c
techniques for chang-
ing a client’s self-defeating thoughts in various concrete
situations. In addi-
tion to modifying beliefs, this approach helps group members
see how their
beliefs infl uence what they feel and what they do. This model
aims to minimize
symptoms by bringing about a profound change in philosophy.
All of cognitive,
emotive, and behavioral techniques described earlier are
applicable to group
counseling as are the techniques covered in Chapter 9 on
behavior therapy. Be-
havioral homework and skills training are just two useful
methods for a group

format.
A major strength of cognitive behavioral groups is the emphasis
placed on
education and prevention. Because CBT is based on broad
principles of learn-
ing, it can be used to meet the requirements of a wide variety of
groups with a
range of different purposes. The specifi city of CBT allows for
links among as-
sessment, treatment, and evaluation strategies. CBT groups have
targeted prob-
lems ranging from anxiety and depression to parent education
and relationship
enhancement. Cognitive behavioral group therapy has been
demonstrated to
have benefi cial applications for some of the following specifi c
problems: de-
pression, anxiety, panic and phobia, obesity, eating disorders,
dual diagno-
ses, dissociative disorders, and adult attention defi cit disorders
(see White &
Freeman, 2000). Based on his survey of outcome studies of
group therapy, Petrocelli (2002) concluded that this approach to
groups is ef-
fective for treating a wide range of emotional and behavioral
problems. For
a more detailed discussion of REBT applied to group
counseling, see Corey
(2008, chap. 14).
Aaron Beck ’s Cognitive Therapy
Introduction
Aaron T. Beck developed an approach known as cognitive

therapy (CT) as a
result of his research on depression (Beck 1963, 1967). Beck
was designing his
cognitive therapy about the same time as Ellis was developing
REBT, yet both of
them appear to have created their approaches independently.
Beck’s observa-
tions of depressed clients revealed that they had a negative bias
in their inter-
pretation of certain life events, which contributed to their
cognitive distortions
(Dattilio, 2000a). Cognitive therapy has a number of similarities
to both ratio-
nal emotive behavior therapy and behavior therapy. All of these
therapies are
active, directive, time-limited, present-centered, problem-
oriented, collabora-
tive, structured, empirical, make use of homework, and require
explicit identi-
fi cation of problems and the situations in which they occur
(Beck & Weishaar,
2008).
Cognitive therapy perceives psychological problems as
stemming from
commonplace processes such as faulty thinking, making
incorrect inferences
on the basis of inadequate or incorrect information, and failing
to distinguish
between fantasy and reality. Like REBT, CT is an insight-
focused therapy that
emphasizes recognizing and changing negative thoughts and
maladaptive be-
liefs. Thus, it is a psychological education model of therapy.
Cognitive therapy
is based on the theoretical rationale that the way people feel and

behave is
s el i ng
determined by how they perceive and structure their experience.
The theoreti-
cal assumptions of cognitive therapy are (1) that people’s
internal communica-
tion is accessible to introspection, (2) that clients’ beliefs have
highly personal
meanings, and (3) that these meanings can be discovered by the
client rather
than being taught or interpreted by the therapist (Weishaar,
1993).
The basic theory of CT holds that to understand the nature of an
emotional
episode or disturbance it is essential to focus on the cognitive
content of an
individual’s reaction to the upsetting event or stream of
thoughts (DeRubeis &
Beck, 1988). The goal is to change the way clients think by
using their automatic
thoughts to reach the core schemata and begin to introduce the
idea of schema
restructuring. This is done by encouraging clients to gather and
weigh the evi-
dence in support of their beliefs.
Basic Principles of Cognitive Therapy
Beck, a practicing psychoanalytic therapist for many years,
grew interested in
his clients’ automatic thoughts (personalized notions that are

triggered by par-
ticular stimuli that lead to emotional responses). As a part of his
psychoana-
lytic study, he was examining the dream content of depressed
clients for an-
ger that they were turning back on themselves. He began to
notice that rather
than retrofl ected anger, as Freud theorized with depression,
clients exhibited a
negative bias in their interpretation or thinking. Beck asked
clients to observe
negative automatic thoughts that persisted even though they
were contrary to
objective evidence, and from this he developed a comprehensive
theory of de-
pression.
Beck contends that people with emotional diffi culties tend to
commit
characteristic “logical errors” that tilt objective reality in the
direction of self-
deprecation. Let’s examine some of the systematic errors in
reasoning that lead
to faulty assumptions and misconceptions, which are termed
cognitive distor-
tions (Beck & Weishaar, 2008; Dattilio & Freeman, 1992).
• Arbitrary inferences refer to making conclusions without
supporting and
relevant evidence. This includes “catastrophizing,” or thinking
of the absolute
worst scenario and outcomes for most situations. You might
begin your fi rst
job as a counselor with the conviction that you will not be liked
or valued by
either your colleagues or your clients. You are convinced that

you fooled your
professors and somehow just managed to get your degree, but
now people will
certainly see through you!
• Selective abstraction consists of forming conclusions based
on an isolated
detail of an event. In this process other information is ignored,
and the signifi -
cance of the total context is missed. The assumption is that the
events that mat-
ter are those dealing with failure and deprivation. As a
counselor, you might
measure your worth by your errors and weaknesses, not by your
successes.
• Overgeneralization is a process of holding extreme beliefs on
the basis of
a single incident and applying them inappropriately to
dissimilar events or
settings. If you have diffi culty working with one adolescent,
for example, you
might conclude that you will not be effective counseling any
adolescents. You
might also conclude that you will not be effective working with
any clients!
289
• Magnifi cation and minimization consist of perceiving a case
or situation in
a greater or lesser light than it truly deserves. You might make
this cognitive
error by assuming that even minor mistakes in counseling a
client could easily

create a crisis for the individual and might result in
psychological damage.
• Personalization is a tendency for individuals to relate external
events to
themselves, even when there is no basis for making this
connection. If a client
does not return for a second counseling session, you might be
absolutely con-
vinced that this absence is due to your terrible performance
during the initial
session. You might tell yourself, “This situation proves that I
really let that cli-
ent down, and now she may never seek help again.”
• Labeling and mislabeling involve portraying one’s identity on
the basis of im-
perfections and mistakes made in the past and allowing them to
defi ne one’s
true identity. Thus, if you are not able to live up to all of a
client’s expectations,
you might say to yourself, “I’m totally worthless and should
turn my profes-
sional license in right away.”
• Dichotomous thinking involves categorizing experiences in
either-or ex-
tremes. With such polarized thinking, events are labeled in
black or white
terms. You might give yourself no latitude for being an
imperfect person and
imperfect counselor. You might view yourself as either being
the perfectly com-
petent counselor (which means you always succeed with all
clients) or as a total
fl op if you are not fully competent (which means there is no
room for any mis-
takes).

The cognitive therapist operates on the assumption that the most
direct way
to change dysfunctional emotions and behaviors is to modify
inaccurate and
dysfunctional thinking. The cognitive therapist teaches clients
how to identify
these distorted and dysfunctional cognitions through a process
of evaluation.
Through a collaborative effort, clients learn the infl uence that
cognition has on
their feelings and behaviors and even on environmental events.
In cognitive
therapy, clients learn to engage in more realistic thinking,
especially if they con-
sistently notice times when they tend to get caught up in
catastrophic thinking.
After they have gained insight into how their unrealistically
negative
thoughts are affecting them, clients are trained to test these
automatic thoughts
against reality by examining and weighing the evidence for and
against them.
They can begin to monitor the frequency with which these
beliefs intrude in
situations in everyday life. The frequently asked question is,
“Where is the evi-
dence for _____?” If this question is raised often enough,
clients are likely to
make it a practice to ask themselves this question, especially as
they become
more adept at identifying dysfunctional thoughts. This process
of critically ex-
amining their core beliefs involves empirically testing them by
actively engag-
ing in a Socratic dialogue with the therapist, carrying out

homework assign-
ments, gathering data on assumptions they make, keeping a
record of activities,
and forming alternative interpretations (Dattilio, 2000a;
Freeman & Dattilio,
1994; Tompkins, 2004, 2006). Clients form hypotheses about
their behavior and
eventually learn to employ specifi c problem-solving and coping
skills. Through
a process of guided discovery, clients acquire insight about the
connection be-
tween their thinking and the ways they act and feel.
s el i ng
Cognitive therapy is focused on present problems, regardless of
a client’s
diagnosis. The past may be brought into therapy when the
therapist considers it
essential to understand how and when certain core dysfunctional
beliefs origi-
nated and how these ideas have a current impact on the client’s
specifi c schema
(Dattilio, 2002a). The goals of this brief therapy include
providing symptom
relief, assisting clients in resolving their most pressing
problems, and teaching
clients relapse prevention strategies. More recently, increasing
attention has
been placed on the unconscious, the emotional dimensions, and
even existen-
tial components of CT treatment (Dattilio, 2002a; Safran, 1998).

SOME DIFFER ENCES BET W EEN CT A ND R EBT In both
Beck’s cognitive therapy
and REBT, reality testing is highly organized. Clients come to
realize on an
experiential level that they have misconstrued situations. Yet
there are some
important differences between REBT and CT, especially with
respect to thera-
peutic methods and style.
REBT is often highly directive, persuasive, and confrontational;
it also fo-
cuses on the teaching role of the therapist. The therapist models
rational think-
ing and helps clients to identify and dispute irrational beliefs.
In contrast, CT
uses a Socratic dialogue by posing open-ended questions to
clients with the
aim of getting clients to refl ect on personal issues and arrive at
their own con-
clusions. CT places more emphasis on helping clients discover
and identify
their misconceptions for themselves than does REBT. Through
this refl ective
questioning process, the cognitive therapist attempts to
collaborate with clients
in testing the validity of their cognitions (a process termed
collaborative em-
piricism). Therapeutic change is the result of clients confronting
faulty beliefs
with contradictory evidence that they have gathered and
evaluated.
There are also differences in how Ellis and Beck view faulty
thinking.
Through a process of rational disputation, Ellis works to

persuade clients that
certain of their beliefs are irrational and nonfunctional. Beck
(1976) takes ex-
ception to REBT’s concept of irrational beliefs. Cognitive
therapists view dys-
functional beliefs as being problematic because they interfere
with normal
cognitive processing, not because they are irrational (Beck &
Weishaar, 2008).
Instead of irrational beliefs, Beck maintains that some ideas are
too absolute,
broad, and extreme. For him, people live by rules (premises or
formulas); they
get into trouble when they label, interpret, and evaluate by a set
of rules that are
unrealistic or when they use the rules inappropriately or
excessively. If clients
make the determination that they are living by rules that are
likely to lead to
misery, the therapist may suggest alternative rules for them to
consider, with-
out indoctrinating them. Although cognitive therapy often
begins by recogniz-
ing the client’s frame of reference, the therapist continues to
ask for evidence
for a belief system.
The Client–Therapist Relationship
One of the main ways the practice of cognitive therapy differs
from the prac-
tice of rational emotive behavior therapy is its emphasis on the
therapeutic
relationship. As you will recall, Ellis views the therapist largely
as a teacher
and does not think that a warm personal relationship with
clients is essential.

291
In contrast, Beck (1987) emphasizes that the quality of the
therapeutic rela-
tionship is basic to the application of cognitive therapy.
Through his writings,
it is clear that Beck believes that effective therapists are able to
combine em-
pathy and sensitivity, along with technical competence. The
core therapeutic
conditions described by Rogers in his person-centered approach
are viewed
by cognitive therapists as being necessary, but not suffi cient, to
produce opti-
mum therapeutic effect. In addition to establishing a therapeutic
alliance with
clients, therapists must also have a cognitive conceptualizatio n
of cases, be
creative and active, be able to engage clients through a process
of Socratic
questioning, and be knowledgeable and skilled in the use of
cognitive and
behavioral strategies aimed at guiding clients in signifi cant
self-discoveries
that will lead to change (Weishaar, 1993). Macy (2007) states
that effective cog-
nitive therapists strive to create “warm, empathic relationships
with clients
while at the same time effectively using cognitive therapy
techniques that
will enable clients to create change in their thinking, feeling,
and behaving”

(p. 171). Cognitive therapists are continuously active and
deliberately interac-
tive with clients, helping clients frame their conclusions in the
form of testable
hypotheses. Therapists engage clients’ active participation and
collaboration
throughout all phases of therapy, including deciding how often
to meet, how
long therapy should last, what problems to explore, and setting
an agenda for
each therapy session (J. Beck & Butler, 2005).
Beck conceptualizes a partnership to devise personally
meaningful evalu-
ations of the client’s negative assumptions, as opposed to the
therapist directly
suggesting alternative cognitions (Beck & Haaga, 1992; J. Beck,
1995, 2005). The
therapist functions as a catalyst and a guide who helps clients
understand how
their beliefs and attitudes infl uence the way they feel and act.
Clients are expect-
ed to identify the distortions in their thinking, summarize
important points in
the session, and collaboratively devise homework assignments
that they agree to
carry out (J. Beck, 1995, 2005; J. Beck & Butler, 2005; Beck &
Weishaar, 2008). Cog-
nitive therapists emphasize the client’s role in self-discovery.
The assumption is
that lasting changes in the client’s thinking and behavior will be
most likely to
occur with the client’s initiative, understanding, awareness, and
effort.
Cognitive therapists aim to teach clients how to be their own

therapist.
Typically, a therapist will educate clients about the nature and
course of their
problem, about the process of cognitive therapy, and how
thoughts infl uence
their emotions and behaviors. The educative process includes
providing clients
with information about their presenting problems and about
relapse preven-
tion. One way of educating clients is through bibliotherapy, in
which clients
complete readings dealing with the philosophy of cognitive
therapy. According
to Dattilio and Freeman (1992, 2007), these readings are
assigned as an adjunct
to therapy and are designed to enhance the therapeutic process
by provid-
ing an educational focus. Some popular books often
recommended are Love Is
Never Enough (Beck, 1988); Feeling Good (Burns, 1988); The
Feeling Good Handbook
(Burns, 1989); Woulda, Coulda, Shoulda (Freeman & DeWolf,
1990); Mind Over
Mood (Greenberger & Padesky, 1995); and The Worry Cure
(Leahy, 2005). Cogni-
tive therapy has become known to the general public through
self-help books
such as these.
s el i ng
Homework is often used as a part of cognitive therapy. The
homework is

tailored to the client’s specifi c problem and arises out of the
collaborative thera-
peutic relationship. Tompkins (2004, 2006) outlines the key
steps to success-
ful homework assignments and the steps involved in
collaboratively designing
homework. The purpose of homework is not merely to teach
clients new skills
but also to enable them to test their beliefs in daily-life
situations. Homework
is generally presented to clients as an experiment, which
increases the open-
ness of clients to get involved in an assignment. Emphasis is
placed on self-help
assignments that serve as a continuation of issues addressed in a
therapy ses-
sion (Dattilio, 2002b). Cognitive therapists realize that clients
are more likely
to complete homework if it is tailored to their needs, if they
participate in de-
signing the homework, if they begin the homework in the
therapy session, and
if they talk about potential problems in implementing the
homework (J. Beck
& Butler, 2005). Tompkins (2006) points out that there are clear
advantages to
the therapist and the client working in a collaborative manner in
negotiating
mutually agreeable homework tasks. He believes that one of the
best indicators
of a working alliance is whether homework is done and done
well. Tompkins
writes: “Successful negotiations can strengthen the therapeutic
alliance and
thereby foster greater motivation to try this and future
homework assign-

ments” (p. 63).
Applications of Cognitive Therapy
Cognitive therapy initially gained recognition as an approach to
treating de-
pression, but extensive research has also been devoted to the
study and treat-
ment of anxiety disorders. These two clinical problems have
been the most
extensively researched using cognitive therapy (Beck, 1991;
Dattilio, 2000a).
One of the reasons for the popularity of cognitive therapy is due
to “strong
empirical support for its theoretical framework and to the large
number of
outcome studies with clinical populations” (Beck & Weishaar,
2008, p. 291).
Cognitive therapy has been successfully used in a wide variety
of other disor-
ders and clinical areas, some of which include treating phobias,
psychosomatic
disorders, eating disorders, anger, panic disorders, and
generalized anxiety
disorders (Chambless & Peterman, 2006; Dattilio & Kendall,
2007; Riskind,
2006); posttraumatic stress disorder, suicidal behavior,
borderline personal-
ity disorders, narcissistic personality disorders, and
schizophrenic disorders
(Dattilio & Freeman, 2007); personality disorders (Pretzer &
Beck, 2006); sub-
stance abuse (Beck, Wright, Newman, & Liese, 1993; Newman,
2006); chronic
pain (Beck, 1987); medical illness (Dattilio & Castaldo, 2001);
crisis interven-
tion (Dattilio & Freeman, 2007); couples and families therapy

(Dattilio, 1993,
1998, 2001, 2005, 2006; Dattilio & Padesky, 1990 ; Epstein,
2006); child abusers,
divorce counseling, skills training, and stress management
(Dattilio, 1998;
Granvold, 1994; Reinecke, Dattilio, & Freeman, 2002). Clearly,
cognitive be-
havioral programs have been designed for all ages and for a
variety of client
populations. For an excellent resource on the clinical
applications of CBT to a
wide range of disorders and populations, see Contemporary
Cognitive Therapy
(Leahy, 2006a).
293
A PPLY ING COGNITIV E TECHNIQUES Beck and Weishaar
(2008) describe both
cognitive and behavioral techniques that are part of the overall
strategies used
by cognitive therapists. Techniques are aimed mainly at
correcting errors in in-
formation processing and modifying core beliefs that result in
faulty conclu-
sions. Cognitive techniques focus on identifying and examining
a client’s beliefs,
exploring the origins of these beliefs, and modifying them if the
client cannot
support these beliefs. Examples of behavioral techniques
typically used by cog-
nitive therapists include skills training, role playing, behavioral
rehearsal, and

exposure therapy. Regardless of the nature of the specifi c
problem, the cognitive
therapist is mainly interested in applying procedures that will
assist individuals
in making alternative interpretations of events in their daily
living. Think about
how you might apply the principles of CT to yourself in this
classroom situation
and change your feelings surrounding the situation:
Your professor does not call on you during a particular class
session. You feel
depressed. Cognitively, you are telling yourself: “My professor
thinks I’m stu-
pid and that I really don’t have much of value to offer the class.
Furthermore,
she’s right, because everyone else is brighter and more
articulate than I am. It’s
been this way most of my life!”
Some possible alternative interpretations are that the professor
wants to include
others in the discussion, that she is short on time and wants to
move ahead,
that she already knows your views, or that you are self-
conscious about being
singled out or called on.
The therapist would have you become aware of the distortions
in your
thinking patterns by examining your automatic thoughts. The
therapist would
ask you to look at your inferences, which may be faulty, and
then trace them
back to earlier experiences in your life. Then the therapist
would help you see

how you sometimes come to a conclusion (your decision that
you are stupid,
with little of value to offer) when evidence for such a
conclusion is either lack-
ing or based on distorted information from the past.
As a client in cognitive therapy, you would also learn about the
process of
magnifi cation or minimization of thinking, which involves
either exaggerating
the meaning of an event (you believe the professor thinks you
are stupid be-
cause she did not acknowledge you on this one occasion) or
minimizing it (you
belittle your value as a student in the class). The therapist
would assist you in
learning how you disregard important aspects of a situation,
engage in overly
simplifi ed and rigid thinking, and generalize from a single
incident of failure.
Can you think of other situations where you could apply CT
procedures?
TR E ATMEN T OF DEPR ESSION Beck challenged the notion
that depression
results from anger turned inward. Instead, he focuses on the
content of the
depressive’s negative thinking and biased interpretation of
events (DeRubeis
& Beck, 1988). In an earlier study that provided much of the
backbone of his
theory, Beck (1963) even found cognitive errors in the dream
content of de-
pressed clients.
Beck (1987) writes about the cognitive triad as a pattern that

triggers depres-
sion. In the fi rst component of the triad, clients hold a negative
view of themselves.
s el i ng
They blame their setbacks on personal inadequacies without
considering circum-
stantial explanations. They are convinced that they lack the
qualities essential to
bring them happiness. The second component of the triad
consists of the tendency
to interpret experiences in a negative manner. It almost seems
as if depressed
people select certain facts that conform to their negative
conclusions, a process
referred to as selective abstraction by Beck. Selective
abstraction is used to bol-
ster the individual’s negative schema, giving further credence to
core beliefs. The
third component of the triad pertains to depressed clients’
gloomy vision and pro-
jections about the future. They expect their present diffi culties
to continue, and
they anticipate only failure in the future.
Depression-prone people often set rigid, perfectionist goals for
themselves
that are impossible to attain. Their negative expectations are so
strong that
even if they experience success in specifi c tasks they anticipate
failure the next
time. They screen out successful experiences that are not

consistent with their
negative self-concept. The thought content of depressed
individuals centers on
a sense of irreversible loss that results in emotional states of
sadness, disap-
pointment, and apathy.
Beck’s therapeutic approach to treating depressed clients
focuses on spe-
cifi c problem areas and the reasons clients give for their
symptoms. Some of the
behavioral symptoms of depression are inactivity, withdrawal,
and avoidance.
To assess the depth of depression, Beck (1967) designed a
standardized device
known as the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). The therapist is
likely to probe
with Socratic questioning such as this: “What would be lost by
trying? Will
you feel worse if you are passive? How do you know that it is
pointless to try?”
Therapy procedures include setting up an activity schedule with
graded tasks
to be completed. Clients are asked to complete easy tasks fi rst,
so that they will
meet with some success and become slightly more optimistic.
The point is to
enlist the client’s cooperation with the therapist on the
assumption that doing
something is more likely to lead to feeling better than doing
nothing.
Some depressed clients may harbor suicidal wishes. Cognitive
therapy
strategies may include exposing the client’s ambivalence,
generating alterna-

tives, and reducing problems to manageable proportions. For
example, the
therapist may ask the client to list the reasons for living and for
dying. Further,
if the client can develop alternative views of a problem,
alternative courses of
action can be developed. This can result not only in a client
feeling better but
also behaving in more effective ways (Freeman & Reinecke,
1993).
A central characteristic of most depressive people is self-
criticism. Un-
derneath the person’s self-hate are attitudes of weakness,
inadequacy, and
lack of responsibility. A number of therapeutic strategies can be
used. Clients
can be asked to identify and provide reasons for their
excessively self-critical
behavior. The therapist may ask the client, “If I were to make a
mistake the
way you do, would you despise me as much as you do
yourself?” A skillful
therapist may play the role of the depressed client, portraying
the client as in-
adequate, inept, and weak. This technique can be effective in
demonstrating
the client’s cognitive distortions and arbitrary inferences. The
therapist can
then discuss with the client how the “tyranny of shoulds” can
lead to self-hate
and depression.

295
Depressed clients typically experience painful emotions. They
may say
that they cannot stand the pain or that nothing can make them
feel better. One
procedure to counteract painful affect is humor. A therapist can
demonstrate
the ironic aspects of a situation. If clients can even briefl y
experience some
lightheartedness, it can serve as an antidote to their sadness.
Such a shift in
their cognitive set is simply not compatible with their self-
critical attitude.
Another specifi c characteristic of depressed people is an
exaggeration of ex-
ternal demands, problems, and pressures. Such people often
exclaim that they
feel overwhelmed and that there is so much to accomplish that
they can never
do it. A cognitive therapist might ask clients to list things that
need to be done,
set priorities, check off tasks that have been accomplished, and
break down an
external problem into manageable units. When problems are
discussed, clients
often become aware of how they are magnifying the importance
of these dif-
fi culties. Through rational exploration, clients are able to
regain a perspective
on defi ning and accomplishing tasks.
The therapist typically has to take the lead in helping clients
make a list of
their responsibilities, set priorities, and develop a realistic plan

of action. Be-
cause carrying out such a plan is often inhibited by self-
defeating thoughts, it
is well for therapists to use cognitive rehearsal techniques in
both identifying
and changing negative thoughts. If clients can learn to combat
their self-doubts
in the therapy session, they may be able to apply their newly
acquired cognitive
and behavioral skills in real-life situations.
A PPLIC ATION TO FA MILY THER A PY The cognitive
behavioral approach fo-
cuses on family interaction patterns, and family relationships,
cognitions, emo-
tions, and behavior are viewed as exerting a mutual infl uence
on one another.
A cognitive inference can evoke emotion and behavior, and
emotion and be-
havior can likewise infl uence cognition in a reciprocal process
that sometimes
serves to maintain the dysfunction of the family unit.
Cognitive therapy, as set forth by Beck (1976), places a heavy
emphasis on
schema, or what have elsewhere been defi ned as core beliefs. A
key aspect of
the therapeutic process involves restructuring distorted beliefs
(or schema),
which has a pivotal impact on changing dysfunctional
behaviors. Some cog-
nitive behavior therapists place a strong emphasis on examining
cognitions
among individual family members as well as on what may be
termed the “fam-
ily schemata” (Dattilio, 1993, 1998, 2001, 2006). These are

jointly held beliefs
about the family that have formed as a result of years of
integrated interaction
among members of the family unit. It is the experiences and
perceptions from
the family of origin that shape the schema about both the
immediate family and
families in general. These schemata have a major impact on how
the individual
thinks, feels, and behaves in the family system (Dattilio, 2001,
2005, 2006).
For a concrete illustration of how Dr. Dattilio applies cognitive
principles
and works with family schemata, see his cognitive behavioral
approach with
Ruth in Case Approach to Counseling and Psychotherapy
(Corey, 2009a, chap. 8).
For a discussion of myths and misconceptions of cognitive
behavior family
therapy, see Dattilio (2001); for a concise presentation on the
cognitive be-
havioral model of family therapy, see Dattilio (2006). Also, for
an expanded
s el i ng
treatment of applications of cognitive behavioral approaches to
working with
couples and families, see Dattilio (1998).
Donald Meichenbaum’s Cognitive Behavior Modifi cation
Introduction

Another major alternative to rational emotive behavior therapy
is Donald
Meichenbaum’s cognitive behavior modifi cation (CBM), which
focuses on
changing the client’s self-verbalizations. According to
Meichenbaum (1977),
self-statements affect a person’s behavior in much the same way
as statements
made by another person. A basic premise of CBM is that clients,
as a prerequi-
site to behavior change, must notice how they think, feel, and
behave and the
impact they have on others. For change to occur, clients need to
interrupt the
scripted nature of their behavior so that they can evaluate their
behavior in
various situations (Meichenbaum, 1986).
This approach shares with REBT and Beck’s cognitive therapy
the assump-
tion that distressing emotions are typically the result of
maladaptive thoughts.
There are differences, however. Whereas REBT is more direct
and confronta-
tional in uncovering and disputing irrational thoughts,
Meichenbaum’s self-
instructional training focuses more on helping clients become
aware of their
self-talk. The therapeutic process consists of teaching clients to
make self-
statements and training clients to modify the instructions they
give to them-
selves so that they can cope more effectively with the probl ems
they encounter.
Together, the therapist and client practice the self-instructions

and the desir-
able behaviors in role-play situations that simulate problem
situations in the
client’s daily life. The emphasis is on acquiring practical coping
skills for prob-
lematic situations such as impulsive and aggressive behavior,
fear of taking
tests, and fear of public speaking.
Cognitive restructuring plays a central role in Meichenbaum’s
(1977) ap-
proach. He describes cognitive structure as the organizing
aspect of thinking,
which seems to monitor and direct the choice of thoughts.
Cognitive structure
implies an “executive processor,” which “holds the blueprints of
thinking” that
determine when to continue, interrupt, or change thinking.
How Behavior Changes
Meichenbaum (1977) proposes that “behavior change occurs
through a se-
quence of mediating processes involving the interaction of inner
speech, cog-
nitive structures, and behaviors and their resultant outcomes”
(p. 218). He
describes a three-phase process of change in which those three
aspects are
interwoven. According to him, focusing on only one aspect will
probably prove
insuffi cient.
Phase 1: Self-observation. The beginning step in the change
process consists of
clients learning how to observe their own behavior. When
clients begin therapy,

their internal dialogue is characterized by negative self-
statements and imag-
ery. A critical factor is their willingness and ability to listen to
themselves. This
process involves an increased sensitivity to their thoughts,
feelings, actions,
297
physiological reactions, and ways of reacting to others. If
depressed clients hope
to make constructive changes, for example, they must fi rst
realize that they are
not “victims” of negative thoughts and feelings. Rather, they are
actually con-
tributing to their depression through the things they tell
themselves. Although
self-observation is necessary if change is to occur, it is not suffi
cient for change.
As therapy progresses, clients acquire new cognitive structures
that enable
them to view their problems in a new light. This
reconceptualization process
comes about through a collaborative effort between client and
therapist.
Phase 2: Starting a new internal dialogue. As a result of the
early client–therapist
contacts, clients learn to notice their maladaptive behaviors, and
they begin to
see opportunities for adaptive behavioral alternatives. If clients
hope to change
what they are telling themselves, they must initiate a new
behavioral chain, one

that is incompatible with their maladaptive behaviors. Clients
learn to change
their internal dialogue through therapy. Their new internal
dialogue serves as
a guide to new behavior. In turn, this process has an impact on
clients’ cogni-
tive structures.
Phase 3: Learning new skills. The third phase of the modifi
cation process con-
sists of teaching clients more effective coping skills, which are
practiced in
real-life situations. (For example, clients who can’t cope with
failure may avoid
appealing activities for fear of not succeeding at them.
Cognitive restructuring
can help them change their negative view, thus making them
more willing to
engage in desired activities.) At the same time, clients continue
to focus on tell-
ing themselves new sentences and observing and assessing the
outcomes. As
they behave differently in situations, they typically get different
reactions from
others. The stability of what they learn is greatly infl uenced by
what they say to
themselves about their newly acquired behavior and its
consequences.
Coping Skills Programs
The rationale for coping skills programs is that we can acquire
more effective
strategies in dealing with stressful situations by learning how to
modify our
cognitive “set,” or our core beliefs. The following procedures
are designed to
teach coping skills:

• Exposing clients to anxiety-provoking situations by means of
role playing
and imagery
• Requiring clients to evaluate their anxiety level
• Teaching clients to become aware of the anxiety-provoking
cognitions
they experience in stressful situations
• Helping clients examine these thoughts by reevaluating their
self-statements
• Having clients note the level of anxiety following this
reevaluation
Research studies have demonstrated the success of coping skills
programs
when applied to problems such as speech anxiety, test anxiety,
phobias, anger,
social incompetence, addictions, alcoholism, sexual
dysfunctions, posttrau-
matic stress disorders, and social withdrawal in children
(Meichenbaum, 1977,
1986, 1994).
A particular application of a coping skills program is teaching
clients stress
management techniques by way of a strategy known as stress
inoculation.
s el i ng
Using cognitive techniques, Meichenbaum (1985, 2003) has

developed stress
inoculation procedures that are a psychological and behavioral
analog to im-
munization on a biological level. Individuals are given
opportunities to deal
with relatively mild stress stimuli in successful ways, so that
they gradually de-
velop a tolerance for stronger stimuli. This training is based on
the assumption
that we can affect our ability to cope with stress by modifying
our beliefs and
self-statements about our performance in stressful situations.
Meichenbaum’s
stress inoculation training is concerned with more than merely
teaching people
specifi c coping skills. His program is designed to prepare
clients for interven-
tion and motivate them to change, and it deals with issues such
as resistance
and relapse. Stress inoculation training (SIT) consists of a
combination of infor-
mation giving, Socratic discussion, cognitive restructuring,
problem solving,
relaxation training, behavioral rehearsals, self-monitoring, self-
instruction,
self-reinforcement, and modifying environmental situations.
This approach is
designed to teach coping skills that can be applied to both
present problems
and future diffi culties. Meichenbaum (2003) contends that SIT
can be used for
both preventive and treatment purposes with a broad range of
people who ex-
perience stress responses.
Meichenbaum (1985, 2003) has designed a three-stage model for

stress inocula-
tion training: (1) the conceptual-educational phase, (2) the
skills acquisition, con-
solidation, and rehearsal phase, and (3) the application and
follow-through phase.
During the conceptual-educational phase, the primary focus is
on creating a
working relationship with clients. This is mainly done by
helping them gain a
better understanding of the nature of stress and
reconceptualizing it in social-
interactive terms. The therapist enlists the client’s collaboration
during this
early phase and together they rethink the nature of the problem.
Initially, cli-
ents are provided with a conceptual framework in simple terms
designed to
educate them about ways of responding to a variety of stressful
situations. They
learn about the role that cognitions and emotions play in
creating and main-
taining stress through didactic presentations, Socratic
questioning, and by a
process of guided self-discovery.
Clients often begin treatment feeling that they are the victims of
external
circumstances, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors over which
they have no con-
trol. Training includes teaching clients to become aware of their
own role in
creating their stress. They acquire this awareness by
systematically observing
the statements they make internally as well as by monitori ng the
maladap-

tive behaviors that fl ow from this inner dialogue. Such self-
monitoring contin-
ues throughout all the phases. As is true in cognitive therapy,
clients typically
keep an open-ended diary in which they systematically record
their specifi c
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. In teaching these coping
skills, therapists
strive to be fl exible in their use of techniques and to be
sensitive to the indi-
vidual, cultural, and situational circumstances of their clients.
During the skills acquisition, consolidation, and rehearsal
phase, the focus is
on giving clients a variety of behavioral and cognitive coping
techniques to ap-
ply to stressful situations. This phase involves direct actions,
such as gathering
information about their fears, learning specifi cally what
situations bring about
stress, arranging for ways to lessen the stress by doing
something different,
299
and learning methods of physical and psychological relaxati on.
The training
involves cognitive coping; clients are taught that adaptive and
maladaptive be-
haviors are linked to their inner dialogue. Through this training,
clients ac-
quire and rehearse a new set of self-statements. Meichenbaum
(1986) provides

some examples of coping statements that are rehearsed in this
phase of SIT:
• “How can I prepare for a stressor?” (“What do I have to do?
Can I develop
a plan to deal with the stress?”)
• “How can I confront and deal with what is stressing me?”
(“What are
some ways I can handle a stressor? How can I meet this
challenge?”)
• “How can I cope with feeling overwhelmed?” (“What can I
do right now?
How can I keep my fears in check?”)
• “How can I make reinforcing self-statements?” (“How can I
give myself
credit?”)
As a part of the stress management program, clients are also
exposed to
various behavioral interventions, some of which are relaxation
training, social
skills training, time-management instruction, and self-
instructional training.
They are helped to make lifestyle changes such as reevaluating
priorities, de-
veloping support systems, and taking direct action to alter
stressful situations.
Clients are introduced to a variety of methods of relaxation and
are taught to
use these skills to decrease arousal due to stress. Through
teaching, demon-
stration, and guided practice, clients learn the skills of
progressive relaxation,

which are to be practiced regularly.
During the application and follow-through phase, the focus is
on carefully
arranging for transfer and maintenance of change from the
therapeutic situ-
ation to everyday life. It is clear that teaching coping skills is a
complex proce-
dure that relies on varied treatment programs. For clients to
merely say new
things to themselves is generally not suffi cient to produce
change. They need to
practice these self-statements and apply their new skills in real-
life situations.
To consolidate the lessons learned in the training sessions,
clients participate in
a variety of activities, including imagery and behavior
rehearsal, role playing,
modeling, and in vivo practice. Once clients have become profi
cient in cognitive
and behavioral coping skills, they practice behavioral
assignments, which be-
come increasingly demanding. They are asked to write down the
homework as-
signments they are willing to complete. The outcomes of these
assignments are
carefully checked at subsequent meetings, and if clients do not
follow through
with them, the therapist and the client collaboratively consider
the reasons for
the failure. Clients are also provided with training in relapse
prevention, which
consists of procedures for dealing with the inevitable setbacks
they are likely
to experience as they apply their learnings to daily life. Follow -
up and booster

sessions typically take place at 3-, 6-, and 12-month periods as
an incentive
for clients to continue practicing and refi ning their coping
skills. SIT can be
considered part of an ongoing stress management program that
extends the
benefi ts of training into the future.
Stress management training has potentially useful applications
for a wide
variety of problems and clients and for both remediation and
prevention. Some
of these applications include anger control, anxiety
management, assertion
s el i ng
training, improving creative thinking, treating depression, and
dealing with
health problems. Stress inoculation training has been employed
with medical
patients and with psychiatric patients (Meichenbaum, 2003).
SIT has been suc-
cessfully used with children, adolescents, and adults who have
anger problems;
anxiety disorders; and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
The Constructivist Approach to Cognitive Behavior Therapy
Meichenbaum (1997) has developed his approach by
incorporating the con-
structivist narrative perspective (CNP), which focuses on the
stories people tell
about themselves and others regarding signifi cant events in

their lives. This
approach begins with the assumption that there are multiple
realities. One of
the therapeutic tasks is to help clients appreciate how they
construct their reali-
ties and how they author their own stories (see Chapter 13).
Meichenbaum describes the constructivist approach to cognitive
behavior
therapy as less structured and more discovery-oriented than
standard cogni-
tive therapy. The constructivist approach gives more emphasis
to past devel-
opment, tends to target deeper core beliefs, and explores the
behavioral im-
pact and emotional toll a client pays for clinging to certain root
metaphors.
Meichenbaum uses these questions to evaluate the outcomes of
therapy:
• Are clients now able to tell a new story about themselves and
the world?
• Do clients now use more positive metaphors to describe
themselves?
• Are clients able to predict high-risk situations and employ
coping skills in
dealing with emerging problems?
• Are clients able to take credit for the changes they have been
able to bring
about?
In successful therapy clients develop their own voices, take
pride in what
they have accomplished, and take ownership of the changes they

are bringing
about.
Cognitive Behavior Therapy From a Multicultural
Perspective
Strengths From a Diversity Perspective
There are several strengths of cognitive behavioral approaches
from a diversity
perspective. If therapists understand the core values of their
culturally diverse
clients, they can help clients explore these values and gain a
full awareness of
their confl icting feelings. Then client and therapist can work
together to modify
selected beliefs and practices. Cognitive behavior therapy tends
to be culturally
sensitive because it uses the individual’s belief system, or
worldview, as part of
the method of self-challenge.
Ellis (2001b) believes that an essential part of people’s lives is
group living
and that their happiness depends largely on the quality of their
functioning
within their community. Individuals can make the mistake of
being too self-
centered and self-indulgent. REBT stresses the relationship of
individuals to
the family, community, and other systems. This orientation is
consistent with
301

valuing diversity and the interdependence of being an individual
and a pro-
ductive member of the community.
Because counselors with a cognitive behavioral orientation
function as
teachers, clients focus on learning skills to deal with the
problems of living. In
speaking with colleagues who work with culturally diverse
populations, I have
learned that their clients tend to appreciate the emphasis on
cognition and ac-
tion, as well as the stress on relationship issues. The
collaborative approach of
CBT offers clients the structure they may want, yet the therapist
still makes
every effort to enlist clients’ active cooperation and
participation. According to
Spiegler (2008), because of its basic nature and the way CBT is
practiced, it is
inherently suited to treating diverse clients. Some of the factors
that Spiegler
identifi es that makes CBT diversity effective include
individualized treatment,
focusing on the external environment, active nature, emphasis
on learning, re-
liance on empirical evidence, focus on present behavior, and
brevity.
Shortcomings From a Diversity Perspective
Exploring values and core beliefs plays an important role in all
of the cognitive
behavioral approaches, and it is crucial for therapists to have
some understand-
ing of the cultural background of clients and to be sensitive to

their struggles.
Therapists would do well to use caution in challenging clients
about their be-
liefs and behaviors until they clearly understand their cultural
context. On this
matter, Wolfe (2007) suggests that the therapist’s job is to help
clients examine
and challenge long-standing cultural assumptions only if they
result in dys-
functional emotions or behaviors. She writes that the therapist
assists clients
in critically thinking about “potential confl icts with the values
of the dominant
culture so they can work toward achieving their own personal
goals within
their own sociocultural context” (p. 188).
Consider an Asian American client, Sung, from a culture that
stresses val-
ues such as doing one’s best, cooperation, interdependence, and
working hard.
It is likely that Sung is struggling with feelings of shame and
guilt if she per-
ceives that she is not living up to the expectations and standards
set for her by
her family and her community. She may feel that she is bringing
shame to her
family if she is going through a divorce. The counselor needs to
understand the
ways gender interacts with culture. The rules for Sung are likely
to be different
than are the rules for a male member of her culture. The
counselor could assist
Sung in understanding and exploring how both her gender and
her culture are
factors to consider in her situation. If Sung is confronted too

quickly on living
by the expectations or rules of others, the results are likely to
be counterpro-
ductive. Sung might even leave counseling because of feeling
misunderstood.
One of the shortcomings of applying cognitive behavior therapy
to diverse
cultures pertains to the hesitation of some clients to question
their basic cul-
tural values. Dattilio (1995) notes that some Mediterranean and
Middle East-
ern cultures have strict rules with regard to religion, marriage
and family, and
child-rearing practices. These rules are often in confl ict with
the cognitive
behavioral suggestions of disputation. For example, a therapist
might suggest
to a woman that she question her husband’s motives. Clearly, in
some Middle
Eastern or other Asian cultures, such questioning is forbidden.
s el i ng
From a cognitive behavioral perspective,
the therapist is interested in Stan challeng-
ing and modifying his self-defeating beliefs,
which will likely result in acquiring more eff ective be-
havior. Stan’s therapist is goal-oriented and problem-
focused. From the initial session, the therapist asks
Stan to identify his problems and formulate specifi c
goals. Furthermore, she helps him reconceptualize his

problems in a way that will increase his chances of fi nd-
ing solutions.
Stan’s therapist follows a clear structure for every
session. The basic procedural sequence includes (1)
preparing him by providing a cognitive rationale for
treatment and demystifying treatment; (2) encourag-
ing him to monitor the thoughts that accompany his
distress; (3) implementing behavioral and cognitive
techniques; (4) working with him to assist him in iden-
tifying and challenging some basic beliefs and ideas;
(5) teaching him ways to examine his beliefs and as-
sumptions by testing them in reality; and (6) teaching
him basic coping skills that will enable him to avoid
relapsing into old patterns.
As a part of the structure of the therapy sessions,
the therapist asks Stan for a brief review of the week, elic-
its feedback from the previous session, reviews home-
work assignments, collaboratively creates an agenda for
the session, discusses topics on the agenda, and sets
new homework for the week. Stan is encouraged to per-
form personal experiments and practice coping skills in
daily life.
Stan tells his therapist that he would like to work
on his fear of women and would hope to feel far less
intimidated by them. He reports that he feels threat-
ened by most women, but especially by women he
perceives as powerful. In working with Stan’s fears,
the therapist proceeds with four steps: educating him
about his self-talk; having him monitor and evaluate
his faulty beliefs; using cognitive and behavioral in-
terventions; and collaboratively designing homework
with Stan that will give him opportunities to practice
new behaviors in daily life.

First, Stan’s therapist educates him about the
importance of examining his automatic thoughts, his
self-talk, and the many “shoulds,” “oughts,” and “musts”
he has accepted without questioning. Working with
Stan as a collaborative partner in his therapy, the thera-
pist guides him in discovering some basic cognitions
that infl uence what he tells himself and how he feels
and acts. This is some of his self-talk:
• “I always have to be strong, tough, and perfect.”
• “I’m not a man if I show any signs of weakness.”
• “If everyone didn’t love me and approve of me,
things would be catastrophic.”
• “If a woman rejected me, I really would be
reduced to a ‘nothing.’”
• “If I fail, I am then a failure as a person.”
• “I’m apologetic for my existence because I don’t
feel equal to others.”
Second, the therapist assists Stan in monitoring and evalu-
ating the ways in which he keeps telling himself these self-
defeating sentences. She challenges specifi c problems
and confronts the core of his faulty thinking:
You’re not your father. I wonder why you continue
telling yourself that you’re just like him? Do you think
you need to continue accepting without question
your parents’ value judgments about your worth?
Where is the evidence that they were right in their
assessment of you? You say you’re such a failure and
that you feel inferior. Do your present activities sup-

port this? If you were not so hard on yourself, how
might your life be diff erent?
Third, once Stan more fully understands the nature of
his cognitive distortions and his self-defeating beliefs,
his therapist draws on a variety of cognitive and be-
havioral techniques to help Stan make the changes he
most desires. Through various cognitive techniques,
he learns to identify, evaluate, and respond to his dys-
functional beliefs. The therapist relies heavily on cog-
nitive techniques such as Socratic questioning, guided
discovery, and cognitive restructuring to assist Stan in
examining the evidence that seems to support or
contradict his core beliefs. The therapist works with
Stan so he will view his basic beliefs and automatic
thinking as hypotheses to be tested. In a way, he will
Cognitive Behavior Therapy Applied to the Case of Stan
k
303
become a personal scientist by checking out the va-
lidity of many of the conclusions and basic assump-
tions that contribute to his personal diffi culties. By the
use of guided discovery, Stan learns to evaluate the
validity and functionality of his beliefs and conclu-
sions. Stan can also profi t from cognitive restructur-
ing, which would entail his observing his own behav-
ior in various situations. For example, during the week
he can take a particular situation that is problematic
for him, paying particular attention to his automatic

thoughts and internal dialogue. What is he telling
himself as he approaches a diffi cult situation? How is
he setting himself up for failure with his self-talk? As
he learns to attend to his maladaptive behaviors, he
begins to see that what he tells himself has as much
impact as others’ statements about him. He also sees
the connections between his thinking and his behav-
ioral problems. With this awareness he is in an ideal
place to begin to learn a new, more functional inter-
nal dialogue.
Fourth, Stan’s counselor works collaboratively
with him in creating specifi c homework assignments
to help him deal with his fears. It is expected that Stan
will learn new coping skills, which he can practice
fi rst in the sessions and then in daily life situations.
It is not enough for him to merely say new things to
himself; Stan needs to apply his new cognitive and
behavioral coping skills in various daily situations.
At one point, for instance, the therapist asks Stan to
explore his fears of powerful women and his reasons
for continuing to tell himself: “They expect me to be
strong and perfect. If I’m not careful, they’ll dominate
me.” His homework includes approaching a woman
for a date. If he succeeds in getting the date, he can
challenge his catastrophic expectations of what
might happen. What would be so terrible if she did
not like him or if she refused the date? Stan tells him-
self over and over that he must be approved of by
women and that if any woman rebuff s him the con-
sequences are more than he can bear. With practice,
he learns to label distortions and is able to automati -
cally identify his dysfunctional thoughts and monitor
his cognitive patterns. Through a variety of cognitive
and behavioral strategies, he is able to acquire new
information, change his basic beliefs or schemata,

and implement new and more eff ective behavior.
Follow-Up: You Continue as Stan’s
Cognitive Behavior Therapist
Use these questions to help you think about how to
counsel Stan using a cognitive behavior approach:
• Stan’s therapist’s style is characterized as
an integrative form of cognitive behavioral
therapy. She borrows concepts and tech-
niques from the approaches of Ellis, Beck, and
Meichenbaum. In your work with Stan, what
specific concepts would you borrow from
these approaches? What cognitive behavioral
techniques would you use? What possible
advantages do you see, if any, in applying an
integrative cognitive behavioral approach in
your work with Stan?
• What are some things you would most want
to teach Stan about how cognitive behavior
therapy works? How would you explain to him
the therapeutic alliance and the collaborative
therapeutic relationship?
• What are some of Stan’s most prominent faulty
beliefs that get in the way of his living fully?
What cognitive and behavioral techniques
might you use in helping him examine his core
beliefs?
• Stan lives by many “shoulds” and “oughts.” His
automatic thoughts seem to impede him from
getting what he wants. What techniques would
you use to encourage guided discovery on his
part?

• What are some homework assignments that
would be useful for Stan to carry out? How
would you collaboratively design homework
with Stan? How would you encourage him to
develop action plans to test the validity of his
thinking and his conclusions?
See the online and DVD program, Theory
in Practice: The Case of Stan (Session 8 on
cognitive behavior therapy), for a demonstra-
tion of my approach to counseling Stan from
this perspective. This session focuses on explor-
ing some of Stan’s faulty beliefs through the
use of role-reversal and cognitive restructuring
techniques.
s el i ng
A shortcoming of REBT is its negative view of dependency.
Many cultures
view interdependence as necessary to good mental health.
According to Ellis
(1994), REBT is aimed at inducing people to examine and
change some of their
most basic values. Clients with certain long-cherished cultural
values pertain-
ing to interdependence are not likely to respond favorably to
forceful methods
of persuasion toward independence. Modifi cations in a
therapist’s style need to
be made depending on the client’s culture.

Summary and Evaluation
REBT has evolved into a comprehensive and integrative
approach that empha-
sizes thinking, judging, deciding, and doing. This approach is
based on the
premise of the interconnectedness of thinking, feeling, and
behaving. Thera-
py begins with clients’ problematic behaviors and emotions and
disputes the
thoughts that directly create them. To block the self-defeating
beliefs that are
reinforced by a process of self-indoctrination, REBT therapists
employ active
and directive techniques such as teaching, suggestion,
persuasion, and home-
work assignments, and they challenge clients to substitute a
rational belief sys-
tem for an irrational one. Therapists demonstrate how and why
dysfunctional
beliefs lead to negative emotional and behavioral results. They
teach clients
how to dispute self-defeating beliefs and behaviors that might
occur in the fu-
ture. REBT stresses action—doing something about the insights
one gains in
therapy. Change comes about mainly by a commitment to
consistently practice
new behaviors that replace old and ineffective ones.
Rational emotive behavior therapists are typically eclectic in
selecting thera-
peutic strategies. They have the latitude to develop their own
personal style and to
exercise creativity; they are not bound by fi xed techniques for
particular problems.

Cognitive therapists also practice from an integrative stance,
using many methods
to assist clients in modifying their self-talk. The working
alliance is given special
importance in cognitive therapy as a way of forming a
collaborative partnership.
Although the client–therapist relationship is viewed as
necessary, it is not suffi cient
for successful outcomes. In cognitive therapy, it is presumed
that clients are helped
by the skillful use of a range of cognitive and behavioral
interventions and by their
willingness to perform homework assignments between
sessions.
All of the cognitive behavioral approaches stress the impor tance
of cogni-
tive processes as determinants of behavior. It is assumed that
how people feel
and what they actually do is largely infl uenced by their
subjective assessment
of situations. Because this appraisal of life situations is infl
uenced by beliefs,
attitudes, assumptions, and internal dialogue, such cognitions
become the
major focus of therapy.
Contributions of the Cognitive Behavioral Approaches
Most of the therapies discussed in this book can be considered
“cognitive,” in a
general sense, because they have the aim of changing clients’
subjective views
of themselves and the world. The cognitive behavioral
approaches focus on un-
dermining faulty assumptions and beliefs and teaching clients
the coping skills

needed to deal with their problems.
305
ELLIS ’S R EBT I fi nd aspects of REBT very valuable in my
work because I be-
lieve we are responsible for maintaining self-destructive ideas
and attitudes
that infl uence our daily transactions. I see value in confronting
clients with
questions such as “What are your assumptions and basic
beliefs?” and “Have
you examined the core ideas you live by to determine if they are
your own val-
ues or merely introjects?” REBT has built on the Adlerian
notion that events
themselves do not have the power to determine us; rather, it is
our interpreta-
tion of these events that is crucial. The A-B-C framework
simply and clearly
illustrates how human disturbances occur and the ways in which
problematic
behavior can be changed. Rather than focusing on events
themselves, therapy
stresses how clients interpret and react to what happens to them
and the neces-
sity of actively disputing a range of faulty beliefs.
Another contribution of the cognitive behavioral approaches is
the emphasis
on putting newly acquired insights into action. Homework
assignments are well
suited to enabling clients to practice new behaviors and

assisting them in the
process of their reconditioning. Adlerian therapy, reality
therapy, behavior ther-
apy, and solution-focused brief therapy all share with the
approaches this action orientation. It is important that
homework be a natural
outgrowth of what is taking place in the therapy session. Clients
are more likely
to carry out their homework if the assignments are
collaboratively created.
One of the strengths of REBT is the focus on teaching clients
ways to carry
on their own therapy without the direct intervention of a
therapist. I particu-
larly like the emphasis that REBT puts on supplementary and
psychoeduca-
tional approaches such as listening to tapes, reading self-help
books, keeping a
record of what they are doing and thinking, and attending
workshops. In this
way clients can further the process of change in themselves
without becoming
excessively dependent on a therapist.
A major contribution of REBT is its emphasis on a
comprehensive and in-
tegrative therapeutic practice. Numerous cognitive, emotive,
and behavioral
techniques can be employed in changing one’s emotions and
behaviors by
changing the structure of one’s cognitions.
BECK’S COGNITIV E THER A PY Beck’s key concepts share
similarities with

REBT, but differ in underlying philosophy and the process by
which therapy
proceeds. Beck made pioneering efforts in the treatment of
anxiety, phobias,
and depression. Today, empirically validated treatments for
both anxiety and
depression have revolutionized therapeutic practice; research
has demonstrated
the effi cacy of cognitive therapy for a variety of problems
(Leahy, 2002; Scher,
Segal, & Ingram, 2006). Beck developed specifi c cognitive
procedures that are
useful in challenging a depressive client’s assumptions and
beliefs and in pro-
viding a new cognitive perspective that can lead to optimism
and changed be-
havior. The effects of cognitive therapy on depression and
hopelessness seem
to be maintained for at least one year after treatment. Cognitive
therapy has
been applied to a wide range of clinical populations that Beck
did not originally
believe were appropriate for this model, including treatment for
posttraumatic
stress disorder, schizophrenia, delusional disorders, bipolar
disorder, and vari-
ous personality disorders (Leahy, 2002, 2006a).
s el i ng
Beck demonstrated that a structured therapy that is present-
centered and
problem-oriented can be very effective in treating depression

and anxiety in
a relatively short time. One of Beck’s major theoretical
contributions has been
bringing private experience back into the realm of legitimate
scientifi c inquiry
(Weishaar, 1993). A strength of cognitive therapy is its focus on
developing a
detailed case conceptualization as a way to understand how
clients view their
world.
A key strength of all the cognitive behavioral therapies is that
they are in-
tegrative forms of psychotherapy. Beck considers cognitive
therapy to be the
integrative psychotherapy because it draws from so many
different modalities
of psychotherapy (Alford & Beck, 1997). Dattilio (2002a)
advocates using cog-
nitive behavioral techniques within an existential framework.
Thus, a client
with panic disorder might well be encouraged to explore
existential concerns
such as the meaning of life, guilt, despair, and hope. Clients can
be provided
with cognitive behavioral tools to deal with events of everyday
living and at
the same time explore critical existential issues that confront
them. Grounding
symptomatic treatment within the context of an existential
approach can be
most fruitful.
The credibility of the cognitive model grows out of the fact that
many of its
propositions have been empirically tested. According to Leahy

(2002), “Over
the past 20 years, the cognitive model has gained wide appeal
and appears
to be infl uencing the development of the fi eld more than any
other model”
(p. 419). Leahy identifi es several reasons this approach has
found such wide
appeal:
• It works.
• It is an effective, focused, and practical treatment for specifi
c problems.
• It is not mysterious or complicated, which facilitates transfer
of knowledge
from therapist to client.
• It is a cost-effective form of treatment.
MEICHENBAUM’S COGNITIV E BEH AV IOR MODIFIC
ATION Meichenbaum’s
work in self-instruction and stress inoculation training has been
applied
successfully to a variety of client populations and specifi c
problems. Of
special note is his contribution to understanding how stress is
largely self-
induced through inner dialogue. Meichenbaum (1986) cautions
cognitive
behavioral practitioners against the tendency to become overly
preoccupied
with techniques. If progress is to be made, he suggests that
cognitive behav-
ior therapy must develop a testable theory of behavior change.
He reports
that some attempts have been made to formulate a cognitive
social learning

theory that will explain behavior change and specify the best
methods of
intervention.
A major contribution made by Ellis, Beck, and Meichenbaum is
the demys-
tifi cation of the therapy process. The cognitive behavioral
approaches are based
on an educational model that stresses a working alliance
between therapist and
client. The models encourage self-help, provide for continuous
feedback from
the client on how well treatment strategies are working, and
provide a struc-
ture and direction to the therapy process that allows for
evaluation of outcomes.
307
Clients are active, informed, and responsible for the direction of
therapy be-
cause they are partners in the enterprise.
Limitations and Criticisms of the Cognitive Behavioral
Approaches
A potential limitation of any of the cognitive behavioral
approaches is the
therapist’s level of training, knowledge, skill, and
perceptiveness. Although
this is true of all therapeutic approaches, it is especially true for
CBT prac-
titioners because they tend to be active, highly structured, and

offer clients
psychoeducational information and teach life skills. Macy
(2007) stresses that
the effective use of cognitive behavior therapy interventions
requires extensive
study, training, and practice: “Effective implementation of these
interventions
requires that the practitioner be fully grounded in the therapy’s
theory and
premises, and be able to use a range of associated techniques
and interven-
tions” (p. 159).
ELLIS ’S R EBT I value paying attention to a client’s past
without getting lost in
this past and without assuming a fatalistic stance about earlier
traumatic expe-
riences. I question the REBT assumption that exploring the past
is ineffective in
helping clients change faulty thinking and behavior. From my
perspective, ex-
ploring past childhood experiences can have a great deal of
therapeutic power
if the discussion is connected to our present functioning.
Another potential limitation involves the misuse of the
therapist’s power by
imposing ideas of what constitutes rational thinking. Ellis
(2001b) acknowledges
that clients may feel pressured to adopt goals and values the
therapist sells rather
than acting within the framework of their own value system.
Due to the active and
directive nature of this approach, it is particularly important for
practitioners to
know themselves well and to avoid imposing their own

philosophy of life on their
clients. Because the therapist has a large amount of power by
virtue of persuasion,
psychological harm is more possible in REBT than in less
directive approaches.
As Ellis practices it, REBT is a forceful and confrontational
therapy. Some
clients will have trouble with a confrontational style, especially
if a strong ther-
apeutic alliance has not been established. It is well to
underscore that REBT can
be effective when practiced in a style different from Ellis ’s.
Indeed, a therapist
can be soft-spoken and gentle and still use REBT concepts and
methods. Ann
Vernon (2007) encourages practitioners to recognize that they
can adhere to
the basic principles of REBT, which have been effectively used
with both adults
and children, without emulating Ellis’s style. Janet Wolfe, who
has supervised
hundreds of practitioners in her 30 years at the Albert Ellis
Institute, makes the
point that therapists do not need to replicate Ellis’s style to
effectively incorpo-
rate REBT into their own repertoire of interventions. Wolfe
(2007) encourages
practitioners to embrace this useful and effective therapy
approach, but to de-
velop a style that is consistent with their own personality.
For practitioners who value a spiritual dimension of
psychotherapy, Ellis’s
views on religion and spirituality are likely to raise some
problems. Historically,

Ellis has declared himself as an atheist and has long been
critical of dogmat-
ic religions that instill guilt in people. Ellis (2004b) has written
about the core
s el i ng
philosophies that can either improve our mental health or can
lead to disturbanc-
es. Although his tone has softened over the years, he is still
critical of any philoso-
phies that promote rigid beliefs. Personally, I think that a
spiritual and a religious
orientation can be incorporated into the practice of REBT if this
is meaningful to
the client and if this is done in a thoughtful manner by the
therapist. From what
I know about Ellis, I would say that he is motivated by some
spiritual values,
especially in his desire to help others create a better life for
themselves. Ellis is
driven by his passion to teach people about REBT, and he
chuckles when he says
in his workshops that his mission is to spread the gospel
according to St. Albert.
Indeed, I would say that his “religion” is embodied in the
principles and practices
of REBT. For more on this topic, see The Road to Tolerance
(Ellis, 2004b).
BECK’S COGNITIV E THER A PY Cognitive therapy has been
criticized for fo-
cusing too much on the power of positive thinking; being too

superfi cial and
simplistic; denying the importance of the client’s past; being
too technique-
oriented; failing to use the therapeutic relationship; working
only on elimi-
nating symptoms, but failing to explore the underlying causes of
diffi culties;
ignoring the role of unconscious factors; and neglecting the role
of feelings
(Freeman & Dattilio, 1992; Weishaar, 1993).
Freeman and Dattilio (1992, 1994; Dattilio, 2001) do a good job
of debunking
the myths and misconceptions about cognitive therapy.
Weishaar (1993) con-
cisely addresses a number of criticisms leveled at the approach.
Although the
cognitive therapist is straightforward and looks for simple
rather than complex
solutions, this does not imply that the practice of cognitive
therapy is simple.
Cognitive therapists do not explore the unconscious or
underlying confl icts but
work with clients in the present to bring about schematic
changes. However,
they do recognize that clients’ current problems are often a
product of earlier
life experiences, and thus, they may explore with clients the
ways their past is
presently infl uencing them.
One of my criticisms of cognitive therapy, like REBT, is that
emotions tend
to be played down in treatment. I suspect that some cognitive
behavioral prac-
titioners may be drawn to this approach because they are

uncomfortable in
working with feelings. Although Dattilio (2001) admits that
CBT places central
emphasis on cognition and behavior, he maintains that emotion
is not ignored
in the therapy process; rather, he believes that emotion is a by-
product of cog-
nition and behavior and is addressed in a different fashion. In
fact, in his dis-
cussion of the case of Celeste, Dattilio (2002a) shows how he
worked with this
client to identify and express her emotions fully. Dattilio does
not assume that
problematic emotions are simply the result of faulty thinking;
rather, he con-
tends that emotions have independent, adaptive, and healing
functions of their
own. Dattilio (2000a) puts the limitations of this approach
nicely into perspec-
tive: “While CBT does have its limitations, it remains one of
the most effi ca-
cious and well-researched modalities in existence” (p. 65).
MEICHENBAUM’S COGNITIV E BEH AV IOR MODIFIC
ATION In their critique of
Meichenbaum’s approach, Patterson and Watkins (1996) raise
some excellent
questions that can be asked of most cognitive behavioral
approaches. The
309
basic issue is discovering the best way to change a client’s

internal dialogue.
Is directly teaching the client the most effective approach? Is
the client’s fail-
ure to think rationally or logically always due to a lack of
understanding of
reasoning or problem solving? Is learning by self-discovery
more effective
and longer lasting than being taught by a therapist? Although
we don’t have
defi nitive answers to these questions yet, we cannot assume
that learning
occurs only by teaching. It is a mistake to conclude that therapy
is mainly
a cognitive process. Experiential therapies stress that learning
also involves
emotions and self-discovery.
Where to Go From Here
In the CD-ROM for Integrative Counseling, I work with Ruth
from a cognitive
behavioral perspective in a number of therapy sessions. In
Sessions 6, 7, and 8
I demonstrate my way of working with Ruth from a cognitive,
emotive, and be-
havioral focus. See also Session 9 (“Integrative Perspective”),
which illustrates
the interactive nature of working with Ruth on thinking, feeling,
and doing
levels.
The Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior
Therapy is pub-
lished by Kluwer Academic/Human Sciences Press. This
quarterly journal
is an excellent way to keep informed of a wide variety of
cognitive behav-

ioral specialists.
Although Albert Ellis founded the Albert Ellis Institute in 1959,
Ellis was
not associated with this Institute for at least the last several
years of his life.
In 2006, Ellis claimed that the Albert Ellis Institute was
following a program
that in many ways was not consistent with the theory and
practice of REBT
(Ellis, 2008). For information about the work of Albert Ellis,
and current train-
ing opportunities, contact:
Dr. Debbie Joffe Ellis
Telephone: (917) 887-2006
Website: www.rebtnetwork.org/
The Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International
Quarterly, edited by John
Riskind, also provides information on theory, practice, and
research in cogni-
tive behavior therapy. Information about the journal is available
from the Inter-
national Association of Cognitive Psychotherapy or by
contacting John Riskind
directly.
Dr. John Riskind
George Mason University
Department of Psychology, MSN 3F5
Fairfax, VA 22030-4444
Telephone: (703) 993-4094
Private Practice Telephone: (703) 280-8060
Fax: (703) 993-1359
E-mail: [email protected]

Website: www.cognitivetherapyassociation.org
s el i ng
The Center for Cognitive Therapy, Newport Beach, California,
maintains a
website for mental health professionals. They list cognitive
therapy books,
audio and video training tapes, current advanced training
workshops, and oth-
er cognitive therapy resources and information.
Center for Cognitive Therapy
Website: http://www.padesky.com
For more information about a one-year, full-time postdoctoral
fellowship and
for shorter term clinical institutes, contact the Beck institute.
Beck Institute for Cognitive Therapy and Research
One Belmont Avenue, Suite 700
Bala Cynwyd, PA 19004-1610
Telephone: (610) 664-3020
Fax: (610) 664-4437
Website: www.beckinstitute.org
For information regarding ongoing training and supervision in
cognitive ther-
apy, contact:
Department of Clinical Psychology

Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine
4190 City Avenue
Philadelphia, PA 19131-1693
Website:
www.pcom.edu/Academic_Programs/aca_psych/aca_psych.html
R E C OMME N D E D SU P P L EME N TARY R EADIN G S
Feeling Better, Getting Better, and Staying Better
(Ellis, 2001a) is a self-help book that de-
scribes a wide range of cognitive, emo-
tive, and behavioral approaches to not
only feeling better but getting better.
Overcoming Destructive Beliefs, Feelings, and
Behaviors (Ellis, 2001b) brings REBT up
to date and shows how it helps neurotic
clients and those suffering from severe
personality disorders.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy: It Works for
Me—It Can Work for You (Ellis, 2004a) is
a personal book that describes the many
challenges Ellis has faced in his life and
how he has coped with these realities by
applying REBT principles.
The Road to Tolerance: The Philosophy of Ratio-
nal Emotive Behavior Therapy (Ellis, 2004b)
is a companion book to the book listed
above. In this book Ellis demonstrates
that tolerance is a deliberate, rational
choice that we can make, both for the
good of ourselves and for others.
Cognitive Therapy for Challenging Problems (J.

Beck, 2005) is a comprehensive account of
cognitive therapy procedures applied to
clients who present a multiplicity of diffi -
cult behaviors. It covers the nuts and bolts
of cognitive therapy with all populations
and cites important research on cogni-
tive therapy since its inception. There are
chapters dealing with topics such as the
311
therapeutic alliance, setting goals, struc-
turing sessions, homework, identifying
cognitions, modifying thoughts and im-
ages, modifying assumptions, and modi-
fying core beliefs.
Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Applying Empiri-
cally Supported Techniques in Your Practice
(O’Donohue, Fisher, & Hayes, 2003) is a
useful collection of short chapters on ap-
plying empirically supported techniques
in working with a wide range of present-
ing problems. Most of these chapters can
be applied to both individual and group
therapy.
Mind Over Mood: Change How You Feel by
Changing the Way You Think (Greenberger
& Padesky, 1995) provides step-by-step
worksheets to identify moods, solve prob-
lems, and test thoughts related to depres-

sion, anxiety, anger, guilt, and shame.
This is a popular self-help workbook and
a valuable tool for therapists and clients
learning cognitive therapy skills.
Clinician’s Guide to Mind Over Mood (Padesky
& Greenberger, 1995) shows therapists
how to integrate Mind Over Mood in ther-
apy and use cognitive therapy treatment
protocols for specifi c diagnoses. This suc-
cinct overview of cognitive therapy has
troubleshooting guides, reviews cultural
issues, and offers guidelines for individ-
ual, couples, and group therapy.
R E F E R E N C E S AN D SU G G E S T E D R EADIN G S
*ALFORD, B. A., & BECK, A. T. (1997). The inte-
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Guilford Press.
ARNKOFF, D. B., & GLASS, C. R. (1992). Cognitive
therapy and psychotherapy integration. In
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BECK, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimen-
tal, and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper
& Row. (Republished as Depression: Causes
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*BECK, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and emotional
disorders. New York: International Universi-
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BECK, A. T. (1987). Cognitive therapy. In J. K. Zeig
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*BECK, A. T. (1988). Love is never enough. New York:
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BECK, A. T. (1991). Cognitive therapy: A 30-year
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BECK, A. T., & HAAGA, D. A. F. (1992). The fu-
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*BECK, A. T., RUSH, A., SHAW, B., & EMERY, G.
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*BECK, A. T., & WEISHAAR, M. E. (2008). Cog-
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BECK, A., WRIGHT, E. D., NEWMAN, C. E., &
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*BECK, J. S. (1995). Cognitive therapy: Basics and be-
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*BECK, J. S. (2005). Cognitive therapy for challenging
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*BURNS, D. (1988). Feeling good: The new mood ther-
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*Books and articles marked with an asterisk are sug-
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s el i ng
CHAMBLESS, D. L., & PETERMAN, M. (2006).
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*COREY, G. (2008). Theory and practice of group
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*COREY, G. (2009a). Case approach to counsel-
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COREY, G. (2009b). Student manual for theory and
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*DATTILIO, F. M. (1993). Cognitive techniques
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*DATTILIO, F. M. (Ed.). (1998). Case studies in cou-
ple and family therapy: Systemic and cognitive
perspectives. New York: Guilford Press.
DATTILIO, F. M. (2000a). Cognitive-behavioral
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DATTILIO, F. M. (2000b). Families in crisis. In
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behavioral strategies in crisis intervention (2nd
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DATTILIO, F. M. (2001). Cognitive-behavior family
therapy: Contemporary myths and misconcep-
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DATTILIO, F. M. (2002a, January–February).
Cognitive-behaviorism comes of age: Ground-

ing symptomatic treatment in an existential
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DATTILIO, F. M. (2002b). Homework assignments
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DATTILIO, F. M. (2005). Restructuring family sche-
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DATTILIO, F. M. (2006). Cognitive-behavioral
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DATTILIO, F. M., & CASTALDO, J. E. (2001). Dif-
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Review of Psychiatry, 9(5), 260–265.
DATTILIO, F. M., & FREEMAN, A. (1992). Intro-
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cognitive therapy (pp. 3–11). New York: Plenum
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*DATTILIO, F. M., & FREEMAN, A. (Eds.). (2007).
Cognitive-behavioral strategies in crisis interven-
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DATTILIO, F. M., & KENDALL, P. C. (2007). Panic
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Cognitive-behavioral strategies in crisis interven-

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*DATTILIO, F. M., & PADESKY, C. A. (1990). Cog-
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DRYDEN, W. (2002). Rational emotive behaviour
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*ELLIS, A. (1994). Reason and emotion in psychother-
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*ELLIS, A. (1996). Better, deeper, and more enduring
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*ELLIS, A. (1997). The evolution of Albert Ellis
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*ELLIS, A. (1999). How to make yourself happy and
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*ELLIS, A. (2000). How to control your anxiety before
it controls you. New York: Citadel Press.

*ELLIS, A. (2001a). Feeling better, getting better, and
staying better. Atascadero, CA: Impact.
*ELLIS, A. (2001b). Overcoming destructive beliefs,
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*ELLIS, A. (2002). Overcoming resistance: A rational
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*ELLIS, A. (2004b). The road to tolerance: The phi-
losophy of rational emotive behavior therapy.
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*ELLIS, A., & BLAU, S. (Eds.). (1998). The Albert El-
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*ELLIS, A., & CRAWFORD, T. (2000). Making inti-
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*ELLIS, A., & DRYDEN, W. (1997). The practice of
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ELLIS, A., GORDON, J., NEENAN, M., & PALMER,
S. (1997). Stress counseling: A rational emotive
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*ELLIS, A., & VELTEN, E. (1998). Optimal aging:
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4
Showroom at Best Buy

Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Instructor:
Course:
Date:
Showroom at Best Buy
Question 1
Best Buy is universally known as one of the prominent
electronics retailers having approximately 2000 stores around
the globe. In 2012, the increasing prominence of price-matching
apps for mobiles phones caused transparency in price
differences between offline, online and retailers. As a result, the
growing desires of shoppers to test electronics first-hand before
purchasing them moved them towards showrooms. Customers
visit the showroom to have a glimpse of the new collection of
products and then search for good deals via their smart phones.
As a result, this article explores how brick-and-mortar retail
stores battle showroom implications via changes in product
assortment, loyalty programs, development of apps and changes
in pricing policy. The case examines whether Best Buy can
survive by permanently employing the price-matching technique
of their online-online competitors, especially Amazon, despite
possessing products of the reasonably high cost.
Question 2a
Its new policy on matching prices on other online retailers
and Amazon developed in phases becoming more encompassing
and more extensive as its bottom line continued to incur

changes. The retail company promised to match prices from the
neighboring brick-and-mortar stores in 2012 but ended up
excluding online retailers. Later the same year just before the
commencement of the holiday season, it announced that it
would start price matching its product costs with online
retailers. The announcement was met with regulations and rules.
The price matching was only appropriate during the course of
the holiday season only. It was not applicable during the most
lucrative shopping weeks such as from the thanksgiving Sunday
to the Monday after. Besides, only around 230 online retailers
would be used in the price-matching. The policy was not even
permanent considering that the Best Buy staffers were
responsible for making decisions on when to match the pri ces.
Best Buy then announced that it would make this policy
permanent considering that the previous one flopped
tremendously. Under the new policy reform, Best Buy will
engage in price matching for all local retail competitors,
coupled with approximately nineteen other online retailers in all
product segments and on all stocks requested by the customer.
Question 2 c
The price matching policy at best buy is not old-fashioned.
It is the responsibility of the company to match prices for a
customer upon request, and the final decision and choice will
fall on the retailer’s staff. Customers may also be requested to
provide evidence of still-in-effect reduced prices at a
neighboring website or store. In the process, Best Buy will also
not engage in matching the prices in exchange or return period.
In doing so, it is a minor trade-off will be involved. Although
the company has not commented on the effect of this policy
regarding profitability, it is apparent that it will result in
improved sales and cost-cutting, which will help in catering for
margin contraction.
Question 2 d
Best Buy should keep this policy because retailers such as
Amazon and Wal Mart are slowly changing their mode of
business from pure-play consumer electronics retailers by

issuing extensive amounts of discounts. Many consumers are
still using physical shopping to check out and visit stores and
conduct practical testing with gadgets. Nonetheless, several
consumers then proceed to purchase the same products from
online stores such as Amazon at relatively affordable prices. As
a result, this ideology of show rooming has affected business
operations in retail companies such as Best Buy and
RadioShack. By keeping this Policy, Best Buy will be able to
attract a reasonable amount of customers to their stores while
leaving room for giving matching prices for customers similar
to what is issued at other online platforms. In doing so, this will
help in leveraging its sales.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
Cognitive
Behavior
Therapies
Albert Ellis's
Rational Emotive
Behavior
Therapy

Aaron Beck's
Cognitive
Therapy
RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR
THERAPY (REBT)
What is REBT?
• REBT was the first cognitive behavior therapy and is
based on the assumption that cognitions, emotions,
and behaviors interact with each other and have a
mutual cause-and-effect relationship.
How do problems develop?
• Irrational beliefs, learned in childhood, are re-created
throughout the lifetime and keep dysfunctional
attitudes alive and operative.
How does
change occur?
4 steps for REBT
1. Show incorporation of irrational “oughts,” “shoulds,”

and “musts”
2. Demonstrate how clients reinforce emotional
disturbances through illogical thinking
3. Help modify thinking and minimize irrational thinki ng
4. Develop a rational life philosophy
Role of therapist and client
• A warm relationship is not required; counter-productive
• Client expected to
– Learn how to apply rational thought
– Participate in experiential exercises
– Complete behavioral homework
COGNITIVE THERAPY (CT)
What is CT?
• Cognitive therapy is similar to REBT and behavior
therapy.
How do problems develop?
• CT perceives psychological problems develop from
common processes, such as faulty thinking, making

incorrect inferences, and failing to distinguish between
fantasy and reality.
Cognitive
distortions
Selective
abstraction
Magnification
and
minimization
Personalization
Labeling and
mislabeling
Dichotomous
thinking
Arbitrary
inferences
How does change occur?
• Modify inaccurate thinking
• Learn to engage in more
realistic thinking

Role of therapist and client
• Relationship between therapist and client is seen as
necessary for the techniques to be applied
• Both therapist and client take active roles
How are REBT and CT different?
REBT
• Directive, persuasive,
confrontational
• View of faulty thinking as
irrational and nonfunctional
• Irrational thoughts mostly
revolve around “should” and
”ought”
CT
• Emphasis on helping clients identify
misconceptions for themselves
• Beliefs as inaccurate, not irrational
• Wide variety of cognitive distortions
• Clients conduct behavioral
experiments to test accuracy of
beliefs

Implications
• Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) adds some
behavioral techniques to pure cognitive therapy. It is
the most well-researched and supported type of
therapy; it is one of the most widely used
Cultural considerations
• The process begins from the client’s worldview
– Can be helpful and/or not helpful!
• For some clients who value interdependence, CBT
can be too “directive” and not “reflective” enough
• Important for therapist to also consider systems
(gender, race…) surrounding individual
Theoretical Case Analysis Final Paper Instructions
Due Wednesday, November 18th at 11:59 PM CST on Canvas
Assignment Goal: Using one of the provided Case Examples,
apply your knowledge of the
theories covered in class through a case
analysis/conceptualization and basic treatment plan.
Critically analyze the benefits and challenges of this approach.
Assignment Directions:
Overview

Choose one of the Case Examples posted on the class website.
Select one theory that we have
already covered in lecture, including Psychodynamic, Feminist,
Humanist, Behavior, Cognitive,
Mindfulness, or Experiential. You may not choose Integrative,
Family, Couples, Group, any
Career/Vocational theories, or any other theories. Apply the
same theory to the case in both
conceptualization and treatment plan.
General Outline
First, analyze the case in the language of the theory. In other
words, how would a therapist from
your chosen theoretical orientation describe the client and the
presenting issues, including
description of the client (e.g., demographics, important
biographical information), the nature of
the issues and how they are maintained, and hypotheses about
their origin. Be sure to provide
evidence from the person’s life that suits this type of
conceptualization (using details from the
Case Example or hypothesizing about the client’s life). Also,
consider what additional
information/evidence you’d want to gather, given the theory
that you’ve chosen.
Second, provide a basic treatment plan for this client’s
presenting concerns from this theoretical
orientation. According to your chosen theory, what is the
counselor’s role? How might this role
be helpful, of little use, or even harmful in this situation?
Outline some approaches to treatment.
When you provide a treatment plan, consider the reasons why
each intervention, strategy, or
technique might produce change. When and how might you
employ each technique or strategy?

Third, address the strengths and limitations of your
conceptualization and treatment plan. You
should discuss this with respect to ways in which the
conceptualization may be appropriate or
inappropriate for this particular client or this particular
presenting problem. For example, how
might this conceptualization ignore important aspects of the
case? What are the cultural
considerations in using this theory/therapy with this client?
(The key in this section is to make
your discussion specific to the case, rather than a general
commentary on the strengths and
limitations of the theory).
Tip: Demonstrate your knowledge of the theory in your
application to the case example, rather
than simply stating the principles of the theory or the general
limitations of the theory. We
expect that most of you will use lecture material and course
readings as references. You do not
have to cite lecture material, but please cite other materials
appropriately.
Formatting Guidelines:
Each paper should be approximately 5-6 pages (not including
title page and references),
double-spaced and in a 12-point Times New Roman font.
Deviation from these guidelines will
result in reduced points. Feel free to use first (i.e., pretending
you are the therapist) or third
person. These should be written in the general format of an
essay in APA format (i.e., headings,
Revised 11/4/2019

running head, page numbers, title page, & relevant citations in
proper format); however you will
not have an abstract, results, methods, or discussion sections.
***Papers are due on Canvas by 11:59PM CST on Wednesday,
November 18th ***
Late Policy
If you know you will be unable to turn in a paper on the day it
is due, please make arrangements
with the instructors at least one week in advance. If no prior
arrangement is made, all late
assignments will be marked down a full 10% for each day they
are late (i.e., the 10% deduction
will apply to papers submitted after 11:59PM CST on 11/18). If
you have a legitimate,
documented excuse and contact the instructors within 24 hours,
your grade will NOT be marked
down. Please see http://policy.umn.edu/education/makeupwork
for information about accepted
excuses.
This is worth 15% of your grade.
Grading Philosophy
Assignments will be graded with attention to both content and
overall quality, which includes
grammar, spelling, and adherence to assignment guidelines.
Please follow the assignment
directions and take the time to proofread/edit your papers. If the
paper’s mechanical issues

detract from the content, your grade will reflect this.
General Tips for Successful Papers
1. Meet with your TA. Your TA will be grading your paper, and
you can meet with them
to discuss your ideas or ask questions. While they cannot
proofread or edit your papers, it
is a good opportunity to understand your TA’s expectatio ns
when grading your paper.
Often students are confused or upset when receiving their final
paper grades. The best
way to avoid being unhappy about your paper grade is to be
proactive and meet with your
TA prior to turning in your paper.
2. Develop a theme.
a. State your message clearly and concisely in your opening
paragraph.
b. Conclude with a paragraph that restates the main point(s) you
hope to convey.
c. The theme should be clear, concise, and specific – rather than
global and generalized.
If you write in an overly general manner, your essays will lack a
clear focus.
d. Develop your thoughts fully, concretely, and logically. Both
vagueness and verbosity
often demonstrate a lack of familiarity with the theory.
e. In terms of form and organization, your paper should flow
well, and your points
should relate to one another. The reader should not have to

struggle to discover your
intended meaning.
f. Give reasons for your views, rather than making unsupported
statements. When you
take a position, provide reasons for your position.
3. Use examples. In developing your ideas, use clear examples
to illustrate your point. Tie your
examples into the point you are making, but avoid giving too
many details that are irrelevant
to the point.
4. Creativity and depth of thinking. Write a paper that reflects
your own uniqueness and
ideas, rather than merely giving a summary of the material in
the texts.
Revised 11/4/2019
http://policy.umn.edu/education/makeupwork
a. Focus on a clear position that you take on a specific question
or issue.
b. Approach the material in an original way.
c. Focus on a particular issue or topic that you find personally
significant. Since you
have a choice in what aspect to focus on, select an aspect of a
problem that will allow
you to express your beliefs.
d. Show depth in expanding on your thoughts.
5. Application of the theory to the client and his/her presenting

concerns. Many students in
the past have had trouble writing papers that effectively apply
the theory to their specific
client and his/her presenting problem. This should be done at
each appropriate point in the
paper – for the conceptualization, the treatment plan, and the
advantages and disadvantages
of this theory. Again, the point of the paper is to demonstrate
your knowledge through
critical application of the theory, not just regurgitation. Please
consult the grading rubric
below.
Theoretical Case Analysis - Grading Rubric
Conceptualization 22 Points Total
Discussion of relevant demographic and background
information: _____ / 5
Analysis of the presenting program according to the theory
(including how
and why the issues are manifesting):
_____ / 17
Treatment plan 25 Points Total
Discussion of role of counselor: ____ / 12

Description and rationale of treatment: _____ / 13
Strengths & Limitations 16 Points Total
Discussion of strengths of theory and treatment:
____ / 8
Discussion of limitations of theory and treatment:
____ / 8
Overall quality 12 Points Total
Grammar, proof-reading, clarity of writing
Follows formatting guidelines and APA style (running head,
page numbers,
title page, & relevant citations in proper format)
____/ 6
____/ 6
Final Grade
____ / 75

Revised 11/4/2019
Case #1: Yisel
Yisel is a 21-year-old Mexican American female. She is a
college junior, Psychology
major coming into the U of M counseling center seeking career
counseling. She came in to get
help with procrastination in applying for medical school. Yisel
reports that she has no motivation
because she doesn’t have the grades to get into medical school.
She has a C average in her
science classes but A’s and B’s in her Psychology courses.
Yisel reports that whenever she sits
down to work on applications, she finds herself wasting hours
on the internet or hanging out with
her friends. During her intake session, she reports that she has
sleep difficulties, having
nightmares several nights a week. In one nightmare, she
described being unable to get her family
out of a burning building. In another nightmare, she reported
being kicked out of medical school
because she failed all of her courses. She also reported that she
has begun smoking marijuana
daily because it helps her to relax and forget about her worries.
Yisel reported that she is trying
out counseling because she believes it will help her get her

medical school applications done.
Yisel’s married parents both live in Chicago with her four
siblings. Her parents
immigrated to Minnesota from Mexico in the early 1980s. Yisel
and her two brothers were born
in Chicago, and her older sister was born in Mexico. Her father
works as a mechanic and her
mother works as a secretary in Yisel’s former middle school.
Both her parents were college
educated in Mexico, but her parents had difficulty finding jobs
in their fields because of language
barriers and difficulty in having their credentials accepted in
the US. Yisel talked about her
parents’ hopes for her to become a doctor, which they once had
for her older sister. Yisel
reported that her old sister has “failed” her parents’
expectations; her older sister is currently
unemployed, batting depression, and living at home. She says
that although her parents have
never explicitly pressured her to become a doctor, they have
frequently expressed that “she is the
smart one” in the family. Her parents also have indicated to
Yisel that they will need her
financial assistance to help pay for her younger brothers’
college tuition. Yisel says that her
parents made many sacrifices to put her through school, which
makes her feel guilty and selfish.
She says that she feels like she will never be good enough, and
that her parents will be
disappointed in her if she does not follow through with her
plans.
When asked about her current ways of coping with her stress,
she says that she enjoys

running, cooking, and spending time with her friends. Her
favorite part of her week is tutoring
struggling high school students. She says that she is happiest
when she is helping others.
Case #2: Wesley
Wesley is a 36-year-old White American male seeking
counseling for his depression and
anxiety. For the last two years, he has been taking medication
for his depression prescribed by a
psychiatrist. He finally decided to seek counseling at the
suggestion of his psychiatrist. He
indicated that “it is unlikely” counseling will make him feel
better. Wesley feels that he has been
in a “constant state of blue” for the last five years, finding it
difficult to get out of bed most days
out of the week and lacking the energy and interest to do the
many things he formerly enjoyed,
such as hiking and spending time with his children, Luke and
Andy (ages 10 and 8).
When asked about possible triggers for his depressed mood,
Wesley says that his
marriage and work life have not turned out as he hoped. Wesley
and his wife, Lindsey, have been

married for ten years. He says that he thought, “Lindsey was
initially perfect for me”, but now
Wesley is unable to see past her flaws. He reported that Lindsey
“is always working and won’t
make time for him.” Wesley reports that in order to “teach her a
lesson about what’s important,”
that he has basically stopped communicating with Lindsay.
Wesley cannot remember the last me
that he and his wife were physically or emotionally intimate.
Wesley reported that “there is
nothing he can do to fix the marriage” -- that it is up to Lindsey
to make it better.
Another reported concern is Wesley’s vocational life. The
neighborhood that Wesley
grew up in was middle-class; his mother is a middle-school
English teacher, and his father owns
a business that does contracting for housing developments.
Since Wesley is an only child, his
father would tell him, “The baby [i.e., the business] is all yours
when you become a man.”
Currently, Wesley acts as a sales manager for the company. He
says that he feels trapped in his
job and comes home frustrated every day, sometimes taking it
out on Lindsey and the kids with
angry outbursts. He also reported that he drinks a six-pack of
beer every night in order to “get
away from it all.”
Growing up, Wesley always dreamed of being an actor. He
staged plays for an audience
that consisted of his parents (who divorced when he was 15
years old) and stuffed animals. He
later starred in many high school productions but never further
pursued this once he went to

college to study business. He says that he felt like he had to
“become an adult and let go of those
silly fantasies.” Although Wesley has considered joining
community theater productions, he says
that he doesn’t have time and that he must be a “man” and
provide for his children.
Case #3: Sarah
Sarah is a 31-year-old, biracial, Native American/White woman
who presented at a
community clinic with symptoms of anxiety. She grew up in a
small town in rural Montana, and
has been living in Minneapolis for much of the past 12 years.
She has completed some college,
during which time she switched majors numerous times. She
reports that she currently works two
part-time jobs in retail, and notes difficulty in making sure she
gets enough shifts at work to
cover her bills.
Sarah would like to return to school, but is anxious about going
into more debt. She has
thoughts of going into nursing, or becoming a doctor, though
she sometimes thinks she is too old
to pursue those degrees, and wishes she had completed school
earlier. When asked about her
reasons for leaving college previously, Sarah states that she was

experiencing anxiety at that
time, and had a hard time focusing on completing coursework.
Particularly, she reported that at
the time, she was very concerned about her mother who had
problems with alcoholism. Sarah
reports that while growing up, she was closer to her mother,
who is Native American, a police
officer, and was involved in tribal politics, than to her father,
who is White and a well- respected
political figure in their town. Within the family, however, she
reported, her father was often
angry and verbally abusive, particularly toward Sarah. She also
noted that she is close to her one
sibling, an older brother who is happily married and working as
an accountant in another state,
but she sometimes feels like a failure when she compares her
life to her brother’s. Sarah rarely
returns to her hometown, and currently has little contact with
her parents; the thought of visiting
them produces high anxiety for her. When asked, Sarah denied
having experienced racism or
discrimination, but reflected that growing up, she was “the
White kid” when spending time with
other Native Americans, but was viewed as Native American by
her predominantly White
classmates. Currently, she does not feel very connected to her
Native American heritage, and
states that though she misses some parts of the culture, she also
associates it with her conflicts
her parents.
Sarah reports no major medical issues, and denies any chemical
dependency concerns.
However, upon questioning, she reports that when her anxiety is
very high, sometimes (about

once a week recently) she smokes cigarettes. Sarah reports that
she is not currently in a romantic
relationship. However, she describes a wide circle of friends
whom she spends time with
socially, but notes that she rarely confides in any of her
concerns to these friends. Sarah would
like to feel less anxious and more satisfied with her life.

– 272 –C H A P T E R T E Nk Introductionk Alber

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