6 instructional design

Instructional Design
Definition

 Maximise the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of
instruction and other learning experiences.
 The process consists of determining the current
state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal
of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to
assist in the transition.
 The outcome of this instruction may be directly
observable and scientifically measured or
completely hidden and assumed.

 We can divide models of instructional design
broadly into two categories
 MARCO: Models which concern themselves with
the design and planning of an entire module or
programme
 MICRO: Models which concern themselves with
the design and planning of an individual lecture or
teaching session

The Classic Macro Model:
Bloom’s Taxonomy

Benjamin S. Bloom
 Born Feb 21, 1913
 Died Sept 13, 1999
 Born in Lansford,
Pennsylvania.
 Educational
psychologist
 Editor of “Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives,
Handbook 1: Cognitive
Domain”

Bloom’s Taxonomy
 In the 1950s Bloom helped
developed a taxonomy of cognitive
objectives in “Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives, Handbook
1: Cognitive Domain”
 Means of expressing qualitatively
different kinds of thinking
 Been adapted for classroom use as
a planning tool and continues to be
one of the most universally applied
models
 Provides a way to organise thinking
skills into six levels, from the most
basic to the more complex levels of
thinking

Bloom’s Taxonomy
(Meaning)
•Evaluation: compare and discriminate between ideas, assess value
of theories, presentations make choices based on reasoned argument,
verify value of evidence, recognize subjectivity
•Synthesis: use old ideas to create new ones, generalize from given
facts, relate knowledge from several areas, predict, draw conclusions
•Analysis: seeing patterns, organization of parts, recognition of
hidden meanings, identification of components
•Application: use information use methods, concepts, theories in new
situations, solve problems using required skills or knowledge
•Comprehension: understanding information,grasp meaning,
translate knowledge into new context
•Knowledge: observation and recall of information,knowledge of
dates, events, places knowledge of major ideas

Bloom’s Taxonomy
(Verbs)
•Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend
estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value
•Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create,
design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare
•Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast,
criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine
•Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ,
illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use
•Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express,
identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review
•Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name,
order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state

Examples
 Example Exam Paper 1
 Example Exam Paper 2

Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised
 In the 1990s Lorin
Anderson, a former student
of Bloom, led a new
assembly which met for the
purpose of updating the
taxonomy, hoping to add
relevance for 21st century
students and teachers
 Published in 2001, the
revision includes several
minor and major changes.
 The revised version of the
taxonomy is intended for a
much broader audience.

Original Terms New Terms
 Evaluation
 Synthesis
 Analysis
 Application
 Comprehension
 Knowledge
•Creating
•Evaluating
•Analysing
•Applying
•Understanding
•Remembering

Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised
 Creating: Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing
things. Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.
 Evaluating: Justifying a decision or course of action. Checking,
hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging
 Analysing: Breaking information into parts to explore
understandings and relationships. Comparing, organising,
deconstructing, interrogating, finding
 Applying: Using information in another familiar situation.
Implementing, carrying out, using, executing
 Understanding: Explaining ideas or concepts. Interpreting,
summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining
 Remembering: Recalling information. Recognising, listing,
describing, retrieving, naming, finding

Creating Green Hat, Construction Key, SCAMPER, Ridiculous
Key, Combination Key, Invention Key
Evaluating Brick Wall Key, Decision Making Matrix, PMI,
Prioritising.
Analysing Yellow Hat, Black Hat, Venn Diagram, Commonality
Key, Picture Key, Y Chart, Combination Key.
Applying Blue Hat, Brainstorming, Different uses Key, Reverse
Listing Key, Flow Chart.
Understanding Graphic Organisers, Variations Key, Reverse Listing,
PMI, Webs (Inspiration).
Remembering White Hat, Alphabet Key, Graphic Organisers,
Acrostic, Listing, Brainstorming, Question Key.

Other Macro Models

ADDIE Model
 The ADDIE model is used by instructional designers
and training developers. It is composed of five
phases
 Analysis,
 Design,
 Development,
 Implementation, and
 Evaluation
 Which represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for
building effective training and performance support
tools. This model attempts to save time and money
by catching problems while they are still easy to fix.

ADDIE Model :
A = Analysis
 In analysis stage of ID process, want to find
out:
 Who are the learners or audience
 Audience analysis
 What is the goal or intended outcome
 Goal analysis

ADDIE Model :
D = Design
 Content of the course
 Subject matter analysis
 Steps of instruction
 Lesson planning-writing objectives
 Type of media or presentation mode
 Media selection

ADDIE Model :
D = Development
 Development of instruction
 Generate lesson plans (different from lesson
planning) and lesson materials.
 Complete all media & materials for instruction,
and supporting documents.
 End result is a course or workshop ready for
delivery.

ADDIE Model :
I = Implementation
 The delivery of the instruction.
 Purpose is effective & efficient delivery of
instruction.
 Promote students’ understanding of material &
objectives, and ensure transfer of knowledge.

ADDIE Model :
E = Evaluation
 Two related evaluations going on
simultaneously in most ID situations.
 Formative Evaluation
 Summative Evaluation

The elusive origins of the
ADDIE Model
 Remarkably it appears that the ADDIE model
wasn’t specifically developed by any single
author but rather to have evolved
 informally through oral tradition.
 The ADDIE Model is merely a colloquial term
used to describe a systematic approach to
instructional development.

ASSURE model
 Analyze learners’ characteristics, competencies, and learning
styles
 State objectives for what your lesson should accomplish (ABCD
format—audience/behavior/condition/degree)
 Select, modify, and design methods, media, and materials
 Utilize methods, media and materials—implement the lesson
 Require learner participation in lesson
 Evaluate learner outcomes with objectives and revise as
necessary
 From “Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning” by
Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda, James D. Russell, Sharon E.
Smaldino

The ABCD Format
 Audience: The audience is the group of individuals who are targeted for instruction. While
at first this seems straight forward, many times employees will ask “will I get anything out
of this training?” or “should I attend this training?” or “who is supposed to go to this
training?” Without a clear-cut audience in mind, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly who gains
from the training and who would be better served in a different class.
 Behaviour: The behaviour element of the objective indicates the desired outcome of the
particular learning event. The behaviour will be stated in the following form “will be able to
detail properly” or “will be able to discuss the mechanism of action (MOA) with the doctor.”
The behaviour is what you want the person to be able to do as a result of the training. It is
important to clarify the behaviour because training programs can get off track when the
desired outcome of the training activity is not clearly defined.
 Condition: The term “condition” describes circumstances under which the behaviour
should occur. An example would be “when calling on a doctor,” The condition describes a
trigger for the desired behaviour.
 Degree: The term “degree” represents how well the employee must perform to be
considered acceptable. The degree of the objective is the measurable component.
Measures can be expressed as level of productivity, quantity, quality, time, internal or
external customer requirements, or other criteria gained from actual or anticipated work
practices.
 From “Instructional Technology - A Systematic Approach to Education” by Frederick
G. Knirk, Kent L. Gustafson

Dick and Carey Model
 The model was originally published in 1978
by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book
entitled “The Systematic Design of
Instruction”.
 It champions a systems view of instruction as
opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of
isolated parts. The model addresses
instruction as an entire system, focusing on
the interrelationship between context,
content, learning and instruction.

Dick and Carey Model
Assess Need
to Identify
Goal(s)
Assess Need
to Identify
Goal(s)
Conduct
Instructional
Analysis
Conduct
Instructional
Analysis
Analyze
Learners and
Contexts
Analyze
Learners and
Contexts
Write
Performance
Objectives
Write
Performance
Objectives
Revise
Instruction
Revise
Instruction
Develop
Assessment
Instruments
Develop
Assessment
Instruments
Develop
Instructional
Strategy
Develop
Instructional
Strategy
Develop
And Select
Instructional
Materials
Develop
And Select
Instructional
Materials
Design and
Conduct
Formative
Evaluation
Design and
Conduct
Formative
Evaluation
Design and
Conduct
Summative
Evaluation
Design and
Conduct
Summative
Evaluation

ICARE model
 Based on the Dick and Carey Model and
pioneered by San Diego State University in
1997, the model has found a place in the
higher education sector.

ICARE model
 Introduce learners to what is to be learned
 Content of lesson is presented to learner
involving active participation
 Apply new knowledge and skills with practical
activities
 Reflect on what has been learned
 Extend learning of lesson by providing
alternative resources

Tripp and Bichelmeyer
 Design that occurs in a rapid prototyping
environment, when prototyping is specifically
used as a method for instructional design.
 The analysis of needs and content depends
in part upon the knowledge that is gained by
actually building and using a prototype
instructional system.

 Tripp,Steven, Bichelmeyer,Barbara, Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional
design strategy, Educational Technology Research and Development, 38, 1,
3/18/1990, Pages 31-44

 Diagram needs additions

Other Macro Models
 There are many other macro models of
instructional design, we won’t go into them,
but I’ve included a few pictures for your
viewing pleasure.

Ausubel’s Assimilation Theory

Micro Models

Gagné’s Nine Events of
Instruction

Gagné’s Nine Events of
Instruction
1. Gain attention - Curiosity motivates students to learn.
2. Inform learners of objectives - These objectives should form the basis for
assessment.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning - Associating new information with prior
knowledge can facilitate the learning process.
4. Present the content - This event of instruction is where the new content is
actually presented to the learner.
5. Provide “learning guidance” - use of examples, non-examples, case studies,
graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies.
6. Elicit performance (practice) - Eliciting performance provides an opportunity
for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further
increases the likelihood of retention.
7. Provide feedback - guidance and answers provided at this stage are called
formative feedback.
8. Assess performance - take a final assessment.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job - Effective education will have a
"performance" focus.

Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory

Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory
1. Organizing Course Structure: Single organisation for complete course
2. Simple to complex: start with simplest ideas, in the first lesson, and then
add elaborations in subsequent lessons.
3. Within-lesson sequence: general to detailed, simple to complex, abstract
to concrete.
4. Summarizers: content reviews presented in rule-example-practice format
5. Synthesizers: Presentation devices that help the learner integrate content
elements into a meaningful whole and assimilate them into prior knowledge,
e.g. a concept hierarchy, a procedural flowchart or decision table, or a
cause-effect model .
6. Analogies: relate the content to learners' prior knowledge, use multiple
analogies, especially with a highly divergent group of learners.
7. Cognitive strategies: variety of cues - pictures, diagrams, mnemonics, etc.
- can trigger cognitive strategies needed for processing of material.
8. Learner control: Learners are encouraged to exercise control over both
content and instructional strategy. Clear labelling and separation of strategy
components facilitates effective learner control of those components.

Component Display Theory
 Component Display Theory (CDT) classifies learning along two
dimensions:
 content
 facts, concepts, procedures, and principles
 performance
 remembering, using, generalities
 The theory specifies that instruction is more effective to the extent that it
contains all necessary primary and secondary forms. Thus, a complete
lesson would consist of objective followed by some combination of
rules, examples, recall, practice, feedback, helps and mnemonics
appropriate to the subject matter and learning task. Indeed, the theory
suggests that for a given objective and learner, there is a unique
combination of presentation forms that results in the most effective
learning experience.

Fact Concept Procedure Principle
Use
Find
Remember

Fact Concept Procedure Principle
Use Identify or
Classify
Demonstrate –
How to
Explain why or
predict
Find State or Define State steps State
relationship
Remember Recall or
Recognise
Recall or
Recognise
definition or
example
Recall or
Recognise
steps or
example
Recall or
Recognise
principles or
example

Active Learning
 an umbrella term that refers to several
models of instruction that focus the
responsibility of learning on learners.
 Think-Pair-Share
 The Pause Procedure
 Fact Rounding
 Network Phasing
 Learning Cell
 Active Writing
 Team Quizzes

Active Learning
 Think-Pair-Share
 learners take a short amount of time (e.g. one minute) to
ponder the previous lesson,
 Then they discuss it with one or more of their peers,
 finally to share it with the class as part of a formal
discussion.
 It is during this formal discussion that the instructor
should clarify misconceptions. However students
need a background in the subject matter to
converse in a meaningful way. Therefore a "think
pair share" exercise is useful in situations where
learners can identify and relate what they already
know to others.

Active Learning
 We know that even the most motivated student's
concentration declines after 10-15 minutes.
Teaching often requires students to play passive
roles and assume all students need the same
information at the same pace. By using three two-
minute pauses during the lecture (about every 13 to
18 minutes), the students are given the chance to
clarify, assimilate, and retain the information
presented during the prior mini-class. The pause
procedure can be used as a vehicle to carry into the
traditional class a variety of active and collaborative
learning structures.

Active Learning
 Examples of things do to during the 'pause' include;
 Ask students to turn to their neighbour and summarize the main ideas the
instructor has just presented (e.g., List three major points in the last lecture
and one point you're confused on).
 Ask students to read over their notes of the materials covered today and put
a question mark beside anything they want either clarification on or more
details on.
 Ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper, pose a question (either
specific or open-ended), and give them one (or perhaps two - but not many
more) minute(s) to respond. Some sample questions include: "What are the
countries in Europe?", "What are 'Human Rights'?", "What is the different
between adverbs and adjectives?" and so on (“one minute paper”).
 Ask students "What was the 'muddiest point' in today's class?" or, perhaps,
you might be more specific, asking, for example: "What (if anything) do you
find unclear about the lesson?" listing topics.
 Ask students to report their reactions to some facet of the course material -
i.e., to provide an emotional or evaluative response to the material.

Active Learning
 Fact Rounding
 The Fact rounding technique works as
follows, towards the end of a lesson the
students are asked to recall one fact from the
material covered. Another student should not
repeat a fact already mentioned and the
activity should continue until all the lesson
material has been covered.

Active Learning
 Network Phasing
 The activity of Phasing starts off with three groups in its first Phase. These
groups will each be assigned a particular section of a larger problem. All
groups are then given a specific amount of time to work on either fact finding
or a solution or both. The time frame most suitable for Phasing is two hours
but the approach taken can vary depending on the needs of the particular
problem. After a given period of time the group elect a leader to present their
findings. From this short presentation the students will learn about the
different sections of the larger problem.
 Phase 2 begins with the original groups being split in two halves and those
halves coming to form two new groups. This formation ensures that all
students get exposure to all areas of the larger problem. The two new
groups will have a new solution or facts to find. Phase 2 develops in the
same way as Phase 1 and the elected leader of each group present the
findings.
 Phase 3 takes the form of a group discussion bringing the findings of Phase
2 together to form the solution to the larger problem. This discussion should
be lead by the teacher to ensure the student’s findings are correct and to
give suggested improvements.

 Learning Cell
 A learning cell is a process of learning where two students
alternate asking and answering questions on commonly read
materials. To prepare for the assignment, the students will read
the assignment and write down questions that they have about
the reading. At the next class meeting, the teacher will randomly
put the students in pairs. The process begins by designating one
student from each group to begin by asking one of their
questions to the other. Once the two students discuss the
question. The other student will ask a question and they will
alternate accordingly. During this time, the teacher is going
around the class from group to group giving feedback and
answering questions. This system is also referred to as a
“student dyad” (or pair).
Active Learning

Active Learning
 Active Writing
 The Active Writing technique is used as follows;
 at the end of the lesson students are asked to submit
questions based on the material covered.
 These questions are used as an introduction to the next
lesson.
 The purpose of this activity is to ensure that the
students will have their questions answered and to
reflect on the material. This activity is different to the
other because it is spreads across two separate
lessons. This technique can also be used to gauge
students’ understanding of a subject based on the
questions they submit.

Active Learning
 Team Quizzes
 The team quizzes activity divides the class into two
groups (Group A and Group B). The groups are
given an amount of time to generate questions on
the material covered. The teacher aims Group A’s
questions to Group B and visa versa. If the group
give the correct answer a point is awarded,
otherwise the other group must give the answer.
The purpose of this approach is to promote the
generation of well thought out questions and
answers.

Six Hats Instructional Model
BLUE: Introduction and overview of topic
WHITE: Facts and Figures about the Topic
YELLOW: Positive outcomes of Topic
BLACK: Negative outcomes of Topic
GREEN: Interesting outcomes of Topic
RED: Personal, emotional and people-oriented aspects of
topic
WHITE: Review of new facts uncovered
BLUE: Summary and finish up

Other Micro Techniques
 Learning by teaching
 Problem-based learning
 Project-based learning
 Inquiry-based learning
 Action learning
 Progressive inquiry
 Service-learning

Quiz
Put these in order of importance on student
achievement;

Quiz
Put these in order of importance on student
achievement;
Lecturer influence
Student influence

6 instructional design

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