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A CAREER IN RADIO
This book gives an overview of the development, significance, and impact of radio
as a medium of mass communication in modern society. It provides a thorough
understanding of the various wings and functionaries of the radio industry.
The book also covers aspects of commercial radio, the basics of understanding
the pulse of radio listeners, formatting radio programming, making an effective
sales pitch and producing great commercials to exhaustive advice on presenting a
show, appearing for interviews, and public speaking. It also gives insight into the
changes brought in by technology in terms of traditional radio broadcasts, such as
digital radio, highlighting its advancements in audio quality and the diversity of
programming options available, and satellite radio, subscription-based services,
and exclusive access to specialised programming.
An outcome of the author’s vast experience of working as a radio jockey and
programme manager for over 17 years, his book will be an ideal textbook for
undergraduate and postgraduate students of journalism and mass communication,
taking courses on radio, audio and podcasting, media production and digital
media. Additionally, this book will be an invaluable companion to existing radio
professionals as a resource-book for their professional development.
Sayed Mohammad Amir, also known as RJ Aamir, is a seasoned media
professional with a wealth of experience spanning two decades. He has held
pivotal roles, serving as Cluster Head for Programming and achieving acclaim as
a highly successful radio presenter.Amir is a prominent figure in the radio industry
and a published author, sought-after speaker, and respected guest faculty member.
In addition, Amir lends his distinctive voice to corporate films, documentaries,
and advertisements.

A CAREER IN RADIO
Understanding the Key
Building Blocks
Sayed Mohammad Amir

Designed cover image: Getty image
First published 2024
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 Sayed Mohammad Amir
The right of Sayed Mohammad Amir to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this book are those of the
author and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of Routledge.
Authors are responsible for all contents in their articles including accuracy
of the facts, statements, and citations.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-1-032-57320-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-57323-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-43886-1 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003438861
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India

List of figures vii
List of tables ix
Preface x
Abbreviations xi
1 Mass Communication for Beginners 1
2 Media in the Context of Psychology, Ethics, and Culture 31
3 The Birth and Growth of Radio 54
4 The Radio Station 88
5 The Audio-Visual Medium 115
6 The Team 132
7 The Radio Audience 160
8 Designing Broadcast 186
9 Anatomy of an Engaging Programme 214
10 Commandments: Thriving in Programming 235
CONTENTS

vi Contents
11 Selling Radio 260
12 The Art of Audio Productions 282
13 Audience and Music Research 304
14 Diverse Radio Platforms 331
15 Empowered Expressions: Mastering Assertive Communication 364
16 Navigating a Successful Job Search Strategies, Tips, and Best
Practices 387
Index 407

1.1 Brief Timeline of the History of Human Communication 3
1.2 Types of Communication 5
1.3 Intrapersonal Communication 5
1.4 Interpersonal Communication 6
1.5 Small Group Communication 7
1.6 Public Communication 8
1.7 Components of the Communication Process 9
1.8 A modern version of a town crier in India 14
1.9 Linear Model of Communication 16
1.10 The Lasswell Model of the Communication Process 17
1.11 Shannon Weaver Model of Communication 20
1.12 Transactional Model of Communication 21
1.13 Interactive/Convergence Model of Communication 22
2.1 Interaction with Media 48
3.1 Alexanderson Alternator 60
3.2 Lee de Forest with an Audion Tube 60
3.3 Replica of the First Transistor Invented at Bell Labs 62
3.4 Regency TR-1: First Commercially Produced Transistor Radio 63
3.5 Electromagnetic Spectrum Based on the Model from Wikipedia 64
3.6 Radio Wave 65
3.7 AM & FM Waves 67
3.8 Radio Transmission 67
4.1 Radio Studio 93
4.2 Radio Console 96
FIGURES

viii Figures
4.3 On-Air Studio Light 98
4.4 Pop Filter and Foam Cover 100
4.5 Broadcast Delay System, Currently Set at 8 Seconds in the
Image 101
6.1 Station Hierarchy 132
7.1 Model based on: Philip Kotler. Principles of Marketing 163
7.2 Socio-Economic Classification India 2011 168
7.3 Mood Mapping Through the Day 174
7.4 Average Daily Schedule of a Working Person 176
7.5 Mood Mapping Through the Week 177
7.6 Common Radio Time Bands 179
7.7 Radio Audience Through a Regular Day 180
8.1 Example of a Fixed Point Chart or FPC (Schedule of Daily
Programmes) 201
8.2 A typical four-break clock 203
12.1 The Production Process 293
12.2 Demo ANA Format 294
13.1 Sample Listenership Divided into Quarters 318
14.1 Internet Radio Transmission 355
15.1 Major Respiratory Structures Are Also Involved in the
Production of Voice 366
15.2 Process of Language Learning 372
15.3 Seven Cs of Effective Communication 382

1.1 Difference between Interactive and Transactional Models 22
3.1 Brief Timeline of Radio Broadcasting Around the World 74
3.2 Brief Timeline of Radio Broadcasting in India 81
8.1 Talk Radio Formats 190
8.2 Content Link Breakup or Rundown of the Morning Show 202
8.3 An Example of 1-hour log 207
9.1 Demo Prep-sheet with an Overview of What Is to Be
Covered in the Show 232
11.1 Monetisation Opportunities on the Radio 262
12.1 Active Voice vs. Passive Voice 289
13.1 Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research 307
13.2 Entries Under the Diary Method (Sample) 314
13.3 Sample Listenership According to Age Group 315
13.4 Sample Listenership According to Age Group After
Dividing by 100 316
TABLES

Radio holds a special place in my heart, evoking wonder and nostalgia. For over
two decades, I’ve immersed myself in radio, recognising its unparalleled power
as a communication medium. Despite my comings and goings in the industry, my
bond with this extraordinary medium remains unbreakable.
In today’s world of overwhelming visual stimuli and mindless content, radio’s
significance shines brightly. It serves as a lifeline, eschewing flashy visuals for the
art of reflection. Its power knows no bounds, limited only by the creativity and
passion of those behind the microphone.
Yet, in the shadow of television and the internet, radio often takes a backseat,
being underestimated and undervalued. This oversight has resulted in a scarcity of
credible literature, especially in India. But this dearth should not diminish radio’s
intrinsic worth; it underscores the urgency to explore and celebrate its significance.
Through this book, I have two clear objectives. Firstly, I offer an academic explo-
ration, tracing radio’s historical, cultural, and practical dimensions from its humble
origins to its modern-day stature. Secondly, drawing from my extensive experience
and research, I present a practical guide for self-learning and personal growth.
By combining these approaches, I aim to provide readers with a comprehensive
understanding of radio, illuminating its intricacies and opportunities. My hope is
that, by the end, the reader will grasp why radio has been my enduring passion—a
source of endless fascination and inspiration.
Join me on this journey into the world of radio, where passion meets profession
and dreams find their voice.
—Sayed Mohammad Amir
PREFACE

AC Adult Contemporary
AC Alternating Current
AIR All India Radio
AM Amplitude Modulation
AMARC World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters
AMT Auditorium Measurement Test
ANA Advertising Needs Analysis
AQH Average Quarterly Hour
AT&T American Telephone & Telegraph Company
BBC British Broadcasting Company
BECIL Broadcast Engineering Consultants India Limited
CAGR Compounded Annual Growth Rate
CBC Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
CBS Columbia Broadcasting System
CHR Contemporary Hit Radio
CLB Content Link Breakup
CPI Cost Per Impression
CPM Cost Per Thousand
CRS Community Radio Station
CTI Common Transmitter Infrastructure
Cume Cumulative Audience
DAB Digital Audio Broadcasting
DAR Day After Recall
DJ Disc Jockey
DMT Digital Music Testing
ABBREVIATIONS

xii Abbreviations
DTH Direct to Home
ENIL Entertainment Network India Limited
EQ Emotional Quotient
FM Frequency Modulation
FPC Fixed Point Chart
GOPA Grant of Permission Agreement
IBC Indian Broadcasting Company
IMI Indian music industry
IPRS Indian Performing Rights Society
IRS Indian Readership Survey
ISBS Indian State Broadcasting Service
ITU International Telecommunication Union
KRA Key Result Area
MIB Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
MIS Management Information Systems
MRUC Media Research Users Council
NHK Nippon Hoso Kyokai
NOTEF Non-refundable One-time Entry Fee
OBs Outside Broadcasts
OTEF One-time Entry Fee
PABX Private Automatic Branch Exchange
PD Programming/Programme Director
PH Programming Head
PPL Phonographic Performance Limited
PR Public Relations
RAM Radio Audience Measurement
RF Radio Frequency
RIAA Recording Industry Association of America
RJ Radio Jockey
SFX Special Effects
STL Studio Transmitter Link
TG Target Group
TO Traffic Release Order
TOH Top of the Hour
TOM Top of the Mind
TRAI Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
TSL Time Spent Listening
TTSL Total Time Spent Listening
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
VT Voice Tracking
VU Volume Unit
WAV Waveform Audio File

1.1 Introduction
The manifested reality of the human world is a collaboration of several distinct fac-
ulties, but when you think about it, none of it would have been possible if we had
been lacking in just one sphere—the ability to communicate. Throughout history,
no other capacity has had a greater impact on the development of humanity than
the ability to communicate. If we were as limited in our communication as other
animals, we would never have left the caves and gotten to where we are now. The
development of communication allowed us to share complex ideas beyond simple
emotions, giving us an advantage over all other animals and, in some ways, power
over the elements. Even though each creature communicates in its own unique way,
they are severely hindered after a certain threshold. No animal can instruct another:
“Get some firewood or clean up your room” or give a suggestion: “I think you
should try that dress or let’s have some sushi.” We developed language, and our
communication became faster, clearer, and more diverse (various or multifaceted).
We could pass on information, instructions, and stories from one generation to
the next, gradually adding up. Communication enabled us to form social relation-
ships, which led to the formation of families, businesses, communities, and socie-
ties, which grew into villages, cities, and states. Possibly only humans can talk
about the past and the future. Cultural transmission—the transfer of knowledge,
beliefs, and practises from one generation to another within a society, shaping the
collective identity and behaviour of its members—is another feature of human
communication.
1
MASS COMMUNICATION
FOR BEGINNERS
DOI: 10.4324/9781003438861-1

2 Mass Communication for Beginners
As such, human communication is not only complex, but it also changes over
time in response to societal changes—new words are added or their usage changes.
Signs and symbols beyond words, like gestures, also vary over time or from cul-
ture to culture. Wiggle your fingers in the air to tell someone to text you or use the
thumb-to-ear-pinky-to-mouth gesture to ask them to call you; these gestures did
not exist before the technology came into being. Then in Iran and Afghanistan,
the thumbs-up gesture is considered offensive, and making the OK sign with your
hand is not acceptable in Brazil.
Current theories suggest that our ancestors gradually developed communi-
cation and related technology over the course of thousands of years; starting
some 200,000 years ago, they first began using language. This then led to
visuals and symbols, which evolved into writing in the form of pictographs
around 3,500 BCE (a pictorial symbol for a word or a phrase). We continued to
develop and invent, eventually leading to radio technology, which revolution-
ised communication.
We can no longer imagine life before the radio. This technology is every-
where—cell phones, televisions, the internet, and every conceivable communica-
tion device that we use today. In whatever future we may head towards, we will
be using radio technology in some form or another. Indeed, if we look at it, com-
munication enabled contemporary human society while shifting human society
dynamics revolutionised communication.
DID YOU KNOW
Acta Diurna (meaning proceedings of the day) was probably the world’s first
newspaper. Its main content included the minutes of official business (the acts
of the Senate) and other topics of public interest such as important births and
deaths, match results, official appointments, and other official decisions, among
other things. Some traditions trace its beginnings to Julius Caesar, while the
precise date is unknown; however, it is known that it existed in 59 BCE and
lasted until 330 CE. But this was no ordinary newspaper; it was carved on metal
or stone and displayed prominently around Rome and her provinces. Romans
called it Diurnalis which in French became “journal” and “giournale” in Italian
(Britannica, 2018) (Jasiński, 2022).

Mass Communication for Beginners 3
1.1.1 Brief Timeline of Human Communication
≈200,000 BCE Probable time of the development of human speech/sound communication.
≈30,000 BCE Development of Visual/Symbolic communication. Oldest surviving cave paintings are
from this time.
≈3,500 - 2,900 BCE Begining of writing: Sumerians develop cuneiform writing, later the Egyptians develop
hieroglyphic writing.
1500 BCE Phoenicians develop alphabet comprising of 22 letters
2000 BCE Earliest historical reference to postal system in Egypt
618-907 CE Block printing is invented in China during the T'ang dynasty
1041-1049 CE In China Bi Sheng invents the movable type printing press using baked clay later
around 1280 CE Wang Zhen invents the wooden movable type press.
1436 CE Johannnes Gutenberg, in Germany, starts working on the metal movable type printing
press and prints the Gutenberg Bible also known as 42-line Bible in 1455.
1605 CE Relations: Aller Furnemmen the first newspaper using modern printing method is
published
1814 CE Joseph Nicéphore Niépce starts experimenting with permanent photographic image
1876 CE Electric telephone patented by Alexander Graham Bell
1877 CE Phonograph patented by Thomas Edison
1920-1940 CE Radio and film come to the fore.
1950s CE Television becomes the new mass medium
1989 CE World Wide Web is born and 1993 internet enters the public domain
FIGURE 1.1
Brief Timeline of Human Communication
(Source: Author)

1.2
Communication—Definition and Types
“Communis” Latin for common, public.
“Communicare” Latin verb to share or to make common.
“Communicationem” again Latin verb meaning imparting or making common.
“Comunicacion” old French word.
“Communication” usage started in early fifteenth century meaning an act of
communicating or an act of transmitting.
The word communication, like several English terms, has a Latin origin and
refers to the act of imparting or exchanging information. Even though we associ-
ate “communication” with words, the truth is that communication extends much
beyond words. We are in constant communication with the world around us. Even
when we are sleeping, our ears catch up on cues, which is why noise wakes us
up. Our brain is always absorbing information and responding to it, whether con-
sciously or unconsciously. Almost every human activity—what we say or do not
say, every gesture, every painting, sculpture, action, inaction, written word, or
voice—leads to some type of communication. Therefore, until there is a recipient
of information, there is communication.
When someone asks you how you are and you sigh instead of responding with
words, that is an act of communication since you are letting the other person know
that you are not feeling well or that something’s wrong. Even if the plant is mute,
a pale plant with withering leaves indicates that it requires water and/or sunlight.
A hungry baby cries to express their hunger. Your clothing conveys information
about your personality. You are involved in communication when you watch a
movie or read a newspaper, attend a lecture, gaze at a billboard, or visit a website.
As a result, it is correct to state that it is impossible to avoid communication. Even
in a closed room with no one else present, a person interacts with themselves.
Hence, it is difficult to accurately define what constitutes communication;
nonetheless, in the context of the social sciences, communication can be defined as
the process of transferring information to obtain feedback in order to achieve the
intended result(s). This definition leads to an important conclusion: The message
should be conveyed in a format that the receiver can both receive and understand.
If the communication does not reach the intended person(s) or is in a form that
the receiver does not understand, the entire goal is defeated. In communication,
a message is any information that is conveyed either verbally, that is, via words
whether spoken or written, or nonverbally, that is, by visuals, actions, signs, or
symbols, effectively without the aid of language or words.
Experts have classified several types of communication depending on their
forms, channels, purposes, and the number of participants in the communication
process.

People do not always interact with people; they spend a lot of time in their
minds thinking, introspecting, analysing, and planning, which is what experts
define as Intrapersonal communication.1
This communication, directed inward,
is crucial for personal development, and if properly directed, it helps with a better
understanding of the self, improving self-awareness and mindfulness. You act as
both the sender and the receiver, and your brain both produces the thought and
responds to it. Although this communication is intended to be with yourself, it
is heavily influenced by your interactions with the rest of the world; resentment,
happiness, confidence, jealousy, and other emotions all make their way into it.
Even body language has an impact here; just as it influences others, it influences
one’s own mood. Some examples of intrapersonal communication include day-
dreaming, journaling, and talking aloud to oneself, which could be in the form of
internal thoughts or vocal or written expressions.
However, to lead a fruitful life, one must communicate with others since one
simply cannot remain alone in a world where we all share a common existence.
Interpersonal Communication, also known as dyadic communication, is the act of
interacting directly with another person, such as a friend, partner, or co-worker.
Even two strangers conversing on the subway is an example of interpersonal
Types of Communication
Forms
Verbal
Oral
Written
Non-Verbal
Auditory
Body Language
(Kinesthetic)
Visuals
Tactile
Style and Purpose
Formal
Informal
Number of Participants
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Small Group
Public
Mass
Channels
Face-to-Face
Mediated
FIGURE 1.2
Types of Communication
(Source: Author)
Source Receiver
FIGURE 1.3 Intrapersonal Communication

Source
Receiver
Receiver
Source
FIGURE 1.4 Interpersonal Communication
(Source: Author)
communication. People communicating during interpersonal communication are
either present together or communicate through some sort of “medium.” If there is
a medium associated with enabling the process of communication, then we call it
Mediated Interpersonal Communication.
So whenever a device, such as a paper or mobile phone, aids the process of
communication, it is referred to as mediated communication. Letters, emails, text
messages, and video calls are all examples of mediated interpersonal communica-
tion. However, when we remove the phrase “interpersonal” and simply consider
“mediated communication,” television, radio, newspapers, and other mass com-
munication modes enter the picture as well because mass communication is only
feasible with the assistance of technology. For much of history, mediated com-
munication, which enabled reaching out to a far larger population, was virtually
non-existent due to several obstacles, such as illiteracy or a lack of technology. As
a result, the word “mass communication” did not arise until the previous century,
while “mass media” appeared in the 1920s.
Face-to-face communication, which takes into account both verbal and non-
verbal cues, is at the other end of the mediated communication continuum. Non-
verbal signals include almost everything that the senses may detect, such as body
language, gesture, fragrance, or clothing, all of which might influence message
exchange. When you stomp your foot through a door, it immediately communi-
cates to others that you are angry, and when your eyes light up when gazing at
someone, it communicates that you are interested in that person. In interpersonal
communication, words become less important since other evident symbolisms
greatly influence the message.
It is critical to recognise that face-to-face communication differs dramatically
from any type of mediated communication, even if the fundamentals and objec-
tives are the same and even if it is direct, such as over the phone or video call.
Face-to-face communication is reportedly the best type of communication since
the message is directly communicated to the listener, eliminating the risk of mis-
interpretation and encouraging active engagement. People involved can gather
additional information, specifically non-verbal indicators such as facial expres-
sions, making the message more emphatic. On the contrary, non-verbal cues such

as “feelings” are often absent in mediated communication, making it difficult to
judge the motivations behind the message.
Can we accurately predict the emotions expressed in a text message? We’ve
all been there: Misinterpreting the context of a text or the emotions underlying it,
resulting in pointless misunderstandings. This is one of the reasons why experts
advise against arguing through text messages or even on the phone; instead, they
unanimously agree that the best approach to resolving issues is to be physically
there and have a face-to-face conversation.
Group Communication is what happens when there are more than two people
involved, whether the group is very small, comprising only three people, or large,
like a concert or a rally. Group communication can happen in person with or with-
out the assistance of a device. However, in the case of a large or dispersed group,
it is only possible with the aid of some device. A microphone is not required in an
office meeting of a few individuals, but it is required in a conference with a large
number of participants. If the members of a group are in various locations, they
can meet via the internet or connect through conference calls. The exchange in a
small group occurs between the set members, and everyone has the opportunity to
be both the source and the receiver. As in the case of office meetings, the agenda
is set by the manager, but the discussions normally take place among everyone
present.
Source
Receiver
Source
Receiver
Source
Receiver
Source
Receiver
FIGURE 1.5
Small Group Communication
(Source: Author)

When group communication is extended to a much wider scale, with hundreds
or even tens of thousands of recipients of the message, this is referred to as public
communication. Public communication is sender-focused and feasible with the use
of some sort of technology, implying that it is normally mediated. Interestingly, in
public communication, a single individual or a group or organisation operating as
a single person is the source, and there is little scope for feedback; therefore, the
flow of information is usually one way, but it is not absent. Public communication
is formal, structured around a certain topic, and of interest to the group or persons
to whom it is aimed. Consider government announcements of initiatives aimed at
a specific segment of society, a politician’s speech, or some other public speaker’s
speech.
Regardless of the style of communication, the process normally follows a
cyclical flow of information from the sender to the recipient, whose roles con-
tinue to alternate until the goal is met. Feedback is most difficult in mass and
public communication, and the roles are rarely, if ever, reversed, but we cannot
assume that it is completely lacking and always so. Especially in today’s world
with the availability of the internet and social media applications, earlier input
was often unavailable, and when it was available, it was extremely limited, but
not anymore.
The next figure provides a general model of the process of communication.
Source
Receiver
Receiver
Receiver
Receiver
FIGURE 1.6 Public Communication
(Source: Author)

Let us understand each of the terms in Figure 1.7:
The Source is the originator of the message and the initiator of the communica-
tion process, and it might be a person, group, or organisation. When your friend
says anything to you, she is the source; what she says is the message. Similarly,
when a company advertises vacancies on its hiring page, it becomes the source,
and its advertisement is the message. The message could be any idea, news,
thought, feeling, opinion, question, or any other input that the source wishes to
transmit further. Advertisements, invitations, books, lectures, placards, and let-
ters are some more examples of a message. The efficacy of the communication is
initially dependent on the sender because it is the sender’s responsibility to put the
message in the best possible form and convey it in the best possible manner while
keeping the intended recipient and their competencies in mind.
When the source decides to send the message, the very first step that is undertaken
is encoding it, which means preparing the information for transmission. Don’t be con-
fused by the term encode. It has nothing to do with computer programming; in this
context, it simply means transforming the information into a form that the receiver can
receive and understand. Encoding can be accomplished in a variety of ways, usually
through spoken or written words, symbols, pictures, or gestures. Encoding facilitates
transmission and aids the receiver in understanding the message.
Once encoded, the sender transmits, i.e., sends the message to the intended
receiver. Transmission now requires some sort of channel or medium through
which the message will be sent. In normal in-person exchanges, for example,
verbal and non-verbal cues act as the medium. In a formal context, we employ
Source
Message
Encoding
Channel
Decode
Receiver
Feedback
FIGURE 1.7
Components of the Communication Process

channels like email, telephone, video conferencing, and face-to-face conversation.
How the message will be encoded and transmitted is dependent upon the purpose
of communication itself and the relationship between the sender and the receiver.
The receiver is the person to whom the message is addressed, who, upon receiving
the message, decodes it, which enables them to comprehend the communication. As
an example, when someone says something to you, your auditory pathway transmits
the message to your brain, which then analyses it using patterns and translates it into
thoughts, after which you react to it, providing feedback, and as soon as you respond,
you become the source and the original sender becomes the receiver.
Consider a chat between you and your friend Jay while you are both at your house
watching a movie on your home theatre. Now an idea occurs to Jay that instead of
ordering in, you both should go out to dinner, and he proposes the same to you.
Jay: I really want to go out for dinner tonight.
You: Okay, that sounds good. What time?
Jay: Ummmm! How does 7 o’clock sound to you?
You: Perfect. By then, we'll be finished with this movie, and I'll have time to get
some supplies for tomorrow.
Jay: Alright … done.
Source: Jay is the original source, as an idea occurs to him and he expresses it
as a wish.
Encoding: He articulates the wish into speech using his physiological speaking
mechanism.
Channel: Since words are spoken, air serves as the medium since it carries his
voice to your ears.
Decoding: When you hear his words, your brain decodes the sound waves
using what it has learned.
Receiver: Because the request is aimed at you, you are the receiver. Your brain
interprets the message you hear, thus enabling you to understand.
Feedback: Your response to his idea, which was to agree to it and ask about
the time.
When you responded, you became the source, while Jay became the receiver.
This process was repeated until the conversation came to a close.
If the communication was not face to face, Jay would have probably called
or texted you, and the channel or medium would have included the phone and
the technology behind it, which made the exchange possible.
The preceding example is a fairly simple interaction between two friends who
are there in person, and so the entire conversation is quite straightforward,

but if the purpose and subject matter of the talk were a little more complex or
if there were certain other difficulties involved, numerous barriers or noise
within this communication could have arisen. Noise or a barrier to commu-
nication is defined as anything that interferes with or impedes the communi-
cation process and reduces its effectiveness. There could be any number of
reasons why this could happen:
• Physical Barriers: As the word ‘physical’ suggests, this type of noise alludes to
any sort of physical constraints during the process of communication; they can
be in the form of equipment failure, environmental factors, or literal physical
hindrances.
• Music, horns, various ambient sounds from machinery or passing cars, and
people speaking are all examples of physical noise in a marketplace that will
serve as a hindrance when you try to converse.
• When you miss a turn owing to a misplaced banner hiding the sign, when
you try to speak to an individual who is at a distance from you, or when
there are other hindrances such as people in between you, for instance in a
movie theatre, or other barriers like a closed door, these would be consid-
ered physical impediments.
• Similarly, if the internet is too slow, making it difficult to send or receive
emails or hold an online meeting, it hinders the clear and timely flow of
information.
• Physical barriers may also include physiological barriers, meaning that
there are physical constraints within the body of the communicator, like
visual or hearing impairments, an unsound mind, or dyslexia, among
others.
• Semantic Noise: Semantic in language means “study of meaning”; hence
semantic noise happens when there is an ambiguity in the transmission of a
message, resulting in misinterpretation. This frequently occurs when the
sender and the receiver come from different backgrounds, which could be for
several reasons, including social, cultural, educational, and linguistic differ-
ences. It also happens when the message is improperly encoded by the sender,
and thus the receiver is unable to interpret it.
• A computer engineer employing technical jargon to describe a computer
problem to a layperson, or when people who speak different languages try
to communicate, are both examples of semantic noise.
• Even when nothing is said vocally, semantic noise may enter because, due to
cultural variations, the same actions and symbols may be interpreted differ-
ently. For example, curling your index finger to call someone is considered
extremely offensive in the Philippines.
• Illegible handwriting, misspellings, and grammatical faults are examples of
improper encoding.

• At times, a message may be ambiguous because it can be interpreted in more
than one way. I saw a man with a telescope. Now, this sentence can have
different possible interpretations: I saw a man carrying a telescope or I saw
a man using a telescope.
• When communication is incomplete, it becomes ambiguous. For example,
if you are standing next to a water cooler and a colleague walks up to you
and says, “May I have a cup, please?” You may either conclude that the col-
league wants you to hand over an empty cup or that they want you to serve
them water. This is a simplistic example, but you would have come across
instances in your life when the incomplete exchange would have led to some
interesting situations.
• Psychological Barriers: Psychological barriers develop as a result of differ-
ences in the psychological states of the participants in the communication pro-
cess. Everyone is unique, which is why personality, thoughts, mood, and other
psychological characteristics all play a role in the efficiency of communication.
The same message conveyed to different people elicits varied responses; even
the same person responds differently to the same message at different times.
Preconceived notions, emotional states, absent-mindedness, poor recollection,
distrust, close-mindedness, leaping to conclusions, and opposing viewpoints
are all barriers to effective communication.
• Organisational Barriers: Organisational barriers are unique to individual
establishments or organisations, irrespective of their size and nature of work.
These barriers arise due to the structure and internal policies of the enterprise.
Studies have regularly shown a strong correlation between the level of com-
munication within an organisation and the performance and satisfaction levels
of its employees.
These barriers come into picture due to one or more reasons:
• Rules and regulations of the company.
• Undefined or vague job descriptions.
• Lack of proper communication channels or facilities.
• Organisational structure and its complexity.
1.3 Mass Communication
We just learned that one of the categorising factors of the act of communication
is based on the size of the participants. In terms of the number of participants, we
move from intrapersonal to interpersonal, then to a small group to group, and then
to public communication, but when we extend communication to an arbitrarily
large audience comprising of unidentifiable and unquantifiable individuals then
we enter the arena of mass communication. The size of recipients in mass com-
munication is so large that we employ the term “mass,” now that mass comprises

people irrespective of their age, sex, race, religion, or any other identifiers; and
due to technology virtually anyone throughout the world can be the recipient of
the message. To put it simply, mass communication is the process of disseminat-
ing information to a large number of anonymous and heterogeneous audiences
with the aid of mass media technology. It is important to note here that the “most
obvious feature of the mass media is that they are designed to reach the many”2
(Mcquail, 2010) and its consumers are in large numbers and anonymous.
In mass communication, the essential elements of the process of communica-
tion remain the same, namely, the interplay of source, message, encoder, medium,
decoder, receiver, feedback, and noise. Moreover, just like any mediated commu-
nication, there is the use of technology; however, certain unique aspects distin-
guish mass communication from other forms of communication.
The first difference is due to the source because, unlike other forms of com-
munication in mass communication, the source is not an individual but rather an
organisation, a professional communicator working on behalf of an organisation,
or somebody who has bought access to media channels like politicians or religious
figures. Again, even if a specific individual from the organisation is in charge of
sending out the communications, that individual will be acting on behalf of the
organisation. Like in the case of a news channel, where a presenter employed by
the station gives out the news. But the channel remains in control of the prepara-
tion and broadcast of the news.
Additionally, mass communication is not possible without the help of “mass
media” because of the size and dispersal of the audience. There is a physical and
social distance between the sender and the receiver (Mcquail, 2010). Since the
intended audience is huge and scattered, consequently, mass communication is
only possible through the assistance of mass media technology. Although the term
itself came into being in the 1930s it isn’t a new concept. We read earlier that the
Romans inscribed updates and other notices at various places to inform the gen-
eral public about the affairs of the senate and other matters of interest.
In the past, when literacy rates were low and technology was limited, important
announcements to the masses were made by hiring individuals known as town
or village criers. They would go to busy areas and shout out information, often
using voice-powered megaphones, but that too did not exist before the seventeenth
century. Drummers or drums were used to attract attention. While this practice
has largely disappeared, it can still be found in remote areas of underdeveloped
countries. In countries like England, honorary town criers have been reintroduced
for ceremonial purposes, and annual town crier competitions are held. Another
way was to put up notices in public squares, as the Romans did.
Although the town crier method was rudimentary due to the lack of better tech-
nology, the function was equally important as it is today. Come to think of it, these
people were the first “announcers” who used their voice to deliver messages, albeit
not in the fashion to which we are accustomed. As technology advanced, new
mediums emerged for information dissemination. Books, newspapers, cinema,

radio, television, and the internet have all served as major channels for spread-
ing information. The basic function of these mediums, whether it’s print, radio,
television, or the internet, remains the same: Conveying information. While the
complexity of messages and technology has evolved, the fundamental purpose of
mass communication persists. As technical advancements continue, the process
will undoubtedly change, and the future will bring something more.
DID YOU KNOW
Global literacy rate was around 12% in 1820,* while literacy rate in India was
only 5.4% in 1901 and was approximately 12% at the end of British rule in
1947.**
* https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/09/reading-writing-global-literacy-rate-
changed/
** https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/census-2011-literacy-rate-and-sex-
ratio-in-india-since-1901-to-2011-1476359944-1
Another difference is due to feedback. In mass communication, the flow of
messages is essentially unidirectional; that is, from the sender to the receiver,
hence, feedback is often absent. Even if feedback is possible then also it is
FIGURE 1.8
A modern version of a town crier in India
Stanley, O., et al. (2016). Retrieved from https://pixnio
.com
/vintage
-photography
/history
-photography
-pictures
/team
-volunteer
-was
-photographed
-using
-a
-megaphone
-in
-order
-to
-announce

mostly delayed or indirect. In recent years though, thanks to the internet and
services enabled through it, feedback is now possible, but again due to the
enormous reach, the feedback generated in this case is huge making it typi-
cally impossible for the principal creators of messages to directly process all
the feedback and respond to it. This is why organisations have a specialised
team or an agency to handle customer feedback. For example, the ratings of
a television show provide information regarding the programme’s popular-
ity, but these numbers are not gathered directly by the show’s producer(s),
director(s), performers, or any other staff involved in its creation. Viewers’
feedback is analysed and condensed into points to provide an understanding of
what is and is not working. But this is for the programme; what about the ads
or other bits aired throughout the programme? Ad creators rarely find out what
someone had to say. Compare this to interpersonal or group communication
where feedback is immediate and is directly received by the source. Even in
public communication at least some of the response of the audience is imme-
diately registered through their applause or jeering. So feedback is immediate
and directly received by the source in all except in mass communication.
Noise is more or less the same as in any other type of communication, with the
exception that the number of persons affected by the noise is high. Rain delaying a
cricket match has the same impact on millions of spectators watching the game on
television as it does on a spectator in the stadium. Yet, some types of noise may not
be present in mass communication. For example, your partner's mood may have a
significant impact on their ability to carry on a regular discussion, but the mood of
a professional news anchor has no bearing on the news.
To summarise:
• Mass communication allows for the simultaneous reach of millions of people,
surpassing the limitations of face-to-face interactions.
• The diverse and heterogeneous audience in mass communication eliminates
discrimination based on factors like religion, culture, race, or ethnicity, provid-
ing universal access to information.
• Access to information is available to anyone who can access it.
• The sender is typically an organisation or a professional representing the
organisation.
• Technology is utilised to transmit messages over large regions or globally, such
as during the transmission of the Olympic Games.
• Feedback in mass communication is typically limited or absent; although the
internet and social media have introduced some opportunities for feedback, it
still differs from personal interactions.
• The internet has revolutionised mass communication by enabling individuals
to reach millions of people without significant investments using platforms
like YouTube and Facebook. This challenges traditional definitions of mass
communication.

1.4
Models of Communication
A communication model represents a visual and systematic process of human com-
munication, therefore, making the process easier to understand. There are a variety of
models that range in complexity, yet even the most complicated model cannot fully
capture the subtleties of human communication. Nevertheless these models are useful
because they enable us to understand the concepts and actions involved by decon-
structing communication into its simplest forms. This makes it easier to apply com-
munication principles and to identify particular stages in the communication process.
Each communication model has a unique set of upsides and downsides.
Organisations use the model that best fits their goals. Consider a newspaper; whose
mission is to provide news to its readers and so is not dependent on exchanges with
its readers. As a result, it adopts a linear model in which the messages are sent to
the receiver by the sender.
To understand better let us have a look at different kinds of models.
1.4.1
Linear Model of Communication
This is a unidirectional model, in which the messages flow from the sender to the
recipient. The sender encodes and transmits the message, using an appropriate
channel, however, there is no conversation or exchange between the receiver and
the sender; therefore, there is no feedback.
Features of Linear Model of Communication:
• One-way communication from the sender to the receiver.
• The process ends as soon as the receiver receives the message.
• Mostly used for mass communication. Newspapers and news channels employ
this model.
• Usually, there is no feedback, although, with the advent of social media some
feedback is possible in certain cases.
• Helps with the persuasion of the masses through propaganda.
• There is a predetermined intent of the messages.
• Due to a lack of feedback, it becomes difficult to ascertain the effectiveness of
the communication.
Several models have developed within the linear model of communication frame-
work including Lasswell’s Model, Aristotle’s Model, Shannon Weaver Model, and
Berlo’s Sender–Message–Channel–Receiver (SMCR) Model.
Sender Encoding Message Decoding Receiver
FIGURE 1.9
Linear Model of Communication

1.4.1.1
Lasswell’s Communication Model
Lasswell’s Maxim: “who says what to whom, through what channel and with
what effect” (Mcquail, 2010).
An American political scientist and communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell
gave one of the most significant and widely applied definitions of communica-
tion. In his paper “The Structure and Function of Social Communication,” pub-
lished in 1948, he provided a communication model, which is known as Lasswell’s
Communication Model.3
Lasswell wrote that “a convenient way to describe an act
of communication is to answer the following questions:
• Who
• Says What
• In Which Channel
• To Whom
• With What Effect?” (McQuail Windahl, Communication Models for the
Study of Mass Communications, 2015)
Lasswell was specifically talking about mass communication in this model.
Nevertheless, this model can be applied to almost all forms of communication,
like interpersonal and group communication. However, its focus was on verbal
communication and a unidirectional process, as it did not mention feedback. This
is why this model is also called a “linear model of communication,” “a one-way
process,” and “an action model.”
Later in 1993, Denis McQuail and Sven Windahl added to the model by using
boxes and arrows:
Components of Lasswell’s Model:
Control Analysis: The originator of the message not only articulates but also controls
communication.
Content Analysis: In this, both the primary message and secondary intent are taken
into account. The secondary intent is something that is implied and not directly
Who
Communicator
Control Analysis
Says What
Message
Content
Analysis
In Which Channel
Medium
Media Analysis
To Whom
Receiver
Audience
Analysis
With What Effect
Effect
Effect Analysis
FIGURE 1.10
The Lasswell Model of the Communication Process (Redrawn: Author)
McQuail, D., Windahl, S. (2015). Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications.
London: Routledge.

said in the message. For example, drawing attention to inflation as a concern can
also serve as a pretext for criticising the current government.
Media Analysis/Channel Analysis: It studies which channel or media will be most
suited for transmitting the messages to the receivers. Various media channels such
as newspapers, television, radio, social networking, or other mass communication
channels can be used either in isolation or in combination for greater impact.
Audience Analysis: It represents who is the target group for the intended messages
and how best to influence this group.
Effect Analysis: This analysis even though mentioned at the end of the process is in
reality carried out at the very beginning. The messages are sent with the intention
to garner specific results. Therefore, effect analysis is done first, and the messages
are designed accordingly.
In his paper, Lasswell also elaborated on the function of social communication.
According to Lasswell, communication performs three main functions:
Surveillance of the Environment: In this role, the media is the information provider.
Media keeps a check on what is happening in the world and provides an update to
society in the form of news.
To understand better, let us take a few examples:
• Weather updates in the newspaper, websites and through the apps.
• Sports updates, stock market updates, election results, and government policy
changes, are all communicated to us through mass media like the television,
print, or the internet.
• News updates of every kind.
All of this is made possible by the media’s “surveillance” function, which collects
and disseminates information. This procedure is ongoing. Governmental policies
govern this function of the media because the dissemination of raw information
about an incident might harm society rather than aid it. For example, if there are
riots in one part of town, continuous or unfiltered coverage may exacerbate ten-
sions elsewhere in the country. Growing anxiety levels are prevalent as a result of
regular updates by news networks regarding unpleasant incidents; mass hysteria
also occurs as a result of such coverage. Raw information is sometimes limited
owing to security concerns and its potential to mislead the public. These regula-
tions, however, are not without flaws; dictatorial governments use the logic of
public safety and national security to heavily censor the media, limiting any news
that contradicts their objectives.
Correlation of the Components of Society: The media’s response to spe-
cific situations or happenings, as well as the manner in which the media presents
information to the public have a significant impact on how society absorbs and
responds to it. This is especially true in today’s environment, as the media has
a large influence on formation of public opinion. Consider a recent example of
such coverage and its impact on you. Were your reactions influenced by the style
of coverage? There are countless examples of non-issues that became significant

problems solely because the news media regularly blasted the public with them. At
the same time, some critical concerns were never brought to the forefront because
the media decided to overlook them.
Nonetheless, there have been several instances where certain media interven-
tions have had a highly positive impact on society, such as resolving conflicts or
rallying people to help flood or earthquake victims. Examples like sharing health-
related information, combating social problems, and supporting environmental
issues are aplenty.
Cultural Transmission between Generations: The media, through this func-
tion, transmits knowledge about a society’s values, social conventions, rules, and
culture. We would not have known about many world events of the past if it were
not for the media’s function. It informs us about world events and influences our
behaviour through cultural transmission. Media exposure introduces us to new
festivals, foods, and music and changes public perceptions of sexuality, fashion,
and lifestyle.
This function has both positive and negative aspects. It helps the younger
generation and foreigners to gain a deeper understanding of society but can also
promote values and stereotypes that are detrimental. Television programmes and
infotainment channels offer educational content, while movies may reinforce
harmful behaviours and stereotypes. Consider children’s television programmes
that promote honesty, bravery, and other such virtues. Indian movies often depict
the “male protagonist” engaging in behaviour that could be described as harass-
ment to woo the “female lead.” However, this portrayal can send a misguided
message to an impressionable audience, suggesting that such behaviour is not
only acceptable but might even be a successful way to gain someone’s attention.
Additionally, it perpetuates the stereotype that men are frequently associated with
teasing. Similarly, the media can foster a sense of connection with different cul-
tures but also promote unrealistic beauty standards, leading to psychological and
physiological consequences.
Lasswell’s Model, though not without its disadvantages, is still very useful. It
is easy to understand, covers the very basics of all sorts of communications, and
brings in the concept of “effect.” There are two primary criticisms of the model:
A. It does not take into account feedback and noise.
B. This is a linear model, meaning that in this model the flow of information
is unidirectional; from the communicator to the recipient and ultimately the
effect that it has. Although when focussing on the traditional role of media,
the restrictions of Lasswell’s Model do not appear to be so much.
1.4.1.2
Shannon Weaver Model of Communication
Claude Elwood Shannon, a mathematician and an engineer at Bell Telephone
Laboratories, published an article “A Mathematical Theory of Communication”4

(Shannon, pp. 379-423) in the “Bell System Technical Journal.” The article was
originally published in July 1948. Later, Shannon in 1949 teamed up with Warren
Weaver, an American scientist, to further present the model through a book, “The
Mathematical Theory of Communication.”5
Hence the model is since known as the
“Shannon–Weaver Model of Communication” and is the “single most influential
communication models” to be ever developed. It has also been termed as “mother
of all models” (Hollnagel Woods, 2005, p. 11).6
Shannon Weaver Model is the
very first technological model of communication, meaning it considers messages
sent through an electronic signal.
Schematic Diagram of a General Communication System (Conceptual
Model): 7
This model analyses communication as a sequential process that has five essen-
tial parts:
1. An information source—who is the originator or the producer of a message or
a succession of messages. The source generates these messages to send these
towards the destination. The message can be of any type—like a string of let-
ters as in telegraphy or a single function of time as in radio or telephony.8
2. A transmitter is an apparatus that transmutes messages into a signal that is
suitable for transmission over the channel. In radio communications, the mes-
sage converts into electromagnetic waves.
3. The channel is the medium used for the transmission of transduced messages.
The receiver with the help of the channel receives the signal from the trans-
mitter. Connecting wires, radio frequency, coaxial cable, and air are all exam-
ples of channels.
4. The receiver (inverse transmitter) does the opposite of the transmitter; it cap-
tures the signal and reconstructs it back into the message.
5. The destination is the entity for whom the message(s) is intended; it could be
either a person, an organisation, or a device.
It should be noted that Shannon and Weaver did not use “information” in the gen-
eral sense that it is used otherwise; they defined information as “a measure of
one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message.” They further added that in
Information
Source
Transmitter Receiver Destination
Noise
Source
Message Message
Received
Signal
Signal
FIGURE 1.11
Shannon Weaver Model of Communication (Redrawn: Author)

communication theory, information is more about what you could say than what
you do say, again echoing the freedom viewpoint. They defined communication as
“all of the procedures by which one mind may affect another.”
This model, which can also be termed the “transmission model,” did not essen-
tially talk about mass communication but was designed to increase the efficiency and
accuracy of technology-aided transmission and reception, such as telephone or radio
communication. Efficiency in this model refers to the rate of information exchange
per second, and accuracy is the exactness of the transference between the sender and
the receiver. It also accounts for differences between messages as sent and messages
as received due to the presence of noise or interference that affects their accuracy. For
example, a radio broadcast may suffer from poor signal reception due to the landscape,
leading to difficulties in understanding the transmitted message.
Although originally developed for technological contexts, this model is heav-
ily used in the social sciences as it applies to almost all human communication
processes. Even in one-to-one communication without technology as the chan-
nel, the model still holds, with one person speaking and another listening. The
speaker becomes the information source, while the listener is the destination. In
such scenarios, factors like moods, feelings, attitudes, and other uncertainties can
be considered as noise.
1.4.2
Transactional Model of Communication
Dean Barnlund put forth the transactional model of communication in the year 19709
(Mortensen, 2017). The sender sends the message to the receiver who responds to it
and becomes the sender and the original sender becomes the receiver. The role of the
sender and receiver keeps interchanging. In this model, feedback and noise, two essen-
tial elements of communication are given their due space. Another important point is
that the transactional model takes into account various social, relational, and cultural
contexts as well. The communicators, in this case, are both the sender and the receiver
and therefore their personal factors heavily determine the success of communication.
When people are at different levels or speak from different points of view, they are
unable to communicate effectively.
The transactional model, however, is apt for interpersonal communication
and not for mass communication, as in this model communication is an ongoing
process and its various elements are interdependent though noise heavily influ-
ences it.
Sender/Receiver Sender/Receiver
FIGURE 1.12
Transactional Model of Communication
(Source: Author)

1.4.3
Interactive/Interactional Model of Communication
With the changes and development in communication and technology, newer
models of communication also emerge. The interactive model also called a con-
vergence model is very similar to the transactional model but applies to new media
like the internet. It too requires two sources; both the original sender and the
receiver play the role of the source and there is continuous feedback in this model.
The interactive model also has a “field of experience” that includes cultural,
behavioural, situational, ethnic, geographical, psychological, and other personal
factors that both influence the message and its interpretation.
Since the interactive model of communication applies to modern communica-
tion such as text messaging or video calls or social media, thus, the noise takes
into account both differences based on the “field of experience” and technological
factors such as network issues or power failure.
The main differences between the interactive model vis-à-vis the transactional
models are:
Sender Message Channel Receiver
Sender
Receiver Message
Channel
Feedback
Noise Noise Noise
Field of
Experience
Field of
Experience
FIGURE 1.13
Interactive/Convergence Model of Communication
(Source: Author)
TABLE 1.1
Difference between Interactive and Transactional Models
Interactive Model Transactional Model
Feedback is not instant. Feedback is prompt.
Applies to modern technology-based
communication.
This applies to interpersonal communication.
The field of experience is an important
element.
Field of experience matters but not as severely
as in the case of the interactive model.
Can become linear if there is no
feedback.
The communication process terminates if there
is no feedback.
Non-verbal feedback is immaterial. Verbal and non-verbal feedback both carry an
importance.

Each of these models of communication has advantages and disadvantages and
each applies to different scenarios.
1.4.4
Contemporary Models of Mass Communication
With the industrialisation of mass media, the traditional role of media has also
changed. Transmission of information is no more the sole purpose of mass media but
its functions are more complex and varied. Among its many functions, it acts as an
entertainer, influencer, advertiser, and watchdog. It is why newer models apart from
the original transmission model have evolved with each trying to explain one or more
aspects of mass communication in the modern world. A study of these models helps
to develop an appreciation for the current roles of media; moreover, it also helps in
understanding “how the media is consumed” in the contemporary world.
1.4.4.1
Ritual or Expressive Model of Communication10
Theorised by James W. Carey in 1975, this model is dependent on shared under-
standings, behaviours, and attitudes. The “ritual model” as the name suggests is
more about the ritual of communication than the message itself. We get accus-
tomed to a few things, like reading the newspaper or interacting with people
through social media even though we may not be interacting with most of the
content. We frequently check social media apps for messages even when we are
not expecting anything in particular or when the content of the messages is of little
use to us. In this age, we hardly spend a few moments idle, as we are constantly on
our smartphones, which is a result of habit and nothing else.
The ritual model considers communication beyond the role of imparting infor-
mation. According to it, communication is also a process, which facilitates the
transformation of society, concurrently enforcing these changes. What it implies
is that communication is not the act of imparting information but is better under-
stood in terms of sharing, participation, association, and fellowship. The ritual
model considers the process of communication as consummatory, celebratory, and
decorative; it exists for the pleasure of it rather than utility.
Consider why you send messages to your friends even when you have nothing
to say, or why you forward a video you enjoyed or share the news that aligns with
your beliefs.
1.4.4.2
Publicity Model of Communication
The media exists to publicise by attracting and keeping the attention of the audi-
ence. In the words of Denis McQuail,
often the primary aim of mass media is neither to transmit particular informa-
tion nor to unite a public in some expression of culture, belief or values, but

simply to catch and hold visual or aural attention. In doing so, the media attain
one direct economic goal, which is to gain audience revenue (since attention
equals consumption, for most practical purposes), and an indirect one, which is
to sell (the probability of) audience attention to advertisers.11
(Mcquail, 2010)
The role of mass communication is not communication but spectatorship, in which
media consumers are more like spectators than participants in the process. This
approach also explains how the media may make celebrities out of people who
have little to give as the media can make things appear far more significant than
they are, or it can sideline crucial happenings.
One of the finest examples of a publicity model is given below:
DID YOU KNOW
In the late nineteenth century, massive diamond mines were discovered in
South Africa. Suddenly there was an influx of diamonds in the market. This
would have resulted in diamonds becoming common so the businesspersons
devised a strategy to promote diamonds as scarce and consequently of extreme
value. In 1888, they teamed up to form De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., and
afterwards in 1938 Harry Oppenheimer engaged an ad agency N.W. Ayer
Son to buff up the image of diamonds.
Diamonds began to be marketed as an idea rather than a commodity, with the
promise that it is as valuable and eternal as love. Furthermore, love is not complete
until a man proposes to a lady with a diamond ring; anything less is a travesty. This
was reinforced by popular celebrities of the day, particularly Hollywood stars. Stories
and images were chosen and published in magazines and newspapers. Columnists,
fashion designers, and stars began to discuss diamonds, their size, clarity, and rarity,
as well as being trendy and sophisticated.
In 1947, a young copywriter named Frances Gerety working for N.W. Ayer and
Son scribbled down a concept for the newest De Beers ring campaign: A diamond
is forever, which became one of the most famous marketing slogans of all time.
1.4.4.3
Reception Model of Communication12
This concept is based on the recipients’ “decoding” of the messages. Stuart Hall devel-
oped reception theory, which implies an “active” audience; recipients are involved in
the interpretation of media texts and are not simply passive consumers. Furthermore,
even if the organisation or encoder of the message had a certain agenda weaved in
while encoding the information, each recipient decodes the same message differently.
The messages sent out by the media are supposedly open and “polysemic” (having
multiple meanings), which are interpreted according to the orientation of receivers.

This orientation of receivers is dependent on various factors such as their age, culture,
beliefs, gender, mood, and experiences.
Think about how you and your friends react differently to the same movie or
news; you may agree with the message, while others may not.
1.5
Mass Communication and the Media Industry
According to Denis McQuail, “the term mass media indicates the entire sys-
tems within which messages are produced, selected, transmitted, received, and
responded to”13
(McQuail, Towards a Sociology of Mass Communications, 1969).
Theworldofmassmedianowadaysdoesnotexistsolelytodisseminateinformation
for public benefit or to inform the masses; they operate primarily to generate income.
The underlying concept behind all activities carried out by the mass communication
sector is to earn money, whether directly or indirectly. When we say directly, we mean
making money through advertising, sponsored segments, or subscriptions. When they
engage in activities other than their principal functions, such as merchandising, they
are acting indirectly. They also create prospects for future revenue through self-pro-
motion, which makes them appear more appealing to marketers. Media firms compete
for the attention of their consumers—listeners for radio, readers for print, and view-
ers for visual media providers; the greater their market share, the more money they
receive. There was no concept of mass media prior to the twentieth century; it was
only after printing became ubiquitous and radio took off that the concept emerged.
Hence, the media industry is no different from any other business. Offer a prod-
uct that customers want to buy. Nevertheless, unlike other businesses, the media
cannot sell the same product twice in succession; it must create a new product
practically every time. A newspaper cannot print the same news tomorrow that
it did today, and a radio station cannot repeat its on-air programme all week.
Because product updates are continual, there is a constant risk of failure. This
emphasises the importance of constantly renewing its offering, and because the
market is saturated with multiple participants, the product is prone to compro-
mise. This may appear paradoxical, but because networks are afraid of trying out
new thoughts or programming, they end up depending on ideas that have worked
effectively in the past. Likewise, they wait for another player to take a risk before
deciding whether they, too, want to copy it.
This is one reason why Indian television is filled with strange formula-based
programming and practically identical, loud, and provocative chat shows on
almost all news stations.
1.5.1
Types of Messages in Mass Communication
The goal of mass communication is to send a certain type of message to the
masses, which depends on the objective of its propagation; that is, the function

for which the media is being used. The creation of a message is an intentional and
critical activity because the efficacy of the message determines the success of any
mass media campaign; hence, the message has to be precise, clear, targeted, and
well-packaged. Depending upon functionality several types of messages can be
conveyed through mass communication, including:
Informative Messages: These messages are designed to inform the audience
about a particular event, situation, or issue. News broadcasts, documentaries,
and educational programmes are examples of informative messages.
Persuasive Messages: These messages are intended to influence the audience’s
beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours. Advertisements, political campaigns, and pub-
lic service announcements are examples of persuasive messages.
Entertaining Messages: These messages are designed to provide amusement or
enjoyment to the audience. Television shows, movies, and music videos are
examples of entertaining messages.
Instructional Messages: These messages provide step-by-step guidance on how
to perform a task or operate a device. Instructional videos and manuals are
examples of instructional messages.
Warning Messages: These messages are intended to alert the audience about
potential dangers or hazards. Weather alerts, product safety warnings, and
emergency announcements are examples of warning messages.
Social Messages: These messages address social issues and advocate for social
change. Public service announcements and documentaries on social issues
such as poverty, homelessness, and environmental problems are examples of
social messages.
Overall, mass communication can convey a wide range of messages to a large audi-
ence through various media channels, each designed to serve a specific purpose.
1.5.2
Functions of the Media Industry
In addition to the functions identified by Lasswell—surveillance, transmission,
and correlation—the role of mass communication has expanded and evolved over
time. It now encompasses new functions depending on the type of message being
conveyed. Therefore, depending on the type of message, the media performs one
of these functions at any given time:
Entertainer: Mass media, such as radio and television, provide companionship
and entertainment in people’s lives. We listen to the radio while driving or
watch television at set times; sometimes we even spend weekends glued to
the TV screen. With no one around, we heavily rely on mass media and social
media for company.
Social-Connect: The social-connect function of media refers to the ability of
media to connect people socially and facilitate communication and interaction

between them. With the advent of social media platforms such as Facebook,
Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn, people can now connect and communicate
with each other on a global scale.
People can share thoughts and build relationships, and businesses can engage
with their audience. While it has brought collaboration and innovation, con-
cerns about privacy, security, and mental health have also emerged.
Advocacy: The media influences public opinion and helps set political agendas.
Political parties, governments, and interest groups use the media to further
their interests and respond to public sentiment. A lot of effort and research is
currently being put into better understanding this agenda-setting function of
mass media, as its consequences are severe.
Observer: The media acts as a watchdog by monitoring governments and organi-
sations. It exposes cases of fraud, holds individuals accountable for damaging
actions, and highlights important crimes. However, sometimes the media can
overlook, ignore, or manipulate information due to external influences.
Public Relations: The media is also used for public relations purposes, such as
managing a company’s reputation or responding to crises. Public relations pro-
fessionals strategically communicate with stakeholders, including the media,
to build trust and credibility.
PR involves a range of activities, including media relations, social media
management, crisis management, event planning, and community relations.
Educator: The media educates people through documentaries, news programmes,
and educational content. It provides knowledge on various subjects, including
science and history, contributing to public understanding and awareness.
1.5.3
Types of Media Channels
Types of mass communication can be determined by the channels used for mes-
sage encoding or by the purpose of the messages. At the moment, the three avail-
able mediums of mass communication are print, electronic, and digital (part of
electronic).
Print Media: Newspapers, magazines, journals, papers, books, and printed
advertising materials like brochures and flyers are all examples of print media
because they require the printing process to encode the messages for delivery.
In most cases, there is no need for a specific technology to decode the mes-
sages because these are directly interpreted by the receiver using their mental
capacity.
Electronic Media: Any communication that employs electronics to both encode
and decode messages is considered electronic media. Typically, this includes
broadcasts like television, and radio and also movies, telephone, fax, optical
devices, and the internet, but the latter is now considered to be a separate cat-
egory of digital media.

Outdoor Media: Outdoor media, often known as out-of-home media or OOH,
is any form of media that aims to grab viewers attention while they are out
of their homes. Advertising is the OOH medium’s most popular applica-
tion. Examples of OOH media include billboards, kiosks, posters, branded
vehicles, and advertisements on benches, transit shelters, public buses, and
buildings. OOH is also frequently used to make important notifications to
the public, such as those addressing new laws, government directives, or
other public service announcements, or PSAs, in short, like appeals for
information about missing persons.
Digital Media: With the addition of interactivity, digital media, also known as
new media, combines the best aspects of print and electronic media. Computer
games, social networking, and other applications, as well as access to videos,
web pages, digital audio like podcasts, digital photos, e-books, websites, and
other digital data, are all included in digital media.
1.6 Summary
It took humans aeons to evolve and develop language, which is a basic require-
ment for effective communication. Without a properly understood language, it
was impossible to communicate complex thoughts and ideas. According to the
Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, the early humans who could
walk on two legs appeared around 4 million years ago, while the modern Homo
sapiens likely evolved about 315,000 years ago, as stated by the Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Symbolic communication emerged around 40,000 years ago with the
earliest known cave paintings while writing systems developed independently
in various parts of the world at different times. The first written texts, found in
the Sumer region of modern-day Iraq, date back to around 3400 BCE. Other
early writing systems include the Egyptian hieroglyphs from about 3200 BCE,
the Indus Valley script from around 2600 BCE, and the Chinese script, with the
earliest known examples dating back to the Shang Dynasty in the second millen-
nium BCE.
Johannes Gutenberg invented the mechanical printing press in the fifteenth
century, which revolutionised the spread of information and knowledge by mak-
ing books and pamphlets more affordable and accessible. Then, in 1826, the first
photograph was taken by Joseph Nicephore Niepce, and photography rapidly grew
in popularity throughout the nineteenth century with the invention of new tech-
nologies such as the daguerreotype and the tintype.
However, it all changed in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, when the
inadvertent development of radio technology revolutionised the way we commu-
nicated forever.
Mass communication has become an integral part of our lives. In less than 100
years, we would wake up with the radio and sleep with the TV. Now smartphones
have taken over.

With changing times, newer models and definitions of mass communication
have developed. However, the essential purpose of mass communication remains
the same: To spread messages and information to a vast populace that is heteroge-
neous and unidentifiable due to its size.
Linear communication is often used by various agencies, including the gov-
ernment, to inform the public at large about policies and affairs. However, with
the advent of the internet and social media, there has been a strong shift towards
an interactive model because it has become possible for the masses to voice their
opinions. This has had a wide implication in forcing governments and other
organisations to change their policies to please the public at large.
Another notable point is that early on, the primary use of mass communication
was to spread information, but changes led mass communication to be used more
and more for entertainment and business promotion.
Understanding the fundamentals of communication and mass communication
is important for media professionals, as it allows them to effectively convey mes-
sages, engage audiences, and navigate the ever-changing media landscape. Also
enabling them to craft and deliver messages that are clear, concise, and impact-
ful. By understanding the elements of communication such as sender, message,
channel, receiver, and feedback, they can ensure that their intended messages are
effectively transmitted and understood by their target audience.
Notes
1 Turow, J. (2009). Media Today: An Introduction to Mass Communication. New York:
Routledge.
2 McQuail, D. (2010). McQuails Mass Communication Theory. New Delhi: Sage Publication.
3 Ibid.
4 Shannon, C. E. (n.d.). A Mathematical Theory of Communication (pp. 379–423).
Retrieved January 1, 2019, from http://math
.harvard
.edu/
5 Shannon, C. E., Weaver, W. (1998). The Mathematical Theory of Communication.
Illinois: University of Illinois Press.
6 Hollnagel, E., Woods, D. D. (2005). Joint Cognitive Systems: Foundations of
Cognitive Systems Engineering. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
7 Shannon, C. E. (n.d.). A Mathematical Theory of Communication (pp. 379–423).
Retrieved January 1, 2019, from http://math
.harvard
.edu/
8 Ibid.
9 Mortensen, C. D. (2017). Communication Theory. London: Routledge.
10 Carey, J. W. (2009). “A Cultural Approach to Communication.” Communication as
Culture. New York: Routledge.
11 McQuail, D. (2010). McQuails Mass Communication Theory. New Delhi: Sage
Publication, p. 65.
* Friedman, U. (2015, February 13). How an Ad Campaign Invented the Diamond
Engagement Ring. Retrieved from https://www
.theatlantic
.com
/international
/archive
/2015
/02
/how
-an
-ad
-campaign
-invented
-the
-diamond
-engagement
-ring
/385376/
12 McQuail, D. (2010). McQuails Mass Communication Theory. New Delhi: Sage
Publication, pp. 66–67.
13 McQuail, D. (1969). Towards a Sociology of Mass Communications. London:
Collier-Macmillan.

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2.1 Introduction
Our innate ability to be able to communicate complex ideas has been instrumental in
helping us to create not only societies and communities but also advance in almost all
spheres of human life, be they the arts, technology, economy, or sciences.
But going back a little more than a century would find us in a sort of void as
compared to the contemporary world; this void existed for no other reason than
due to the absence of impersonal and perpetual connectivity. The nonexistence of
technologies like the internet, smartphones, and social media limited the speed
and reach of communication and information exchange. Nevertheless, it is vital
to acknowledge that the absence of such hyper-connectivity in the past did not
equate to a lack of connection; it just meant that people had to take some pains to
reach out and connect. Trade, personal relations, arts and culture, and the sciences
were all still flourishing and evolving throughout recorded history. Cultural and
behavioural changes were slow as different identities and ideologies mixed slowly,
and things took time to be adopted or discarded; sometimes even centuries passed.
An example of this slow transmission could be women’s suffrage. In 1893,
New Zealand became the first country to grant women the right to vote, while
Switzerland granted women the right to vote on a federal level as late as 1971.
Then, in less than a century, telecommunications technologies suddenly made
it possible for people to connect across great distances in ways that were not possi-
ble before. While this tremendous boost in connectivity should have been a boon,
and in many cases, it has been, it also brought forward all the negative aspects of
human interaction and went on to multiply them exponentially. The constant bar-
rage of social media, intrusive surveillance, rampant dissemination of falsehoods,
degraded personal connections, overwhelming choices, escalating hostility,
2
MEDIA IN THE CONTEXT OF
PSYCHOLOGY, ETHICS, AND CULTURE
DOI: 10.4324/9781003438861-2

32 Media in the Context of Psychology, Ethics, Culture
diminishing trust, clickbait tactics, and sensationalised trivialities exemplify the
alarming manifestations of this hyper-connected world.
Consequently, society finds itself engulfed in a profound sense of loneliness,
sadness, and fear, despite living in relatively peaceful times. Caught in an inces-
sant pursuit devoid of true meaning, individuals struggle to find respite, their
clarity and focus obscured. With the increasing commodification of people and
relationships, fewer safe harbours exist to truly connect.
This decline is not easily explained, but without a doubt, mass media has been
one of the biggest culprits. Too much investment was put into technology, and too
little effort went into understanding the human element of the process. The ethical
parameters that were first put in place have gradually been sidelined for the sole
purpose of profit.
In an ideal world, the rapid growth of mass communication should have led to
an equally robust society. Mass media should have given its consumers a sort of
freedom while empowering them to make the most informed choices based on
objective and factual information. In this world, media professionals would have
recognised their accountability towards society and individuals, valued the con-
sequences of their work, and implemented safeguards to prevent harm. Their role
would entail holding various entities, organisations, and ideologies accountable,
working towards the greater good of society.
Regrettably,thisidealremainsadistantdream.Toreclaimthetransformativepower
of mass communication, a profound shift is needed—one that prioritises the human
element and reinstates the ethical foundation, transcending the pursuit of profit.
2.2
Facts to Consider
Understanding the distinction between objective facts and subjective truths is
vital in today’s world, where opinions often overshadow facts and personal beliefs
dictate truth. It has become quite common to hear “It is true because I believe so.”
While objective facts rely on empirical evidence, scientific research, or widely
accepted information devoid of personal biases, in contrast, subjective truths are
shaped by personal perspectives and experiences, which vary from person to per-
son or culture to culture.
As an example, if at sea level plain water boils at 100 degrees Celsius, then it
will do so for everyone, but how hot a person will feel when the weather is at 35
degrees Celsius is subjective and can vary from person to person depending upon
their heat tolerance, health, and other factors. Even the same person may experi-
ence different levels of heat on different days at the same temperature. This is
why, for one person, it is cold at 20 degrees Celsius and for the other, it is pleasant.
Similarly, in a dispute, both parties believe their stance is vindicated.
While objective facts provide accurate information, they may fail to capture
the complexities of real-world manifestations. Conversely, relying solely on

Media in the Context of Psychology, Ethics, Culture 33
subjective facts leaves room for interpretation, blurring the lines between truth
and falsehood. The complexity lies in striking a balance between logical conclu-
sions drawn from empirical facts and acknowledging the individual experiences
and biases inherent in subjective truths.
Let us look at two examples: democracy and the cases of Bhagat Singh,
Sukhdev, and Rajguru in the Indian freedom struggle.
Democracy is celebrated as a fair form of governance. While objectively, major-
ity rule reflects the people’s mandate, it can lead to an imbalance of power, with the
elected party potentially marginalising minority groups or dissenting voices.
In the case of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru, they were put to death
because, in order to avenge the killing of Lala Lajpat Rai, the three planned the
assassination of Superintendent of Police James Scott in Lahore. James Scott
was the one who ordered the lathi charge that resulted in Lala Lajpat Rai’s death.
However, on 17 December 1928, they accidentally killed Assistant Superintendent
of Police John Saunders.
Subjective interpretations of their actions and motives vary greatly. To the
Indians, these were the embodiments of bravery—patriots who gave their lives to
liberate their homeland from an oppressive colonial tyranny. They are revered as
martyrs and heroes, and the youth look up to them. On the other hand, there is a
very different narrative that portrays their actions as aggressive and terroristic. To
the British colonisers, they were terrorists who had to be given the most extreme
punishment for their crimes.
These examples exemplify the complexities of dealing with objective truths and
their subjective interpretations. Understanding this distinction is crucial for media
professionals to navigate the information landscape and convey reliable information
while respecting diverse perspectives. Objective facts provide a shared framework
of evidence-based knowledge, while subjective truths shape individual experiences
and viewpoints. By comprehending this differentiation, media professionals can make
informed decisions about the content they deliver, ensuring ethical and responsible
practises that promote growth and understanding.
Further ahead in this chapter, we will try to understand the equations between
media, ethics, psychology, and culture, as well as the importance of self-regula-
tion. But first, let us gain insights into the extensive reach and influence of mass
media, particularly in the realm of radio. To do this, we will explore both numeric
data, which will provide us with quantitative insights into the financial scale of
media, and real-life examples that will furnish tangible evidence of radio’s power
and potential as a mass medium.
2.2.1 Numerical Facts
According to the DataReportal January 2023 global overview, the following sta-
tistics are provided under the heading Essential Digital Headlines (Overview of
the Adoption and Use of Connected Devices and Services) (Kemp, 2023):

• The total population of the world is 8.01 billion, with 4.58 billion or 57.2% of
those living in urban areas.
• 5.44 billion or 68% of the world’s population are unique mobile phone users.
• 64.4% or 5.16 billion people use the internet.
• Social media users comprise 4.76 billion people or 59.4% of the population.
Further intriguing information can be found in the paper titled “Overview of
Internet Usage (Essential Indicators of Internet Adoption and Use)”:
• While only 45.8% of people in rural areas utilise the internet, 78.3% of those
in metropolitan areas do.
• Internet usage is prevalent, with 61.6% of females and 67.2% of males.
• Using it daily for an astounding 6 hours and 37 minutes.
As far as television is concerned, according to Statista, there were 5.4 billion tel-
evision watchers in the world as of 2022 (Stoll, 2022) which is virtually the same
number as mobile phone users. The average American watches 141 hours of televi-
sion every month, or over 4 hours per day, and about 80% of them do it every day
(Lake, 2023). While in India, according to CII, the average daily time spent on TV
in 2022 was 3 hours and 34 minutes and in 2020 TV penetration was 70%, which
is supposed to grow to 76% by 2026 (The Television Segment in India—Still a
Goliath! 22).
Now let us take a look at the radio:
On the occasion of World Radio Day on 13 February 2023, the Pew Research
Center released a study about Americans’ radio listening patterns: In 2020 in
a given week, 83% of Americans aged 12 years and over listened to terrestrial
radio, which was lower than the 89% pre-pandemic level in 2019 and almost
47% of adults said they at least occasionally acquire their news from radio
(Forman-Katz, 2023).
It is important to note that the coronavirus pandemic played a significant role in
the decline in the number of radio listeners in 2020. Because most people were
staying indoors and doing a lot of their work from home, there was a significant
decline in out-of-home listenership. By 2021, the percentage had nearly reached
the 2019 level, with 88% of Americans listening to the radio on a weekly basis
(Radio Statistics in 2023 (Listening Advertising), 2022).
In India, according to the report by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
(TRAI) titled “Indian Telecom Services Performance Indicators for the Quarter
Ending September 2022,” there are 388 operational private FM Radio channels in
113 cities operated by 36 private FM Radio operators, as of 30 September 2022.
Additionally, as of the same date, there are 374 operational Community Radio

stations in India.1
Furthermore, according to a report by AZ Research, 33% of
listeners in Tier II and Tier III markets in India prefer radio as compared to other
mediums.2
A Statista report shows that daily radio consumption in India has been
consistently high, with an average of 119 minutes per day in 2021.3
As per a report
by exchange4media, the Indian radio industry is expected to grow significantly in
2023, with players investing in new technologies and innovative content to capture
the growing demand for audio content.4
In South America, the listenership of radio has experienced a decline in growth
again following the pandemic, yet it remains considerably high. For instance,
during the second quarter of 2022, in Brazil, the average radio listener spent 3
hours and 58 minutes tuning in, which is a decrease from 4 hours and 26 minutes
recorded in the previous year.5
The scenario greatly changes when we consider places in Africa, where even
“developed and media-savvy countries like South Africa, more than 90 percent of
people listen to the radio,” reports DW.6
Money Involved
According to PwC’s Outlook Perspectives Report (2021), after the contraction in
2020, the entertainment and media industry resumed its growth path with a strong
revenue increase of 10.4% in 2021. In 2022, the total revenue was US$2.32 tril-
lion. PwC in its report forecasts that by 2026, the global entertainment and media
industry will approach US$3 trillion in revenues.7
The report emphasises that the
entertainment and media complex is growing at a faster pace than the global econ-
omy as a whole, with an increasing number of people worldwide spending more
time, attention, and money on the immersive entertainment and media experi-
ences available to them.8
2.2.2
Facts from Annals of History
We cannot fully grasp the impact of radio or mass media on society by solely exam-
ining statistics or numbers. To truly understand their significance, we must delve
into the accounts of history and immerse ourselves in the lessons they provide.
So, here are three fine examples, which unequivocally demonstrate the impact
that radio can create.
2.2.2.1
Example 1: The Devil’s Broadcast
One of the worst yet profound examples of the power of radio can be found in the
story of Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM). The RTLM station
hardly lived for a year between July 1993 and July 1994, in Rwanda, but within
its short life, it used hate speech and propaganda to dehumanise and demonise the
Tutsi population, spreading messages of Hutu’s ethnic superiority and promoting
violence against the Tutsi and liberal Hutus. Its broadcast would often refer to
the Tutsis as cockroaches to strip them of their humanity. The radio station had a

wide reach thanks to the support of the government and was able to mobilise large
crowds, contributing to the organisation and execution of the genocide.
The RTLM, which ironically means “Free Radio and Television of the
Thousand Hills,” instead of living up to its name and fostering freedom and bon-
homie, fueled hatred and did all to curb the rights of the minorities.
Although, the reason often quoted for the genocide was “the assassination of
Hutu President Habyarimana on April 6, 1994,”9
it is rather a simplistic explana-
tion. The atmosphere which created monsters out of the common people, who
went on a rampage killing, raping, and looting, started much earlier between the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries. According to the UN’s report,10
Rwanda, then
called Ruanda-Urundi, came under Germany’s control in 1884 and then passed
into Belgium’s control on 20 October 1924. Both the colonisers continued to main-
tain the status quo as far as the hierarchy was concerned but they went on to
reinforce social divisions along ethnic lines. Ruanda-Urundi’s population breakup
comprised 14% Tutsis (cattle herders, soldiers, and officials), 85% Hutus (farm-
ers), and 1% Twa (hunter-gatherers, potters). Hutus and Tutsis lived in relative
harmony and moved across social lines depending upon fortune, and intergroup
marriages too happened. However, the introduction of identity cards that distin-
guished between Hutus, Tutsis, and Twa exacerbated the divisions and created a
sense of unequal treatment and set the stage for later conflicts.
If you want to read about the genocide you can refer to the UN website: https://
www
.un
.org
/en
/preventgenocide
/rwanda
/historical
-background
.shtml
Although the onus of the genocide cannot be fully attributed to the RTLM,
nevertheless it was one of the most potent weapons of misinformation and propa-
ganda. Its role has been severely scrutinised and RTLM was indeed guilty of shap-
ing public opinion to a high degree.
The case of RTLM is a grim reminder of the power that media holds in shap-
ing public opinion and the devastating consequences when that power is used
maliciously and irresponsibly. It is why time and again human rights and other
organisations call for ethics to be prioritised over business in media. Responsible
journalism not only promotes social cohesion but also creates an atmosphere of
growth and mental prosperity.
2.2.2.2
Example 2: Farmer’s Delight—Farm Radio International
While the case of RTLM highlights the potential dangers of using mass media for
nefarious reasons, the next two examples showcase how radio can bring trans-
formative positive changes in the communities.
One fine example is that of Farm Radio International (FRI), which demon-
strates the capability of radio to surpass boundaries, connect communities, and
serve as a powerful medium to enhance collective welfare.
FRI is a non-profit organisation based in Canada that has been cooperating with
local radio stations in Sub-Saharan Africa to support local farming communities

by utilising radio’s reach. It helps local radio stations broadcast interactive infor-
mational and educational programmes to promote sustainable farming practices.
It disseminates critical information on farming techniques, market trends, weather
updates, and related technology improvements. To maximise impact, FRI tailors
its information to the local context by adopting the local language and adhering to
cultural norms. The localisation of material increases its reach by making it more
accessible and connectable.
Through its efforts, FRI has successfully assisted farmers in making educated
decisions, adopting better agricultural methods, and enhancing their food security
by utilising the power of radio. These radio programmes also promote a sense of
community and cooperation among farmers by facilitating knowledge exchange
and peer-to-peer learning. Currently, FRI is associated with almost 780 radio sta-
tions in approximately 40 countries in the region.
To give a little background information—FRI’s story started when John Atkins,
a Canadian broadcaster, while travelling through rural Zambia as a part of a work-
shop in 1975 noticed the disconnect between local broadcasts and the needs of the
masses. On this trip, he was interviewing local farmers about the radio shows they
listened to, and during one such interaction, he ended up meeting a broadcaster
from Sierra Leone whose programme was focused on maintaining spark plugs on
tractors. John Atkins felt it odd as the number of tractors in Sierra Leone was too
low and farmers essentially used oxen in farming. Realising that the local broad-
casts were not in sync with the needs of the masses, Atkins resolved to improve
the situation. After 4 years of preparation, Atkins and his family launched the
Developing Countries Farm Radio Network on 1 May 1979. The organisation
mailed scripts and tapes to 34 broadcasters in 26 countries.11
The strategy used by FRI shows how radio can be used as an effective tool for
empowerment and development in marginalised communities.
2.2.2.3
Example 3: Cultural Crusader12
Radio Sutatenza of Colombia is another incredibly inspiring example that show-
cases the power of radio in driving cultural change and in combating social issues.
Radio Sutatenza was founded by an amateur radio operator and Catholic priest
named José Joaquin Salcedo Guarin in the town of Sutatenza.
Father Salcedo wanted to do something about the rampant illiteracy in rural
Colombia, and he recognised the untapped potential of radio to tackle this issue.
Starting small in 1947, Father Salcedo began experimental transmissions, which
led to the establishment of Radio Sutatenza in the town of Sutatenza with the call
letters HK7HM. After passing transmission testing and obtaining a temporary broad-
casting licence from Colombia’s Ministry of Communications, the station broadcast
its first cultural programme on 16 October 1947, featuring the music of local farmers
via a meagre 90-watt transmitter. The station quickly gained popularity, leading to its
ceremonial inauguration in the presence of Colombia’s President in 1948.

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the artificial duck, which he regarded as the most ingenious, was still
able to eat, drink, and move. Its ribs, which were made of wire,
were covered with duck’s feathers, and the motion was
communicated through the feet of the duck by means of a cylinder
and fine chains like that of a watch.
Fig. 66.
Fig. 67.

Ingenious as all these machines are, they sink into insignificance
when compared with the automaton chess-player, which for a long
time astonished and delighted the whole of Europe. In the year
1769, M. Kempelen, a gentleman of Presburg in Hungary,
constructed an automaton chess-player, the general appearance of
which is shown in the annexed figures. The chess-player is a figure
as large as life, clothed in a Turkish dress, sitting behind a large
square chest or box, three feet and a half long, two feet deep, and
two and a half high. The machine runs on castors, and is either seen
on the floor when the doors of the apartment are thrown open, or is
wheeled into the room previously to the commencement of the
exhibition. The Turkish chess-player sits on a chair fixed to the
square chest: his right arm rests on the table, and in the left he
holds a pipe, which is removed during the game, as it is with this
hand that he makes the moves. A chess-board, eighteen inches
square, and bearing the usual number of pieces, is placed before the
figure. The exhibitor then announces to the spectators his intention
of showing them the mechanism of the automaton. For this purpose

he unlocks the door A, Fig. 66, and exposes to view a small
cupboard lined with black or dark-coloured cloth, and containing
cylinders, levers, wheels, pinions, and different pieces of machinery,
which have the appearance of occupying the whole space. He next
opens the door B, Fig. 67, at the back of the same cupboard, and
holding a lighted candle at the opening, he still further displays the
inclosed machinery to the spectators, placed in front of A, Fig. 66.
When the candle is withdrawn, the door B is then locked; and the
exhibitor proceeds to open the drawer G G, Fig. 66, in front of the
chest. Out of this drawer he takes a small box of counters, a set of
chess-men, and a cushion for the support of the automaton’s arm,
as if this was the sole object of the drawer. The two front doors C C,
of the large cupboard, Fig. 66, are then opened, and at the back-
door D of the same cupboard, Fig. 67, the exhibitor applies a lighted
candle, as before, for the purpose of showing its interior, which is
lined with dark cloth like the other, and contains only a few pieces of
machinery. The chest is now wheeled round, as in Fig. 67: the
garments of the figure are lifted up, and the door E in the trunk, and
another door F in the thigh, are opened, the doors B and D having
been previously closed. When this exhibition of the interior of the
machine is over, the chest is wheeled back into its original position
on the floor. The doors A, C, C, in front, and the drawer G, G, are
closed and locked, and the exhibitor, after occupying himself for
some time at the back of the chest, as if he were adjusting the
mechanism, removes the pipe from the hand of the figure, and
winds up the machinery.
The automaton is now ready to play, and when an opponent has
been found among the company, the figure takes the first move. At
every move made by the automaton, the wheels of the machine are
heard in action; the figure moves its head, and seems to look over
every part of the chess-board. When it gives check to its opponent,
it shakes its head thrice, and only twice when it checks the queen. It
likewise shakes its head when a false move is made, replaces the
adversary’s piece on the square from which it was taken, and takes

the next move itself. In general, though not always, the automaton
wins the game.
During the progress of the game, the exhibitor often stands near the
machine, and winds it up like a clock, after it has made ten or twelve
moves. At other times he went to a corner of the room, as if it were
to consult a small square box, which stood open for this purpose.
The chess-playing machine, as thus described, was exhibited after
its completion in Presburg, Vienna, and Paris, to thousands, and in
1783 and 1784 it was exhibited in London and different parts of
England, without the secret of its movements having been
discovered. Its ingenious inventor, who was a gentleman and a man
of education, never pretended that the automaton itself really played
the game. On the contrary, he distinctly stated, “that the machine
was a bagatelle, which was not without merit in point of mechanism,
but that the effects of it appeared so marvellous only from the
boldness of the conception, and the fortunate choice of the methods
adopted for promoting the illusion.”
Upon considering the operations of this automaton, it must have
been obvious that the game of chess was performed either by a
person enclosed in the chest, or by the exhibitor himself. The first of
these hypotheses was ingeniously excluded by the display of the
interior of the machine, for as every part contained more or less
machinery, the spectator invariably concluded that the smallest
dwarf could not be accommodated within, and this idea was
strengthened by the circumstance, that no person of this description
could be discovered in the suite of the exhibitor. Hence the
conclusion was drawn, that the exhibitor actuated the machine
either by mechanical means conveyed through its feet, or by a
magnet concealed in the body of the exhibitor. That mechanical
communication was not formed between the exhibitor and the
figure, was obvious from the fact, that no such communication was
visible, and that it was not necessary to place the machine on any
particular part of the floor. Hence the opinion became very prevalent
that the agent was a magnet; but even this supposition was

excluded, for the exhibitor allowed a strong and well-armed
loadstone to be placed upon the machine during the progress of the
game. Had the moving power been a magnet, the whole action of
the machine would have been deranged by the approximation of a
loadstone concealed in the pockets of any of the spectators.
As Baron Kempelen himself had admitted that there was an illusion
connected with the performance of the automaton, various persons
resumed the original conjecture, that it was actuated by a person
concealed in its interior, who either played the game of chess
himself, or performed the moves which the exhibitor indicated by
signals. A Mr. J. F. Freyhere, of Dresden, published a book on the
subject in 1789, in which he endeavoured to explain, by coloured
plates, how the effect was produced; and he concluded, “that a well-
taught boy very thin and tall of his age (sufficiently so that he could
be concealed in a drawer almost immediately under the chess-
board), agitated the whole.”
In another pamphlet, which had been previously published at Paris
in 1785, the author not only supposed that the machine was put in
motion by a dwarf, a famous chess-player; but he goes so far as to
explain the manner in which he could be accommodated within the
machine. The invisibility of the dwarf when the doors were opened
was explained by his legs and thighs being concealed in two hollow
cylinders, while the rest of his body was out of the box, and hid by
the petticoats of the automaton. When the doors were shut, the
clacks produced by the swivel of a ratchet-wheel permitted the dwarf
to change his place, and return to the box unheard; and while the
machine is wheeled about the room, the dwarf had an opportunity of
shutting the trap through which he passed into the machine. The
interior of the figure was next shown, and the spectators were
satisfied that the box contained no living agent.
Although these views were very plausible, yet they were never
generally adopted; and when the automaton was exhibited in Great
Britain in 1819 and 1820, by M. Maelzel, it excited as intense an
interest as when it was first produced in Germany. There can be little

doubt, however, that the secret has been discovered; and an
anonymous writer has shown in a pamphlet, entitled “An attempt to
analyse the Automaton Chess-player of M. Kempelen,” that it is
capable of accommodating an ordinary sized man; and he has
explained in the clearest manner how the inclosed player takes all
the different positions, and performs all the motions which are
necessary to produce the effects actually observed. The following is
the substance of his observations:—The drawer G G when closed
does not extend to the back of the chest, but leaves a space O,
behind it (see Figs. 74, 75, and 76), fourteen inches broad, eight
inches high, and three feet eleven inches long. This space is never
exposed to the view of spectators. The small cupboard seen at A is
divided into two parts, by a door or screen I, Fig. 73, which is
moveable upon a hinge, and is so constructed that it closes at the
same instant that B is closed. The whole of the front compartment
as far as I is occupied with the machinery H. The other compartment
behind I is empty, and communicates with the space O behind the
drawer, the floor of this division being removed. The back of the
great cupboard C C is double, and the part P Q, to which the
quadrants are attached, moves on a joint Q, at the upper part, and
forms when raised an opening S, between the two cupboards, by
carrying with it part of the partition R, which consists of cloth tightly
stretched. The false back is shown closed in Fig. 74, while Fig. 75
shows the same back raised, so as to form the opening S between
the chambers.
When the spectator is allowed to look into the trunk of the figure by
lifting up the dress, as in Fig. 75, it will be observed that a great part
of the space is occupied by an inner trunk N, Figs. 75, 76, which
passes off to the back in the form of an arch, and conceals from the
spectators a portion of the interior. This inner trunk N opens and
communicates with the chest by an aperture T, Fig. 77, about twelve
inches broad and fifteen high. When the false back is raised, the two
cupboards, the trunk N, and the space O behind the drawer, are all
connected together.

No. 68.
No. 69.
The construction of the interior being thus understood, the chess-
player may be introduced into the chest through the sliding panel U,
Fig. 74. He will then raise the false back of the large cupboard, and
assume the position represented by the shaded figure in Figs. 68

and 69. Things being in this state, the exhibitor is ready to begin his
process of deception. He first opens the door A of the small
cupboard, and from the crowded and very ingenious disposition of
the machinery within it, the eye is unable to penetrate far beyond
the opening, and the spectator concludes, without any hesitation,
that the whole of the cupboard is filled, as it appears to be, with
similar machinery. This false conclusion is greatly corroborated by
observing the glimmering light which plays among the wheel-work
when the door B is opened, and a candle held at the opening. This
mode of exhibiting the interior of the cupboard satisfies the
spectator also, that no opaque body, capable of holding or
concealing any of the parts of a hidden agent, is interposed between
the light and the observer. The door B is now locked and the screen
I closed, and as this is done at the time that the light is withdrawn,
it will wholly escape observation.
The door B is so constructed as to close by its own weight, but as
the head of the chess-player will soon be placed very near it, the
secret would be disclosed if, in turning round, the chest door should
by any accident fly open. This accident is prevented by turning the
key, and, lest this little circumstance should excite notice, it would
probably be regarded as accidental, as the keys were immediately
wanted for the other locks.
As soon as the door B is locked, and the screen I closed, the secret
is no longer exposed to hazard, and the exhibitor proceeds to lead
the minds of the spectators still farther from the real state of things.
The door A is left open to confirm the opinion that no person is
concealed within, and that nothing can take place in the interior
without being observed.
Fig. 70.

The drawer GG is now opened, apparently for the purpose of looking
at the chess-men, cushion, and counters, which it contains; but the
real object of it is to give time to the player to change his position,
as shown in the annexed figure, and to replace the false back and
partition preparatory to the opening of the great cupboard. The
chess-player, as the figure shows, occupies with his body the back
compartment of the small cupboard, while his legs and thighs are
contained in the space O, behind the drawer GG, his body being
concealed by the screen I, and his limbs by the drawer GG.
The great cupboard CC is now opened, and there is so little
machinery in it, that the eye instantly discovers that no person is
concealed in it. To make this more certain, however, a door is
opened at the back, and a lighted candle held to it, to allow the
spectators to explore every corner and recess.
The front doors of the great and small cupboard being left open, the
chest is wheeled round to show the trunk of the figure, and the
bunch of keys is allowed to remain in the door D, as the apparent
carelessness of such a proceeding will help to remove any suspicion
which may have been excited by the locking of the door B.
When the drapery of the figure has been raised, and the doors E and
F in the trunk and thigh opened, the chest is wheeled round again
into its original position, and the doors E and F closed. In the mean

time the player withdraws his legs from behind the drawer, as he
cannot so easily do this when the drawer GG is pushed in.
In all these operations, the spectator flatters himself that he has
seen in succession every part of the chest, while in reality some
parts have been wholly concealed from his view, and others but
imperfectly shown, while at the present time nearly half of the chest
is excluded from view.
No. 71.
No. 72.

When the drawer G G is pushed in, and the doors A and C closed,
the exhibitor adjusts the machinery at the back, in order to give time
to the player to take the position shown in a front view in Fig. 71,
and in profile in Fig. 72. In this position he will experience no
difficulty in executing every movement made by the automaton. As
his head is above the chess-board, he will see through the waistcoat
of the figure, as easily as through a veil, the whole of the pieces on
the board, and he can easily take up and put down a chess-man
without any other mechanism than that of a string communicating
with the finger of the figure. His right hand, being within the chest,
may be employed to keep in motion the wheel-work for producing
the noise which is heard during the moves, and to perform the other
movements of the figure, such as that of moving the head, tapping
on the chest, c.
A very ingenious contrivance is adopted to facilitate the introduction
of the player’s left arm into the arm of the figure. To permit this, the
arm of the figure requires to be drawn backwards; and for the
purpose of concealing, and at the same time explaining this strained
attitude, a pipe is ingeniously placed in the automaton’s hand. For
this reason the pipe is not removed till all the other arrangements
are completed. When every thing has been thus prepared, the pipe
is taken from the figure, and the exhibitor winds up, as it were, the
inclosed machinery, for the double purpose of impressing upon the
company the belief that the effect is produced by machinery, and of
giving a signal to the player to put in motion the head of the
automaton.
Fig. 73.

Fig. 74.
This ingenious explanation of the chess automaton is, our author
states, greatly confirmed by the regular and undeviating mode of
disclosing the interior of the chest; and he also shows that the facts
which have been observed respecting the winding up of the
machine, “afford positive proof that the axis turned by the key is
quite free and unconnected either with a spring or weight, or any
system of machinery.”
In order to make the preceding description more intelligible, I shall
add the following more detailed explanation of the figures.
Fig. 66 is a perspective view of the automaton seen in front with all
the doors thrown open.

Fig. 67 is an elevation of the automaton, as seen from behind.
Fig. 68 is an elevation of the front of the chest, the shaded figure
representing the inclosed player in his first position, or when the
door A is opened.
Fig. 69 is a side elevation, the shaded figure representing the player
in the same position.
Fig. 70 is a front elevation, the shaded figure showing the player in
his second position, or that which he takes after the door B and
screen I are closed, and the great cupboard opened.
Fig. 71 is a front elevation, the shaded figure showing the player in
his third position, or that in which he plays the game.
Fig. 72 is a side elevation showing the figure in the same position.
Fig. 73 is a horizontal section of the chest through the line WW in
Fig. 71.
Fig. 74 is a vertical section of the chest through the line XX in Fig.
73.
Fig. 75.
Fig. 76.

Fig. 75 is a vertical section through the line YY Fig. 71, showing the
false back closed.
Fig. 76 is a similar vertical section showing the false back raised.
The following letters of reference are employed in all the figures:—
A. Front door of the small cupboard.
B. Back door of ditto.
C C. Front doors of large cupboard.
D. Back door of ditto.
E. Door of ditto.
F. Door of the thigh.
G G. The drawer.
H. Machinery in front of the small cupboard.
I. Screen behind the machinery.
K. Opening caused by the removal of part of the floor of the small
cupboard.

L. A box which serves to conceal an opening in the floor of the large
cupboard, made to facilitate the first position; and which also serves
as a seat for the third position.
M. A similar box to receive the toes of the player in the first position.
N. The inner chest filling up part of the trunk.
O. The space behind the drawer.
P Q. The false back turning on a joint at Q.
R. Part of the partition formed of cloth stretched tight, which is
carried up by the false back to form the opening between the
chambers.
S. The opening between the chambers.
T. The opening connecting the trunk and chest, which is partly
concealed by the false back.
U. Panel which is slipt aside to admit the player.
Various pieces of mechanism of wonderful ingenuity have been
constructed for the purposes of drawing and writing. One of these,
invented by M. Le Droz, the son of the celebrated Droz of Chaux le
Fonds, has been described by Mr. Collinson. The figure was the size
of life. It held in its hand a metallic style, and when a spring was
touched, so as to release a detent, the figure immediately began to
draw upon a card of Dutch vellum previously laid under its hand.
After the drawing was executed on the first card, the figure rested.
Other five cards were then put in, in succession, and upon these it
delineated in the same manner different subjects. On the first card it
drew “elegant portraits and likenesses of the king and queen facing
each other;” and Mr. Collinson remarks, that it was curious to
observe with what precision the figure lifted up its pencil in its

transition from one point of the drawing to another, without making
the slightest mistake.
M. Maillardet has executed an automaton which both writes and
draws. The figure of a boy kneeling on one knee holds a pencil in his
hand. When the figure begins to work, an attendant dips the pencil
in ink, and adjusts the drawing-paper upon a brass tablet. Upon
touching a spring, the figure proceeds to write, and when the line is
finished, its hand returns to dot and stroke the letters when
necessary. In this manner it executes four beautiful pieces of writing
in French and English, and three landscapes, all of which occupy
about one hour.
One of the most popular pieces of mechanism which we have seen is
the magician constructed by M. Maillardet for the purpose of
answering certain given questions. A figure dressed like a magician
appears seated at the bottom of a wall, holding a wand in one hand,
and a book in the other. A number of questions ready prepared are
inscribed on oval medallions, and the spectator takes any of these
which he chooses, and to which he wishes an answer, and having
placed it in a drawer ready to receive it, the drawer shuts with a
spring till the answer is returned. The magician then rises from his
seat, bows his head, describes circles with his wand, and, consulting
the book as if in deep thought, he lifts it towards his face. Having
thus appeared to ponder over the proposed question, he raises his
wand, and striking with it the wall above his head, two folding-doors
fly open, and display an appropriate answer to the question. The
doors again close, the magician resumes his original position, and
the drawer opens to return the medallion. There are twenty of these
medallions, all containing different questions, to which the magician
returns the most suitable and striking answers. The medallions are
thin plates of brass of an elliptical form, exactly resembling each
other. Some of the medallions have a question inscribed on each
side, both of which the magician answers in succession. If the
drawer is shut without a medallion being put into it, or if a blank
medallion, viz., one which contains no question, is put into the

drawer, the magician rises, consults his book, shakes his head, and
resumes his seat. The folding-doors remain shut, and the drawer is
returned empty. If two medallions are put into the drawer together,
an answer is returned only to the lower one. When the machinery is
wound up, the movements continue about an hour, during which
time about fifty questions may be answered. The method by which
the different medallions acted upon the machinery, so as to produce
the proper answers to the questions which they bore, was of course
kept a secret by the inventor, but it was discovered by Mr.
Brockedon, who has kindly communicated to me an account of it.
Upon examining the edge of the circular medallions, Mr. Brockedon
discovered in all of them, except the blanks, a small hole almost
concealed by the milling. This led Mr. Brockedon to examine the
receptacle for the medallion in the drawer, and he observed the edge
of a pin flush with the edge of the receptacle, whence the pin was
protruded by the machine into the holes in the medallion, the depth
of the hole regulating the answer. In order to prove this, Mr. B. cut a
slip from a cedar pencil small enough to enter easily the holes in the
medallion, if he found them to be of different depths. As the blank
medallions had no hole, and produced only a shake of the magician’s
head, Mr. B. took a medallion with a question, and having plugged
the hole with a bit of cedar, he cut it flush, and having placed it in
the receptacle, the conjuror shook his head, and thus bore testimony
to the truth of Mr. Brockedon’s discovery.
M. Maillardet has constructed various other automata, representing
insects and other animals. One of these was a spider entirely made
of steel, which exhibited all the movements of the animal. It ran on
the surface of a table during three minutes, and to prevent it from
running off, its course always tended towards the centre of the
table. He constructed likewise a caterpillar, a lizard, a mouse, and a
serpent. The serpent crawls about in every direction, opens its
mouth, hisses, and darts out its tongue.
Ingenious and beautiful as all these pieces of mechanism are, and
surprising as their effects appear even to scientific spectators, the

principal object of their inventors was to astonish and amuse the
public. We should form an erroneous judgment, however, if we
suppose that this was the only result of the ingenuity which they
displayed. The passion for automatic exhibitions, which characterized
the 18th century, gave rise to the most ingenious mechanical
devices, and introduced among the higher orders of artists habits of
nice and accurate execution in the formation of the most delicate
pieces of machinery. The same combination of the mechanical
powers which made the spider crawl, or which waved the tiny rod of
the magician, contributed in future years to purposes of higher
import. Those wheels and pinions, which almost eluded our senses
by their minuteness, re-appeared in the stupendous mechanism of
our spinning-machines and our steam-engines. The elements of the
tumbling-puppet were revived in the chronometer, which now
conducts our navy through the ocean; and the shapeless wheel
which directed the hand of the drawing automaton has served, in
the present age, to guide the movements of the tambouring engine.
Those mechanical wonders, which in one century enriched only the
conjuror who used them, contributed in another to augment the
wealth of the nation; and those automatic toys, which once amused
the vulgar, are now employed in extending the power and promoting
the civilization of our species. In whatever way, indeed, the power of
genius may invent or combine, and to whatever low or even
ludicrous purposes that invention or combination may be originally
applied, society receives a gift which it can never lose; and though
the value of the seed may not be at once recognized, and though it
may lie long unproductive in the ungenial till of human knowledge, it
will some time or other evolve its germ, and yield to mankind its
natural and abundant harvest.
Did the limits of so popular a volume as this ought to be permit it, I
should have proceeded to give a general description of some of
these extraordinary pieces of machinery, the construction and effects
of which never fail to strike the spectator with surprise. This,
however, would lead me into a field too extensive, and I shall
therefore confine myself to a notice of three very remarkable pieces

of mechanism which are at present very little known to the general
reader, viz., the tambouring machine of Mr. Duncan, the statue-
turning machine of Mr. Watt, and the calculating machinery of Mr.
Babbage.
The tambouring of muslins, or the art of producing upon them
ornamental flowers and figures, has been long known and practised
in Britain as well as in other countries; but it was not long before the
year 1790, that it became an object of general manufacture in the
west of Scotland, where it was chiefly carried on. At first it was
under the direction of foreigners; but their aid was not long
necessary, and it speedily extended to such a degree as to occupy,
either wholly or partially, more than 20,000 females. Many of these
labourers lived in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, which was the
chief seat of the manufacture; but others were scattered through
every part of Scotland, and supplied by agents with work and
money. In Glasgow, a tambourer of ordinary skill could not in
general earn more than five or six shillings a week by constant
application; but to a labouring artisan, who had several daughters,
even these low wages formed a source of great wealth. At the age
of five years, a child capable of handling a needle was devoted to
tambouring, even though it could not earn more than a shilling or
two in a week; and the consequence of this was, that female
children were taken from school, and rendered totally unfit for any
social or domestic duty. The tambouring population, was, therefore,
of the worst kind, and it must have been regarded as a blessing
rather than as a calamity, when the work which they performed was
entrusted to regular machinery.
Mr. John Duncan of Glasgow, the inventor of the tambouring
machinery, was one of those unfortunate individuals who benefit
their species without benefiting themselves, and who died in the
meridian of life, the victim of poverty and of national ingratitude. He
conceived the idea of bringing into action a great number of needles
at the same time, in order to shorten the process by manual labour;
but he at first was perplexed about the diversification of the pattern.

This difficulty, however, he soon surmounted by employing two
forces at right angles to each other, which gave him a new force in
the direction of the diagonal of the parallelogram, whose sides were
formed by the original forces. His first machine was very imperfect;
but after two years’ study, he formed a company, at whose expense
six improved machines were put in action, and who secured the
invention by a patent. At this time the idea of rendering the machine
automatic had scarcely occurred to him; but he afterwards
succeeded in accomplishing this great object, and the tambouring
machines were placed under the surveillance of a steam-engine.
Another patent was taken for these improvements. The reader who
desires to have a minute account of these improvements, and of the
various parts of the machinery, will be amply gratified by perusing
the inventor’s own account of the machinery in the article Chainwork
in the Edinburgh Encyclopædia. At present it will be sufficient to
state, that the muslin to be tamboured was suspended vertically in a
frame, which was capable of being moved both in a vertical and a
horizontal direction. Sixty or more needles lying horizontally
occupied a frame in front of the muslin web. Each of these working
needles, as they are called, was attended by a feeding-needle,
which, by a circular motion round the working-needle, lodged upon
the stem of the latter the loop of the thread. The sixty needles then
penetrated the web, and, in order that they might return again
without injuring the fabric, the barb or eye of the needle, which
resembled the barb of a fishing-hook, was shut by a slider. The
muslin web then took a new position by means of the machinery
that gave it its horizontal and vertical motion, so that the sixty
needles penetrated it, at their next movement, at another point of
the figure or flower. This operation went on till sixty flowers were
completed. The web was then slightly wound up, that the needles
might be opposite that part of it on which they were to work another
row of flowers.
The flowers were generally at an inch distance, and the rows were
placed so that the flowers formed what are called diamonds. There
were seventy-two rows of flowers in a yard, so that in every square

yard there were nearly 4000 flowers, and in every piece of ten yards
long 40,000. The number of loops or stitches in a flower varied with
the pattern, but on an average there were about thirty. Hence the
number of stitches in a yard were 120,000, and the number in a
piece is 1,200,000. The average work done in a week by one
machine was fifteen yards, or 60,000 flowers, or 1,800,000 stitches;
and by comparing this with the work done by one person with the
hand, it appeared that the machine enabled one person to do the
work of twenty-four persons.
One of the most curious and important applications of machinery to
the arts which has been suggested in modern times, was made by
the late Mr. Watt, in the construction of a machine for copying or
reducing statues and sculpture of all kinds. The art of multiplying
busts and statues, by casts in plaster of Paris, has been the means
of diffusing a knowledge of this branch of the fine arts; but from the
fragile nature of the material, the copies thus produced were unfit
for exposure to the weather, and therefore ill calculated for
ornamenting public buildings, or for perpetuating the memory of
public achievements. A machine, therefore, which is capable of
multiplying the labours of the sculptor in the durable materials of
marble or of brass was a desideratum of the highest value, and one
which could have been expected only from a genius of the first
order. During many years Mr. Watt carried on his labours in secret,
and he concealed even his intention of constructing such a machine.
After he had made considerable progress in its execution, and had
thought of securing his invention by a patent, he learned that an
ingenious individual in his own neighbourhood had been long
occupied in the same pursuit; and Mr. Watt informed me that he had
every reason to believe that this gentleman was entirely ignorant of
his labours. A proposal was then made that the two inventors should
combine their talents, and secure the privilege by a joint patent; but
Mr. Watt had experienced so frequently the fatal operation of our
patent laws, that he saw many difficulties in the way of such an
arrangement, and he was unwilling, at his advanced age, to embark
in a project so extensive, and which seemed to require for its

successful prosecution all the ardour and ambition of a youthful
mind. The scheme was therefore abandoned; and such is the
unfortunate operation of our patent laws, that the circumstance of
two individuals having made the same invention has prevented both
from bringing it to perfection, and conferring a great practical benefit
upon their species. The machine which Mr. Watt had constructed had
actually executed some excellent pieces of work. I have seen in his
house at Heathfield copies of basso-relievos, and complete statues
of a small size; and some of his friends have in their possession
other specimens of its performance.
Of all the machines which have been constructed in modern times,
the calculating-machine is doubtless the most extraordinary. Pieces
of mechanism for performing particular arithmetical operations have
been long ago constructed, but these bear no comparison either in
ingenuity or in magnitude to the grand design conceived and nearly
executed by Mr. Babbage. Great as the power of mechanism is
known to be, yet we venture to say, that many of the most
intelligent of our readers will scarcely admit it to be possible that
astronomical and navigation tables can be accurately computed by
machinery; that the machine can itself correct the errors which it
may commit; and that the results of its calculations, when absolutely
free from error, can be printed off, without the aid of human hands,
or the operation of human intelligence. All this, however, Mr.
Babbage’s machine can do; and as I have had the advantage of
seeing it actually calculate, and of studying its construction with Mr.
Babbage himself, I am able to make the above statement on
personal observation. The calculating machine now constructing
under the superintendence of the inventor has been executed at the
expense of the British Government, and is of course their property. It
consists essentially of two parts; a calculating part, and a printing
part, both of which are necessary to the fulfilment of Mr. Babbage’s
views; for the whole advantage would be lost if the computations
made by the machine were copied by human hands and transferred
to types by the common process. The greater part of the calculating
machinery is already constructed, and exhibits workmanship of such

extraordinary skill and beauty, that nothing approaching to it has
been witnessed. In order to execute it, particularly those parts of the
apparatus which are dissimilar to any used in ordinary mechanical
constructions, tools and machinery of great expense and complexity
have been invented and constructed; and in many instances
contrivances of singular ingenuity have been resorted to which
cannot fail to prove extensively useful in various branches of the
mechanical arts.
The drawings of this machinery, which form a large part of the work,
and on which all the contrivance has been bestowed, and all the
alterations made, cover upwards of 400 square feet of surface, and
are executed with extraordinary care and precision.
In so complex a piece of mechanism, in which interrupted motions
are propagated simultaneously along a great variety of trains of
mechanism, it might have been supposed that obstructions would
arise, or even incompatibilities occur, from the impracticability of
foreseeing all the possible combinations of the parts; but this doubt
has been entirely removed, by the constant employment of a system
of mechanical notation invented by Mr. Babbage, which places
distinctly in view, at every instant, the progress of motion through all
the parts of this or any other machine, and by writing down in tables
the times required for all the movements, this method renders it
easy to avoid all risk of two opposite actions arriving at the same
instant at any part of the engine.
In the printing part of the machine less progress has been made in
the actual execution than in the calculating part. The cause of this is
the greater difficulty of its contrivance, not for transferring the
computations from the calculating part to the copper or other plate
destined to receive it, but for giving to the plate itself that number
and variety of movements which the forms adopted in printed tables
may call for in practice.
The practical object of the calculating engine is to compute and print
a great variety and extent of astronomical and navigation tables,

which could not be done without enormous intellectual and manual
labour, and which, even if executed by such labour, could not be
calculated with the requisite accuracy. Mathematicians, astronomers,
and navigators, do not require to be informed of the real value of
such tables; but it may be proper to state, for the information of
others, that seventeen large folio volumes of logarithmic tables alone
were calculated, at an enormous expense, by the French
Government; and that the British Government regarded these tables
to be of such national value, that they proposed to the French Board
of Longitude to print an abridgement of them at the joint expense of
the two nations, and offered to advance 5000l. for that purpose.
Besides logarithmic tables, Mr. Babbage’s machine will calculate
tables of the powers and products of numbers, and all astronomical
tables for determining the positions of the sun, moon, and planets;
and the same mechanical principles have enabled him to integrate
innumerable equations of finite differences, that is, when the
equation of differences is given, he can, by setting an engine,
produce at the end of a given time any distant term which may be
required, or any succession of terms commencing at a distant point.
Besides the cheapness and celerity with which this machine will
perform its work, the absolute accuracy of the printed results
deserves especial notice. By peculiar contrivances, any small error
produced by accidental dust, or by any slight inaccuracy in one of
the wheels, is corrected as soon as it is transmitted to the next, and
this is done in such a manner as effectually to prevent any
accumulation of small errors from producing an erroneous figure in
the result.
In order to convey some idea of this stupendous undertaking, we
may mention the effects produced by a small trial engine
constructed by the inventor, and by which he computed the following
table from the formula x2 + x + 41. The figures, as they were
calculated by the machine, were not exhibited to the eye as in
sliding-rules and similar instruments, but were actually presented to
the eye on two opposite sites of the machine, the number 383, for

example, appearing in figures before the person employed in
copying.
Table calculated by a small Trial Engine.
41 131 383 797 1373
43 151 421 853 1447
47 173 461 911 1523
53 197 503 971 1601
61 223 547 1033 1681
71 251 593 1097 1763
83 281 641 1163 1847
97 313 691 1231 1933
113 347 743 1301 2021
While the machine was occupied in calculating this table, a friend of
the inventor undertook to write down the numbers as they
appeared. In consequence of the copyist writing quickly, he rather
more than kept pace with the engine, but as soon as five figures
appeared, the machine was at least equal in speed to the writer. At
another trial thirty-two numbers of the same table were calculated in
the space of two minutes and thirty seconds; and as these contained
eighty-two figures, the engine produced thirty-three figures every
minute, or more than one figure in every two seconds. On another
occasion it produced forty-four figures per minute. This rate of
computation could be maintained for any length of time; and it is
probable that few writers are able to copy with equal speed for
many hours together.
Some of that class of individuals who envy all great men, and deny
all great inventions, have ignorantly stated that Mr. Babbage’s
invention is not new. The same persons, had it suited their purpose,
would have maintained that the invention of spectacles was an
anticipation of the telescope; but even this is more true than the
allegation that the arithmetical machines of Pascal and others were
the types of Mr. Babbage’s engine. The object of these machines

was entirely different. Their highest functions were to perform the
operations of common arithmetic. Mr. Babbage’s engine, it is true,
can perform these operations also, and can extract the roots of
numbers, and approximate to the roots of equations, and even to
their impossible roots. But this is not its object. Its function, in
contradistinction to that of all other contrivances for calculating, is to
embody in machinery the method of differences, which has never
before been done; and the effects which it is capable of producing,
and the works which in the course of a few years we expect to see it
execute, will place it at an infinite distance from all other efforts of
mechanical genius.33

LETTER XII.
Wonders of chemistry—Origin, progress, and objects of alchemy—Art of breathing
fire—Employed by Barchochebas, Eunus, c.—Modern method—Art of walking
upon burning coals and red-hot iron, and of plunging the hands in melted lead
and boiling water—Singular property of boiling tar—Workmen plunge their
hands in melted copper—Trial of ordeal by fire—Aldini’s incombustible dresses
—Examples of their wonderful power in resisting flame—Power of breathing
and enduring air of high temperatures—Experiments made by Sir Joseph
Banks, Sir Charles Blagden, and Mr. Chantrey.
Chemistry has from its infancy been pre-eminently the science of
wonders. In her laboratory the alchemist and the magician have
revelled uncontrolled, and from her treasures was forged the sceptre
which was so long and so fatally wielded over human reason. The
changes which take place in the bodies immediately around us are
too few in number and too remote from observation to excite much
of our notice; but when the substances procured directly from
nature, or formed casually by art, become objects of investigation,
they exhibit in their simple or combined actions the most
extraordinary effects. The phenomena which they display, and the
products which they form, so little resemble those with which we are
familiar, that the most phlegmatic and the least speculative observer
must have anticipated from them the creation of new and valuable
compounds. It can scarcely, therefore, be a matter of surprise that
minds of the highest order, and spirits of the loftiest ambition, should
have sought in the transmutations of chemistry for those splendid
products which were conceived to be most conducive to human
happiness.
The disciple of Mammon grew pale over his crucible in his ardour to
convert the baser metals into gold; the philosopher pined in secret
for the universal solvent which might develop the elements of the
precious stones and yield to him the means of their production; and

the philanthropist aspired after a universal medicine, which might
arrest disease in its course, and prolong indefinitely the life of man.
To us, who live under the meridian of knowledge, such expectations
must appear as presumptuous as they were delusive; but when we
consider that gold and silver were actually produced by chemical
processes from the rude ores of lead and copper—that some of the
most refractory bodies had yielded to the disintegrating and solvent
powers of chemical agents, and that the mercurial preparations of
the Arabian physicians had operated like charms in the cure of
diseases that had resisted the feeble medicines of the times, we may
find some apology for the extravagant expectations of the
alchemists.
An object of lofty pursuit, even if it be one of impossible attainment,
is not unworthy philosophical ambition. Though we cannot scale the
summit of the volcanic cone, we may yet reach its heaving flanks;
and though we cannot decompose its loftiest fires, we may yet study
the lava which they have melted and the products which they have
sublimed. In like manner, though the philosopher’s stone has not
been found, chemistry has derived rich accessions from its search;—
though the general solvent has not been obtained, yet the diamond
and the gems have surrendered to science their adamantine
strength;—and though the elixir of life has never been distilled, yet
other medicines have soothed the “ills which flesh is heir to,” and
prolonged in no slight degree the average term of our existence.
Thus far the pursuits of the alchemist were honourable and useful;
but when his calling was followed, as it soon was, by men prodigal
of fortune and of character, science became an instrument of crime;
secrets unattained were bartered for the gold of the credulous and
the ignorant, and books innumerable were composed to teach these
pretended secrets to the world. An intellectual reaction, however,
soon took place; and those very princes who had sought to fill their
exhausted treasuries at the furnace of the chemist, were the first to
enact laws against the frauds which they had encouraged, and to
dispel the illusions which had so long deceived their subjects.

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