A complete review of Forensic Science and its various branches.
- 1. Department of Anthropology Forensic Science Mohd Hamza Masters in Forensic Science
- 2. Crime 1.) It is an act or commission of act that is not allowed or the omission of responsibility that is ordered by a public law that makes the offender accountable to punishment by law. 2.) Crime can be defined to be any felony or offensive act committed by an individual or a group of people which is harmful to an individual, community or property against which there are a certain set of punishments by state or any other governing body. 3.) As per sociological perspective it is a
- 3. Factors There are numerous reasons why a person goes off the line to commit a crime despite of being aware of the outcomes. Not going into the details the three basic reasons why a person commits crime is as following. 1.) Lure for money. 2.) Lust 3.) Overpowering of an emotion (Anger, Jealousy, Love etc.).
- 4. Factors can also be classified in following way. Crime Sociological Psychological PoliticalReligious Economical
- 6. Types of Crimes There are multiple ways to classify crime here we have discussed two major classifications • On the basis of purpose, aim or objective. • On the basis of against what or whom the crime has been committed.
- 7. Monetary crimes Theft, decoity, fraud, forgery, contraband currency, etc. Sexual Crimes Political crimes Espionage (international), treachery, treason etc. Miscellaneous crimes Crimes other than the above three types e.g. quarrels, fights, kidnapping or addiction to narcotics etc. Crime
- 8. Crime against individual Crimes against Public Health Crimes against public peace and order Crimes against moral values Crimes against moveable or immoveable possessions Crimes regarding Natural Resources Crimes regarding Natural Resources
- 9. Criminal Justice System The criminal justice system is the set of agencies and processes established by governments to control crime and impose penalties on those who violate laws. CJS Law Enforcement Judiciary Correctional Systems Forensic Labs Laws and Rules Defence Lawyers Prosecution Dept.
- 13. Functioning of a Criminal Justice System
- 14. Crime Scene It is the place where crime has occurred or where signs of crimes may be established or the place from where maximum number of physical evidences can be retrieved. It may also be called as the meeting point of Suspect and Victim. It is of following types
- 16. Conveyance Crime Scene Indoor Crime Scene Outdoor Crime Scene
- 17. Witness Witness In law a witness is someone who, either voluntarily or under compulsion, provides testimonial evidence, either oral or written, of what he or she knows or claims to know. It is of following types.
- 18. Witness Eye Witness is one with knowledge obtained through his or her own senses (e.g., visual perception, hearing, smell, touch). That perception might be either with the unaided human sense or with the aid of an instrument, such as microscope or stethoscope. Hearsay A hearsay witness is one who testifies about what someone else said or wrote. Expert An expert witness is one who allegedly has specialized knowledge relevant to the matter of interest, which knowledge purportedly helps to either make sense of other evidence, including other testimony, documentary evidence or physical evidence (e.g., a fingerprint).
- 19. Evidence Evidence The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief of proposal is true/valid or not. It can be of following types. Analogical Anecdotal Character Circumstantial Demonstrative Digital Direct Documentary Exculpatory Forensic Hearsay
- 20. Crime Scene Investigation It involves a sequence of identifying, protection, collection and analysis of evidences and then link them to build an image of what must have occurred at the crime scene. Beyond the above mentioned classification of Crime Scene. Crime Scene can also be classified as Primary and Secondary.
- 21. Primary Crime Scene is the first hand place where an offence took place while Secondary Crime Scene is the location which some way or the other linked to the original crime and its primary location. Example- In case of a murder if a person was killed in his home and his body was dumped into a lake nearby, his house will be Primary and Lake will be Secondary Crime Scene. By having knowledge of Crime, Crime Scene and Nature of Evidences we can frame out a methodology to proceed our investigation.
- 23. Before proceeding two another important terms which we need to know about are Modus Operandi and Corpus Delicity. Modus Operandi is the mode of operation or the specific pattern in which an offender commits a crime. Corpus Delicity is the initial sign or indications that show that a crime has occurred at a place.
- 24. Corpus Delicity of a Burglary Crime Scene
- 25. Investigating Team As per the requirement of the case a team is appointed for investigation. Any typical investigating team may comprise of the following members. • First Police Officer. • Investigating Officer. • Medics. • Medical Examiner. • Photographer. • Technician. • Forensic Expert. • Any other expert or skilled person as per the requirement of case.
- 26. Stages of crime scene investigation. • Securing crime scene • Scanning crime scene • Sketching crime scene • Searching evidence • Documentation of scene • Securing, collecting and packaging • Maintaining chain of custody • Reconstruction
- 27. Scanning An initial walk through is make entire crime scene to frame the methodology and requirements of investigation and following details are noted. • Possible location of evidences. • Environmental condition • Possible entry and exit. • Initial questions- who, what, when, how? • Requirements of apparatus and resources requires for the investigation to proceed.
- 28. Sketching An initial diagrammatical representation of the entire crime scene is showing special and dimensional relationships of the all element of crime scene with each other and with the crime scene with the whole. It serves as an important reference for recalling details in advanced stage of investigation. The sketches can also be used in court room trail not as an evidence themselves but to increase the credibility of other evidences and finding.
- 29. SKETCHING ROUGH • OVER HEAD • ELEVATION FAIR • OVER HEAD • ELEVATION
- 30. Different Methods of Crime Scene Sketching
- 32. Searching for Evidence Before searching it is essential to know what could be potential source of evidence. Primary sources are. • Body of victim • Primary crime scene • Secondary crime scene • Transport • suspect
- 33. Types Of Search Methods- depending upon crime scene. Method Crime Scene Grid Quadrilateral Area With Physical Boundaries Line Outdoor Settings Quadrant Indoors Like A House Or Any Building Wheel Small Circular Area Spiral Outdoor With No Physical Boundaries
- 35. Documentation It is important to know that a crime scene continues changes due to various factors and as the time proceeds the evidences available at the moment may become obsolete. Thus it is important to document and record the entire crime scene in a way that the documentation not only act as a permanent record but also provide reference in latest stages of investigation.
- 38. Forensic science It is an applied science that uses the knowledge of various branches of science to help law enforcement agencies and criminal justice system to solve any crime.
- 39. Need of an hour In earlier days law enforcement agencies used to be feared by the common people so much that whom so ever the officials put their hands onto confessed crime even if the person did not committed one. There was a trend of third degree torture to make culprit confess by force. As the time change there has been a drastic change in the society and also the awareness of people towards human rights have led to decline of third degree torture and use of brute force by the law enforcement agencies. We have evolved from a small ruler populations to large over populated metropolitan cities.
- 40. With advancements in various technologies and life styles the pattern of crime has also changed. In today’s time with efficient transport means large cities and high tech. communication means it has become very easy for a criminal to evade law. Considering the above mentioned facts it became an absolute necessity for governments to adapt, improvise and take over to more systematic and scientific methods to curve the ever increasing crime rate.
- 41. Introduction Forensic science is group of scientific discipline which is concern with the application of their particular scientific area of expertise to law enforcements, criminal, civil, legal and judicial. Forensic scientist examine objects, substances left at the crime scene, thus we can say it is a multidisciplinary subject. The word forensic comes from the Latin term “Forensis” which means “of or before the forum”. However the term is now closely associated with the scientific field such that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word forensics with forensic Science.
- 42. The first written account of using medicine and entomology (study of insects) to solve criminal cases is attributed to the book of “XI YUN LU” means “ washing away of wrongs” written by “SONG CI” in 1248, who was director of justices, jail and supervision during the song dynasty. In the late 18th century French Physician Francois Immanuel Fodere wrote a journal named treatise on forensic medicine and public health. A notable case recorded as one of the first case of forensic ballistic occurred in 1784 in Lancaster in which Jon Tomes was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistol by analysing and match a pistol wad found recovered from the dead body. Song Ci
- 43. A page from “XI YUN LU”
- 44. History The modern foundations of forensic science was ultimately laid by Dr. Edmond Locard (1876-1966) who was French criminologist who was popularly known as Sherlock homes of France, who gave the first law of forensic science “ LOCARD PRINCIPLE OF EXCHAGE” which is the founding stone of entire modern forensic science. Locard also succeeded in persuading the police department of Lyon to establish what come to be as the first forensic science laboratory. Dr Edmond Locard
- 45. Basically Forensic Science work on 7 Laws. • Law of exchange • Law of progressive change • Law of probability • Law of individuality • Law of comparison • Law of circumstantial fact • Law of analysis
- 46. Law of Exchange Whenever two entities comes in contact, they mutual exchange of traces takes place.
- 47. Law of Progressive change Everything changes with the passage of time. In other words nothing is permanent.
- 48. Law of Probability It is a mathematical concept. It determines the chances of occurrence of a particular event in a particular number of different way in which the event can take place or fail to take place with equal facility.
- 49. Law of individuality Every object natural or manmade has an individuality, which is not be duplicated in any other object.
- 50. Law of Comparison Only the likes can be compared.
- 51. Law of circumstantial fact Fact do not lie, man can do.
- 52. Law of Analysis The analysis can be no better than the sample analysed.
- 53. Branches As mentioned above forensic science is multi-disciplinary subject i.e. it involves application of various fields. Some of the Major branches of forensic science are as following: - • Forensic Biology • Forensic Serology • Forensic Toxicology • Forensic Ballistics • Forensic Chemistry • Forensic Document • Cyber Forensics
- 54. • Forensic Photography. • Forensic Anthropology. • Forensic Odontology. • Forensic Physics. • Forensic Pathology. • Forensic Psychology/Psychiatry • Forensic DNA. • Fingerprint. • Forensic Archaeology. • Thanatology. • Cheiloscopy. • Medico-legal and Jurisprudence • Biometrics
- 55. Forensic Biology It is the application of the knowledge of biology to solve a crime. Since biology in itself is a vast field comprising of various sub fields so is forensic biology. Following are the sub streams of the forensic biology.
- 57. History • Leone lattes (1887-1984) father of blood stain identification he developed a procedure for determining the blood group of a dried blood stain. • Karl Landsteiner devised the ABO system of blood grouping in the year 1900. • Alec Jeffery also called father of DNA Fingerprinting gave the most efficient system of identification and individualisation of any person from his/her DNA samples. • Alphonse Bertillon devised the famous Bertillon system of individualization of any person by their body measurements. His system laid founding stone of many further discoveries and inventions regarding the subject.
- 58. Alphonso Bertillon Landsteiner Alec Jeffery Leone Lattes Prominent people in this stream
- 59. Major Evidences that come for Analysis DIVISION EVIDENCES COLLECTION PACKAGING & PRESERVATION Biology & serology Hair Seminal stain Saliva Blood Vaginal stain Tweezers, vacuum, tape lifting Swab , article bearing the stain is collected as a whole Clean white gauze Swab , scraping, article bearing collected as whole, pipette Similar to seminal stain Plastic bag or paper envelope Paper bag or paper envelope Plastic container Plastic/ glass container. if liquid then it will preserve in EDTA Paper bag or paper envelope
- 60. Forensic Toxicology Forensic toxicology is the use of toxicology and disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology and clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. M. Orifella father of Toxicology. He wrote about the detection of poisons and their effect on animals. M. Orifella
- 61. Poison It is a substance (solid, liquid, gas) which if introduce in the living body or brought into contact with any part thereof will produce ill health or dead by its constitutional or local effects or both. Thus almost anything is poison, it depends upon dose.
- 66. Antidotes Antidotes are substances that act specifically to prevent, inhibit, inactivate, counteract, reverse or relieve the action or poisonous effects of a toxic agent, i.e. they are remedies used to counteract the action of poisons.
- 68. Toxicological samples Division Chemistry & toxicology Evidence Organs Liquors Poison Collection From post- mortem analysis Manual lifting Manual lifting Packaging Glass container & only lungs is kept nylon bag. Glass/plast ic container Air tight container
- 69. Sample Preservation Sample Quantity Preservative Whole blood 10ml EDTA tube, fluoride/oxalate, if alcohol is suspected Urine 20-50ml No preservative, sodium fluoride if alcohol is suspected Gastric contents 25-50ml No preservative Scalp hair About 200 No preservative Exhaled hair As required No preservative Scene residues As appropriate No preservative
- 70. Forensic Chemistry Forensic chemistry is the application of chemistry in a legal setting. James Marsh in 1836 who was a British chemist first uses the forensic chemistry. He introduce the Marsh Test for Arsenic detection. James Marsh
- 71. Forensic Ballistics It is the science that deals in investigation of firearm, ammunition and the problem caused by it. Forensic Ballistics Internal External Wound Terminal
- 72. Firearm A firearm is a gun (a barrelled ranged weapon) designed to be readily carried and used by a single individual. It inflicts damage on targets by launching one or more projectiles driven by rapidly expanding high-pressure gas produced by exothermic combustion (deflagration) of chemical propellant.
- 73. Anatomy of Gun
- 74. Ammunition According to section 2-1 (b) of Indian Act of 1959, Ammunition means any artillery that can be used in combat or warfare. It includes (i) Rockets, bombs, grenades, and other live missiles (ii) Articles designed for torpedo service and submarine mining (iii) Other articles containing or designed or adopted to contain explosive, fulminating or fissionable material or noxious liquid, gas, etc. (iv) Charges of fire arms and accessories for such charges (v) Fuses and friction tubes (vi) Parts of and machinery for manufacturing ammunition
- 75. Two major types of Ammunition Shotgun Cartridge Rifled Weapon Cartridge
- 76. Rifling In firearms, rifling refers to the helical groovings that are machined into the internal (bore) surface of a gun's barrel, for the purpose of exerting torque and thus imparting a spin to a projectile around its longitudinal axis during shooting. This spin serves to gyroscopically stabilize the projectile by conservation of angular momentum, improving its aerodynamic stability and accuracy over smoothbore designs.
- 78. Types of evidence Division Ballistics Evidence Firearm GSR Ammunition Collection Manual lifting Swab, tape lifting Manual lifting Packaging Plastic box Plastic bags Plastic bags,
- 79. Gunshot Residue Gun Shot Residue (GSR) also known as CDR (cartridge discharge residue) and FDR (firearm discharge residue) comprises gases, non- volatile, visible and invisible particles which may be unburnt or partially burnt coming from Barrel, Primer, Propellant, Cartridge, Bullet and Firearm. There detection location analysis plays an important role in investigative procedures involving usage of any type of firearm.
- 80. Digital Forensic Digital forensics (sometimes known as digital forensic science) is a branch of forensic science encompassing the recovery and investigation of material found in digital devices, often in relation to computer crime. The first computer crimes were recognized in the 1978 Florida Computer Crimes Act, which included legislation against the unauthorized modification or deletion of data on a computer system.
- 81. Cyber Crime Cyber-crime denotes to any misconduct that includes a computer and a network. The computer might have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target. Net crime refers to criminal exploitation of the Internet. Dr. Debarati Halder and Dr.K. Jaishankar (2011) defines Cyber-crimes as: "Crimes that are done against persons or groups of persons with a criminal intention to deliberately harm the status of the victim or cause physical or psychological destruction to the victim directly or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet
- 82. Classification of Cyber Crime Cyber crime Against individual Against property Against society Against organization
- 83. Hacking Hacking generally refers to unauthorized intrusion into a computer or a network. The person engaged in hacking activities is known as a hacker. This hacker may alter system or security features to accomplish a goal that differs from the original purpose of the system.
- 84. Types of Evidences Division Cyber Evidence Hard drive Pen drive Cd DVD Floppy disk Collection Static free packaging Packaging Static free pickings
- 85. Forensic Physics Forensic Physics is one of the hardest fields of forensic science. It deals with a combination of ballistics, bombs, blood splatters, the measurement of density (soil and glass examination), index of refraction, and birefringence (fibre analysis, glass examination).
- 86. Physical EvidencesDIVISION EVIDENCES COLLECTION PACKAGING & PRESERVATION Physics Fibre Soil Tools Tool marks Metal wire Tyre marks/shoe marks/ foot marks Glass Paint Cloths Plastic tweezers, tape lifting Manual lifting & vacuum Manual lifting POP casting Plastic tweezers, manual lifting POP casting Tweezers Vacuum, tweezers, tape lifting Manual lifting Plastic bag Plastic container Plastic bags and protects its working end Plastic container with proper packaging of thermocol Plastic bag Plastic container with proper packaging of thick cotton pads Rigid plastics container with protection of cotton padding Plastic bag/ container Plastic bags
- 87. Physical Evidence: Soil It is the uppermost layer of the earth and considered to be a corroboratory evidence. It is formed by dynamic geomorphic cycle. Types of soils found in India
- 88. Components of Soil Soil Organic matter Minerals Man – made debris Rock particles
- 90. Examination: Physical • Colour matching • Density gradient
- 91. Examination: Microscopic • Burning test – if the colour or shape are same then we treat sample at 500-550 degrees or 850 degrees after this the brunt residue is compared. • pH gradient of soil. Examination: Chemical Following characteristics are absorbed under microscope. • Colour • Geometric shapes • Man made debris • Particles of mineral
- 92. Examination: Instrumental • Emission spectroscopy • Atomic absorption spectroscopy • Electron microscope • X-ray diffraction • Differential thermal analysis
- 93. Physical Evidence: Glass • Glass is super cooled liquid with extremely high viscosity . • It is an amorphous hard and brittle substance formed by oxides of one or more substances like Phosphorus, Silicon , Boron and few other substances fused together in a molten state and then cooled quickly to avoid crystallisation.
- 96. Examination Following characteristics are compared and analysed for glass. • Density- Is measured by floatation and density gradient method. • Refractive index- 1.Glass refracting machine by Foster and Freeman . 2. Abbe’s Refractometer- Uses Snell’s law. 3. Hot stage microscope. 4. Phase contrast microscope 5. Polarized light microscope • Fluorescence- most of the glasses don’t fluorescence in UV. • Fractures Hot-stage Microscope
- 97. Glass Fractures Microscopic view of Ribs & Heckle marks Radial and Concentric marks
- 98. Fibre A fibre is a thin thread of a natural or artificial substance, especially one that is used to make cloth or rope. If you look at the paper under a microscope you will see the fibres. Fibre consists of the parts of plants or seeds that your body cannot digest.
- 102. Tool marks and other impressions Depending on the force with which a tool comes in contact with a softer surface, Tool marks are divided into two different categories:- 1.Impressed tool marks 2.Striated tool marks
- 103. Impressed Tool Marks These marks occur when the surface onto which the tool comes in contact with, is softer in comparison. When the tool comes in contact with the object (softer than the tool) with a huge force in a motion perpendicular to the plane of the surface leaving an impression on the surface. Such tool marks are called impressed tool marks. There is no lateral motion. At the crime scene, the unique imperfections of the tools are transferred to the surface that make possible a positive identification of the tool involved in the crime. As an example, when a tool like a screw driver is used by the criminal to forcefully intend a metal surface without penetrating, then the impressions it leave will be helpful in identifying the tool.
- 104. Striation tool Marks These marks are produced when the tool contacts an object with lateral or sideways force. In such a case, the tool is placed against an object and is moved parallel to the object or across the object Striation marks
- 105. Types of Evidence Evidence Knives and box cutters Bolt cutters Saws and hammers Crowbars tire irons Pliers and wrenches
- 106. Examination Tool marks can be examined by the follows:- 1.Casting method – Generally Plaster of Paris is used. 2.Photography:- over head photography along with measuring scale.
- 107. Forensic Archaeology Forensic archaeologists employ their knowledge of proper excavation techniques to ensure that remains are recovered in a controlled and forensically acceptable manner. When remains are found partially or completely buried the proper excavation of the remains will ensure that any evidence present on the bones will remain intact.
- 109. Fingerprint Analysis Palms and fingers of humans and few other primates are engraved with ridges and grooves patterns formed by epidermal layer of skin. Each individual has unique patters which cannot be same even in identical twins.
- 110. Herschel is credited with being the first European to note the value of fingerprints for identification. He recognized that fingerprints were unique and permanent. Herschel documented his own fingerprints over his lifetime to prove permanence. He was also credited with being the first person to use fingerprints in a practical manner. As early as the 1850s, working as a British officer for the Indian Civil Service in the Bengal region of India, he started putting fingerprints on contracts. History Sir William Herschel
- 111. Fingerprints can be majorly classified among following patterns. • Loop- Radial, Ulnar and Central Pocket. • Whorl- Plain, Double Loop and Accidental. • Arch- Plain and Tented. Fingerprints encountered from a crime scene can be classified in following categories. • Latent. • Visible. • Plastic.
- 113. Latent Fingerprints Plastic Fingerprints Visible Fingerprints
- 114. Cheiloscopy Cheiloscopy is a forensic investigation technique that deals with identification of humans based on lips traces. The aim of this study is to establish the uniqueness of lip prints which aids in personal identification.
- 115. Forensic Otology It is the application of the knowledge of morphology of human hair in establishing identity of the person for legal purposes. External human ear is considered to be a highly variable structure showing different morphological and individualistic features in different individuals and population groups. The uniqueness of the ear may be useful in establishing the identity of individuals by direct examination, during the examination of CCTV footage or analysis of the ear prints. Considering the forensic significance of the human ear and ear prints encountered at the scene of the crime, the present study is an attempt to evaluate various morphological characteristics of the ear in a north Indian population
- 118. Injury An injury or a wound means a solution or disruption of the anatomical continuity of any of the tissues of the body. Under Sec 44, an injury, is defined as any harm whatever illegally caused to any person in body, mind, reputation, or property. Injuries caused by the application of physical violence to the body are called mechanical injuries.
- 119. Depending on how they are caused, e.g. by blunt force, sharp weapon, or a firearm, they can be classified as following. • Abrasions- scratches, grazes, imprint or pressure marks. • Bruises- contusions. • Lacerations- splits, tears. • Fractures. • Incised wounds- cuts. • Stab wounds. • Firearm injuries- gunshot
- 120. Abrasions Contusions Lacerations Fracture Stab wounds Incised wounds
- 121. Simple • It is a type of injury that heals rapidly and doesn’t leaves any permanent mark or impairment in the body. • Example- Incision over epidermal layer of skin, first degree burns, etc. Grievous • It is a type of injury that doesn’t heal rapidly is extensive and leaves a permanent mark or impairment in the body. • Impairment of any of the senses (sight, hear, taste, smell) Dangerous • It is a type of injury which if not treated immediately can be life threatening. • Gunshot wound, rupture of vital organs, fracture of skull, etc. Injuries can also be classified on the basis of there lethality.
- 122. Autopsy An autopsy (post-mortem examination, obduction, necropsy, or autopsia cadaverum) is a surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse by dissection to determine the cause, mode, and manner of death or to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present for research or educational purposes.
- 123. Purposes Autopsies are performed for either legal or medical purposes. Autopsies can be performed when any of the following information is desired: •Determine if death was natural or unnatural •Injury source and extent on the corpse •Manner of death must be determined •Time since death •Establish identity of deceased •Retain relevant organs •If infant, determine live birth and viability
- 124. Types There are four main types of autopsies: Medico-Legal Autopsy or Forensic or coroner's autopsies seek to find the cause and manner of death and to identify the decedent. They are generally performed, as prescribed by applicable law, in cases of violent, suspicious or sudden deaths, deaths without medical assistance or during surgical procedures. Clinical or Pathological autopsies are performed to diagnose a particular disease or for research purposes. They aim to determine, clarify, or confirm medical diagnoses that remained unknown or unclear prior to the patient's death. Anatomical or academic autopsies are performed by students of anatomy for study purpose only. Virtual or medical imaging autopsies are performed utilizing imaging technology only, primarily magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT).
- 125. Examination The examination is carried in two phases- External Examination and Internal Examination in the same order respectively. External Examination • After the body is received, it is first photographed. • The examiner then notes the kind of clothes and their position on the body before they are removed. • Next, any evidence such as residue, flakes of paint or other material is collected from the external surfaces of the body. Ultraviolet light may also be used to search body surfaces for any evidence not easily visible to the naked eye. • Samples of hair, nails and the like are taken, and the body may also be radiographically imaged. • Once the external evidence is collected, the body is removed from the bag, undressed, and any wounds present are examined. • The body is then cleaned, weighed, and measured in preparation for the internal examination.
- 126. Internal Examination For the internal examination there are a number of different approaches available: • A large and deep Y-shaped incision can be made starting at the top of each shoulder and running down the front of the chest, meeting at the lower point of the sternum (breastbone). • A curved incision made from the tips of each shoulder, in a semi-circular line across the chest/decolletage, to approximately the level of the second rib, curving back up to the opposite shoulder. • A single vertical incision is made from the sternal notch at the base of the neck. • A U-shaped incision is made at the tip of both shoulders, down along the side of the chest to the bottom of the rib cage, following along it. This is typically used on women and during chest-only autopsies.
- 127. Types of Autopsy Incision Techniques
- 128. Dying Declaration In the law of evidence, a dying declaration is testimony that would normally be barred as hearsay but may in common law nonetheless be admitted as evidence in criminal law trials because it constituted the last words of a dying person. The rationale is that someone who is dying or believes death to be imminent would have less incentive to fabricate testimony, and as such, the hearsay statement carries with it some reliability.
- 129. DYING DEPOSITION Dying deposition is almost a dying declaration. The main difference being that it is always recorded by a magistrate in presence of the accused or his/her lawyer. The Magistrate records the evidence after administering oath in presence of the accused or his lawyer. Legally, the dying deposition is more valuable than dying declaration as the accused has got the opportunity to challenge and cross- examine.
- 131. Thanatology Thanatology or Death-Lore is the scientific study of death and the losses brought about as a result. It investigates the mechanisms and forensic aspects of death, such as bodily changes that accompany death and the post-mortem period, as well as wider psychological and social aspects related to death.
- 132. Tripod of Life- “Atria Mortis” Life Nervous System Circulatory System Respiratory System
- 133. Death Death is the permanent cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include aging, predation, malnutrition, disease, suicide, homicide, starvation, dehydration, and accidents or major trauma resulting in terminal injury. In most cases, bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death.
- 134. Time of Death The accurate determination of time of death is important due to its role in explaining possible criminal acts and determination of appropriate civil repercussions. The changes that occur after death that are helpful in estimation of the approximate time of death can be classified into. 1.) Immediate Changes. 2.) Early Changes 3.) Late Changes
- 136. Algor Mortis • Cooling down of Body Livor Mortis • Post Mortem Staining of Body Rigor Mortis • Stiffening of Body. Early Changes
- 138. Factors affecting Putrification • Temperature • Moisture • Air • Clothing • Manner of Burial • Age • Condition of Body • Cause of Death • External Injury
- 140. Asphyxia It is a condition caused by interference with the exchange of oxygen and Carbon dioxide in the body. Asphyxia literally means defective aeration of blood due to any cause
- 141. Types of Axphyxial conditions
- 143. Mechanism of Asphyxial deaths common in medico legal
- 144. Hanging Hanging is a form of Asphyxia caused by suspension of the body by ligature which encircles the neck, the constricting force being the weight of the body.
- 145. Types of Hanging On the basis of position of knot. Degree of suspension
- 146. Post mortem and Anti Mortem Hanging Feature Post Mortem Anti Mortem
- 147. Drowning Drowning is the process of experiencing respiratory impairment from submersion/immersion in liquid. It is classified as following:- (I)Typical Drowning/Wet Drowning 1.) Fresh water Drowning. 2.) Salt water Drowning. (II)Atypical Drowning 1.) Dry drowning. 2.) Immersion syndrome.
- 148. Mechanism of Typical Drowning
- 149. Fire is a chemical reaction that takes place when fuel, heat, and oxygen combine in an uninhabited chain reaction. To stop burning of fire, out of the three elements present in fire triangle should be removed. Remove any one of the elements and the fire goes out because you have stopped the continuing chemical reaction. Because only gases burn, solid and liquid fuels must be heated until they become vapour before they can burn. Heat chemically decomposes a fuel into its gaseous elements. This decomposition is known as pyrolysis. Fire/Arson
- 150. Types of Fire Class/Classification of fires Example Class "A” Solid materials: paper, wood, lumber, cloth Class "B" Flammable liquids: oils, paints, grease, gases Class "C" Electric: faulty fuse boxes, frayed wires, over- loaded electrical outlets Class “D". combustible metals
- 151. Incipient/Initial Phase (Growth Stage) Free-Burning Phase (Fully Developed Stage) Smoldering Phase (Decay Stage) Phases of Fire
- 152. Arson Arson is the crime of will fully and maliciously setting fire to or charring property. Though the act typically involves buildings, the term arson can also refer to the intentional burning of other things, such as motor vehicles, watercraft, or forests. The crime is typically classified as a felony, with instances involving a greater degree of risk to human life or property carrying a stricter penalty. A common motive for arson is to commit insurance fraud. In such cases, a person destroys their own property by burning it and then lies about the cause in order to collect against their insurance policy.
- 153. Few of the reasons for arson are given below: Financial gain (Insurance Claim) Vanity Revenge Civil Disorder Crime Concealment Delinquent Behaviour Excitement Pyromania Dowry Death Communal Purposes Motives of Arson
- 154. Indoor Fire Pattern Outdoor Fire Pattern
- 155. Management of Arson Cases Following methodology is followed while investigating cases of arson and in the following order. • Synopsis of Fire Behaviour • Investigation Management • Fire Scene Diagramming • Case Management • Pyromaniacs, Arsonists • Coordination with Insurance Companies • Report Writing/Case Management • Research and Development (R&D)
- 156. Following tools are required to collect the Arson debris. • Latex Gloves • Tweezers • Cardboard Boxes • Forceps • Plastic Bags • Swabs • Thermometers • Wrapping paper • Scalpel • Hand tools
- 157. Analysis of Arson Debris Extraction/Distillation of exhibits/sample is done by diethyl ether (2-3 times). Chromatography is a separation technique used to separate complex mixtures (in all forms i.e. Solid, Liquid, Gas). Column is of two designs: Packed or Capillary. Separation is recorded in form of chromatogram. The essential component of Gas Chromatography and Capillary Gas Chromatography are: Injection Valve Mobile Phase (Gas) Stationary Phase (Column) Oven Detector GC and Capillary Gas Chromatography is one of most ideal tool for petroleum product analysis.
- 158. Gas Chromatography
- 159. 9% Rule of Body burning
- 160. Biometrics Biometrics is the term derived from Greek word, “Biometron”. “Bio” means life and “metron” means to measure. It is defined as a tool for identification and verification of the person on the basis of physiological and behavioural characteristics of the person.
- 161. Parameters of Biometrics Physiological parameters. • Fingerprint • Hand Geometry • Facial Recognition • Iris • Retina • Vein Pattern • Skin Spectroscopy • DNA Behavioural parameters. • Gait pattern analysis. • Keystroke analysis • Dynamic Signature Analysis • Voice Recognition
- 164. Modes of Biometric System Identification. • One to many comparison • It searches for a sample against a database of templates. • It identifies an unknown individual. Verification. • One to many comparison • It compares a sample against a single stored data • It verifies that the individual is who he claims to be.
- 165. Working Capturing Pre processing Feature Extraction Template matching Comparison Application Device
- 166. Biometric device consists of. • Scanning device. • Software which converts scanned information into digital form and compares on same matching points. • Database that stores biometric features for further comparison
- 167. Performance Matrix • FAR (False Acceptance Rate)- It is a measure of the presence of invalid inputs that are incorrectly accepted. • FRR (False Rejection Rate)- It is measure of the presence of valid inputs that are incorrectly rejected. • CER (Cross-over Error Rate)- It is a rate at which both FRR and FAR occur, lower the value of CER more accurate is the system
- 168. Forensic psychology Forensic psychology is the application of psychological knowledge and methods to legal questions. Some of the professional literature refers to forensic psychology broadly as the research and application of psychological knowledge to the legal system, whereas some of it prefers a more narrow approach, limiting forensic psychology to the application and practice of psychology as it pertains to the legal system.
- 169. Along with Psychology another term is often mentioned and confused with called Psychiatry however there is a much marginalized difference between the two.
- 170. Psychology vs Psychiatry Psychologists and psychiatrists often work together for the well- being of the client, their job descriptions overlap. However, there are several crucial differences between a psychologist and psychiatrist, the most critical being the nature of treatment within the two professions. Because psychiatrists are trained medical doctors, they can prescribe medications, and they spend much of their time with patients on medication management as a course of treatment. Psychologists focus extensively on psychotherapy and treating emotional and mental suffering in patients with behavioural intervention. Psychologists are also qualified to conduct psychological testing, which is critical in assessing a person’s mental state and determining the most effective course of treatment.
- 172. Police and Investigation Police and public safety psychology (PPSP) is the research and application of psychological knowledge and clinical skills to law enforcement and public safety.
- 173. Legal Psychology Legal psychology involves empirical, psychological research of the law, legal institutions, and people who come into contact with the law. Legal psychologists typically take basic social and cognitive principles and apply them to issues in the legal system such as eyewitness memory, jury decision-making, investigations, and interviewing. The term "legal psychology" has only recently come into usage, primarily as a way to differentiate the experimental focus of legal psychology from the clinically-oriented forensic psychology.
- 174. Criminal Psychology Criminal psychology, also referred to as criminological psychology, is the study of the views, thoughts, intentions, actions and reactions of criminals and all that partakes in the criminal behaviour.
- 175. Victim Psychology Victim psychology, also referred to as victimology, is the study of the views, thoughts, intentions, actions and reactions of victim and all that partakes in the legal process.
- 176. Correctional Psychology Correctional psychology is the application of basic and applied psychological science or scientifically-oriented professional practice to the justice system to enable the proper classification, treatment, and management of offenders. Its goal is to reduce the risk of offender misconduct and thus to improve public safety. The two very important terms that coin along with Forensic Psychology are Criminal Profiling and Modus Operandi both of them are interlinked with each other.
- 177. Modus Operandi Translates to Mode of Operation. It can be defined as methodology and techniques employed by a criminal to commit a crime. It is a principle of Crime Scene Investigation based upon the fact that criminal is probably going to use constant technique repeatedly and any analysis or record of the technique can be utilized to give an identification of the culprit.
- 178. Following signs can be noted for to generate criminal’s profile based upon his Modus Operandi. 1) Type of property attacked. 2) Entry. 3) Means (the probable tool or weapon used) 4) Object (kinds of objects taken) 5) Style (can be a unique attire or disguise taken up by criminal to gain entry) 6) Tale (disclosure about the criminal from himself) 7) Pals (any possible associates of the criminal) 8) Transport 9) Trademark (any unusual behaviour in connection with the crime.
- 179. Criminal Profiling According to FBI, profiling is defined as a technique which serves to identify the major personality and behavioural characteristics of an offender based on the analysis of the crime the offender committed. Lombroso an Italian scientist is considered to be the father of Criminal Profiling. He was the first to classify criminals into three categories. • Born Criminals. • Insane Criminals. • Criminaloids. He claimed that origin and motivation of crime can be evaluated by and understood by learning about the traits of the offenders.
- 180. It involves following steps. • Evaluation of the crime itself. • Comprehensive analysis of the specifics of the crime scene (Modus Operandi). • Comprehensive analysis of the victim. • Evaluation of preliminary reports. • Evaluation of Medical Examiner’s Autopsy Report Protocol. • Development of profile with critical offender characteristics. • Investigative suggestion predicted upon constructed profile.
- 181. Notable Cases pertinent to Forensic Psychology and Criminal Profiling Mad Bomber Case (1940’s and 1950’s), New York. During 40s and 50s a mad bomber terrorised the city of New York setting 37 bombs in train stations and theatres. Dr. Brussels a well-known criminal psychologist of his time made analysis in this case.
- 182. On the basis of his analysis he generated following profile of the suspect. • Suspect was paranoid. • Hated his father. • Loved his mother. • Lived in the state of Connecticut. • Was of average built. • Middle Aged. • Foreign Born. • Roman Catholic. • Single. • Lived with his mother or sister. • Wore a double buttoned and double breasted suit. In 1957 when the George Metesky, the man behind those bomb blasts, Brussel’s profile proved to be quite accurate.
- 183. Boston Strangulation Case (June 1962-June 1964) In this case, 13 sexual strangulations and homicides were committed in the city of Boston. A Psychological Profiling Committee was established consisting Gynaecologist, Psychiatrist, Anthropologist and other professionals to assist in solving the case with the help of criminal profiling.
- 184. This committee came up to following conclusions. • The homicides were committed by 2 separate offenders. • They came up to this conclusion as one group of victim was of older age and the other was younger. • They felt that the older ones were killed by a man who was raised by a dominating and seductive mother and he was unable to express his hatred towards his mother and he lived alone. • They further opined that younger victims were probably killed by a homosexual male.
- 185. However in 1964 Brussels was introduced to this case as well and he generated a different profile and stated that the murders were committed by a single person and in November 1964 when Albert De Salvo was arrested for the killings, he perfectly matched Brussel’s profile.
- 186. Forensic Psychiatry Psychiatry is a branch of medical science which deals with the study, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mental illness and behavioural disorders. Forensic Psychiatry deals with the application of the knowledge of psychiatry in the administration of justice.
- 187. Role of a Forensic Psychiatrist. • When an accused on the ground of mental illness, expresses his inability to stand trial and plead his defense. • When a defense is attempted on the ground that an act has been committed by a mentally ill person. • When it is claimed that a person has committed suicide due to mental illness. • Validity of consent given by a mentally ill person. • Competency as a witness. • Nullity of a marriage or divorce. • Custody of a child. • Capacity to make a will.
- 188. Recent Advancements in the field of Forensic Psychology and Psychiatry. In recent years Forensic Psychology and Psychiatry have become a prominent and accurate means of investigation. Several newer techniques have evolved in the course of time. The most prominent of them being Polygraph, Brain-Mapping and Narco Analysis.
- 189. Polygraph (lie-detector) A polygraph is a device which makes a continuous record of various psychological variables such as blood pressure, heart rate, respiration and electro-dermal reactions, while a series of questions being asked, in an attempt to detect lies. The above measurements are believed to be indicators of anxiety due to sympathetic stimulation that accompanies the telling of lies.
- 190. Brain-mapping Brain-mapping techniques majorly involves tracing down electrical activity of brain (P- 300) response when a person is stimulated with a series of phrases, sounds and videos related to crime he committed. P-300 Brain Response is emitted approximately 300 milliseconds after it is confronted with a stimulus of special significance.
- 191. Narco Analysis A person lies using his imagination. Narco Analysis uses drugs like Sodium Amytal which put a person in a trance state where his imagination power is seized and it becomes difficult for a person to lie.