![Understanding footfall induced vibration
Rather than jumping on the bridge, the person described above is more likely to want to
walk across it. In so doing, he or she applies a periodically varying dynamic force (such as
shown in Figure 2.1) to the bridge, and the bridge responds dynamically to this force time
history. Initially, let us assume that the bridge is long and that the point of application of
the load can be considered as stationary at mid-span (i.e. the pedestrian is effectively
walking on the spot at the middle of the bridge).
The response of the bridge to the repeated application of this force depends on several
factors, the most important being:
n the stiffness and mass of the bridge.
n the damping of the bridge.
n the ratio (r) of the bridge’s natural frequency (fn
) to the pacing frequency (fw
), as given
in Equation 2.1:
(2.1)
The influence of the frequency ratio r can be illustrated using one of the force time
histories described in section 2.1 above. Consider one in which the person is walking at
2.0 footfalls/second (Hz) and assume that the bridge has a modal mass of 10 tonnes,
damping of 1% of critical and that the natural frequency of the bridge is either 3Hz or
4Hz. As natural frequency is proportional to √(stiffness/mass) and the masses of the two
bridges are identical, the 4Hz bridge must be about 77% stiffer than the 3Hz bridge. The
velocity time histories calculated at the centre of the bridge are as shown in Figure 2.4.
2.3 Structural response to
footfall forces
r =
fn
fw
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−2.5
−2
−1.5
−1
−0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
x 10
−3
Time [secs]
Velocity
[m/s]
Bridge response at midspan, 1% damping
f
n
= 3Hz
f
n
= 4Hz
Figure 2.4
Velocity time histories calculated at mid-span
for a person walking at 2.0 steps per second
on a 3Hz and a 4Hz bridge.
Footfall Induced Vibration of St9 9 06/12/2006 16:29:50](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/adesignguideforfootfallinducedvibrationofstructures-240804005737-f08b34f2/85/A-Design-Guide-for-Footfall-Induced-Vibration-of-Structures-pdf-11-320.jpg)
![10
It is seen that the vibration response of the two structures is significantly different. For the
4Hz bridge, the vibration builds up over time such that the response after several footfalls
is significantly greater than after the first. This is a ‘resonance’ phenomenon, in which the
vibrations induced by each footfall reinforce the vibration generated by previous footfalls.
For the 3Hz bridge this is not the case, and the response is similar at each footfall. The
maximum response of the 4Hz (stiffer) bridge is significantly greater than that of the less
stiff, but otherwise identical, structure.
A natural extension of this analysis is to calculate such velocity time histories for many
more values of r and to graph the variation of maximum response velocity with r. This is
similar to the development of a velocity ‘response spectrum’ under seismic excitation.
Figures 2.5a and 2.5b below show the results of such analysis, averaged across all of the 882
measured force time histories (rather than just the one mentioned above) for a 10 tonne
structure with 3% of critical damping.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
x 10
−3 Peak velocities, 3% damping
r = fn
/ fw
Peak
vel,
[m/s]
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
x 10
−4 Peak velocities, 3% damping
r = fn
/ fw
Peak
vel,
[m/s]
Figure 2.5a
Averaged peak velocity response spectrum for
882 footfall force time histories for r 0.6.
Figure 2.5b
As Figure 2.5a, but showing more detail for
r 1.5.
Footfall Induced Vibration of St10 10 06/12/2006 16:29:51](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/adesignguideforfootfallinducedvibrationofstructures-240804005737-f08b34f2/85/A-Design-Guide-for-Footfall-Induced-Vibration-of-Structures-pdf-12-320.jpg)
![11
In these graphs it can be seen that, in general, the vibration response reduces as r (the
ratio of a structure’s modal frequency to footfall rate) increases. However, there are ‘peaks’
in the response spectra at particular ‘whole number’ values of r. If r is close to 1.0 then the
footfall rate equals the natural frequency of the mode, and the mode responds strongly
in resonance to the ‘first harmonic’ of the footfall forces. If r is close to 2.0, the mode
responds resonantly to the ‘second harmonic’ of the footfall forces, and so on. These
resonances lead to significantly greater response when r is close to 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 or 4.0
than arises for intermediate values of r.
For r 4 there is much less sensitivity to the exact value of r. Inspection of the time
histories shows that the response does not build up over time, and the response to each
individual footfall is comparable. At high values of r the velocity response is characterised
by an initial peak response (such as that produced by a single impulse) followed by a de-
caying sinusoid similar to that illustrated in Figure 2.2c (and 3.2).The non-resonant response
can therefore be treated as repeating impulsive responses to individual foot impacts.
Figure 2.6 shows the effect of varying the damping of the structure. It can be seen that the
magnitude of resonant response for whole number values of r is strongly dependent on
both the damping of the structure and the harmonic number. Impulsive response (that is,
away from ‘whole number’ values of r and for r 4) is much less sensitive to damping.
Figure 2.6a
Average peak velocity response spectrum for
different values of damping.
Understanding footfall induced vibration
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
Peak velocities
r = fn
/ fw
Peak
vel
[m/s]
1% damping
3% damping
5% damping
Footfall Induced Vibration of St11 11 06/12/2006 16:29:51](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/adesignguideforfootfallinducedvibrationofstructures-240804005737-f08b34f2/85/A-Design-Guide-for-Footfall-Induced-Vibration-of-Structures-pdf-13-320.jpg)
![12
The above generic analyses show that if a person can walk at a footfall rate that is a factor
of 1, 2, 3 or 4 lower than the natural frequency of a mode, then resonance is possible, and
this will lead to vibration levels greater than walking at slightly different footfall rates. For
values of r greater than approximately 4.2, there is a general trend of decreasing response
with higher structural frequency, but there is little evidence of resonant response and far
less sensitivity to the exact value of r.
As footfall rates typically vary between 1.5Hz and 2.5Hz, then any structure with modal
frequencies between 1.5Hz and 10.5Hz (~4.2 × 2.5Hz) is potentially susceptible to the higher
responses due to resonance. For structural modes with natural frequencies sufficiently high
that they cannot be excited by the fourth harmonic (i.e. natural frequencies greater than
approximately 10.5Hz), then vibrations will not significantly exceed the impulsive response
due to a single footfall. If the damping is very low, then in theory resonance to the fifth
and sixth harmonics could produce a higher response, but this is not usually of practical
concern because successive footfalls are not completely identical, and this reduces the
magnitude of the higher harmonics.
Many structures have several modes that may simultaneously experience significant
responses to footfalls, and practical prediction methods must allow for this. Whilst the
determination of modal properties of the structure is the same, it is convenient to have
different approaches for the calculation of resonant and impulsive vibration responses.
Therefore structures with vertical natural frequencies less than 4.2 times the fastest walking
frequency should be designed for resonant response using the methods described in
section 4.2 below, and structures with all vertical natural frequencies higher than 4.2
times the fastest walking frequency should be designed for impulsive response using the
methods described in section 4.3.
Figure 2.6b
Peak velocities.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
x 10
−3 Peak velocities
r = fn
/ fw
Peak
vel
[m/s]
1% damping
3% damping
5% damping
Footfall Induced Vibration of St12 12 06/12/2006 16:29:52](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/adesignguideforfootfallinducedvibrationofstructures-240804005737-f08b34f2/85/A-Design-Guide-for-Footfall-Induced-Vibration-of-Structures-pdf-14-320.jpg)
![54
For this section:
I = 0.0048m4
(neutral axis is 167mm below top of slab)
m = 707kg/m (self weight + 1kPa imposed)
E = 40GPa (dynamic modulus of normal weight concrete)
f = 11.07Hz (see Equation A.1)
f =
12
π2
40 x 109
x 0.0048
= 11.07Hz (see eq. A.1)
2π 707 x 8.64
5.3.1.2 Modal properties of bay by analytical method
To use the method of section 4.2, however, it is necessary to calculate all modes of the floor
up to 22Hz. This can be done using the equations of Section A2.2 as shown below.
For the span direction, y:
Iy
= 0.0048m4
, Sy
= 1.1m, Dy
= 40 × 109
x 0.0048/1.1 = 175 × 106
Nm (see eq. A.10)
For the transverse direction, x, there are no ribs so the calculation is based on the slab alone:
Dx
= 40 x 109
x 0.133
/ (12 x (1 – 0.22
)) = 7.63 x 106
Nm (see eq. A.8)
For the ribs, d = 0.35m b = 0.3m G = 16.7GPa
Cy = 16.7 x 109
x 0.35 x 0.33
[1
– 0.21 x
0.3
(1 –
0.34
)]= 25.5 x 106
Nm2
3 0.35 12 x 0.354
(see eq. A.12)
H =
40 x 109
x 0.133
+
25.5 x 106
= 30.8 x 106
Nm (see eq. A.11)
12 x (1 – 0.22
) 1.1
The natural frequencies of the first 11 modes of the floor bay calculated by Equation A.5
are presented in Table 5.7. These are calculated without consideration of the back span
(Figures 4.10a and 4.10b can be used to show that the effect of the back span is
negligible). The modal mass of each mode derived by the rectangular plate calculation is
one quarter of the total mass. The number of single beam and slab units in the transverse
direction is W/Sy
= 34.55.
m =
34.55 x 8.6 x 707
= 52,500kg
4
ˆ
Figure 5.15
Single beam and slab unit (mm).
Footfall Induced Vibration of St54 54 06/12/2006 16:30:34](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/adesignguideforfootfallinducedvibrationofstructures-240804005737-f08b34f2/85/A-Design-Guide-for-Footfall-Induced-Vibration-of-Structures-pdf-56-320.jpg)
![70
where Ix
and Iy
are the second moments of area of the beam and slab units spanning in
the x and y directions and sx
and sy
are their spacings. Cx
and Cy
are the torsional rigidity of
each rib or beam in the y and x directions respectively. For steel I-beams, the torsional
rigidities, C, are negligible. For ribbed concrete floors with rectangular ribs of longer
dimension, d, and shorter dimension, b, and shear modulus G:
(A.12)
In calculating these properties appropriate dynamic values for the Young’s modulus of
steel and concrete should be taken, and in the case of concrete sections, allowance
should be made for the cracked stiffness under service loading (see section A1).
In practice, modes with k 1 have a very high frequency and are not of concern.The mode
shapes corresponding to k = 1 and j = 1, 2 and 3 are shown in Figure A2. All modes have a
modal mass equal to a quarter of the total mass of the bay.
Dx
, Dy
and H are flexural stiffnesses per metre width in the x and y directions and the
torsional stiffness parameter respectively, and can be calculated as follows.
For flat slabs of thickness t, where v is the Poisson’s ratio of the material:
Dx
= Dy
= H =
Et 3
(A.8)
12(1 – v 2
)
For ribbed slabs or steel composite floors with equidistantly spaced ribs or beams, as
shown in figure A3.
Dx
=
EIx
(A.9)
sx
Dy
=
EIy
(A.10)
sy
H =
Et 3
+
Cy
+
Cx
12(1 – v 2
) sy
sx
(A.11)
C = Gdb3
[ 1
– 0.21
b
(1 –
b4
)]
12d4
3 d
Footfall Induced Vibration of St70 70 06/12/2006 16:30:56](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/adesignguideforfootfallinducedvibrationofstructures-240804005737-f08b34f2/85/A-Design-Guide-for-Footfall-Induced-Vibration-of-Structures-pdf-72-320.jpg)
![76
Consider the bridge of worked example 1. It is expected that the first three modes of the
structure will be as shown in Figure 5.3.The first two of these will be excited by heel drops
at mid-span, and to a lesser extent heel drops at quarter span. The third will not respond
at mid-span but will respond to a heel drop at the quarter point.
Time histories and spectra of heel drops at mid-span and quarter-span are shown in
Figures B1 and B2. From the spectra it is possible to confirm that the frequencies of modes
1, 2 and 3 are 4.65Hz, 6.56Hz and 14.66Hz respectively.
Figure B1
Heel drop responses at mid-span and quarter
span.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
Frequency [Hz]
Acceleration
[m/s²]
Heel Drop Spectra
Mid−span
Quarter−span
Figure B2
Heel drop spectra at mid-span and
quarter span.
It is possible to calculate the damping of the modes from the decay response after the heel
drop using the logarithmic decrement technique. However it should be noted that if there
is any more than one mode that is responding to the impulse (as is the case for both heel
drops above), then the damping calculated from the first stage of the decay will be incorrect
and a significant overestimate of the actual damping. Reliable estimates of the damping
from heel drops using the logarithmic decrement technique are only possible with careful
filtering or averaging of measured traces.
If many closely spaced modes are responding simultaniously then it may not be possible
to calculate any reliable estimates of the damping using the logarithmic decrement. In
this case the more sophisticated methods mentioned above must be used.
Footfall Induced Vibration of St76 76 06/12/2006 16:30:58](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/adesignguideforfootfallinducedvibrationofstructures-240804005737-f08b34f2/85/A-Design-Guide-for-Footfall-Induced-Vibration-of-Structures-pdf-78-320.jpg)
![77
Appendix B
Walk-by tests are straightforward to perform. Having calculated the modal frequencies
from heel drop tests, the critical walking frequencies likely to induce resonance can be
calculated. Then, using a metronome to control pacing frequency, a person walks on the
structure while an accelerometer records the response at the desired location.
A typical recorded time history (again for the bridge of example 1) is shown in Figure B3.
It is clearly seen that the response builds up over time, as is characteristic of resonance.
B3 Walk-by test procedure
and post-processing
techniques
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
−0.08
−0.06
−0.04
−0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Time [secs]
Acceleration
[m/s
2
] Walkpast Time History
Figure B3
Walk past time history for the bridge of
example 1.
For this particular test one mode dominates the response and so the response factor can
be estimated by hand calculation as shown below:
a ≈ 0.07ms/s2
aRMS
≈
a
= 0.05m/s2
√2
The dominant frequency of response is between 4Hz and 8Hz, where ar =1
= 0.005m/s2
so
R = 10.
However, a more general method is required for tests in which the structure is responding
in several modes.
The post-processing technique required will depend on the nature of the criteria to which
the response will be compared. This will normally take one of two forms, either a ‘total
response factor’ or an RMS velocity measured in one-third octave bands (which is how
performance criteria for sensitive equipment are normally specified). The two methods
are very similar, it is only the filtering of the data that differs between them.
ˆ
ˆ
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![82
Appendix C
Measured peak and RMS velocities are compared against predictions below.
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Walking speed [Hz]
Location B
Predicted Peak Predicted RMS Predicted Test RMS Test
Figure C6a
Predicted and measured response at location B.
Predicted Peak Predicted RMS Predicted Test RMS Test
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Walking speed [Hz]
Location A
Figure C6b
Predicted and measured response at location A.
It can be seen that RMS responses correlate well with prediction, as do the peak velocities
at location B. At location A measured peak velocities are only about 60% of the predicted.
In general, measured peak responses show considerable variability and the dynamic
performance of a high-frequency floor is almost always based on RMS responses.
Footfall Induced Vibration of St82 82 06/12/2006 16:31:02](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/adesignguideforfootfallinducedvibrationofstructures-240804005737-f08b34f2/85/A-Design-Guide-for-Footfall-Induced-Vibration-of-Structures-pdf-84-320.jpg)
A Design Guide for Footfall Induced Vibration of Structures.pdf
- 1. UDC 534.832.08:624. Michael Willford and Peter Young have over 30 years combined experience in the area of structural dynamics. The methods presented in this guide have been developed by them over the last 10 years and have been used extensively within Arup for the past 5 years. A Design Guide for Footfall Induced Vibration of Structures A Design Guide for Footfall Induced Vibration of Structures A tool for designers to engineer the footfall vibration characteristics of buildings or bridges M R Willford CEng MIMechE P Young CEng MIMechE Whilst footfall induced vibrations on buildings or bridges is not normally significant in terms of structural integrity, footfall vibration can be a critical serviceability condition. This publication presents a new method for evaluating the vibration due to a single pedestrian walking on a flat surface, such as a floor slab or bridge deck. The method was developed by Arup, and has been calibrated and refined with verification measurements taken on completed structures over a period of ten years. This publication provides an informative description of the factors effecting footfall induced vibration and guides the engineer through the process of designing for vibration. It includes flowcharts for calculation procedures and a useful glossary. It also includes worked examples on a concrete footbridge, a low frequency multispan post tensioned concrete floor and a high frequency ribbed slab. CCIP-016 Published December 2006 ISBN 1-904482-29-5 Price Group Q © The Concrete Centre Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park, Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey, GU17 9AB Tel: +44 (0)700 4 500 500 www.concretecentre.com CI/Sfb A cement and concrete industry publication M R Willford CEng MIMechE and P Young CEng MIMechE CCIP-016 A Design Guide for Footfall Induced Vibration of Structures Footfall Induced Vibration cover1 1 Footfall Induced Vibration cover1 1 08/12/2006 15:42:26 08/12/2006 15:42:26
- 2. A cement and concrete industry publication Published for The Concrete Centre by The Concrete Society CCIP-016 Published November 2006 ISBN 1-904482-29-5 Price Group Q © The Concrete Centre The Concrete Centre Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park, Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey GU17 9AB Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800 Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801 www.concretecentre.com CCIP publications are produced by The Concrete Society (www.concrete.org.uk) on behalf of the Cement and Concrete Industry Publications Forum – an industry initiative to publish technical guidance in support of concrete design and construction. CCIP publications are available from the Concrete Bookshop at www.concretebookshop.com Tel: +44 (0)7004 607777 All advice or information from The Concrete Centre is intended for those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice or information is accepted by The Concrete Centre or its subcontractors, suppliers or advisors. Readers should note that publications are subject to revision from time to time and should therefore ensure that they are in possession of the latest version. Printed by Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, UK. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of their colleagues at Arup to the validation of the methods described in this guide, in particular Caroline Field, Kathy Gubbins, Kubilay Hicyilmaz and Mark Arkinstall. Professor Aleksander Pavic of Sheffield University also provided additional validation data from his own independent research projects. The authors would like to thank Dr Stuart Kerr for providing the data which is the basis of the footfall forces used here. Finally, special thanks are due to Professor Tom Wyatt of Imperial College London, who was the independent peer reviewer for this document. Footfall Induced Vibration cover2 2 Footfall Induced Vibration cover2 2 08/12/2006 15:43:14 08/12/2006 15:43:14
- 3. A Design Guide for Footfall Induced Vibration of Structures Contents Nomenclature 2 1. Introduction 5 2. Understanding footfall induced vibration 6 3. Quantifying vibration 13 4. Predicting footfall induced vibration of structures 22 5. Worked examples 41 References 61 Glossary 62 Appendix A. Evaluating modal properties of a structure 66 Appendix B. Procedures for measuring floor response 75 Appendix C. Validation 79 Footfall Induced Vibration of St1 1 06/12/2006 16:29:48
- 4. Nomenclature a momentary acceleration at total acceleration response in all modes ah acceleration due to hth harmonic areal,h aimag,h real and imaginary parts of the acceleration due to the hth harmonic ah,m acceleration due to hth harmonic in mth mode areal,h,m aimag,h,m real and imaginary parts of the acceleration in the mth mode due to the hth harmonic b shorter dimension of rib C, Cx , Cy torsional rigidity of ribs, torsional rigidity of ribs in shorter spanning direction, torsional rigidity of ribs in longer transverse direction d longer dimension of rib Dx flexural rigidity in the shorter spanning direction Dy flexural rigidity in the longer transverse direction Dxy slab torsional rigidity DLF dynamic load factor E Young’s modulus Fh harmonic force f, fm frequency, frequency of mode m (Hz) fn natural frequency (Hz) fw walking frequency (paces per second) (Hz) f0 natural frequency of bay assumed to be one-way spanning only h harmonic number G shear modulus H torsional stiffness parameter Ieff effective impulse j number of half sines in the longer, transverse direction k number of half sines in the shorter spanning direction Kf first mode frequency correction factor for a two-way spanning slab Kfm frequency correction factor for slab with back span Kim multiplier on first mode impulsive response to account for other modes Kmm modal mass correction factor for a slab with back span Krm multiplier on first mode resonant response to account for other modes l stride length L span m mass per unit length or mass per unit area m, mm modal mass, modal mass of the mth mode N number of footsteps P static weight of walker r ratio of the natural frequency of a structure, fn , to walking speed, fw R, Rh response factor, response factor due to hth harmonic RMS root mean square s beam spacing t time ˆ ˆ Footfall Induced Vibration of St2 2 06/12/2006 16:29:48
- 5. Nomenclature t slab thickness T period of vibration Ta RMS averaging period v momentary velocity v peak velocity vm velocity response in the mth mode vm peak velocity in the mth mode VDV vibration dose value W width x momentary position or displacement x when referring to a direction or property of a floor plate, the suffix x denotes the transverse (or wider) direction of the floor (see Figures 4.8 and A2) xRMS , vRMS , aRMS RMS displacement, velocity or acceleration xR = 1 vR = 1 aR = 1 displacement, velocity or accelerations corresponding to R = 1 X displacement amplitude y when referring to a direction or property of a floor plate, the suffix y denotes the spanning (or shorter) direction of the floor (see Figures 4.8 and A2) ζ , ζm modal damping, modal damping of mode m (fraction of critical damping or percentage of critical damping) μ mode shape value μe , μr mode shape value at excitation point, mode shape value at response point μe,m μr,m mode shape values at excitation and response points in mth mode v Poisson’s ratio ρ , ρh,m resonant correction factor, resonant correction factor for the hth harmonic and the mth mode ω angular frequency, radians per second ˆ ˆ Footfall Induced Vibration of St3 3 06/12/2006 16:29:48
- 6. Footfall Induced Vibration of St4 4 06/12/2006 16:29:48
- 7. Introduction 1. Introduction This guide describes a reliable methodology for predicting the vertical vibration induced by pedestrians crossing structures such as floors and bridges. Many methods already exist1, 2, 3,4, 5 but each of these is significantly limited in some respect. A full discussion of these limitations can be found elsewhere6, 7 . The method presented here addresses all of the issues described below in a consistent manner: n It is applicable to any type of structure on which people walk, including floors and bridges. n It is applicable to structures of any form or construction material, e.g. steel, composite, reinforced or pre-stressed concrete or timber structures, and enables reliable comparisons to be made between designs of different forms and materials. n Complex irregular structures can be assessed as reliably as simple regular ones. n The footfall forcing functions recommended are based on a very extensive set of measured data, and these loads and the likelihood of their occurrence have been statistically quantified. n The methodology has been extensively validated and independently peer reviewed. n The method has been used routinely and regularly on design projects around the world for the past five years, and its accuracy is validated by many measurements of completed structures. n It interfaces well with modern engineering design methods and software packages. The method described in this guide is based on the well-established principles of modal analysis.This enables first principles calculations to be made, and unlike most other methods, it does not require the introduction of arbitrary or empirical factors. This makes it a robust approach for the assessment of any type of structure of any construction material. The method is appropriate for calculating the vibration caused by a single pedestrian walking on a flat surface on any structure which is significantly heavier (by at least a factor of 10) than the individual. Whilst very simple regular structures can be assessed entirely by hand or spreadsheet calculation, it is envisaged that the method will be used principally in conjunction with finite element analysis as a means of estimating the modal properties of floor and bridge structures. Whilst this might be seen as an added complexity, in practice the additional accuracy that finite element analysis of less regular structures brings to the assessment more than outweighs the modest additional effort associated with building and analysing a model. The method was developed within Arup and refined by reference to the measured per- formance of completed structures over a period of ten years. It has been independently reviewed by Professor T A Wyatt of Imperial College London. It is published here as a Cement and Concrete Industry publication but it is applicable to structures of any con- struction material. Footfall Induced Vibration of St5 5 06/12/2006 16:29:48
- 8. -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 Dynamic force (N) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Time (secs) Force time history b10105 (757 N) -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 Dynamic force (N) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Time (secs) Force time history a50503 (1023 N) -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 Dynamic force (N) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Time (secs) Force time history 820n05 (701 N) -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 Dynamic force (N) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Time (secs) Force time history 126n15 (925 N) 2. Understanding footfall induced vibration When people walk on floors, staircases, bridges or other structures they apply dynamic forces that cause the structures to vibrate. The vibration displacement amplitude is normally very small (micrometres rather than millimetres) and is not perceptible visually or significant in terms of structural integrity. However it can often be felt by other people and, if excessive, can be distracting and detrimental to the perceived quality of the structure. Vibration can also impair the function of sensitive equipment in buildings such as laboratories and precision manufacturing facilities. In order to assess how a structure responds to forces induced by walking persons it is necessary to understand: n The forces applied to the structure. n The dynamic properties of the structure (mode shapes, natural frequencies, damping etc.). n The way in which the structure responds to the applied forces. Each of these is discussed in the following sections. The dynamic forces applied to the ground by a walking person can be measured directly by walking experiments using instrumented force plates or platforms. Four example measured footfall time histories11 are shown in Figure 2.1. These show the total dynamic 2.1 Footfall forces Figure 2.1 Examples of measured footfall force time histories. Footfall Induced Vibration of St6 6 06/12/2006 16:29:49
- 9. Understanding footfall induced vibration component of the force applied to a structure by both feet during the period of several footfalls. In normal walking there are typically between 1.5 and 2.5 steps per second (average about 1.8) and so the period of one footfall is typically just over 0.5 seconds. The static weight of the individual has been subtracted from the measurements as it does not vary with time and so does not induce any dynamic response. The four time histories are very different in both shape and magnitude. Extensive research10 has shown that factors which contribute to this variation include height, gender, footwear, weight, walking surface and walking speed. Given the extent of this variability, there is no single ‘correct’ force that can be used to calculate structural response, but it is instead appropriate to adopt values that are statistically representative and have an arbitrary but known probability of exceedence. In this guide, mean dynamic forces and their coefficients of variation are presented which have been derived from 882 measured footfall time histories10 . Design forces are proposed which have a 25% probability of exceedence. All structures have what are known as natural modes of vibration, and each of these modes has a unique spatial distribution of displacement (known as the mode shape), natural frequency of vibration, modal mass and modal damping associated with it. The natural modes are a structure’s ‘preferred’ patterns of vibration – the modes in which it will vibrate if excited by a sudden impact. These concepts are defined formally in the glossary and illustrated by example below. Consider the short bridge shown in Figure 2.2a, idealised as a uniform simply supported beam. Some of its lowest modes of vibration could be excited by someone performing a single jump at mid-span. This would cause the bridge to vibrate, and the displacement history at mid-span in the first mode would be as shown in Figures 2.2b and 2.2c. The vibration displacement, velocity and acceleration all vary sinusoidally with time at the natural frequency of the mode, which depends on the stiffness, mass and span of the bridge. The amplitude of vibration decays with time at a rate dependent on the damping, but during this decay the frequency and spatial distribution of the vibration do not change. Neither the frequency nor mode shape of the vibration depends on how high the person jumps (assuming linear elastic response) – but the initial amplitude of vibration is affected by the jump height. The motion in one vibration mode following a single impact is known as damped simple harmonic motion, and a rigorous mathematical description of this can be found in dynamics textbooks11 . In fact, the bridge has many modes of vertical vibration, the first three of which are shown in Figure 2.3. A mode can’t be excited by forces applied at a position of zero displacement in the mode. In this case, therefore, whilst the first and third modes would be excited by a jump at mid-span, the second would only respond if the person jumped elsewhere on the 2.2 Dynamic properties of a structure Footfall Induced Vibration of St7 7 06/12/2006 16:29:49
- 10. bridge. Jumping at the quarter point, for instance, would excite all three modes, but would excite the first mode (also known as the fundamental mode) less effectively than would a jump at mid-span. Figure 2.2 A simply spanning bridge excited impulsively at mid-span. (a) A bridge as a simply supported beam (b) The first mode of vibration (c) The displacement of mid-span after someone jumps once at mid-span Figure 2.3 The first three bending modes of a simply supported beam. The methodology described in this guide requires an assessment of the modal properties (that is, frequency, mode shape, modal mass and damping) of all the relevant modes of the structure. Details of how this can be done are described in Appendix A. Whilst for some simple and regular structures (e.g. uniform beams, regular simply supported floor bays) analytical solutions can be used, the easiest general method is finite element analysis, which is now widely accessible in design offices. Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Footfall Induced Vibration of St8 8 06/12/2006 16:29:50
- 11. Understanding footfall induced vibration Rather than jumping on the bridge, the person described above is more likely to want to walk across it. In so doing, he or she applies a periodically varying dynamic force (such as shown in Figure 2.1) to the bridge, and the bridge responds dynamically to this force time history. Initially, let us assume that the bridge is long and that the point of application of the load can be considered as stationary at mid-span (i.e. the pedestrian is effectively walking on the spot at the middle of the bridge). The response of the bridge to the repeated application of this force depends on several factors, the most important being: n the stiffness and mass of the bridge. n the damping of the bridge. n the ratio (r) of the bridge’s natural frequency (fn ) to the pacing frequency (fw ), as given in Equation 2.1: (2.1) The influence of the frequency ratio r can be illustrated using one of the force time histories described in section 2.1 above. Consider one in which the person is walking at 2.0 footfalls/second (Hz) and assume that the bridge has a modal mass of 10 tonnes, damping of 1% of critical and that the natural frequency of the bridge is either 3Hz or 4Hz. As natural frequency is proportional to √(stiffness/mass) and the masses of the two bridges are identical, the 4Hz bridge must be about 77% stiffer than the 3Hz bridge. The velocity time histories calculated at the centre of the bridge are as shown in Figure 2.4. 2.3 Structural response to footfall forces r = fn fw 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 x 10 −3 Time [secs] Velocity [m/s] Bridge response at midspan, 1% damping f n = 3Hz f n = 4Hz Figure 2.4 Velocity time histories calculated at mid-span for a person walking at 2.0 steps per second on a 3Hz and a 4Hz bridge. Footfall Induced Vibration of St9 9 06/12/2006 16:29:50
- 12. 10 It is seen that the vibration response of the two structures is significantly different. For the 4Hz bridge, the vibration builds up over time such that the response after several footfalls is significantly greater than after the first. This is a ‘resonance’ phenomenon, in which the vibrations induced by each footfall reinforce the vibration generated by previous footfalls. For the 3Hz bridge this is not the case, and the response is similar at each footfall. The maximum response of the 4Hz (stiffer) bridge is significantly greater than that of the less stiff, but otherwise identical, structure. A natural extension of this analysis is to calculate such velocity time histories for many more values of r and to graph the variation of maximum response velocity with r. This is similar to the development of a velocity ‘response spectrum’ under seismic excitation. Figures 2.5a and 2.5b below show the results of such analysis, averaged across all of the 882 measured force time histories (rather than just the one mentioned above) for a 10 tonne structure with 3% of critical damping. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 10 −3 Peak velocities, 3% damping r = fn / fw Peak vel, [m/s] 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 10 −4 Peak velocities, 3% damping r = fn / fw Peak vel, [m/s] Figure 2.5a Averaged peak velocity response spectrum for 882 footfall force time histories for r 0.6. Figure 2.5b As Figure 2.5a, but showing more detail for r 1.5. Footfall Induced Vibration of St10 10 06/12/2006 16:29:51
- 13. 11 In these graphs it can be seen that, in general, the vibration response reduces as r (the ratio of a structure’s modal frequency to footfall rate) increases. However, there are ‘peaks’ in the response spectra at particular ‘whole number’ values of r. If r is close to 1.0 then the footfall rate equals the natural frequency of the mode, and the mode responds strongly in resonance to the ‘first harmonic’ of the footfall forces. If r is close to 2.0, the mode responds resonantly to the ‘second harmonic’ of the footfall forces, and so on. These resonances lead to significantly greater response when r is close to 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 or 4.0 than arises for intermediate values of r. For r 4 there is much less sensitivity to the exact value of r. Inspection of the time histories shows that the response does not build up over time, and the response to each individual footfall is comparable. At high values of r the velocity response is characterised by an initial peak response (such as that produced by a single impulse) followed by a de- caying sinusoid similar to that illustrated in Figure 2.2c (and 3.2).The non-resonant response can therefore be treated as repeating impulsive responses to individual foot impacts. Figure 2.6 shows the effect of varying the damping of the structure. It can be seen that the magnitude of resonant response for whole number values of r is strongly dependent on both the damping of the structure and the harmonic number. Impulsive response (that is, away from ‘whole number’ values of r and for r 4) is much less sensitive to damping. Figure 2.6a Average peak velocity response spectrum for different values of damping. Understanding footfall induced vibration 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 Peak velocities r = fn / fw Peak vel [m/s] 1% damping 3% damping 5% damping Footfall Induced Vibration of St11 11 06/12/2006 16:29:51
- 14. 12 The above generic analyses show that if a person can walk at a footfall rate that is a factor of 1, 2, 3 or 4 lower than the natural frequency of a mode, then resonance is possible, and this will lead to vibration levels greater than walking at slightly different footfall rates. For values of r greater than approximately 4.2, there is a general trend of decreasing response with higher structural frequency, but there is little evidence of resonant response and far less sensitivity to the exact value of r. As footfall rates typically vary between 1.5Hz and 2.5Hz, then any structure with modal frequencies between 1.5Hz and 10.5Hz (~4.2 × 2.5Hz) is potentially susceptible to the higher responses due to resonance. For structural modes with natural frequencies sufficiently high that they cannot be excited by the fourth harmonic (i.e. natural frequencies greater than approximately 10.5Hz), then vibrations will not significantly exceed the impulsive response due to a single footfall. If the damping is very low, then in theory resonance to the fifth and sixth harmonics could produce a higher response, but this is not usually of practical concern because successive footfalls are not completely identical, and this reduces the magnitude of the higher harmonics. Many structures have several modes that may simultaneously experience significant responses to footfalls, and practical prediction methods must allow for this. Whilst the determination of modal properties of the structure is the same, it is convenient to have different approaches for the calculation of resonant and impulsive vibration responses. Therefore structures with vertical natural frequencies less than 4.2 times the fastest walking frequency should be designed for resonant response using the methods described in section 4.2 below, and structures with all vertical natural frequencies higher than 4.2 times the fastest walking frequency should be designed for impulsive response using the methods described in section 4.3. Figure 2.6b Peak velocities. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 x 10 −3 Peak velocities r = fn / fw Peak vel [m/s] 1% damping 3% damping 5% damping Footfall Induced Vibration of St12 12 06/12/2006 16:29:52
- 15. 13 Quantifying vibration 3. Quantifying vibration Before attempting to predict vibration levels, it is necessary to understand how vibration is described quantitatively. Generic terms, and those that refer specifically to footfall induced vibration, are described below. Typical performance targets are also given for structures of differing usage. At least two parameters are required to define vibration quantitatively. Formal definitions of some of these are included in the Glossary but the metrics generally refer either to the magnitude of vibration (e.g. the amplitude of motion) or the cyclic rate at which it occurs (e.g. the frequency). Consider first a system which vibrates such that its displacement is a sinusoidal function of time, as shown in Figure 3.1. This is known as simple harmonic motion. The relationship between displacement (x) and time (t) is given in Equation 3.1: x = X sin ωt (3.1) 3.1 Generic measures of vibration x Time T Figure 3.1 Displacement time history for vibration with a period T and an amplitude X. This vibration has a period of T and a frequency (f) of 1/T cycles per unit time. If T is mea- sured in seconds then the unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz) and f is the number of vibration cycles per second. Frequency is sometimes expressed as angular frequency (ω) which is the number of radians per second; there are 2π radians in a cycle. Period, frequency and angular frequency are therefore related by the following equations: ω = 2πf (3.2) f = 1 T Footfall Induced Vibration of St13 13 06/12/2006 16:29:52
- 16. 14 The amplitude of the vibration is the maximum displacement from rest. The time history shown in Figure 3.1 has an amplitude of X. It is more common in the context of floor vibration to talk about velocity (v) and accele- ration (a) than displacement. Velocity is the first derivative of displacement with respect to time, and acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time. For simple harmonic motion, as shown in Figure 3.1, the derivatives of the displacement function are: v = Xω cos ωt a = –Xω2 sin ωt (3.3) and so the amplitudes of the velocity and acceleration are Xω and Xω2 respectively. The frequency of the velocity and the acceleration are the same as those of the displacement. A single value of amplitude and frequency completely define simple harmonic motion. However, the measured velocity of a floor excited by walking may be like that shown in Figure 3.2, and clearly neither the amplitude nor the frequency are constant. Figure 3.2 A measured velocity time history for a pedestrian walking at 100 paces per minute. Footfall Induced Vibration of St14 14 06/12/2006 16:29:53
- 17. 15 Quantifying vibration The peak velocity amplitude (0.12mm/s in this case) can be a useful measure in certain circumstances, but may not be very representative of the vibration as a whole if, for instance, one isolated peak is significantly higher than the rest of the signal. A measure of the average amplitude is the root mean square, or RMS, evaluated over a certain averaging period, Ta . The RMS response is calculated using Equation 3.4 and involves first squaring the velocity at every instant (making all values positive), finding the average of the squared values over the specified time interval, and taking the square root of this average. For simple harmonic motion the RMS value is equal to 1/√2, or 70.7% of the peak value. For the measured trace in Figure 3.2, the RMS averaged over the 4 second period is 0.036mm/s, which is approximately 30% of the peak value: (3.4) 3.2 Human response to vibration Where human perception of vibration is the primary concern (as opposed to the operation of sensitive equipment) vibration performance is sometimes expressed in terms of peak or RMS acceleration or velocity. Sometimes a ‘response factor’ is specified, and sometimes the ‘Vibration Dose Value’, or VDV, is used. The background to these parameters is out- lined in the following section. People are more sensitive to vibration at some frequencies than at others. BS 64728 specifies base curves for human perception of continuous vibration which depend on the frequency and the orientation of the vibration relative to the axes of the human body. For the head-to-toe axis (z), the RMS acceleration level corresponding to the average threshold of perception is plotted in Figure 3.3. In the most sensitive frequency range, between 4Hz and 8Hz, the criterion is one of constant acceleration. Above 8Hz the criterion is one of constant velocity, which appears on Figure 3.3 as an acceleration increasing linearly with frequency. 3.2.1 Perception of vibration xrms = 1 Ta ∫ x2 dt t t+Ta Footfall Induced Vibration of St15 15 06/12/2006 16:29:54
- 18. 16 Figure 3.3 Baseline RMS acceleration in the head-to-toe (z) axis. The response factor (R) is simply a multiplier on the level of vibration at the average thres- hold of human perception. Therefore a response factor of 1 represents the magnitude of vibration that is just perceptible by a typical human, a response factor of 2 is twice that, and a response factor of 8 is eight times that. If the vibration is predominantly at one frequency, then the baseline RMS acceleration for R = 1 can be found from Figure 3.3, and the response factor is calculated simply by dividing the calculated (or measured) RMS acceleration by the baseline RMS acceleration at that frequency. If the vibration contains a range of frequencies, then a rigorous calculation of the response factor involves passing the predicted or measured acceleration time history through a band pass weighting filter before evaluating the RMS value. This process is described in Appendix B and is particularly useful for determining the response factor from measured data. 3.2.2 Response factor Building vibration Z-axis Base curve for acceleration (RMS) Frequency/Hz Acceleration (RMS) /m/s 2 Footfall Induced Vibration of St16 16 06/12/2006 16:29:55
- 19. 17 Quantifying vibration The response factor corresponding to footfall induced vibration predicted by analysis may be estimated in the following ways. Resonant response Evaluate the acceleration response to each of the first four harmonic forces and calculate response factors for each using the base value for R = 1 from Figure 3.3 for each of the four frequencies. Then calculate the total response factor as the ‘square root sum of the squares’ of the four (Equation 4.8). This procedure is explained in section 4.2.2. Impulsive response Calculate the total RMS velocity over a 1-second averaging period (which will be approxi- mately equal to that evaluated over the period of one footstep) and convert this to a response factor using the RMS base value for R = 1 for the frequency of the dominant mode in the response.This dominant mode will often be the fundamental mode. This procedure is explained in section 4.3.2. Usually the impulsive response calculation will be performed for floors having natural frequencies above 8Hz wherethe constantvelocity criterion applies (vR=1 = 1 x 10–4 m/s RMS). The response factor R is a measure of perceptibility relative to the threshold of perception of humans to continuous vibrationof constantamplitude. However, footfall induced vibration is never of constant amplitude and seldom continuous and these factors (i.e. distribution of vibration amplitude and how often it occurs) affect people’s acceptance of vibration. The ‘Vibration Dose Value’, or VDV, is a measure of vibration over a longer period of time that endeavours to account for these factors. It is defined in Appendix B of BS 64728 (Equation 3.5 below), and can be readily measured using standard equipment and simple signal processing.The VDV is based on the fourth power of acceleration, which means that the magnitude of vibration is weighted much more than the duration. For example, doubling the vibration amplitude will double the VDV, but doubling the duration will result in an increase of just 19%. (3.5) In order to predict a VDV at the design stage, the engineer needs to assess how often vibration of particular levels will occur and for how long the ‘recipient’ is likely to be exposed to it. Human acceptance of vibration is very subjective. A level of vibration that causes one individual to complain might be unnoticed by another. Similarly, vibration that causes concern or distraction for an individual sitting in a quiet office could be quite acceptable to the same person walking around a shopping centre. Typical current vibration acceptance criteria attempt to take this subjectivity into account by specifying different targets for different environments. 3.2.3 Duration effects 3.3 Vibration performance targets 3.3.1 Background to performance targets for human acceptance VDV = (∫ a4 (t)dt) 0.25 T 0 Footfall Induced Vibration of St17 17 06/12/2006 16:29:55
- 20. 18 When assessing the dynamic performance of a floor or similar structure at the design stage, it is common practice to calculate the maximum representative vibration level that is likely to occur and to compare this to acceptance criteria. Measurements on completed floors are conventionally assessed in a similar manner, e.g. floor response is recorded for a significant period and the worst 1 second of response is used as a basis for compliance. BS 64728 sets out criteria in terms of levels of continuous vibration at which the probability of adverse comment is low. These are summarised in Table 3.1 as multiples (R values) of the threshold of perception curve: Environment Frequency (Hz) Critical working areas 1 Residence - day 2–4 - night 1.4 Office 4 Workshop 8 BS 64728 advises that if these levels are doubled, then adverse comment may result, and this may increase significantly if values are quadrupled. This places into context the fuzziness of these criteria; achievement of these levels should result in a low probability of adverse comment (but not zero probability), but at twice these levels adverse comment may result. Significant changes to a floor design may be required to halve the expected vibration level, and hence there is a cost associated with achieving a rather vague degree of improvement in subjective performance.The selection of criteria is therefore a matter of risk/cost balance, and this cannot be laid down rigidly for every circumstance. Criteria for non-continuous vibration would be expected to be somewhat less onerous than those for continuous. The vibration dose value (VDV) method described in Appendix B of BS 64728 (and section 3.2 above) can be used to assess intermittent vibration explicitly, but conventional criteria for footfall induced vibration implicitly consider the intermittency of vibration that is normal for particular types of building usage. The acceptability of a given dynamic performance is based on a limited base of unsolicited adverse feedback from users. Finally, it should be emphasised that since these criteria refer to human acceptance, small variations in performance (10% to 20%) are unlikely to be noticeable; a significant change in terms of perceptibility would generally require a change in vibration level by a factor of two. Similarly a response factor of 3.9 is little different from 4.1, both would be perceived equally by an individual and so binary pass/fail decisions based on the second significant figure should be avoided. Table 3.1 Levels of critical vibration at which probability of adverse comment is low. Footfall Induced Vibration of St18 18 06/12/2006 16:29:55
- 21. 19 3.2.2.1 Commercial buildings If footfall vibration is intermittent and the worst vibration levels experienced fall below R = 8, this is almost always satisfactory for commercial buildings such as offices, retail, restaurants, airports and the like where some people are seated.This recommendation is consistent with those of the SCI 0762 , CEB, AISC1 and Canadian Codes. This is twice the level proposed by BS 64728 for continuous vibration. However, there are instances in which some people have registered complaints at this vibration level, particularly when it occurs regularly. Whilst a performance of R 8 can be achieved with most current forms of floor construction without special changes, checks should be made on a case-by-case basis. At the design stage, the vibration prediction methods proposed here (and in other recom- mendations) are based on a single person walking at the most critical footfall rate. However, somewhat higher levels of vibration can sometimes be generated by many people walking, and in busy places the vibration may be close to ‘continuous’ rather than intermittent. In addition, for special, high-quality spaces, a lower target is advisable to further reduce the (low) risk of complaint. The target of R 8 for single person excitation should therefore be reduced by a factor of up to 2 in circumstances such as the following: n Premium quality open-plan offices and when precision tasks are to be undertaken. n Open-plan offices with busy corridor zones near mid-span. n Heavily trafficked public areas with seating. This target might be relaxed by a factor of up to 1.5 for floors with many full height partitions (when partitions have not been explicitly included in the prediction analysis, as described in section 3.3.2.4 below). 3.3.2.2 Residential buildings The BS 64728 criteria for residential buildings are largely based on experience with external sources of vibration such as railways and roads. The criteria are more onerous than for offices, especially during night-time, and it is not clear that such stringent levels are really necessary for vibration caused by occupants of the residence themselves walking. In general it is recommended that values of twice those proposed by BS 6472 for continuous vibration in residences be adopted for footfall induced vibration. 3.3.2.3 Hospitals Requirements for NHS hospitals are specified in HTM 20459 . These take the form of the BS 64728 criteria for continuous vibration and VDV values for intermittent vibration. For ward areas the criteria are the same as those for residences in BS 6472. If the VDV approach is to be used then assumptions about how often predicted levels of vibration will occur are required; at the design stage these assumptions should be agreed with the client and any other interested parties, based on the volume, continuity and speed of pedestrian move- ment expected in each part of the building. In the absence of such agreed assumptions, it is conservative to consider the predicted footfall induced vibration to be continuous. Quantifying vibration 3.3.2 Performance targets for floors Footfall Induced Vibration of St19 19 06/12/2006 16:29:55
- 22. 20 HTM 20459 states that for operating theatres the requirement for R 1 should be applied to intermittent as well as continuous vibration, and any relaxation of this should be agreed with the client. 3.3.2.4 Effect of partitions The presence of full height partitions of masonry, studwork or glass significantly alters the dynamic properties of floors, leading to lower vibration levels. In many cases (particularly residential and hospital usage) the presence of partitions is integral to the function of the floor spaces. In these circumstances it is appropriate to include the partitions in their proposed layout in an analysis model of the floor plate (if this is necessary) to demonstrate that the required criteria are met. Part-height and moveable partitions cannot be relied upon to alter the footfall response. BS 54003 provides guidance on the acceptable levels of vertical vibration for footbridges. This is well founded for long span, low frequency (3Hz) external footbridges. Though all footbridges should normally comply with these limits, the performance criteria given below are a refinement of these and are applicable for bridges of all spans and natural frequencies. They may also be applied to internal ramps and suspended walkways. These criteria are for single person excitation at the most critical footfall rate. n For external bridges generally R 64. n For indoor bridges generally R 32. n For indoor bridges that are not particularly lightweight, or are exposed, high in an atrium or heavily trafficked R ~ 24. Criteria for sensitive equipment are often specified by manufacturers in terms of RMS velocity. In the absence of such data, the table below can be used as a guide. These are generic vibration criteria specified by BBN and ASHRAE4, 14 . Note the confusing labelling system whereby the ASHRAE criteria are labelled from A to J, becoming increasingly less onerous. BBN criteria are labelled from A to E, becoming more onerous. BBN A is equiva- lent to ASHRAE E. The equivalent response factors (R) are also included. The maximum RMS velocity specified is that for a single one-third octave band. It is usual for this to be in the region of 70% of the total RMS. This can be checked in detail at the prediction stage by passing the predicted velocity time history through a set of one-third octave band pass filters. Alternatively, the response in a particular one-third octave can be calculated using the methods described in sections 4.1 and .4.2, but using only those modes in that one-third octave. 3.3.3 Performance targets for bridges, ramps and walkways 3.3.4 Performance targets for vibration sensitive facilities Footfall Induced Vibration of St20 20 06/12/2006 16:29:55
- 23. 21 Criterion curve Max. velocity level* µm/sec (RMS) Detail size** microns Description of use Workshop (ISO2631 and BS6472) R = 8, ASHRAE J 800 N/A Distinctly perciptible vibration. Appropriate to workshops and non-sensitive areas. Office (ISO2631 and BS6472) R = 4, ASHRAE I 400 N/A Perceptible vibration. Appropriate to offices and non-sensitive areas. Residential day (ISO2631 and BS6472) R = 2, ASHRAE H 200 75 Barely perceptible vibration. Appropriate to sleep areas in most instances. Probably ade- quate for computer equipment, probe test equipment and low-power (to 20X) micro- scopes. Operating theatre (ISO2631 and BS6472) R = 1, ASHRAE F 100 25 Threshold of perception. Suitable for sensi- tive sleep areas. Suitable in most instances for microscopes to 100X and for other equipment of low sensitivity. VC-A (BBN-A or ASHRAE E) R = 0.5 50 8 Adequate in most instances for optical microscopes to 100X, microbalances, optical balances, proximity and projection aligners, etc. VC-B (BBN-B or ASHRAE D) R = 0.25 25 3 An appropriate standard for optical micro- scopes to 1000X, inspection and lithography equipment (including steppers) to 3 micron line widths. VC-C (BBN-C or ASHRAE C) R = 0.125 12.5 1 A good standard for most lithography and inspection equipment to 1-micron detail size. VC-D (BBN-D or ASHRAE B) R = 0.0625 6 0.3 Suitable in most instances for the most demanding equipment including electron microscopes (TEMs and SEMs) and E-Beam systems, operating to the limits of their capability. VC-E (BBN-E or ASHRAE A) R = 0.03125 3 0.1 A difficult criterion to achieve in most instances. Assumed to be adequate for the most demanding of sensitive systems including long path, laser-based, small target systems and other systems requiring extraordinary dynamic stability. Notes * As measured in one-third octave bands of frequency over the frequency range 8 to 100 Hz. ** The detail size refers to the line widths for microelectronics fabrication, the particle(cell) size for medical and pharmaceutical research, etc. the values given take into account the observation that the vibration requirements of many items depend upon the detail size of the process. Table 3.2 Generic vibration criteria for sensitive equipment. Quantifying vibration Footfall Induced Vibration of St21 21 06/12/2006 16:29:55
- 24. 22 4. Predicting footfall induced vibration of structures This chapter presents methods for calculating the footfall induced vibration of structures. A detailed and generally applicable method is outlined, utilising the modal properties of the structure which may be estimated by a number of methods, as described in Appendix A. In addition, a simplified method is given, suitable for certain simple regular structures and for checking more detailed assessments. As discussed in Chapter 2, there are two generic types of response, requiring different cal- culation types. One (section 4.2) is for resonant response and should be used for structures with vertical natural frequencies less than approximately 10Hz (‘low-frequency structures’). The other (section 4.3) is for impulsive response and should be used for structures whose lowest vertical natural frequency is above 10.5Hz (‘high frequency structures’). If a structure is potentially susceptible to both resonant and impulsive response, i.e. if the first vertical natural frequency is close to 4 times the maximum walking frequency, then both calcula- tions should be used and the results compared, to assess which excitation method is likely to generate the highest response. The detailed methods require the calculation of response in several modes of vibration. As this effectively means repeating the same calculation for all the relevant modes, the assessment is best done using a spreadsheet. Flowcharts outlining the spreadsheet proce- dure are included as are all the required equations. The simplified methods described in section 4.4 comprise an approximate assessment of the response of the first mode, and a means for accounting for the additional response in other modes. Worked examples for both low- and high-frequency structures are included in Chapter 5. All calculation methods require the use of dynamically consistent units. The following two sets of units are dynamically consistent. Set 1 Set 2 Mass kg tonnes Force and weight N kN Length m m Footfall induced vibration is sensitive to walking speed. In general, people walking faster have the potential to induce greater levels of vibration. For design purposes the following maximum footfall rates are proposed: Footbridges 2.5 footfalls/sec Corridor and circulation zones in any building 2.5 footfalls/sec Within office bays and residential rooms (i.e. not corridor zones) 2.0 footfalls/sec Within laboratories, operating theatres, and the like 1.8 footfalls/sec 4.1 Overview Table 4.1 Sets of dynamically consistent units. Table 4.2 Proposed maximum footfall rates for different environments. Footfall Induced Vibration of St22 22 06/12/2006 16:29:56
- 25. 23 Predicting footfall induced vibration of structures Figure 4.1 Procedure for evaluating the dynamic performance of a structure under footfall loading. Clearly, faster footfall rates are possible, but are associated with a low probability. The possibility of occasional exceedences of target acceptance criteria is implicit in the levels at which the criteria are set. The overall assessment and design procedure is summarised in a flowchart given in Figure 4.1. f1 f1 Find all modes up to 2 x f1 Find all modes up to 15Hz (Fig. 4.6) (Fig. 4.3) Footfall Induced Vibration of St23 23 06/12/2006 16:29:57
- 26. 24 Structures with natural frequencies less than about 10Hz (depending on maximum expec- ted footfall rate) are potentially susceptible to resonant response induced by the first four harmonics of footfall forces as described in chapter 2.These harmonics are sinusoidal forces applied to the structure at frequencies of 1, 2, 3 and 4 times the walking frequency.That is, someone walking at 2 steps per second applies sinusoidal forces that can generate resonant response at the harmonic forcing frequencies of 2Hz, 4Hz, 6Hz and 8Hz. To assess the response of the structure to walking at 2 steps per second, it is necessary to calculate the response in all modes to each of these harmonics and combine them. Further, as the response will be very sensitive to the exact walking speed (faster speeds not necessarily being worse), it is necessary to assess the response for all walking speeds that might induce significant resonant response. Harmonic force data and a calculation procedure are presented below for assessing the resonant response of a structure at a particular walking frequency. Section 5 includes worked examples which illustrate how the method should be used in practice. As discussed in chapter 2 there is considerable variation in both the shape and magnitude of footfall forces due to different individuals. Any measured footfall time history can be broken down into harmonic components and these can be plotted to illustrate the trends and variability. Kerr11 measured 882 such traces and Figure 4.2 plots the first four harmonics of each of these against excitation frequency (footfall rate × harmonic number) as dynamic load factors. (Dynamic load factor, or DLF, is the dynamic force expressed as a fraction of a person’s static weight. See Glossary for full definitions of DLF and Fourier analysis.) DLFs calculated by others are also included for comparison. It can be seen that there is a clear trend of increasing force with faster walking speed in the first harmonic, but that this is less clear in the higher harmonics. That there is no single ‘correct force’ is also apparent, but it is possible to calculate a ‘mean’ force, and to propose a ‘design force’ that has a quantifiable likelihood of exceedence. A simple expression for the mean force associated with each harmonic is given in Table 4.3 as a function of excitation frequency. Also given are the coefficients of variation for each harmonic and a ‘design’ force, suitable for serviceability assessment, calculated to have a 25% chance of exceedence. 4.2 Assessment of footfall induced vibration for structures with natural frequencies less than 10Hz 4.2.1 Harmonic footfall force loads Footfall Induced Vibration of St24 24 06/12/2006 16:29:58
- 27. 25 Predicting footfall induced vibration of structures 1st Harmonic 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 Frequency (Hz) DLF 4th Harmonic 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 Frequency (Hz) DLF 3rd Harmonic 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 Frequency (Hz) DLF 2nd Harmonic 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 Frequency (Hz) DLF Kerr Galbraith Barton Wheeler Ohlssen Rainer Ellis ~Mean Value Design Value Figure 4.2 The first four harmonics of footfall forces. Harmonic number, h Harmonic forcing frequency (Hz) Mean value (DLF) Coefficient of variation Design value (DLF) 1 1–2.8 0.37(f - 0.95), | 0.5 0.17 0.41(f - 0.95), | 0.56 2 2–5.6 0.054+0.0044f 0.40 0.069+0.0056f 3 3-8.4 0.026+0.0050f 0.40 0.033+0.0064f 4 4–11.2 0.010+0.0051f 0.40 0.013+0.0065f h4 11.2 0 0 Table 4.3 Average and design values and coefficients of variation of the footfall harmonics. Footfall Induced Vibration of St25 25 06/12/2006 16:29:59
- 28. 26 ˆ ρh,m = 1 – e –2πζmN This calculation is valid only for structures with vertical natural frequencies less than 4.2 times the maximum footfall rate. All modes with frequencies up to 15Hz can potentially contribute significant response and should be identified and included in the calculation. Appendix A describes how to calculate the natural modes of a structure. The frequency, modal mass and damping in each mode m needs to be known, denoted as fm , mm and ζm respectively in the equations below.The mode shape values at the excitation and response points in each mode, μe,m and μr,m , are also needed. As the total response is sensitive to footfall rate it is recommended that this calculation be done for all rates that are likely to occur. The output should therefore be a graph such as that shown in Figure 4.4, which plots total response factor R as a function of footfall rate. The calculation procedure is set out below and illustrated in Figure 4.3. The calculation predicts the extent of resonant build up that is possible under a limited number of cycles of harmonic loading; full details of how this is done for a structure with many modes can be found in dynamics textbooks11 . The maximum steady-state acceleration at resonance that could be attained with an unlimited number of forcing cycles (force amplitude F) at the most critical point on a structure of modal mass mm is given by: (4.1) Particularly for lightly damped structures excited by lower harmonics, many footfalls (perhaps greater than 30) would be required to generate this full resonant response. In practice, by the time this many steps have been taken the pedestrian may have moved off the structure completely, or at least he or she is likely to have moved away from the maximum point on the mode shape.To account for this, a correction factor ρ, for crossing a span of typical mode shape with a limited number of footsteps, N, is introduced: where N = 0.55 h L (4.2) l Here h is the harmonic number, m is the mode number, L is the span and l is the stride length. The equation assumes that an individual walks in the spanning direction from one line of support to the next.This factor effectively reduces the extent of full resonant build- up by a factor related to the damping and the number of footsteps to cross the span. The reduction factor is likely to be more significant for bridges than for floors, and can be (conservatively) omitted by assuming ρ = 1 (or N 10). The full procedure is set out step-by-step below. The concepts of real and imaginary accelerations are used when combining the responses in different modes. Although this might appear unnecessarily complex it is merely a mathematically convenient way of expressing the magnitude and phase relationship between the responses in each mode. The same calculation could be effected using a number of sine and cosine functions, though the equations become rather unwieldy. 4.2.2 Resonant response calculation procedure a = μe,m μr,m Fh 2ζm m Footfall Induced Vibration of St26 26 06/12/2006 16:29:59
- 29. 27 Predicting footfall induced vibration of structures Figure 4.3 Procedure for evaluating resonant response of a structure under footfall loading. damping and mode shape h Footfall Induced Vibration of St27 27 06/12/2006 16:30:05
- 30. 28 For a particular footfall rate, fw , it is required to calculate the response in each mode to each of the first four harmonics: Firstly, for each harmonic h, from h = 1 to h = 4. 1. Calculate the harmonic forcing frequency, fh : fh = hfw (4.3) 2. Calculate the harmonic force, Fh , at this harmonic frequency from Table 4.3: For each mode, m 3. Calculate the real and imaginary acceleration (areal,h,m , aimag, h, m ) in each mode: Fh = DLF.P where DLF is calculated from Table 4.3 (Design value) and P equals the static weight of the walker. (4.4) where Am = 1 – (fh fm ) 2 , Bm = 2ζm fh fm , ρ h,m is from equation 4.2 ζm can be estimated from Table A2 and fm , mm and μ are found using methods described in Appendix A. 4. Sum the real and imaginary responses in all modes to yield the total real and imaginary acceleration to this harmonic force, ah: areal,h = ∑areal,h,m ; aimag,h = ∑aimag,h,m (4.5) m m 5. Find the magnitude of this acceleration |ah | which is the total response in all modes to this harmonic (at this frequency): (4.6) |ah | = √areal,h 2 + aimag,h 2 aimag,h,m = (fh ) 2 Fh µr,m µe,m ρh,m Bm fm mm ^ Am 2 +Bm 2 areal,h,m = (fh ) 2 Fh µr,m µe,m ρh,m Am fm mm ^ Am 2 +Bm 2 ^ Footfall Induced Vibration of St28 28 06/12/2006 16:30:05
- 31. 29 Predicting footfall induced vibration of structures 6. Convert this acceleration to a response factor, Rh . First calculate the baseline peak acceleration for a response factor of 1 at this harmonic frequency, aR=1,h . Divide this into the total acceleration response for this harmonic: If fh 4Hz, aR=1,h = 0.0141 m/s2 √ fh If 4Hz fh 8Hz, aR=1,h = 0.0071 m/s2 If fh 8Hz, aR=1,h = 2.82πfh x 10–4 m/s2 Rh = |ah | aR=1,h (4.7) 7. Find the total response factor, R, which is the ‘square root sum of the squares’ combination of the response factor for each of the four harmonics. R = √R1 2 + R2 2 + R3 2 + R4 2 (4.8) 8. Repeat this calculation for other footfall rates and find the critical rate that generates the maximum response. The result of this calculation may be presented on a graph such as Figure 4.4 below. The response factors due to each harmonic, and the total response factor, are plotted against footfall rate. The maximum value of the ‘Total Response Factor’ curve (i.e. R = 8.5 for walking at 2.3Hz) is that which should be compared against the criteria given in section 4.3. Figure 4.4 Graph of response factors against walking frequency. The impulsive response of structures to footfall forces is characterised by an initial peak velocity followed by a decaying vibration at the natural frequency of the structure before the next footfall (e.g. Figure 3.2). Subsequent footfalls generate comparable responses and there is no tendency for the response to build up over time, as is the case for resonant response. 4.3 Assessment of the impulsive response of structures to footfall Walking frequency (Hz) Response factor First harmonic Second harmonic Third harmonic Fourth harmonic Total Footfall Induced Vibration of St29 29 06/12/2006 16:30:06
- 32. 30 The same footfall time histories for which the harmonic loads of Table 4.3 were derived have been used to calculate effective impulses for footfall on structures.The basis of these is a number of curves such as those in Figure 2.5. The effective impulse can be thought of as the equivalent ‘perfect impulse’ of infinitesimally short duration that induces the same peak structural response as the direct application of that footfall time history. It is found that this effective impulse is empirically related to the walking speed and the natural frequency of the structure. The mean effective impulse is given in Equation 4.9 below; the coefficient of variation is 0.4, and the serviceability ‘design’ impulse with a 25% chance of exceedence is given in Equation 4.10. Mean Ieff = 42 fw 1.43 / fn 1.30 Ns (4.9) Design Ieff = 54 fw 1.43 / fn 1.30 Ns (4.10) Note that these formulae provide the effective impulse in Ns units and that the walking frequency, fw , must be in Hz. If tonne/kN units are being used, then they are to be divided by 1,000. This calculation is valid for structures with vertical natural frequencies above 4Hz and should use all modes with frequencies less than twice the fundamental vertical frequency and with significant vertical participation at the excitation and response locations. For example, if the first active vertical mode is at 12Hz, then all vertical modes between 12Hz and 24Hz should be found and used in the response calculation. This procedure calculates the velocity time history due to a single footfall at a particular location. Faster walking speeds will induce greater responses, so it is only necessary to perform this calculation for the fastest anticipated walking speed. The direct output from the calculation is a velocity time history such as that shown in Figure 4.5a. From this, either peak or RMS velocities can be calculated. The RMS velocity may then be used to calculate a response factor and a VDV can be derived from the time history if required. The simulated time history for a series of footfalls is obtained simply by combining a series of these time histories, as shown in Figure 4.5c and this can be compared directly against the measured time history of Figure 3.2, included again here as Figure 4.5b. Although the two traces appear slightly different visually, the measured and predicted RMS velocities (by which the dynamic performance of the floor would be judged) correlate very well. A full calculation is included in example 3 of Chapter 5. 4.3.2 Impulsive response calculation procedure 4.3.1 Impulsive footfall loads Footfall Induced Vibration of St30 30 06/12/2006 16:30:06
- 33. 31 Predicting footfall induced vibration of structures Figures 4.5b and 4.5c Measured and predicted velocities at walking rate of 100 paces per minute. Figure 4.5a Simulated velocity time history due to a single footfall. Measured response Predicted response Footfall Induced Vibration of St31 31 06/12/2006 16:30:09
- 34. 32 Figure 4.6 Procedure for evaluating impulsive dynamic response to footfall loading. shape for each of these modes. might occur. Footfall Induced Vibration of St32 32 06/12/2006 16:30:11
- 35. 33 Predicting footfall induced vibration of structures The procedure is set out step-by-step below: 1. All modes with frequencies up to twice the fundamental frequency are calculated and an effective footfall impulse (Ieff ) for each mode is calculated from Equation 4.10. 2. The peak velocity in each mode, vm , is given by: (4.11) and from this the velocity response in each mode over the period of one footfall (vm (t) from t = 0 to t = T) is calculated using Equation 4.12: vm (t) = vm e –2πζfmt sin 2πfm t (4.12) 3. The total response to each footfall is found by summing the velocity responses in each mode in the time domain using Equation 4.13: (4.13) where v(t) is the total velocity at time t and N is the number of modes. From the resulting velocity time history, a RMS response can be evaluated over the period of one footfall: (4.14) 4. A response factor can be calculated by dividing this by the baseline RMS velocity for R = 1 (vR=1 ) at the fundamental frequency, f1 : If f1 8Hz vR=1 = 5 x 10–3 m/s If f1 8Hz vR=1 = 1.0 x 10–4 m/s and R = vRMS (4.15) vR=1 The variation of response with footfall rate can be determined as shown in Figure 4.7. The effective impulse, and therefore v(t) is proportional to fw 1.43 , but for faster footfall rates the next footfall occurs sooner (i.e. T is smaller), which increases the overall RMS response. The relationship between vRMS and footfall rate is therefore not quite linear, having an exponent slightly greater than 1. To calculate the maximum possible response, it is only necessary to calculate the response at the fastest walking speed. ˆ ˆ 2πf1 vm = µe,m µr,m leff,m mm ˆ ˆ v(t) = ∑vm (t) N m=1 vrms = 1 T ∫v(t)2 dt T o Footfall Induced Vibration of St33 33 06/12/2006 16:30:12
- 36. 34 Figure 4.7 Graph of impulsive response versus footfall rate. Whilst the detailed methods of the previous sections enable responses to be predicted for any structure, simplified methods are included below for certain regular rectangular floor bays of uniform properties which can be approximated reasonably well as simply supported plates having equal or different stiffnesses in the two orthogonal directions. This might apply to bays composed of flat slabs, ribbed slabs, coffer slabs and steel beam/composite slabs. Floor layouts that may be assessed using this method are shown in Figure 4.8. 4.4 Simplified and approximate methods for floors Figure 4.8 Floor layouts suitable for assessment using the approximate method. Footfall Induced Vibration of St34 34 06/12/2006 16:30:14
- 37. 35 In addition to use as quantitative estimators of floor response, the simplified methods also give some insight into the effects of changing key parameters on the vibration performance, indicating how a design might be developed to improve its dynamic performance. The most important limitation to the use of these methods is the degree to which the theoretical idealisation is representative of the actual structure. The methods work well when: n The edges of the floor bay are supported along their length by walls, a facade or rela- tively closely spaced columns (cf. Appendix A3, point 8). n The bay has uniform structural properties (e.g. constant slab thickness, identical ribs or beams at the same centres). It is further assumed that the response of the floor is characterised by the vibration at the middle of the floor due to walking near there. This method differs from those already presented in that it is based on the modal proper- ties of a single mode and response multipliers to account for the response of higher modes and the participation of adjacent bays. These multipliers are presented in simple design charts as a function of: n The aspect ratio W/L of the floor plate. n The flexural stiffnesses of the floor in the two orthogonal directions. n Relationships related to the properties of adjacent spans. The methodology is otherwise very similar to that already presented. The first stage is to find the modal properties of the first mode of the floor bay, and then either a resonant or an impulsive response is calculated, depending on the frequency of the floor. The effect of higher modes and adjacent spans is then incorporated. The calculation procedures are described below. The modal properties of floors such as those shown in Figure 4.8 can be calculated from the flexural rigidities of the slab in the two orthogonal directions (Dx and Dy ). The calculation of these rigidities is described in Appendix A for different floor constructions. For floors with adjacent parallel bays such as type (ii) of Figure 4.8, the modal properties of the long bay under consideration is first calculated ignoring the parallel bay, and then these properties are modified to reflect the presence of the adjacent bay, as described in section 4.4.1.2 Predicting footfall induced vibration of structures 4.4.1 Calculation of first mode properties Footfall Induced Vibration of St35 35 06/12/2006 16:30:14
- 38. 36 4.4.1.1 Calculation of the first mode properties of single long bay The natural frequency and modal mass of the first mode of the floor bay is given by: ; f1 = Kf f0 (4.16) (4.17) Kf is a multiplier on the natural frequency of the elements spanning in the ‘primary span’ direction to account for ‘two-way’ spanning, and is given in Figures 4.9a and 4.9b below as a function of the width/span ratio of the floor and the ratio of stiffnesses of the floor in the two orthogonal directions, Dx /DY . Figure 4.9a should be used for solid or ribbed concrete floors which can have significant torsional stiffness. Figure 4.9b should be used for steel composite floors in which the torsional stiffness of the steel members is likely to be negligible. m = mLW 4 ˆ Figure 4.9a Frequency factors for solid and ribbed concrete. Figure 4.9b Frequency factors for composite floors. f0 = π DY 2 mL4 Footfall Induced Vibration of St36 36 06/12/2006 16:30:16
- 39. 37 Predicting footfall induced vibration of structures 4.4.1.2 Incorporating the stiffness and mass contribution of adjacent bays For floors with an adjacent row of parallel bays, the modal mass and frequency should be further multiplied by factors Kmm and Kfm respectively from Figures 4.10a and 4.10b. Here the main bay under consideration has span La and the adjacent bay has span Lb . It is assumed that the mass per unit area, m, of the two bays is the same. The degree of inter- action between the bays is related to the ratio of their natural frequencies, fb /fa , in the span direction. In general, this may be expressed as: fb = Dy, b La 4 (4.18) fa Dy, a Lb 4 where the suffixes a and b refer to the two spans. And so, for floor arrangements such as type ii) in Figure 4.8: f1 = K fm Kf f0 (4.19) and m = mLWKmm (4.20) 4 ˆ 1 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 1. 6 1. 7 1. 8 1. 9 2 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =0.5 L b /L a =1.0 L b /L a =1.5 K mm fb/fa Lb /La =2.0 Lb /La =1.5 Lb /La =1.0 Lb /La =0.5 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 1 1.05 1. 1 1.15 1. 2 1.25 1. 3 1.35 1. 4 1.45 1. 5 Lb/La =0.5 Lb/La =1 Lb /La =1. 5 Lb/La =2 K fm fb /fa Figure 4.10a Modal mass factors for a bay with an adjacent parallel bay. Figure 4.10b Natural frequency factors for a bay with an adjacent parallel bay. Footfall Induced Vibration of St37 37 06/12/2006 16:30:17
- 40. 38 The resonant response for floors with f1 less than 10Hz is calculated as follows: 1. Calculate the peak resonant acceleration in the first mode a1 for the most critical walking speed using Equation 4.21: a1 = ρFh 2ζm (4.21) where Fh is the harmonic force amplitude appropriate to the floor bay frequency f1 (Table 4.3) and ρ is the resonant correction factor calculated from Equation 4.2. The critical walking speed is that which gives the highest harmonic force amplitude. Determine resonant response multiplier Krm from Figure 4.11a or 4.11b.The resonant response multiplier is the factor by which the resonant response in the first mode must be increased to account for the contribution of all the other modes. Again this factor is different for floors with significant torsional stiffness and so two plots are provided, one for solid and ribbed concrete floors and a second for steel composite floors. 2. Calculate total peak acceleration response: at = Krm a1 (4.22) 3. Calculate response factor, R R = at (4.23) 0.0071 4.4.2 Simplified calculation of resonant response ˆ Figure 4.11a Resonant response multipliers for solid and ribbed concrete floors. Resonant multiplier, K rm Footfall Induced Vibration of St38 38 06/12/2006 16:30:18
- 41. 39 Figure 4.11b Resonant response multipliers for composite floors. Predicting footfall induced vibration of structures The impulsive response of floors to footfall can be calculated as follows: 1. Calculate impulsive peak velocity response in the first mode using Equation 4.24 v1 = Ieff (4.24) m where Ieff is the effective impulse appropriate to the floor bay frequency f1 (Equation 4.10) 2. Determine impulsive response multiplier Kim from Figure 4.12a or 4.12b. 3. Calculate total impulsive peak velocity response as: v = Kim vI (4.25) 4. Calculate the RMS velocity from the peak velocity as follows: vRMS = 0.3v for Kim 2.0 (4.26) vRMS = 0.3 + 0.12(2 – Kim ) for 1.0 Kim 2.0 5. Calculate response factor, R: R = vRMS (4.27) vR=1 ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ 4.4.3 Simplified calculation of impulsive response Resonant multiplier, K rm Footfall Induced Vibration of St39 39 06/12/2006 16:30:19
- 42. 40 Figure 4.12a Impulsive response multipliers for solid and ribbed concrete floors. Figure 4.12b Impulsive response multipliers for composite floors. Impulsive multiplier, K im Impulsive multiplier, K im Footfall Induced Vibration of St40 40 06/12/2006 16:30:22
- 43. 41 5. Worked examples This chapter uses three worked examples to show how modal properties may be used to predict the response of structures to footfall loading. Each example is an existing structure, and each has been physically tested to check the modal properties and footfall induced vibrations. Predictions are compared against measurements in Appendix C. The three examples are summarised below. Example 1 is a concrete footbridge over a motorway, having constant cross-section and two continuous equal spans of 20m. Its modal properties are estimated by hand calculation, a simple finite element analysis and have been verified by physical testing. The lowest measured natural frequency is 4.65Hz, and it is assessed as a low-frequency structure using the methods described in section 4.2. Example 2 is a multi-span 225mm thick post-tensioned concrete floor slab spanning between pre-cast concrete beams. The fundamental natural frequency of the longest span (10m) is 7.0Hz and so it is assessed as a low-frequency floor using the method described in section 4.2. Its layout is slightly unusual and so its modal properties are best assessed using an FE model. The simplified method of section 4.4 can also be used, and gives a reasonable estimate of the likely dynamic performance. Example 3 is a ribbed concrete laboratory floor comprising a 130mm thick slab supported on concrete ribs 300mm wide and 350mm deep at 1100mm centres.The span is 8.6m and the floor is 38m wide. Its fundamental frequency is 12.5Hz and so it is assessed as a high- frequency floor. Its layout is regular and it may be assessed using either the simplified method described in section 4.4 or the detailed method described in section 4.3. As this floor can be well approximated as a simply supported rectangular plate the two methods give very similar predictions. Worked examples Footfall Induced Vibration of St41 41 06/12/2006 16:30:22
- 44. 42 Figure 5.1 Worked example 1: footbridge over a motorway. Figure 5.2 Approximate dimensions of bridge. Example 1 is a concrete bridge over a motorway shown in Figure 5.1, and its main dimen- sions are shown in Figure 5.2. 5.1 Example 1: A footbridge over a motorway Footfall Induced Vibration of St42 42 06/12/2006 16:30:24
- 45. 43 Worked examples Figure 5.3 Mode shapes of the first three modes of the footbridge. The natural frequencies and modal masses may be calculated by hand. Mode 1 is equiva- lent to the first simply supported mode of both spans, mode 2 is equivalent to the fixed- free mode of each span and mode 3 the second simply supported mode of both spans. Assuming un-cracked reinforced concrete with E = 38GPa, and negligible non-structural mass, the mass per unit length is 1848kg/m and the natural frequencies obtained from the FE analysis and Equation A1 are identical. These are compared with measured values inTable 5.1.The modal mass of each mode is approximately 20 × 2 × 1848/2 = 36,960kg. Hand Calculation Finite Element Solution Measured Frequency f1 (Hz) 4.22 4.22 4.65 f2 (Hz) 6.59 6.59 6.56 f3 (Hz) 16.90 16.88 14.66 The bridge has two modes that might be excited to resonance by walking. Based on the measured natural frequencies, the first mode may be excited in either the second or third harmonic of walking at 2.32 or 1.55 footfalls per second respectively, and the second mode by the third or fourth harmonics of walking at 2.18 or 1.64 footfalls per second. Table 5.1 Calculated and measured natural frequencies 5.1.2 Footfall induced vibration calculation The cross-sectional area of the beam section is approximately 0.77m2 and the second moment of area 0.056m4 . From these the modal properties can be calculated using either standard equations for the natural frequencies of beams or a simple finite element model. The shapes of the first three modes obtained from the finite element analysis are shown in Figure 5.3. 5.1.1 Calculation of modal properties Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Footfall Induced Vibration of St43 43 06/12/2006 16:30:25
- 46. 44 Harmonic number 1 2 3 4 Harmonic frequency (Hz) (Eq.4.3) 1.55 3.10 4.65 6.20 Real and Imag. Responses (m/s2 ) (Eqs. 4.2 4.4) Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Mode 1 5.79E-04 6.51E-06 1.31E-03 4.70E-05 0.00E+00 3.96E-02 -2.30E-03 1.18E-04 Mode 2 2.52E-04 1.90E-06 4.33E-04 7.91E-06 1.10E-03 4.72E-05 7.27E-03 1.93E-03 Mode 3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 Total (Eq. 4.4) 8.32E-04 8.41E-06 1.74E-03 5.50E-05 1.10E-03 3.97E-02 4.97E-03 2.05E-03 Magnitude of response (m/s2 ) (Eq. 4.6) 8.32E-04 1.74E-03 3.97E-02 5.38E-03 Base curve acceleration (m/s2 ) 1.13E-02 8.01E-03 7.10E-03 7.10E-03 Response factor (Eq. 4.7) 0.07 0.22 5.59 0.76 TOTAL RF AT 1.55 Hz (Eq. 4.8) 5.65 Table 5.2 Response factor calculations for walking at 1.55Hz The damping was calculated as 1.5% of critical from measurements. This value is used for the response calculation, though at the design stage a lower value (say 0.9%, See table A2) would be more conservative.The detailed calculation of section 4.2 is summarised in Table 5.2 and Table 5.3 below for walking speeds of 1.55Hz and 2.18Hz. In the calculation, it is conservatively assumed that ρ =1.0. Figure 5.4 shows the maximum response for all footfall rates between 1Hz and 2.8Hz. In practice it is difficult to predict which frequency is likely to generate the maximum response and the calculation should be performed for each of those likely to produce resonance, in this case 1.55Hz, 1.64Hz, 2.18Hz and 2.32Hz. Here it was found that the maximum response will be due to a pedestrian walking at 2.32Hz and will be approximately R = 8.5. A simple check can be made using Equation 4.21. Assuming conservatively that ρ = 1.0, the check for walking at 2.32Hz (second harmonic) gives: Fh = 700 × (0.069 + 0.0056 × 2 × 2.32) = 66.5N (Refer table 4.3) a = 1.0 × 66.5/(2 × 0.015 × 36960) = 0.06m/s2 at 4.65Hz (see eq. 4.21) R = 0.06/0.0071 = 8.5 (see eq. 4.23) Footfall Induced Vibration of St44 44 06/12/2006 16:30:25
- 47. 45 Worked examples Harmonic number 1 2 3 4 Harmonic frequency (Hz) (Eq.4.3) 2.18 4.36 6.54 8.52 Real and Imag. Responses (m/s2 ) (Eqs. 4.2 4.4) Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Mode 1 2.78E-03 5.09E-05 1.41E-02 3.83E-03 -2.82E-03 1.19E-04 -1.84E-03 4.05E-05 Mode 2 1.13E-03 1.28E-05 1.33E-03 4.88E-05 -1.53E-02 3.78E-02 -2.75E-03 1.38E-04 Mode 3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 Total (Eq. 4.4) 3.91E-03 6.37E-05 1.55E-02 3.88E-03 -1.82E-02 3.79E-02 -4.59E-03 1.79E-04 Magnitude of response (m/s2 ) (Eq. 4.6) 3.91E-03 1.59E-02 4.21E-02 4.60E-03 Base curve acceleration (m/s2 ) 9.51E-03 7.10E-03 7.10E-03 7.80E-03 Response factor (Eq. 4.7) 0.41 2.25 5.93 0.59 TOTAL RF AT 2.2 Hz (Eq. 4.8) 6.38 Table 5.3 Response factor calculations for walking at 2.18Hz Figure 5.4 Response at the centre of the span for all walking frequencies. Walking frequency (Hz) Response factor Footfall Induced Vibration of St45 45 06/12/2006 16:30:26
- 48. 46 7.5 m 7.5 m 10.0 m 10.0 m 3000 3000 9000 2600 2600 Figure 5.5 Footfall induced vibration Figure 5.5 18.10.06 A Minson Figure 5.5 Structural drawing of the concrete floor. Figure 5.6 Photo showing the 10m span between the nearest two columns at the time of testing (bare condition). The floor is a post-tensioned 225mm flat slab spanning between 7.5m and 10m onto pre- cast concrete beams as shown in Figure 5.5. The response of the 10m span section – marked in Figure 5.5 – will be considered here. It was tested when bare and without fit out as shown in Figure 5.6. Modal properties and responses are calculated for both the as-tested condition and the finished state. Finite element analysis is used to find the modal properties and the method described in section 4.2 is used to calculate the response in both cases. The simplified method of section 4.4 is also used to predict the response of the floor in its finished condition. 5.2 Example 2: A post-tensioned flat slab assessed as a low- frequency floor Footfall Induced Vibration of St46 46 06/12/2006 16:30:27
- 49. 47 Worked examples Figure 5.7 Finite element model of the floor. The FE analysis predicts the first mode of the 10m bay for completed floor to have a natural frequency of 7.0Hz and modal mass of 24,100kg; its shape is shown in Figure 5.8. There are no other modes with significant participation of the 10m bay below 15Hz. Figure 5.8 Mode shape of the first mode of the 10m span section. The finite element model shown in Figure 5.7 was used to calculate the modal properties of the floor. For the finished condition, 1kPa non-structural dead load is included and the edges of the slab are restrained vertically to represent the support that would be provided by the facade. For the bare (i.e. test) condition, no additional loads or restraints are included. 5.2.1 Calculation of modal properties Footfall Induced Vibration of St47 47 06/12/2006 16:30:28
- 50. 48 Figure 5.9 Mode 1 of the as-tested floor. Figure 5.10 Mode 2 of the as-tested floor. For the unfinished state at the time of testing, the absence of the facade leads to there being three modes below 15Hz with significant participation of the 10m span. These are shown in Figure 5.9 to Figure 5.11 and their modal properties summarised in Table 5.4. To facilitate comparison of the measured and predicted data, the measured frequencies will be used in the prediction calculation for the as-tested case. This will have little effect on the magnitudes of the response but will ensure that the peaks of the frequency response graphs coincide. Footfall Induced Vibration of St48 48 06/12/2006 16:30:30
- 51. 49 Worked examples Figure 5.11 Mode 3 of the as-tested floor. Mode j Calculated Frequency, f, (Hz) Measured Frequency, f, (Hz) Modal Mass (kg) Measured modal damping (% crit) 1 6.43 6.55 35300 1.5 2 7.66 7.85 14800 1.5 3 9.64 9.90 15300 1.5 For the floor in its finished condition, only one mode, at 7.0Hz, is potentially susceptible to resonant response. It could be excited either by the third harmonic of walking at 2.35Hz or the fourth harmonic of walking at 1.76Hz. 5.2.2.1 Detailed method Assuming 3% of damping, the predicted resonant response for walking at 2.35Hz is calcu- lated inTable 5.5.The response at all walking frequencies between 1Hz and 2.8Hz is plotted in Figure 5.12. Table 5.4 Calculated and measured modal properties of floor in bare condition. 5.2.2 Response calculations – finished condition Harmonic number 1 2 3 4 Harmonic frequency (Hz) (Eq.4.3) 2.35 4.70 7.05 9.40 Real and Imag. Responses (m/s2 ) (Eqs. 4.2 4.4) Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Mode 1 1.56E-03 3.51E-05 2.09E-03 1.50E-04 -3.53E-04 3.73E-02 -4.85E-03 4.98E-04 Mode 2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 Mode 3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 Total (Eq. 4.4) 1.56E-03 3.51E-05 2.09E-03 1.50E-04 -3.53E-04 3.73E-02 -4.85E-03 4.98E-04 Magnitude of response (m/s2 ) (Eq. 4.6) 1.56E-03 2.09E-03 3.73E-02 4.88E-03 Base curve acceleration (m/s2 ) 9.20E-03 7.10E-03 7.10E-03 8.33E-03 Response factor (Eq. 4.7) 0.17 0.29 5.26 0.59 TOTAL RF AT 2.35 Hz (Eq. 4.8) 5.30 Table 5.5 Response factor calculation for walking at 2.35Hz (finished floor). Footfall Induced Vibration of St49 49 06/12/2006 16:30:31
- 52. 50 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Walking frequency (Hz) Response factor Figure 5.12 Response of the floor at all walking frequencies. 5.2.2.2 Simplified method In the final condition with the façade in place, the 10m span could be considered a rectangular plate with span 10m and width 15m supported on four edges and continuous with a neighbouring span of 7.5m. The response can then be predicted by the simplified method of section 4.4 using the following parameters: La = 10m Lb = 7.5m W = 15m t = 0.225m E = 38GPa v = 0.2 m = 640kg/m² (including 100kg/m2 imposed load) ζ = 0.03 The slab is solid, so: Dx = Dy = Dxy = 38 x 109 x 0.2253 = 3.757 × 107 Nm (Refer to A8) 12(1 – 0.22 ) (see eq. 4.16) To use the methods, charts and formulae of section 4.4, the following parameters are required: Dx /Dy = 1 W/L = 1.5 Lb /La = 0.75 The flexural stiffness of span a, Dy,a and span b, Dy,b are equal, so: fb /fa = 3.757 x 107 x 104 = 1.78 (see eq. 4.18) 3.757 x 107 x 7.54 f0 = π 3.757 x 107 = 3.81Hz 2 640 x 104 Footfall Induced Vibration of St50 50 06/12/2006 16:30:31
- 53. 51 Using Figure 4.9a, Kf = 1.46 Using Figure 4.10b, Kfm = 1.17 f1 = 3.81 x 1.46 x 1.17 = 6.51Hz (see eq. 4.19) Using Figure 4.10a, Kmm = 0.9 m = 640 x 10 x 15 x 0.9 = 21600kg (see eq. 4.20) 4 Using Figure 4.11a, Krm = 1.0 Assuming third harmonic excitation due to walking at 6.51/3 = 2.17 footfalls/second Fh = 700 × (0.033 + 0.0064 × 6.51) = 52.3N (see Table 4.3) ρ ≈ 1.0 (see eq. 4.2) at = 1.0 x 52.3 = 0.040m/s2 (see eq. 4.21 and eq. 4.22) 2 x 0.03 x 21600 R = 0.040/0.0071 = 5.6 (see eq. 4.23) The simplified and detailed methods agree well, the simplified method being slightly conservative. For the bare condition, the approximate method cannot be used with confidence as the floor is not supported at two of its four edges.The finite element solution shows that there are three modes that are potentially susceptible to resonant response. The floor could be excited either by the third harmonic of walking at 2.2Hz (mode 1) or 2.6Hz (mode 2) or the fourth harmonic of walking at 1.65Hz (mode 1), 1.95Hz (mode 2) or 2.5Hz (mode 3). The response using the method of section 4.2 and modal properties fromTable 5.4 are used to calculate the response for walking at 2.2Hz inTable 5.6 for excitation and response at the points shown in Figure 5.13. The excitation point is the point of maximum displacement in the modes and the response point is the location of the accelerometer during the walk past test. Comparisons with measured data are included in Appendix C. ˆ Worked examples 5.2.3 Response calculation – tested condition Footfall Induced Vibration of St51 51 06/12/2006 16:30:31
- 54. 52 Excitation point Response point Figure 5.13 Excitation and response points. Hamonic number 1 2 3 4 Harmonic frequency (Hz) (Eq.4.2) 2.2 4.4 6.6 8.8 Modal displacement of excitation and response point Excitation Response Excitation Response Excitation Response Excitation Response Mode 1 1.0 0.902 1.0 0.902 1.0 0.902 1.0 0.902 Mode 2 -0.95 -0.52 -0.95 -0.52 -0.95 -0.52 -0.95 -0.52 Mode 3 -1.0 -0.047 -1.0 -0.047 -1.0 -0.047 -1.0 -0.047 Real and Imaginary responses (m/s2) (Eqs. 4.1 4.3) Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Mode 1 1.16E-03 1.32E-05 1.37E-03 5.05E-05 -1.82E-02 3.59E-02 -2.81E-03 1.40E-04 Mode 2 1.02E-03 9.32E-06 1.01E-03 2.47E-05 4.24E-03 3.64E-04 -7.95E-03 1.04E-03 Mode 3 5.69E-05 3.99E-07 4.95E-05 8.23E-07 1.29E-04 4.65E-06 5.59E-04 7.10E-05 Total (Eq. 4.4) 2.24E-03 2.29E-05 2.43E-03 7.60E-05 -1.38E-02 3.63E-02 -1.02E-02 1.25E-03 Magnitude of response (m/s2) (Eq. 4.5) 2.24E-03 2.43E-03 3.88E-02 1.03E-02 Base curve acceleration (m/s2) 9.51E-03 7.10E-03 7.10E-03 7.80E-03 Response factor (Eq. 4.6) 0.24 0.34 5.47 1.32 TOTAL RF AT 2.2 Hz (Eq. 4.7) 5.64 Table 5.6 Response factor calculation for walking at 2.2Hz (bare floor). Footfall Induced Vibration of St52 52 06/12/2006 16:30:32
- 55. 53 Worked examples The floor is a ribbed concrete slab 38m wide spanning 8.6m. Ribs are present in the spanning direction only and are 350mm deep and 300mm wide at 1100mm centres. The slab is 130mm thick. The concrete is of normal weight and the floor was fully fitted out at the time of testing. It is estimated that the imposed load due to services, finishes and fit out is approximately 1kPa. There is a short back-span comprising a 130mm slab only on one side of the bay. 5.3 Example 3: A high-frequency ribbed concrete floor Figure 5.14 Ribbed concrete floor. The bay under consideration is supported at close intervals by columns and facade; in these circumstances the simplified method should give a prediction which is close to that of the detailed method. The additional stiffness due to the back span is likely to be small compared to the bending and torsional stiffness of the ribs and beams. The modal properties of this floor can be estimated either by the analytical method or by FE analysis. 5.3.1.1 Initial check of natural frequency An initial estimate of the fundamental mode can be made by calculating the frequency of one typical beam and slab unit as shown in Figure 5.15. 5.3.1 Calculation of modal properties Footfall Induced Vibration of St53 53 06/12/2006 16:30:34
- 56. 54 For this section: I = 0.0048m4 (neutral axis is 167mm below top of slab) m = 707kg/m (self weight + 1kPa imposed) E = 40GPa (dynamic modulus of normal weight concrete) f = 11.07Hz (see Equation A.1) f = 12 π2 40 x 109 x 0.0048 = 11.07Hz (see eq. A.1) 2π 707 x 8.64 5.3.1.2 Modal properties of bay by analytical method To use the method of section 4.2, however, it is necessary to calculate all modes of the floor up to 22Hz. This can be done using the equations of Section A2.2 as shown below. For the span direction, y: Iy = 0.0048m4 , Sy = 1.1m, Dy = 40 × 109 x 0.0048/1.1 = 175 × 106 Nm (see eq. A.10) For the transverse direction, x, there are no ribs so the calculation is based on the slab alone: Dx = 40 x 109 x 0.133 / (12 x (1 – 0.22 )) = 7.63 x 106 Nm (see eq. A.8) For the ribs, d = 0.35m b = 0.3m G = 16.7GPa Cy = 16.7 x 109 x 0.35 x 0.33 [1 – 0.21 x 0.3 (1 – 0.34 )]= 25.5 x 106 Nm2 3 0.35 12 x 0.354 (see eq. A.12) H = 40 x 109 x 0.133 + 25.5 x 106 = 30.8 x 106 Nm (see eq. A.11) 12 x (1 – 0.22 ) 1.1 The natural frequencies of the first 11 modes of the floor bay calculated by Equation A.5 are presented in Table 5.7. These are calculated without consideration of the back span (Figures 4.10a and 4.10b can be used to show that the effect of the back span is negligible). The modal mass of each mode derived by the rectangular plate calculation is one quarter of the total mass. The number of single beam and slab units in the transverse direction is W/Sy = 34.55. m = 34.55 x 8.6 x 707 = 52,500kg 4 ˆ Figure 5.15 Single beam and slab unit (mm). Footfall Induced Vibration of St54 54 06/12/2006 16:30:34
- 57. 55 Worked examples Figure 5.16 First four mode shapes of the floor. It can be seen that the natural frequencies from the FE analysis are slightly higher than from the rectangular plate calculation. This is due to the influence of the back span and the inclusion of the columns in the analysis. The measured frequency of the first mode is slightly higher than that predicted by the FE analysis. When tested, the structure was fully fitted out with full-height partitions, which are known to add stiffness to floors. These were not included in the FE analysis and could account for the measured frequency being slightly higher than that predicted by calculation. The tests showed the modal damping to be about 4.5% of critical and to facilitate comparison with measured footfall responses this value is adopted for the footfall response calculations below. At the design stage, when no test data is available, it might be prudent to use a more conservative value of damping in the response calculation, such as 3% of critical (see Table A2). 5.3.1.3 Modal properties of bay by finite element analysis A finite element model of the floor was constructed including the back span and the columns. The natural frequencies and modal masses obtained by analysis of this model are included in Table 5.7 and the first four mode-shapes are shown in Figure 5.16. Footfall Induced Vibration of St55 55 06/12/2006 16:30:35
- 58. 56 j k Calculated frequency (by hand calculation) (Hz) FE analysis frequency (with columns and backspan) (Hz) FE Modal Mass (kg) 1 1 11.1 11.9 47,800 2 1 11.4 12.6 50,400 3 1 12.0 13.4 52,200 4 1 12.7 14.5 44,700 5 1 13.6 16.2 37,500 6 1 14.8 16.7 43,500 7 1 16.2 20.3 33,600 8 1 17.9 22.9 52,000 9 1 19.7 25.8 57,400 10 1 21.9 – – 11 1 24.2 – – For comparative purposes, the dynamic response under footfall will be assessed in three ways: n Using the detailed method described in section 4.3 and modal properties derived by hand calculation. n As for the point above, but using the modal properties from the FE analysis. n Using the simplified method described in section 4.4. 5.3.2.1 Detailed method with modal properties from hand calculation The method of section 4.3 is used to calculate the response at the mid-bay point due to walking near mid-bay. Table 5.8 below shows the results for all the modes having natural frequencies less than twice the first mode frequency. Mode Number Modal Frequency (Hz) Modal Mass (kg) Mode Shape at Excitation Point Damping (fraction of critical) Effective Impulse (Ns) Peak Velocity (m/sec) 1 11.1 52,369 1.0 0.045 6.34 1.2E-04 2 11.4 52,369 0.0 0.045 6.12 0.0E+00 3 12.0 52,369 1.0 0.045 5.78 1.1E-04 4 12.7 52,369 0.0 0.045 5.36 0.0E+00 5 13.6 52,369 1.0 0.045 4.88 9.3E-05 6 14.8 52,369 0.0 0.045 4.38 0.0E+00 7 16.2 52,369 1.0 0.045 3.89 7.4E-05 8 17.9 52,369 0.0 0.045 3.43 0.0E+00 9 19.7 52,369 1.0 0.045 3.01 5.7E-05 10 21.9 52,369 0.0 0.045 2.64 0.0E+00 11 24.2 52,369 1.0 0.045 2.31 4.4E-05 Decaying sinusoids are calculated for each mode and summed. Those for the first seven modes and the sum of those for all of the first 11 modes are shown in Figure 5.17. (Note that as excitation is assumed at the centre of the floor, the even-numbered modes do not respond.) 5.3.2 Footfall induced vibration calculation Table 5.8 Modal properties, effective impulses (equation 4.10) and peak velocities (equation 4.11) for the first 11 modes calculated. Table 5.7 Modal properties. Footfall Induced Vibration of St56 56 06/12/2006 16:30:36
- 59. 57 Worked examples Response in Each Mode to a Single Footfall -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Time (secs) Velocity (mm/s) Mode 1 Mode 3 Mode 5 Mode 7 Figure 5.17 Velocity responses in each mode. Total Response to a Single Footfall -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 Time (secs) Velocity (mm/s) Figure 5.18 Total velocity response. From the total response (Figure 5.18) the peak response is seen to be 0.40mm/sec and the RMS response, calculated using Equation 4.14, is 0.10mm/sec. Response factor in each mode to a single footfall Total response to a single footfall Footfall Induced Vibration of St57 57 06/12/2006 16:30:36
- 60. 58 5.3.2.2 Detailed method with modal properties from FE analysis The calculation method is identical to that described in 5.3.2.1 above. Modal properties, effective impulses and peak velocities for each mode at the centre of the floor bay are given in Table 5.9 and the decaying transients in each mode plotted in Figure 5.19. The total velocity response at the centre of the floor plate is shown in Figure 5.20 and the peak and RMS responses are 0.27mm/sec and 0.07mm/sec respectively. Note that the decaying responses shown in Figure 5.19 incorporate the mode shape values at the centre of the bay given in Table 5.9. Mode Number Modal Frequency (Hz) Modal Mass (kg) Damping (fraction of critical) Effective Impulse (Ns) Peak Velocity (m/sec) Mode Shape at Excitation Point 1 11.93 47764 0.045 5.80 1.2E-04 1.00 2 12.6 50353 0.045 5.40 1.1E-04 0.10 3 13.37 52151 0.045 5.00 9.6E-05 0.90 4 14.47 44721 0.045 4.51 1.0E-04 0.20 5 16.2 37544 0.045 3.89 1.0E-04 0.50 6 16.66 43488 0.045 3.76 8.6E-05 0.20 7 20.34 33605 0.045 2.90 8.6E-05 1.00 8 22.9 51961 0.045 2.48 4.8E-05 0.20 9 25.8 57383 0.045 2.13 3.7E-05 0.80 Table 5.9 Predicted response at middle of bay using modal properties derived by FE analysis. Response in Each Mode to a Single Footfall -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 Time (secs) Velocity (mm/s) Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5 Figure 5.19 Predicted response in each mode using modal properties derived by FE analysis. Response in each mode to a single footfall Footfall Induced Vibration of St58 58 06/12/2006 16:30:37
- 61. 59 Worked examples Total Response to a Single Footfall -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 Time (secs) Velocity (mm/s) Figure 5.20 Predicted total velocity using modal properties derived by FE analysis. As the FE model contains the full spatial distribution of mode shapes, it is possible to perform the response calculation for every node on the floor model. A contour plot of RMS velocity viewed from above is shown in Figure 5.21. This shows that the maximum response does not occur in the middle of the floor (which is on a grid line) as assumed above, but rather in the centre of the adjacent bays. Here the peak and RMS velocities are calculated as 0.28mm/sec and 0.083mm/sec respectively. It can be seen that calculation based on the rectangular plate modal properties is slightly conservative relative to this more detailed assessment. The second contour plot in Figure 5.21 shows areas that meet ASHRAE curve F in red, curve E in orange, curve D in yellow etc. Such a plot is useful when deciding where to locate the most sensitive pieces of equipment within the laboratory. Figure 5.21 Contour plots of RMS velocity and response factor. Total response to a single footfall Footfall Induced Vibration of St59 59 06/12/2006 16:30:38
- 62. 60 5.3.2.3 Simplified method (section 4.4) with properties of the first mode from hand calculation The floor bay is a regular rectangular plate which could be considered to be simply supported at its edges and so it can be assessed using the method described in section 4.4. The required parameters are (see section 5.3.1.1 and 5.3.1.2): W/L = 4.41 f0 = 11.07Hz (frequency of main spanning element) m = WLm = 52,500kg 4 Dx /Dy = 7.63 x 106 /175 x 106 = 0.044 From Figure 4.9a Kf ~ = 1.0 and the impulsive multiplier Kim from Figure 4.12a is approxi- mately 3.3. The effective impulse, from Equation 4.10, is 6.3Ns and the peak velocity, from Equation 4.23 is 6.3 × 3.3/52,500 = 0.40 mm/sec. Since Kim 2, the predicted RMS velocity is 0.39 × 0.30 = 0.12mm/sec. This prediction is a little more conservative than that obtained by the detailed method using the same modal properties. ˆ Footfall Induced Vibration of St60 60 06/12/2006 16:30:38
- 63. 61 References References 1 MURRAY, T. M., ALLEN, D. E. UNGAR, E. E., FloorVibration Due to Human Activity, AISC Design Guide Series No. 11, 1997. 2 WYATT, T. A., DesignGuide on theVibration of Floors, Steel Construction Institute Publication 076, London, 1989. 3 BS 5400: Part 2 (1978) AppendixC Vibration Serviceability Requirements for Foot andCycleTrack Bridges. 4 GORDON, C. G., TheControl ofVibration in Buildings, BBN Laboratories, 1988. 5 GORDON, C. G., GenericVibrationCriteria forVibration-Sensitive Equipment, SPIE Conference, 1999. 6 WILLFORD, M., YOUNG, P. FIELD, C., The Prediction of Footfall InducedVibration, Part 1. Structures and Buildings, Volume 160 -2007, ICE, 2007. 7 WILLFORD, M., YOUNG, P. FIELD, C., The Prediction of Footfall InducedVibration, Part 2 . Structures and Buildings, Volume 160 -2007, ICE, 2007. 8 BS 6472: 1992 Guide to the evaluation of human exposure to vibration in buildings (1Hz to 80 Hz). 9 Acoustics, DesignConsiderations, Health Technical Memorandum 2045, NHS Estates, London, HMSO, 1996. 10 KERR, S. C., Human Induced Loading on Staircases, PhD. Thesis, University of London, 1998. 11 CLOUGH, R. W. PENZIEN, J., Dynamics of Structures, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1993. 12 TIMOSHENKO, S. P. WOINOWSKY-KRIEGER, S., Theory of Plates and Shells, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill International Book Company, 1981. 13 ROARK, T. J. YOUNG, W. C., Formulae for Stress and Strain, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, 1975. 14 2003 ASHRAE Handbook – HVAC Applications : Chapter 47 Sound andVibrationControl. Publisher ASHRAE. 15 EWINS, D. J., ModalTesting, 2nd edition, Research Studies Press Ltd, 2000. Footfall Induced Vibration of St61 61 06/12/2006 16:30:38
- 64. 62 Glossary Damping is a general term used to describe the dissipation of energy in a vibrating system. It is described in section 4 of Appendix A. In this guide damping is quantified numerically as the fraction of critical damping, ζ. Critical damping is the minimum amount of damping that will prevent oscillatory behaviour in a system. In practice most floors and bridges have between 1% and 5% of critical damping (0.01 ζ 0.05). Damping is also occasionally quantified in the following ways, and in these cases the damping as a fraction of critical is calculated as shown below: Loss factor, ge ζ = ge 2 Logarithmic decrement of damping, δ ζ = δ 2π The harmonic force imposed by a pedestrian on the structure on which he or she is walking, running or jumping, normalised by the weight of the individual. DLF = (harmonic force)/(weight of individual) See section 4.3.1. A full mathematical discussion of Fourier analysis can be found elsewhere12 . The essential concept is that any periodic, repeating wave form of frequency f can be broken down into harmonic components having frequencies of f, 2f, 3f etc., where each harmonic has a par- ticular phase and magnitude. The first harmonic is sometimes referred to as the funda- mental. The benefit of this decomposition is that the response of a dynamic system to the original periodic load can be calculated by summing the responses to the individual harmonics. The natural frequency of the first mode of a structure, which will also be the lowest natural frequency. Damping Dynamic load factor Effective impulse Fourier analysis Fundamental frequency ~ Footfall Induced Vibration of St62 62 06/12/2006 16:30:39
- 65. 63 Glossary Harmonic, in this context, refers to a waveform that is sinusoidal, and having a constant frequency and amplitude. So a harmonic force is a sinusoidal force of particular amplitude and frequency. In this guide the first, second, third or fourth harmonics of footfall forces are used to calculate the response.These harmonics are the first four harmonic components of a footfall force time history as found by Fourier analysis. The frequencies of these first four harmonics are fw , 2 fw , 3 fw and 4 fw , where fw is the walking frequency. The amplitudes proposed for design purposes are given in Table 4.3. The process of establishing the modal properties of a structure, either by test or analysis. Modal properties include modal frequency, modal mass, mode shapes and modal damping. The damping that is associated with a particular mode. Sometimes some modes will have more damping than others, but in the context of footfall induced vibration it is common to assume that all modes have the same damping. Each mode of a structure has a modal mass associated with it. For the jth mode, the modal mass is defined formally as: where i is each of N points on the structure, having mass mi at which the mode shape μ j, i in the jth mode is known. Clearly, the total mass of the structure, Conceptually, the modal mass can be thought of as the mass of an equivalent single degree of freedom system such as that of Figure G2 which represents the jth mode. Refers generally to a ‘preferred’ vibration pattern for a structure. Each mode has a fre- quency, mode shape, modal mass and modal damping associated with it. A more rigorous mathematical definition can be found elsewhere11 . The spatial distribution of displacement of a structure associated with each mode. Note that this is not a displacement in the true sense, i.e. it does not have units; rather, it des- cribes the amplitude of one point relative to another. The normalisation of mode shape values is effectively arbitrary (though it must be consistent with the normalisation of the modal mass). In this guide, mode shapes are normalised such that the maximum displace- ment on the mode has a value of 1.0. Harmonic, harmonic force, harmonic load Modal analysis Modal damping Modal mass Mode, or natural mode Mode shape ^ N mj = ∑ μ2 j,i mi i=1 N M = ∑ mi i=1 Footfall Induced Vibration of St63 63 06/12/2006 16:30:39
- 66. 64 A frequency at which a system naturally vibrates. In this guide frequency is expressed in Hertz (Hz) which is the number of vibration cycles that occur in 1 second (see section 3.1). For a system with a single degree of freedom such as that shown in Figure G2, where k is the spring stiffness and m is the mass. Systems with more degrees of freedom will have more natural modes and each of these will have its own natural (or modal) frequency associated with it. If a dynamic system is excited at a frequency close to one of its natural frequencies, then the eventual amplitude of response will be significantly greater than that due to the same exci- tation at a much lower, or much higher, frequency.This phenomenon is known as resonance. For a single degree of freedom system such as that of Figure G2, the response amplitude as a function of the ratio of the excitation and natural frequencies of a system with 3% of critical damping is shown in Figure G1. The response amplitude is plotted as a fraction of the response that would occur if the same load were applied statically (with zero frequency). This amplitude is often referred to as the dynamic amplification factor (or DAF) and has a magnitude of 1 at full resonance. See section 4.2.2 for further details. 2ζ Natural frequency Resonance 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 SDOF System with 3% of critical damping Ratio f/fn Dynamic Amplification Factor Figure G1 Dynamic amplification factor for a single degree of freedom system with 3% of critical damping. Resonance occurs when the ratio of excitation frequency to natural frequency, f , is close to 1.0. fn fn = 1 √ k 2π m Footfall Induced Vibration of St64 64 06/12/2006 16:30:40
- 67. 65 Glossary See section 3.2.2. See section 3.1. A mechanical system consisting of a mass, free to move in one degree of freedom only, where the displacement in that direction is resisted by a linear spring and a viscous damper. Response factor (R) Root mean square (RMS) Single degree of freedom (SDOF) system Figure G2 A single degree of freedom system comprising a mass, m, spring of stiffness, k, and a damper with a damping rate of c. See section 3.2.3. Vibration dose value (VDV) Footfall Induced Vibration of St65 65 06/12/2006 16:30:40
- 68. 66 Appendix A. Evaluating modal properties of a structure The methods described in sections 4.2 and 4.3 of this guide to predict the footfall induced vibration of structures require a full set of modal properties of the structure as their basis. For resonant response of structures with a fundamental mode below approximately 10Hz, it is required to find all modes of the structure below 15Hz (section 4.2). To calculate the impulsive response of a structure all modes with a frequency less than twice the funda- mental frequency are needed (section 4.3). The modal mass, mode shape, frequency and modal damping of each of these modes are required. A simplified method is described in section 4.4 for floors which are, or can be approximated to, uniform rectangular floor bays with no internal columns. For these floors it is required to evaluate the modal properties of the first mode only. This Appendix describes methods for evaluating the modal properties of structures. In general, finite element (FE) analysis, which is now readily accessible in standard structural engineering software packages, may be used. For very simple regular structures (such as beams or simply supported rectangular floor plates) analytical solutions exist, and these can be used instead of FE analysis. Methods that predict the properties of the fundamental mode only (such as the well established, , see below) are useful for verifying FE analysis; however, they cannot always be used with the methods described in this guide as they provide no information about the properties of higher modes, which may contribute significantly to footfall induced vibration. This Appendix is in four sections. The first gives typical material properties for structural dynamic calculation. The second gives equations that can be used to calculate modal properties for simple structures and to estimate the fundamental mode of more complex structures. The third section includes best practice modelling guidelines for FE analysis to evaluate modal properties. The fourth discusses modal damping – which cannot be ‘calculated’ in the same way as mode shape or frequency – and which must instead be estimated from measurements made on comparable structures. It is important to appreciate that a mode shape has no absolute scale – it defines the relative motions of points on the structure in that mode, but not the absolute level of vibration of the mode.Therefore mode shape and modal mass may be scaled (normalised) in different ways. In this guide, modal properties are scaled such that the largest value of displacement in the mode anywhere on the structure is unity (1.0). f = 18 √δ Footfall Induced Vibration of St66 66 06/12/2006 16:30:40
- 69. 67 Appendix A The stiffness of steel sections and reinforcement for dynamic analysis is no different to that for static analysis: E = 210GPa Concrete is somewhat stiffer at small strains and for very short-term loading associated with dynamic response than is assumed for static design. For un-cracked lightweight con- crete, use a dynamic Young’s modulus of 22GPa. For un-cracked normal weight concrete, use a dynamic Young’s modulus of 38GPa. If it is thought that the concrete might be significantly cracked, then the reduced stiffness can be taken into account by modifying the modulus accordingly. Two types of ‘hand calculation’ are useful when deriving modal properties for the calcu- lation of footfall response. The first is a calculation that will calculate all relevant modes of a structure and can be used in place of finite element analysis. This is possible for simply supported beams and rectangular floor plates. The second calculates only the properties of the fundamental mode and is useful for verifying the results of FE analysis. Each is discussed in turn below. Equations A.1 to A.3 predict exactly the properties of the jth mode of a simply supported flexural beam: Natural frequency (Hz) fj = wj = j 2 π 2 EI 2π 2π mL4 (A.1) Modal mass mj = mL 2 (A.2) Mode shape µj = sin (j πy ) (A.3) L where E is the Young’s modulus, I is the second moment of area of the section, L is the length, m is the mass per unit length and y is the distance along the beam. The jth mode consists of j half sine waves as illustrated in Figure A1 for j = 1 and 2. The modal mass of all modes is equal to half the total mass. A1 Material properties for dynamic analysis A2 Modal properties by hand calculation A2.1 Modal properties of uniform beams ˆ Footfall Induced Vibration of St67 67 06/12/2006 16:30:40
- 70. 68 Figure A1 Equations to calculate modal properties of a simply supported beam. Standard equations also exist for beams with other end conditions.The natural frequencies of the first three modes can be found from Equation A.4 using appropriate values of Ki from Table A1. fi = Ki EI 2 π mL4 (A.4) End conditions K1 K2 K3 Fixed - fixed 22.4 61.7 121 Fixed – pinned 15.4 50.0 104 Fixed – free (cantilever) 3.52 22.0 61.7 Pinned – pinned 9.87 39.5 88.8 The modal properties for uniform rectangular plates simply supported along four edges are given below. In some floor structures (e.g. ribbed concrete, composite steel-concrete) there is a ‘stiff’ span direction (y-direction, length L) and a more flexible transverse direction (x-direction, width W) such that the plate may have different flexural stiffnesses in orthogonal directions. Full derivations of these formulae can be found elsewhere12, 13 . A floor bay, and what are typically the first three modes, are illustrated in Figure A2. For a mode having j half sine waves in the transverse (x-direction) and k half sine waves in the span (y-direction): Natural frequency (A.5) Modal mass mj, k = WLm (A.6) 4 Mode shape (A.7) where m is mass per unit area. Table A1 Values of K, for beams with different end conditions. A2.2 Modal properties of uniform rectangular simply supported plates ˆ μj,k = sin (jπx )sin (jπy ) W L fj,k = π j4 Dx + 2Hj2 k2 (W2 )+ k4 Dy (W4 ) 2w2 m L2 L4 Footfall Induced Vibration of St68 68 06/12/2006 16:30:41
- 71. 69 Appendix A 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 −1 0 1 Mode 1 X Y Modal Displ. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 −1 0 1 Mode 2 X Y Modal Displ. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 −1 0 1 Mode 3 X Y Modal Displ. Figure A2 Sketch of floor showing notation and first three modes. Section B-B Section A-A Footfall Induced Vibration of St69 69 06/12/2006 16:30:56
- 72. 70 where Ix and Iy are the second moments of area of the beam and slab units spanning in the x and y directions and sx and sy are their spacings. Cx and Cy are the torsional rigidity of each rib or beam in the y and x directions respectively. For steel I-beams, the torsional rigidities, C, are negligible. For ribbed concrete floors with rectangular ribs of longer dimension, d, and shorter dimension, b, and shear modulus G: (A.12) In calculating these properties appropriate dynamic values for the Young’s modulus of steel and concrete should be taken, and in the case of concrete sections, allowance should be made for the cracked stiffness under service loading (see section A1). In practice, modes with k 1 have a very high frequency and are not of concern.The mode shapes corresponding to k = 1 and j = 1, 2 and 3 are shown in Figure A2. All modes have a modal mass equal to a quarter of the total mass of the bay. Dx , Dy and H are flexural stiffnesses per metre width in the x and y directions and the torsional stiffness parameter respectively, and can be calculated as follows. For flat slabs of thickness t, where v is the Poisson’s ratio of the material: Dx = Dy = H = Et 3 (A.8) 12(1 – v 2 ) For ribbed slabs or steel composite floors with equidistantly spaced ribs or beams, as shown in figure A3. Dx = EIx (A.9) sx Dy = EIy (A.10) sy H = Et 3 + Cy + Cx 12(1 – v 2 ) sy sx (A.11) C = Gdb3 [ 1 – 0.21 b (1 – b4 )] 12d4 3 d Footfall Induced Vibration of St70 70 06/12/2006 16:30:56
- 73. 71 Appendix A An accurate assessment of the response of some structures to footfall is not always possible using the properties for the first mode only. However, approximations for the natural frequency and modal mass of the first mode can be very useful for preliminary assessment or when verifying the results of finite element analyses. One of the commonly used methods for estimating the fundamental frequency is known as the self-weight method. If the maximum gravity deflection of a single bay structure (under self-weight plus service super-imposed load) is δ, then the fundamental frequency (Hz) can be estimated using: f = 18 (A.13) √δ where δ is the maximum deflection in mm. This equation works reasonably well for most single-span beam or floor plates. In multi-span structures, the gravity load should be applied in opposite directions on alternate spans. The modal mass of regular structures can be estimated from the total mass. For simply supported beams the modal mass is half of the total mass. For a simply supported floor bay, the modal mass is one-quarter of the total mass. Finite element models of floor and bridge structures are now often produced at the design stage. As most finite element programs include natural modes solvers (sometimes referred to as eigen-value solvers), it is practicable to use these to calculate the modal properties of the structure. The additional accuracy and flexibility afforded by FE analysis will often justify the effort associated with building and analysing a model. The advantages of using FE models rather than hand calculations to derive modal properties include: n FE methods will be at least as accurate as hand calculations. For very simple, regular structures the accuracy is comparable. For anything that is even slightly irregular an FE model will be more accurate. Hand calculations are unlikely to reliably predict the properties of higher modes of complex structures. n The effects of two-way systems of beams, the rotational stiffness of columns, the effect of partition walls, stairwells, etc. can all be included easily in FE models. Their effects can be very difficult to quantify in any other way. n If an FE model is used, then the predicted response of the floor can be contoured in a way that quickly and easily highlights the most critical areas. These plots can also be very useful for space planning in laboratories etc. A2.3 Approximations to the fundamental mode A3 Predicting modal properties by FE analysis Footfall Induced Vibration of St71 71 06/12/2006 16:30:56
- 74. 72 Some general guidelines and modelling techniques for FE analysis to derive modal properties of structures are summarised below: 1. It is best to model slabs as 2D elements (plates or shells). 2. Down-stand concrete ribs or steel beams may be modelled explicitly with their individual section properties offset from the slab centreline. In this case the 2D shell elements should have in-plane (membrane) stiffness as well as bending stiffness, and ensure that the model edges (beams and shells) are not restrained against lateral move- ment (i.e. pinned) on all sides, since this can lead to unrealistic additional stiffness. 3. Alternatively, model ribs or beams coincident (non-offset) with the shells, but include their ‘composite’ (i.e. beam plus flange) I values minus the I of the slab itself. 4. Different programs have different shell element formulations and it is always advis- able to check the effect of mesh density by attempting to simulate standard analytical results. In general, use a mesh density of at least eight elements across a bay span, and about three-to-four elements between secondary beams in a floor bay. In general there should be at least four elements for each half sine wave of the highest frequency mode shape. If unsure that the mesh is fine enough subdivide the mesh by two and re-run. Compare the natural frequencies and modal masses of the two models for the highest mode required in the response solution. If these are similar, then it is not necessary to refine the mesh further. 5. A realistic allowance for non-structural mass, due to services, fit-out finishes etc., should be included. It is normally possible to add non-structural mass to an element, and some programs also allow static load cases to be converted to additional mass. If neither of these options is available, then the density of the material representing the slab must be modified. In general, only include additional mass that is likely to be there in practice. Over-estimating the mass can be non-conservative for footfall response. Often 10% of the design live load is included in dynamic analysis, but again, only include this if it is actually likely to be there. It is good practice to check that the total mass of the structure calculated by the program is what is expected. 6. Beam connections: for strength or serviceability design structural engineers often assume pinned end connections. For the very small strains associated with footfall induced vibration, it has been found from tests that connections will normally act as if they are fixed rather than pinned, and so should be modelled without releases. 7. Composite floors can be modelled in several ways. It is normally easiest to model the slab explicitly with 2D elements and the beams with offset beam elements. Ensure that the beam mesh is compatible with and tied into the 2D element mesh.The properties of the slab should be modified to allow for any trapezoidal metal decking. Some soft- ware allows the user to specify different axial and bending thicknesses (or stiffnesses) for 2D elements. If this is not possible it is normally best to ensure that the axial stiffness is correct, i.e. that the cross-sectional area of the 2D element is equivalent Footfall Induced Vibration of St72 72 06/12/2006 16:30:57
- 75. 73 to the cross-sectional area of the slab. The slab should be modelled at its neutral axis and the beams offset below the shells by half the beam depth (for symmetric beams) plus the height of the slab neutral axis above the top of the steel beam. If there is no facility to offset beams in the software then rigid elements can be used. 8. It has been found by measurement that the additional stiffness and restraint due to a facade can often be well approximated by vertically restraining the slab at its edges. The same applies at concrete core walls. 9. Columns have a rotational stiffness that can increase the frequencies of the floor. Include the columns above and below to ensure that the model incorporates this stiffness. 10. Symmetric or anti-symmetric boundary conditions may be used to reduce the model size of structures with axes of symmetry. However, care must be taken to ensure that all modes, derived with all possible combinations of boundary conditions, are found. Note also that the modal masses must be modified to incorporate the symmetric portion of the model that will not be included in the FE results. Run-time is not usually an issue these days with models typical of the size necessary to analyse complete floors, and dealing with complete models removes one level of complexity. All real structures, when caused to vibrate by some external action, will not go on vibrating continuously but will vibrate at an amplitude that progressively decays towards zero once the action has ended. This decay is a result of energy dissipation and occurs at a rate that is dependent on the damping in the structure. Some materials have more ‘inherent’ damping than others, but the intrinsic damping of construction materials such as steel and concrete is relatively low. In real structures, the damping that results from friction and slip at connections, partitions, etc., is more signi- ficant than the damping inherent in the construction materials themselves, and for this reason it is difficult to calculate expected damping levels on a case-by-case basis. In practice the engineer must rely on measurements made on comparable structures and use these to estimate appropriate levels for a proposed structure. It should be noted that it can be difficult to measure damping reliably, particularly on structures with many closely spaced modes (see also Appendix B). Also, damping tends to vary with amplitude (it is normally higher at larger amplitudes) and so measurements should be performed at the amplitudes at which the structure is likely to vibrate in service. For concrete structures the extent of cracking can also be significant. Given these difficul- ties there is a shortage of good measured data for a full range of structures. Table A2 suggests values that are based on the best available data. Appendix A A4 Estimating modal damping Footfall Induced Vibration of St73 73 06/12/2006 16:30:57
- 76. 74 Structural type Damping, % of critical, ζm Welded steel bridges with little or no services, fixtures or fittings 0.3% to 0.5% Bolted steel, composite and pre-stressed concrete bridges with little or no services, fixtures or fittings 0.5% to 1.0% Reinforced concrete bridges 0.7% to 1.2% Bare steel composite or post tensioned concrete floors with little or no fit out 0.8% to 1.5% Bare reinforced concrete floors 1% to 2% Completed steel composite or post tensioned concrete floors with low fit out 1.5% to 2.5% Completed steel composite or post tensioned concrete floors with typical fit out 2% to 3% Completed reinforced concrete floors with typical fit out 2.2% to 3.5% Completed steel composite, post tensioned or reinforced concrete floors with extensive fit out and full height partitions 3% to 4.5% Table A2 Suggested damping values for different structures. Footfall Induced Vibration of St74 74 06/12/2006 16:30:57
- 77. 75 Appendix B. Procedures for measuring floor response Validation of a prediction method or the verification of the in-service performance of a structure requires that footfall induced response be measured on real structures and presented in a way that is compatible with performance criteria. This Appendix describes how this might be done, and how the validation data presented in Appendix C was calculated. Two types of test are required to fully quantify the dynamic performance of a floor or a bridge under footfall loading.The first (modal tests) calculates the modal properties of the structure, the second (walk-by tests) measures the response as a person walks on the floor. Very extensive theory15 and sophisticated software and hardware is available that can calculate modal properties of complex structures to a high degree of accuracy. Such test procedures are preferred if the resource is available but it is also possible to confirm natural frequencies and estimate modal damping values from a series of heel drops recorded using a single accelerometer and a data-logger. (A heel drop is an impulse applied to a structure by a person who stands on their toes and drops onto their heels.) Walk-by tests require only an accelerometer, a data-logger and a metronome. In all cases acceleration (or velocity) time histories should be recorded during tests; this provides maximum flexibility when post-processing the results. Responses recorded as narrow band spectra or in one-third or whole octave bands do not include sufficient infor- mation to fully characterise the dynamic performance of the structure. Test procedures and post-processing techniques for modal and walk-by tests are described below. Full-scale modal testing of structures is well-established in the automotive, aerospace and marine industries. It is an extensive subject about which many books have been written15 . Only recently have such techniques been used to test civil structures. A discussion of these methods is beyond the scope of this guide. Significant information about the dynamic properties of structures can be derived from much simpler heel drop tests though, particularly if an approximate understanding of the likely mode shapes is available prior to the tests. B1 General: equipment and test procedure B2 Modal test procedure and post processing techniques Appendix B Footfall Induced Vibration of St75 75 06/12/2006 16:30:57
- 78. 76 Consider the bridge of worked example 1. It is expected that the first three modes of the structure will be as shown in Figure 5.3.The first two of these will be excited by heel drops at mid-span, and to a lesser extent heel drops at quarter span. The third will not respond at mid-span but will respond to a heel drop at the quarter point. Time histories and spectra of heel drops at mid-span and quarter-span are shown in Figures B1 and B2. From the spectra it is possible to confirm that the frequencies of modes 1, 2 and 3 are 4.65Hz, 6.56Hz and 14.66Hz respectively. Figure B1 Heel drop responses at mid-span and quarter span. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 Frequency [Hz] Acceleration [m/s²] Heel Drop Spectra Mid−span Quarter−span Figure B2 Heel drop spectra at mid-span and quarter span. It is possible to calculate the damping of the modes from the decay response after the heel drop using the logarithmic decrement technique. However it should be noted that if there is any more than one mode that is responding to the impulse (as is the case for both heel drops above), then the damping calculated from the first stage of the decay will be incorrect and a significant overestimate of the actual damping. Reliable estimates of the damping from heel drops using the logarithmic decrement technique are only possible with careful filtering or averaging of measured traces. If many closely spaced modes are responding simultaniously then it may not be possible to calculate any reliable estimates of the damping using the logarithmic decrement. In this case the more sophisticated methods mentioned above must be used. Footfall Induced Vibration of St76 76 06/12/2006 16:30:58
- 79. 77 Appendix B Walk-by tests are straightforward to perform. Having calculated the modal frequencies from heel drop tests, the critical walking frequencies likely to induce resonance can be calculated. Then, using a metronome to control pacing frequency, a person walks on the structure while an accelerometer records the response at the desired location. A typical recorded time history (again for the bridge of example 1) is shown in Figure B3. It is clearly seen that the response builds up over time, as is characteristic of resonance. B3 Walk-by test procedure and post-processing techniques 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 −0.08 −0.06 −0.04 −0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 Time [secs] Acceleration [m/s 2 ] Walkpast Time History Figure B3 Walk past time history for the bridge of example 1. For this particular test one mode dominates the response and so the response factor can be estimated by hand calculation as shown below: a ≈ 0.07ms/s2 aRMS ≈ a = 0.05m/s2 √2 The dominant frequency of response is between 4Hz and 8Hz, where ar =1 = 0.005m/s2 so R = 10. However, a more general method is required for tests in which the structure is responding in several modes. The post-processing technique required will depend on the nature of the criteria to which the response will be compared. This will normally take one of two forms, either a ‘total response factor’ or an RMS velocity measured in one-third octave bands (which is how performance criteria for sensitive equipment are normally specified). The two methods are very similar, it is only the filtering of the data that differs between them. ˆ ˆ Footfall Induced Vibration of St77 77 06/12/2006 16:30:58
- 80. 78 1. The measured time history is passed through a band pass weighting filter which is effectively the inverse of the base curve for R = 1, i.e. the amplitude of vibration between 4Hz and 8Hz is unaffected, that above 8Hz is reduced by 6dB per octave, that below 4Hz by 3dB per octave. 2. A rolling RMS of the filtered signal is calculated with an averaging period of 1 second. 3. The maximum value of this RMS signal corresponds to the maximum response factor during the test. This response factor is found by dividing the RMS acceleration by 0.005m/s2 . The filtered signal and the rolling RMS for the signal of Figure B3 are shown in Figure B4. The filtered signal looks little different to the original in this case because the majority of the response is between 4Hz and 8Hz where the attenuation of the filter is zero.The maxi- mum response factor is calculated as 0.04/0.005 = 8, where 0.04m/s2 is the maximum recorded RMS in the filtered signal and 0.005m/s2 is the base line weighted acceleration response for R = 1. B3.1 Calculation of a ‘total response factor’ from measured data 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 −0.08 −0.06 −0.04 −0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 Time Filtered Acceleration Rolling RMS Acceleration Figure B4 Filtered and RMS acceleration. 1. The measured velocity time history is passed though a series of one-third octave band pass filters. 2. A rolling RMS of each of the filtered signals is calculated with an averaging period of 1 second. 3. The maximum RMS response in each of the one-third octaves can be compared to the performance criterion for that one-third octave. Alternatively measured accelerations can be processed in the same way and the calculated RMS accelerations in each one-third octave band converted to RMS velocities by dividing by the angular centre frequency of that band. B3.2 Calculation of RMS velocity in one-third octave bands Acceleration (m/s 2 ) Footfall Induced Vibration of St78 78 06/12/2006 16:30:59
- 81. 79 Appendix C Appendix C. Validation Included below are the results of measurements made on the structures of the three worked examples of Chapter 5. It should be noted that the methods described in this guide have been extensively validated over the last 5 to 10 years and these tests constitute only a small subset of all the validation tests performed. They are included here primarily to give an indication of the level of accuracy that can be expected of the predictions. It is intended to demonstrate the validity of the prediction technique, rather than the methods for calculating modal properties described in Appendix A and so for examples 1 and 2 the measured frequencies are used as the basis of the predictions. This makes little difference to the magnitudes of the predicted responses but ensures that the peaks in measured and predicted response such as those in Figure C1 line up, facilitating comparison of the two. Predicted and measured responses at mid-span are shown in Figure C1. The prediction incorporates the weight of the walker (900N) and the measured responses are the maxi- mum that occur as the walker walks from one side of the span to the other. C1 Worked example 1 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Walking frequency (Hz) Response factor Predicted vs. measured Predicted Measured Figure C1 Predicted and measured responses for worked example 1. The post-tensioned concrete floor described in Chapter 5 was tested when bare and with- out fit-out, as shown in Figure 5.6. The test procedure consisted of repeatedly walking the length of the 10m span as indicated in Figure C2. The floor response was monitored at locations 1 and 2, also shown in Figure C2. Predictions are based on the measured modal properties shown inTable 5.4.The point of excitation is taken to be the point that responds most in all three modes. This point is at the edge of the floor, as shown in Figure C2. C2 Worked example 2 Predicted vs. measured Walking frequency (Hz) Response factor Footfall Induced Vibration of St79 79 06/12/2006 16:30:59
- 82. 80 Appendix C Figure C2 Model showing walking route and measurement locations. 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Walking frequency, Hz Response factor Position 1 - Predicted vs. measured Predicted Measured Predicted and measured responses at the two locations are shown in Figures C3 and C4 below. 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Walking frequency, Hz Response factor Position 2 - Predicted vs. measured Predicted Measured Figure C3 Predicted and measured response for position 1. Figure C4 Predicted and measured response for position 2. Excitation point 1 2 Walking route Position 1-predicted vs. measured Walking frequency (Hz) Position 2-predicted vs. measured Walking frequency (Hz) Response factor Response factor Footfall Induced Vibration of St80 80 06/12/2006 16:31:00
- 83. 81 The correlation at both locations is generally good.These tests indicate well the sensitivity of response to exact pacing frequency. As it is unlikely that the walker will have maintained exactly the specified rate for the duration of the test, exact correlation between test and measurement should not be expected. A comparison of peak measured response against peak predicted response is perhaps more reasonable as it is likely that the walker will have taken at least a few consecutive steps at the critical frequency during the test. The floor of example 3 is a ribbed concrete floor for an American laboratory. Accelerometers were located at A and B, as shown in Figure C5 and acceleration was measured as a person walked at the specified pacing frequency along the route shown. C3 Worked example 3 Figure C5 Measurement locations and walking route for tests on floor of example 3 (see Figure 5.14 for context). Footfall Induced Vibration of St81 81 06/12/2006 16:31:01
- 84. 82 Appendix C Measured peak and RMS velocities are compared against predictions below. 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 Walking speed [Hz] Location B Predicted Peak Predicted RMS Predicted Test RMS Test Figure C6a Predicted and measured response at location B. Predicted Peak Predicted RMS Predicted Test RMS Test 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 Walking speed [Hz] Location A Figure C6b Predicted and measured response at location A. It can be seen that RMS responses correlate well with prediction, as do the peak velocities at location B. At location A measured peak velocities are only about 60% of the predicted. In general, measured peak responses show considerable variability and the dynamic performance of a high-frequency floor is almost always based on RMS responses. Footfall Induced Vibration of St82 82 06/12/2006 16:31:02