A multimodal discourse analysis of video games (toh weimin)

Editor's Notes

• #4: Eskelinen’s (2012) “cybertext poetics” integrates Aarseth’s cybertext with Genette’s narratology. He critically refines and expands the narratological categories of tense, mood, and voice to accommodate the possibilities created by the seven cybertextual dimensions of textual dynamics, determinability, transience, perspective, access, links, and user function. Aarseth’s (2012) preliminary model of a narrative theory of games build on standard narratology. A four-dimensional model is formulated to discuss about the different types of elements which exist inside a gameplay level and a narrative level along a continuum. The four ontological dimensions consist of world, objects, agents and events and are present in narrative and gameplay. These four dimensions are configured differently for different games. Hocking’s “ludonarrative dissonance” comes from Bioshock where the player is encouraged to adopt an Objectivist approach to take care of his self-interests to become more powerful to progress the game but in the narrative, the player is encouraged to be selfless and to rescue the other NPCs. With the disjunction between the gameplay and narrative focus, the player may become aware of the inconsistency of the reality portrayed in the gameworld and make judgements as to whether the information given to them by the gameplay and narrative is congruent based on the gameworld’s standard. “Ludonarrative resonance” refers to the gameplay and story integration where they fit together extremely well. When the narrative and gameplay are combined successfully, the game immerses the player in the gameworld and allows them to interact with a story they want to believe in, in a satisfying way. Pinchback’s (2009) ludodiegesis model conceptualises gameplay as the core component of FPS games and the diegesis which refers to the “fictive reality of the game” is used as a support for the gameplay. Linderoth’s (2013) ludonarratological construct analyses whether the gameplay mechanics, such as whether improved character abilities as the game progresses are appropriate for some narrative themes and elements in specific video games which include superheroes, Greekgods and sport stars.
• #5: Bycer (2013) – “narrative dissonance” in game storytelling which refers to “the game mechanics directly clash with the narrative and pacing of the title”.  Ludonarrative dissonance contrast – negotiation Pynenburg (2013) – “Ludonarrative dissonance contrast – incomplete information problems” refers to the situation in which “to solidify the empathetic connection between player and character, game designers may force players to make quick, important decisions in the game with limited knowledge of how their choice may affect events further in the narrative”. For instance, when playing The Walking Dead, choosing a different dialogue choice may or may not affect the player’s relationship with the other characters in the narrative, but the players are not explicitly informed about the consequences of their choices. Calleja’s (2011) “ludic belief” which refers to the player’s schematic knowledge of the game’s ludic structures to edit out narrative incongruities or illogical narrative elements are integrated into the subcategory of ludonarrative dissonance negotiation in the ludonarrative model. Watssman’s (2012) “ludonarrative resonance” which refers to the integration between the narrative and the gameplay. O’Halloran’s (2007) concept of the convergence of the meanings in different semiotic modes are critically applied to the creation of the ludonarrative subcategory of “ludonarrative resonance motivation” where the narrative motivates the player’s gameplay actions and vice versa. O’Halloran’s (2008) concept of “intersemiotic metaphor” which refers to “metaphorical shifts that occur where the functional status of elements is not preserved and new elements are introduced”. For instance, a complex scene becomes a metaphorical entity. People dancing in an MTV refers to the narrative metaphor that life is a drama. When critically applied to video games, metaphorical shifts may occur when the functional status of gameplay elements is not preserved as new narrative elements and gameplay mechanics are introduced. For instance, in Bioshock, a narrative event caused the player’s gameplay skills to become non-customisable and the gameplay skills also manifest randomly. The player has to fulfil the gameplay goal before the gameplay skills become customisable and under control again. Liu and O’Halloran’s (2009) “intersemiotic consequence” which refers to the “visuals and linguistic components of multisemiotic texts that can be interconnected through Consequential Relations when one semiotic message is seen as enabling or determining the other rather than simply preceding it”. For instance, a print advertisement may have a textual message that says that some product delivers a positive effect to the user, and the effect is manifested in visuals. When critically applied to video games, “ludonarrative resonance consequence” refers to the long term outcome of a gameplay action on the narrative and vice versa. _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Subsequent gameplay sessions were conducted in the participants’ homes where the participants use think-aloud protocol to elicit their narrative interpretations and explain their gameplay actions
• #6: Video game analysis should not only focus on the structural analysis, but must take into account different players’ experiences. Video game analysis requires not only the researcher’s game experience, but also the players’.
• #7: Ryan’s (2003) cognitive maps are originally used to analyse static diagrams/maps, but they are critically applied and expanded to analyse the player’s interpretation of the video game narrative. (1) Inventory – Priority in which the players place on specific objects in their mental representation. Objects can be classified as obligatory or optional. Objects can refer to other NPCs, landmarks, interactive objects and so on which play important narrative roles. (2) Spatial Relations – Player’s evaluation of distance between two or more objects. Objects may be stationary or dynamic. Cognitive map may either map to a narrative or gameplay event, depending on the players’ interpretation. (3) Mapping Style – Process in which players map an object to their mental models. Cognitive map may either map the object to a narrative or gameplay object or both. Mapping style can be conventional/symbolic, iconic or indexical. A symbolic mapping style example includes the colour coding used in Mass Effect’s dialogue wheel where blue colour aligns with the player’s role-playing as a “good” type of character in the narrative and also produces a Paragon gameplay reward outcome. Red colour on the dialogue wheel aligns with the players’ role-play as a “ruthless” type of narrative character and also produces a Renegade gameplay reward outcome. An iconic mapping style includes in-game objects such as Wrex’s armour in Mass Effect which partially resembles the gameplay object and also produces the backstory for Wrex after the mission is accomplished. An indexical mapping style refers to semiotic affordances in the gameworld which points the player in the direction to move. An indexical semiotic affordance includes the NPC Tess in The Last of Us who will usually stand or move in the direction to guide the player the direction to move towards in the gameworld. Categories are not mutually exclusive, i.e. objects can be both narrative and gameplay or both symbolic, iconic, and indexical, depending on the player’s interpretation. (4) Interactive Character Movement – The player’s control of the PC to move in the gameworld. Movement may be stationary or dynamic. Cognitive map may map the character’s movement to narrative conflict in the plot when the player encounters enemies or gameplay challenges or both, depending on the player’s interpretation. (5) Interactive Character Movement with Action – The player’s control of the PC to move in the gameworld to interact with game objects. Movement may be stationary or dynamic. Narrative action can be continuous (QTEs), instant (interacting with notes) or gradual (Controlling a character to move slowly during a scripted event). They are more story-like and involves narrative interpretation. These categories are not mutually exclusive. Cognitive map may map the interactive character movement with action to the character’s narrative role or gameplay function or both, depending on the player’s interpretation.
• #8: Action  The player character’s performance of action and his/her reactions (which is not the same as the player’s interaction). Telling  A narrator telling the narrative to the player, e.g. usually in scripted (Bioshock’s audio logs) and rarely in non-scripted sequences. Experiencing/Experiential  The player’s experience of the emergent narrative (elicited through open-ended interviews post gameplay and think-aloud protocol during gameplay). Viewing/Performative  The player’s simultaneous performance and viewing of the unfolding narrative (observed in the lab and through the gameplay recordings). Reflecting  The player thinks back about the narrative (elicited through think-aloud protocol). Manipulation (My addition)  The player’s interaction with the video game (observed in the lab and through the gameplay recordings, explained through think-aloud protocol and open-ended interviews). This cognitive frame may be more gameplay like compared to “viewing/performative”, but is not as challenging as gameplay action such as in FPS shooting. Augmentary (My addition)  Backstory, embedded narrative and environmental storytelling (observed in the lab and through the gameplay recordings, narrative interpretation explained through think-aloud protocol and open-ended interviews).
• #9: Instrumental actions – more instinctive and do not require strategic and critical thinking. Takes very little time to actualise. Environmental details and setting modifications - These actions involve interaction with the environment to achieve an advantage and they are more instinctive. Player character upgrades - These actions involve interaction with the PC(s) to achieve a gameplay advantage and they are more instinctive and do not involve strategic thinking. These actions upgrade the PC based on the obligatory gameplay goals. Kinesics and spatial behaviour - These are instrumental actions utilised by the player. In TLOU and Mass Effect, the players may utilise micro actions, such as crouching, to hide under cover to reduce their chances of being shot at by the enemies in the gameworld. These actions are instinctive and do not require preplanning. Language-based communication - Language based instrumental actions include the scenario where the player does not have sufficient time to think of the answer or is under a time-imposed restriction to choose a dialogue option such as in The Walking Dead and The Witcher 2 & 3. Strategic actions – require more strategic and critical thinking and are less instinctive. Takes more time for deliberation to actualise. Environmental details and setting modifications - These are actions that take advantage of the environment to facilitate the player’s elimination of the opposition, overcoming of the gameplay obstacles or discovering and unlocking a hidden area. These actions require deliberation and may require some time to set up. PC Customisation - These actions involve interaction with the PC(s) to achieve a gameplay advantage. Character customisation is a broader category that includes character upgrades. But it is more deliberate and involves strategic (analytical) thinking. Kinesics and spatial behaviour - These are strategic actions performed by the player. These actions are deliberate and involve reflection by the player whether they want to perform the actions. These actions involve micro-managing the squad mates in Mass Effect. Language-based communication - Language-based strategic actions include critical moments in the game where the player takes time to think of which dialogue options to choose in careful consideration of the gameplay outcome. For instance, in choosing one of the dialogue options in Mass Effect, the player sacrifices one of the other characters to die so they will never appear again. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Fabricatore’s (2007) model includes the core diegetic gameplay mechanics enabling player’s action(s)/interaction(s) with the environment, object, agent, avatar, and also includes the satellite gameplay mechanics such as enhancement, opposition and facilitating mechanics.
• #10: Empirical data obtained from gameplay observation in the lab, analysis of gameplay recordings, think-aloud protocol used by the players and open-ended interviews (involving retrospective protocol analysis).