A NEW METHOD OF TEACHING FIGURATIVE EXPRESSIONS TOIRANIAN LANGUAGE LEARNERS

Natarajan Meghanathan et al. (Eds) : NLP, JSE, CST, SIP, ARIA - 2018
pp. 21– 27, 2018. © CS & IT-CSCP 2018 DOI : 10.5121/csit.2018.80203
A NEW METHOD OF TEACHING
FIGURATIVE EXPRESSIONS TOIRANIAN
LANGUAGE LEARNERS
Leila Erfaniyan Qonsuli and Mostafa Bahraman
Assistant Professor, Kashmar Higher Education Institute, Iran
ABSTRACT
In teaching languages, if we only consider direct relationship between form and meaning in
language and leave psycholinguistic aside, this approach is not a successful practice and
language learners won't be able to make a successful relation in the real contexts. The present
study intends to answer this question: is the teaching method in which salient meaning is taught
more successful than the method in which literal or figurative meaning is taught or not? To
answer the research question, 30 students were selected. Every ten people are formed as a
group and three such groups were formed. Twenty figurative expressions were taught to every
group. Group one was taught the figurative meaning of every expression. Group two was taught
the literal meaning and group three was taught the salient meaning. Then three groups were
tested. After analyzing data, we concluded that there was a significant difference in mean
grades between classes and the class trained under graded salience hypothesis was more
successful. This shows that traditional teaching methods must be revised.
KEYWORDS
Teaching, Graded Salient Hypothesis, Figurative expressions, Language
1. INTRODUCTION
A strong foundation in teaching languages is psycholinguistics and cognitive linguistics so that
language teaching and psycholinguistics are not detachable. The significance of psycholinguistic
and cognitive research is best known when the result of researches show that Most of the time we
speak, we speak not straight and usually we say something but we mean something else. For
example we say "it's cold today" but we mean" please close the door". This has gone so far that
most psycholinguists and cognitive linguists believe that even our thinking is metaphorical.
Therefore, in teaching languages, if we only consider direct relationship between form and
meaning in language and leave psycholinguistic aside, this approach is not a successful practice
and language learners won’t be able to make a successful relation in the real contexts. According
to Graded Salience Hypothesis (Giora, 1997), more salient meanings–coded meanings foremost
on our mind due to conventionality, frequency, familiarity, or prototypicality–are accessed faster
than and reach sufficient levels of activation before less salient ones. even rich and supportive
contexts which are biased in favor of less salient meanings do not inhibit activation of salient
meanings. This hypothesis predicts that in teaching languages, it’s more successful to teach the

22 Computer Science & Information Technology (CS & IT)
salient meaning of figurative expressions, not figurative or literal meaning. The present study
intends to answer this question: is the teaching method in which salient meaning is taught more
successful than the method in which literal or figurative meaning is taught or not?
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Kecskes(1999)claims that pragmatic skills in an L2 do not necessarily reflect conceptual fluency
in the target language properly because individual variables rather than conceptual fluency play a
decisive role in the selection and use of these pragmatic units. In order to investigate the validity
of this hypothesis a survey was conducted with 88Non-Native Speakers (NNSs) and 33 Native
Speakers of English (NSs) who were given three types of tests: two discourse-completion tests, a
problem-solving test and a dialog interpretation test. Data were analyzed for two variables:
cultural specificity of SBUs and individual learner strategies. The findings of the survey
demonstrated the existence of three developmental stages which are characterized respectively by
strong L1-culturetransfer, false generalization, individual choice. Students in the third stage tend
to choose SBUs on affective grounds and reject those pragmatic units which they find too culture
specific.
Kecskes(2006) discusses three claims of the Graded Salience Hypothesis presented in Rachel
Giora’s book ‘On our mind’. It is argued that these claims may give second language researchers
the chance to revise the way they think about word meaning, the literal meaning–figurative
meaning dichotomy and the role of context in language processing. Giora’s arguments are related
to recent second language research and their relevance is explained through examples. There are
also several suggestions made for further research.
Kecskes(2000) considered a particular type of formulaic expressions called situation-bound
utterances (SBUs). Since the meaning of these pragmatic units is shaped by the interplay
of linguistic and extra linguistic factors, they can be best accounted for in a theoretical
framework which represents a knowledge-for-use conception. A cognitive-pragmatic
approach to SBUs reveals that in many cases cognitive mechanisms such as metaphor and
conventional knowledge are responsible for the unique situational meaning of SBUs. In this
respect, SBUs are similar to other formulaic expressions such as idioms and conventional
implicatures whose meaning structure can also be better accounted for if the underlying
cognitive mechanisms are examined. It will be claimed that the relationship of SBUs to
socio-cultural concepts resembles that of words and concepts as described in Cruse
(1992). SBUs will be classified according to their formula-specific pragmatic properties
which are either encoded in the expression or charged by the situation. The investigation of
the characteristic features of SBUs and the development of their situational meaning
necessitates the review of two important theoretical issues: the creative aspect of language
use and the role of formulaic expressions in the development of syntax. It will be argued
that the formulaic-creative dichotomy makes sense only at sentence level, whereas it loses
its significance at discourse level. Not all types of formulaic expressions contribute to
syntactic development in an L2, because some of them (including SBUs) are almost never
split into constituents by L2 learners. Errors in the use of SBUs can mainly be due to the
lack of native-like conceptual fluency and metaphorical competence of adult L2 learners,
who rely on their LI conceptual system when producing and comprehending SBUs in the
target language.

Computer Science & Information Technology (CS & IT) 23
Abel(2003) In two empirical studies, investigated judgments that native speakers of German
make about the decomposability of English idioms . A decomposable idiom is an idiom
whose individual components contribute to its figurative meaning, whereas the constituents of
a non decomposable idiom do not make such a contribution. The findings were analysed and
compared to native judgments. The Model of Dual Idiom Representation is introduced in
order to explain the differences between the two groups. At the lexical level, the model
postulates the parallel existence of idiom entries and constituent entries. The degree of
decomposability and the frequency with which the idiom is encountered determine its
lexical representation. If there is no idiom entry for a particular idiom, conceptual
representations are accessed during comprehension. Because non native speakers encounter
idioms less often than native speakers, the first language (L1) and second language (L2)
lexicon vary with regard to the number of idiom entries.
In a research by Bortfeld(2003), Speakers of three different languages (English, Latvian, and
Mandarin) rated sets of idioms from their language for the analyzability of the relationship
between each phrase’s literal and figurative meaning. For each language, subsets of idioms were
selected based on these ratings. Latvian and Mandarin idioms were literally translated into
English. Across three experiments, people classified idioms from the three languages according to
their figurative meanings. Response times and error rates indicate that participants were able to
interpret unfamiliar (e.g., other languages’) idioms depending largely on the degree to which they
were analyzable, and that different forms of processing were used both within and between
languages depending on this analyzability. Results support arguments for a continuum of
analyzability (Bortfeld & McGlone, 2001), along which figurative speech ranges from reflecting
general conceptual structures to specific cultural and historical references.
Cies´licka(2013) aimed to explore the role of compositionality in the course of processing idioms
by second language users. The study employed a cross-modal priming technique in which English
decomposable and non decomposable idioms were embedded in sentences (e.g. ‘George wanted
to bury the hatchet soon after Susan left’) and presented auditorily via headphones to Polish
fluent speakers of English. While participants were listening to the sentence, a target word related
figuratively (e.g. FORGIVE) or literally (e.g. AXE) to the idiom was presented on the computer
screen for a lexical decision either at the end of the idiom or before the last word of the idiom.
Contrary to the predictions of the Idiom Decomposition Hypothesis (Gibbs and Nayak 1989;
Gibbs et al. 1989), figurative meanings of decomposable idioms were not available faster than
those of non decomposable idioms. In addition, strong activation was found for literal meanings
of idiom constituents, in line with previous L2 processing research (Kecskes 2000; Liontas 2002;
Abel 2003).
3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In this part, the graded salience hypothesis (Giora, 1997) will be discussed.
3.1 Literal meaning-figurative meaning
• Literal meaning has been defined as linguistic meaning, i.e., as nonfigurative, coded,
fully compositional, context-invariant, explicit, and truth conditional (Katz, 1977, in
Ariel, 2002).

• Figurative meaning is seen as its counterpart, i.e., as extra linguistic, indirect, inferred,
noncompositional, context-dependent, and cancelable (Ariel, 2002).
3.2 Graded Salience Hypothesis
According to the graded salience hypothesis (Giora, 1997), for information to be salient—to be
foremost on one’s mind—it needs to undergo consolidation, that is, to be stored or coded in the
mental lexicon.
Stored information is superior to unstored information such as novel information or information
inferable from context: while salient information is highly accessible, nonsalient
information requires strongly supportive contextual information to become as accessible as
salient information. Salience is not an either-or notion, however. Rather, it admits degrees. The
more frequent, familiar, conventional, or prototypical/stereotypical the information in the
mind of the individual or in a certain linguistic community, the more salient it is in that mind
or among the community members (Giora, 2003:15).
3.3 Graded Salience Hypothesis Predictions
The Graded Salience Hypothesis has predictions regarding the first phase and the second phase of
comprehension. It predicts that comprehension involves an initial phase in which contextually
appropriate and salient meanings are activated—the latter automatically and independently of
contextual information, the former as a result of a predictive context—and an immediate
subsequent phase of integration in which the activated meanings are either retained for further
processes or suppressed as contextually disruptive. This holds for any stage of the comprehension
processes (Giora, 2003: 37).
3.4 Familiarity
The more familiar the meaning, the quicker it is to retrieve (Blasko&Connine, 1993;
Gernsbacher, 1984; Hintzman& Curran, 1994). Given enough exposure and individual
experience, any information can become foremost on our mind to the extent that it resists
contextual information (see Zajonc, 2000); so the salience depends on the experiential familiarity
an individual has with the stimulus in question.
3.5 Figurative Language
In the psychological literature, eight distinct types of nonliteral language have emerged (Kreuz&
Roberts, 1993). In figurative expressions, figurative meaning is intended, not literal meaning.
4. RESEARCH METHOD
To answer the research question, 30 Iranian students of English translation field of study, aged
18-22, and female gender were selected. Every ten people are formed as a group and three such
groups were formed. In a week, twenty figurative expressions were taught to every group. The
materials used were 20 indirect requests or idioms taken from naturally occurring conversations;
such as the following: « it is cold! »(It means: close the door!). A pretest was performed.
Tennative English speakers participated. In this pretest, participants rated the expressions on a 1–

7 familiarity scale, in which 7 = highly familiar and 1 = entirely unfamiliar. Then,
expressions were divided into familiarity groups (familiar, less-familiar, unfamiliar). Therefore
the salient meaning was obtained. For the main test, Group one was taught the figurative meaning
of every expression. Group two was taught the literal meaning and group three was taught the
salient meaning. Then three groups were tested and the meaning of expressions was asked.
5. DATA ANALYSIS
Chi-Square Testwas used for the pretest. Then, expressions were divided into familiarity groups
(familiar, less-familiar, unfamiliar). Foranalyzing the results of main test, t-Test was used and sig
=0.022<0.05. This indicated thatthere was a significant difference in mean grades between
classes.
Table 1.Samples Statistics
Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
v3
v4
12.3000
14.9000
20
20
3.15561
2.66853
.70562
.59670
Table 2.Samples Correlations
N Correlation Sig.
v3 & v4 20 -.271 .247
Table 3.Samples Test
Paired Differences
t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Mean
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
v3 - v4 -2.60000 4.65267 1.04037 -4.77752 -.42248 -2.499 19 .022
6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
After analyzing data, we concluded that there was a significant difference in mean grades
between classes and the class trained under graded salience hypothesis was more successful. This
shows that traditional teaching methods must be revised.
Graded salience hypothesis provides new insights supported by empirical evidence that prompt
the reader to revise his or her views about L2 language processing, vocabulary acquisition,
pragmatics and reading. It has much to offer to applied linguists. This Hypothesis has already
begun and has produced some interesting results (Abel, 2003;Bortfeld, 2002; 2003; Cies´licka,
forthcoming). The investigation of salience in second language acquisition should allow us to
understand how emerging new conceptual knowledge blends with existing L1-based conceptual
knowledge, resulting in the development of a new complex language system and modifications in

the operation of the L1. The GSH may help us develop an intake theory that focuses not only on
input and output as the inter language approach does, but that attempts to explain what happens in
the mind of language learners as they process new input(Kecskes,2006).
REFERENCES
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representation approach, Second Language Research 19,4 ; pp. 329– 358.
[2] Ariel, M. (2002).the Demise of a Unique Literal Meaning. Journal of Pragmatics, 34, 361-402.
[3] Blasko, G. D. &Connine, C. (1993).Effects of Familiarity and Aptness on Metaphor Processing.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,19, 295–308.
[4] Bortfeld, H., &McGlone, M. (2001). The continuum of metaphor processing.Metaphor and Symbol,
16,75-86.
[5] Bortfeld, H.,(2002), What native and non-native speakers’ images for idioms tell us about figurative
language. In Heredia, R. and Altarriba, J., editors, Bilingual Sentence Processing.North
Holland/Elsevier, 275–95.
[6] Bortfeld, Heather, (2003), Comprehending Idioms CrossLinguistically, Experimental Psychology;
Vol. 50(3): 217-230.
[7] Cies´licka, Anna B. , (2013), Second Language Learners’ Processing of Idiomatic Expressions: Does
Compositionality Matter? Second Language Learning and Teaching, Series Editor MirosławPawlak,
KrystynaDroz´dział-Szelest. , Studies in Honor of WaldemarMarton,springer, 115-136.
[8] Cruse, D.A., (1992), Antonymy revisited: Some thoughts on the relationship between words and
concepts. In: A. Lehrer and E. Kittay, eds., Frames, fields and contrasts, Hillsdale, 289-309:
Erlbaum.
[9] Gernsbacher, M. A. (1984). Resolving Twenty years of Inconsistent Interactions between Lexical
Familiarity and Orthography, Concreteness, and Polysemy. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
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Cognitive Psychology21: 100-138.
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[16] Kecskes, Istvan, (1999), Conceptual fluency and the use of situation-bound utterances in L2, Links &
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AUTHOR
Leila ErfaniyanQonsuli
EDUCATION
• B.A.: English Language and Literature(University of Sistan and Baluchestan,
Zahedan, Iran)
• M.A.: General Linguistics(Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran)
• Ph.D: General Linguistics(Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran)
HONORS AND DISTINCTIONS
• Earn the rank of "A" (the first person in Iranian`s Ph.D. entrance exam)
• Earn the rank of "A" among Ph.D. students in Ferdowsi university of Mashhad (Top graduate student with
the Top GPA. of A+).
• Earn the rank of "A" (the first person in Iranian`s MA. entrance exam)
• Earn the rank of "A" among MA. Students in Ferdowsi university of Mashhad (Top graduate student with
the Top GPA. of A+).
• A member of Iranian elite center.
• Earn the third rank of the best Ph.D. thesis in Iran.
• Earn the excellent rank for MA. Thesis (GPA: A+).
• Earn the excellent rank for Ph.D. Thesis (GPA: A+).
• Earn the "Best professor" title from scientific and applied university.
• Earn the "Best married student" title from Ferdowsi university of Mashhad.
• Earn the "Best student" title from Ferdowsi university of Mashhad multiple times.
• A member of "applied psycholinguistics" journal reviewers.
• A member of "Khorasan`s dialects and linguistics" of Ferdowsi university journal reviewers.
• A member of "Literary and rhetorical studies" journal of PayameNour university.
• Supervisor and advisor and professor in MA. theses.
• Author of multiple published paper s in scientific journals

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