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International Journal of Engineering Sciences & Research
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IJESRT: 8(1), January, 2019 ISSN: 2277-9655

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IJESRT
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES & RESEARCH
TECHNOLOGY
GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN MINING
Sefiu O. Adewuyi1
& Hussin A. M. Ahmed2
1
Ph D candidate, Mining Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, King Abdulaziz
University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia2
Professor, Mining Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
DOI: Will get Assigned by IJESRT Team
ABSTRACT
Geophysical techniques have wide range of applications mainly in earth science, marine science, Civil
Engineering and Forensic Science. For example in earth science they are applied in Geology, Mining
Engineering activities, and Petroleum Engineering. However, publications and contributions regarding details
and the state of art of each application are still scattered. This becomes more obvious when knowing that
majority of publications discuss application of geophysical techniques for a particular mineral deposit with
minimum trials to collect data together for understanding of the whole story. Therefore, this paper aims at
review of available literature related to geophysical methods application in mining engineering with the purpose
of assisting concerned professionals towards decision making. Findings reflected that magnetic technique is the
most widely used method in minerals exploration while magneto-telluric method is not commonly applied in
mining application. Collected results also showed that usually more than one geophysical method should be
applied to arrive a robust conclusion concerning an in-depth existing ore deposit.
KEYWORDS: Mineral deposits; ore; mining; geophysical techniques; Exploration.
1. INTRODUCTION
Geophysical exploration belongs to the branch of geophysics that uses non-destructive
approach to investigate mineral deposits (Teixidó, 2012). The applied Geophysical technique
depends mainly on physical properties of rocks and their forming minerals beneath the earth surface. Mineral
deposits exploration requires geophysical techniques to identify and estimate the deposit extension, borders,
quantity in addition to its quality before embarking on mine operation (Boszczuk et al., 2011). Exploration
research is a continuous process in mineral industries because reserve which is the asset of the industries is finite
and nonrenewable. Also, near surface mineral is becoming more rarer and deep seated mineral target is now a
major issue in mineral industries which required sophisticated geophysical techniques (Boszczuk et al., 2011).
Geophysical techniques have wide range of applications mainly in earth science, marine science, civil
engineering, hydrology, archeology (Teixidó, 2012)and Forensic Science. For example in earth science
they are used and applied in Geology, Mining Engineering activities, and Petroleum Engineering. Historically,
geophysical technique (magnetic) was first used in Sweden in the 17th century for prospecting iron ore
(Reedman, 1979). Geophysical techniques gained more acceptability in the early 1923 (Gupter, 1986) because
of exploration for crude oil. Relevance of Geophysics across the world is as a result of oil and solid mineral
exploration. Early history of seismic technique can be found in the research of (Schriever, 1952). Historical
development of magnetic technique in mineral exploration was discussed by (Nabighian et al.,
2005).Application of Geophysics in mining is not a new field of study, though mining industries have not been
able to judiciously harness its benefit very well. Much effort has been made by researchers to discuss
applications of geophysics in mining but geophysical techniques are still been used below optimal capacity.
However, increase in recognition of geophysical techniques in mining industries have been recently reported by
(Galdón et al., 2017a). The use of geophysical techniques for exploration of metalliferous deposit was discussed
by (Fallon et al., 1997) but other applications of geophysics in mining was left out in their study. Also,
(Nabighian & Asten, 2002) reviewed the state of art in metalliferous mining geophysics without given
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ISSN: 2277-9655
information relating to non-metallic minerals and other applications of geophysical techniques in mining. Useful
information and technical knowhow of geophysical technique in coal mining was
discussed by (Peter, 2013) but other applications in mineral deposits exploration were not discussed. Hence,
framework and applications of geophysical techniques in mining is scattered which necessitate this research.
This paper therefore, reviewed the previous works and discussed the applications of geophysical techniques in
mining (metallic ore, non-metallic ore and other area of mining). Moreover, cost implication of geophysical data
was presented.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
Geophysical techniques can be classified on different bases. Firstly, they may be classified into passive and
active techniques based on signal propagation via investigated ore (Reynolds, 1997). In Passive methods, signal
are not required to pass into or penetrate the earth subsurface while in active methods generated signals always
pass into or penetrate the subsurface before geophysical data can be obtained. The different methods included in
each category are presented in Table 1.
Secondly, geophysical methods are classified according to the way they collect data which can be either by
logging through boreholes or taking images from the ground surface (Fullagar & Fallon, 1997). They are
typically named in literature as borehole logging geophysical techniques or geophysical imaging techniques.
Borehole logging is the technique used in gathering information relating to mineral deposit from drilling of core
in target identified resource zone. In contrast, geophysical imaging is used to acquire data at the surface of the
earth using appropriate technique related to variation in physical properties of mineral and surrounding rocks.
The first category includes: mechanical methods (caliper and sonic loggings), electrical method (resistivity,
conductivity, self-potential and induced-potential), magnetic susceptibility logging, radioactive logging (natural
gamma logging and neutron porosity logging), temperature logging and pressure logging, (Ofwona, 2014;
Tittman, 1987) meanwhile the second category is as listed in Table (1). However, this paper only covers
geophysical imaging techniques in Mining Engineering application.
In a third view, geophysical techniques were categorized based on physical property they use in identification of
the unknown ore deposit in the earth ( Gerhard, 2005; Yue, 2015). Classification of geophysical techniques by
Yue (2015) was somehow different from earlier classification by Gerhard (2005) although they used the same
approach. Potential was used to group magnetic and gravity by (Gerhard, 2005). However, the two authors left
out radiometric and magneto-telluric techniques in their classification and therefore included in this paper. The
details of the later and former with bases of classification were discussed under section 3.3 and 3.5 respectively.
3. APPLICATIONS OF GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES IN MINING
Magnetic techniques
Magnetic technique has been the oldest geophysical method. During middle ages, compass and middle was used
in detecting magnetic mineral especially magnetite (Milson, 2003). Advance in technology has led to production
of different types of instrument (magnetometers) for measuring variation in susceptibility of mineral deposits.
Magnetic data acquisition can be perform in air, on sea and land (Reynolds, 1997). Magnetic technique is the
most commonly used geophysical tool in gold exploration, as it is in exploration for other metals (Doyle, 1990).
Successful use of magnetic technique for gold exploration in South Africa and Canada was reported by (Hugh,
1990). Magnetic method has been used in coal exploration. As discussed by (Thomas et al., 2016), rare-metals
(RM) have low magnetic response but intrusive host rocks which has high magnetic response make it possible
to use magnetic technique for their exploration. Aeromagnetic method has been used in diamond exploration for
decades (Frederick, 2002). Aeromagnetic data can be used for large scale exploration and more cheaper
compared to ground magnetic survey but ground magnetic method give higher resolution of features. Other area
where magnetic method has been applied alone or with combination of other methods area listed on Table (2).
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Based on information from Table (2) and physical characteristics of mineral deposits, different geophysical
methods are suitable for mineral exploration. However, some methods are more suitable than other for specific
mineral deposits. In some cases, two or more methods can be suitable for the same mineral deposits depends on
physical characteristics of the ore body (Table 3).
Gravity techniques
Gravity technique measures density contrast between mineral and surrounding rocks. Gravity technique based
its principle on the Newton’s law of gravitation “The Newton’s law of gravitation states that the force of
attraction, F between two masses m1 and m2, whose dimensions are small with respect to the distance, r between
them then, F is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to square of the
distance between them” (Association for Mineral Exploration British Columbia, 2013). Extrusive igneous rocks
have the highest density follow by metamorphic rocks and intrusive igneous rocks while sedimentary rocks have
lowest density. Density of rocks increases down the earth surface due to effect of pressure been exerted by the
rock and soil near the earth surface. Details framework of gravity technique for gold exploration in South
Africa was reported by (Doyle, 1990). The method has also been reported for chromate, iron, manganese,
copper sulfides ore, and coal exploration (Table 2).
Table 1: Classification of geophysical techniques as per signal generation
Classifi
cation
Method Principle Depth of
penetration
Survey
method
Source
Passive Magnetic Measures variation in
susceptibility of
mineral deposits
0-20 km
(ground data usually
gives lower depth)
Ground, sea,
airborne
(Kamil, 2008;
Reynolds,
1997)
Gravity Measures density
contrast of mineral
deposits
Entire earth (ground
data usually gives
lower depth)
Ground, sea,
airborne
(Kamil, 2008;
Reynolds,
1997)
Magneto-
telluric (MT)
Measures electrical
conductivity of
minerals and rocks
0-150km
(practical depth is 0.1
- 100km)
Ground (Kamil, 2008)
Radiometric Measures the emission
of gamma ray ( -ray)
ɣ
from radioactive
elements in mineral
deposits
0 – 0.305 km Ground,
airborne
(Nelson, 1949)
Active Electrical
resistivity
Measures electrical
conductivity of
minerals and rocks
0 - 0.1km
(practical depth is <
0.3km)
Electromagn
etic
Measures electrical
conductivity of
minerals and rocks
0 - 10km
(practical depth is <
5km)
Ground,
airborne
(Kamil, 2008;
Reynolds,
1997)
Ground
penetrating
radar (GPR)
Measures variation in
dielectric constant of
mineral deposit
0-0.05km (results
become less reliable
after 10m)
Induced -
Polarization
(IP)
Measures the electrical
capacitance of minerals
0 - < 0.3km Ground (Kamil, 2008)
Self-
Potential
(SP)
Measure electrical
conductivity of
minerals and rocks
0 - 0.03 km Ground
Seismic Measures the arrival
time of wave
penetration through
rock media
0 - 10km for
reflection,
0 - 150km for
refraction
Ground and
sea
(Kamil, 2008)
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Electrical techniques
Geophysical methods that measure electrical physical parameters are grouped together as electrical techniques.
Electrical resistivity, electromagnetic, magneto-telluric and self-potential methods measure electrical
conductivity of minerals and rocks. Induced polarization measures the electrical capacitance of minerals while
GPR measures variation in dielectric constant of mineral content. Among electrical methods, resistivity
technique is the most applied in mineral exploration (Survey, 2015) using terameter. As discussed by
(Kowalczyk et al., 2017) some of the physical conditions that affect the geological media are; amount of void,
water saturation, porosity and lithology. Resistivity of minerals and surrounding rocks are dependent on those
physical conditions as well as structure and texture of contained minerals. It is well known that areas of low
resistivity are usually produced by sulfides, graphite, and salty overburden (Doyle, 1990). Apart from mineral
investigation, resistivity technique is also being use in geotechnical study to estimate depth to bedrock and
landslide related research.
As reported by (Survey, 2015), electromagnetic (EM) technique in most cases is use for exploration of low-
resistivity massive sulphides mineral deposits. Data acquisition using EM can be done in air and on ground,
unlike other electrical methods that can only be carried out on ground. Detail history of EM can be found in a
research by (Zhdanov, 2010).
As discussed by (Markus, 2017), SP method was proposed by Robert Fox in 1830 at Cornwall, England. SP is
usually adopted in sulphide and graphite mineral exploration. Comprehensive information about SP data
acquisition has been published by (Charles et al., 1983). Induced polarization has been reported for prospecting
of metallic sulphide deposits as far back as 1990 by (Doyle, 1990). IP like SP is well known for exploration of
metal sulphides(Scott, 2014; Survey, 2015; Tavakoli et al., 2012, 2016). The use of IP technique for gold
exploration at Abitibi greenstone belt, Canada was reported by (Doyle, 1990). However, responses of gold target
to IP usually are of low amplitude.
Table 2: Ore exploration and geophysical techniques
Country Location Ore type Method Source
Australia Ghost Crab Gold Aeromagnetic (Miller & McLeod,
1999)
China Tuwu, Gold Seismic reflection (Tonglin & David,
2005)
Australia Agnew,
Western ,
Gold Gravity, aeromagnetic and IP (Nigel, 2003)
Canada British
Columbia,
Gold Seismic data (Roy & Clowes,
2000)
Iran South
Khorasan,
Gold Magnetic method (Haidarian Shahri et
al., 2010)
Canada Halfmile
Lake area
Sulfide
deposits
Seismic reflection (Malehmir &
Bellefleur, 2009)
Albania
-
Copper sulphide ore
and Chromite
Electrical, gravity, magnetic and
electromagnetic methods
(Alfred et al., 1995)
Oman - Chromite Gravity, magnetic and resistivity (Mubarik &
Muhammad, 2013)
India Odisha, Chromite Electromagnetic, gravity, and
magnetic methods
(Animesh et al.,
2015)
Turkey Southwestern Chromite Electromagnetic, IP, gravity,
magnetic and SP
(Bayrak, 2002)
Malaysia Pagoh, Johor, Iron ore IP and DC resistivity (Bery et al., 2012)
Nigeria Tajimi village, Iron ore Magnetic and electrical resistivity (Bayowa et al.,
2016)
Brazil São Sepé city, Iron ore Electrical resistivity and IP (César et al., 2016)
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Country Location Ore type Method Source
Kedah Bedong area, Iron ore Magnetic, gravity and electrical
methods
(Lee, 2002)
Kenya Mutomo-
Ikutha,
Iron ore Magnetic method (Waswa et al.,
2015)
Indonesi
a
Aceh Jaya, Manganese ore Magnetic method (Walid & Adi,
2013)
India Orissa, Manganese ore Gravity,
magnetic and electrical resistivity
methods
(Murthy et al.,
2009)
China Shangri-La, Molybdenum ore Magnetic method (Nguyen et al.,
2014)
Nigeria Itobe, Marble Deposit Resistivity method (Onimisi et al.,
2015)
According to (Wai-Lok Lai et al., 2018), GPR gained acceptability for mineral exploration around 1950. Since
then, it has been used for exploration of different mineral deposits and for mine waste hazard investigations.
GPR based its principle on electromagnetic wave such that, frequency signals are transmit and then receive after
penetration through the target area using appropriate GPR devices to measure the dielectric contrast of the
minerals. The signal frequency is usually in the range of 10 - 5,000 MHz, 10-10,000 MHz (Wai-Lok Lai et al.,
2018) or 100 MHz – 1GHz (Galdón et al., 2017b) depend on dimension of emitting and receiving antennas. The
electric and magnetic properties of minerals determine the speed, attenuation and polarization of signal through
minerals and surrounding rocks. GPR has numerous application in mining such as; investigation of hang wall
thickness, rock fractures, potholes, ore zone exploration (Francke, 2012) and old mine (Galdón et al., 2017b).
However, it works well for shallow mineral investigation because, its depth of penetration is very small compare
to other geophysical methods and requires higher radar frequencies to get good resolution.
Magneto-telluric technique (MT) was first proposed by Cagniard (1953). It uses earth’s magnetic field
variations and induced telluric currents as a result of electric field to measure the electrical resistivity of
minerals and rocks. This method was actually developed for prospecting deep seated mineral deposit (several
kilometers) but it is rarely used because most deep seated mineral deposits are not being mined economically
(Reedman, 1979). The technique seems best suited to soundings sedimentary layers. However, the possibility to
apply the MT technique in the search for shallow deposits was opened by the widespread introduction of the
high frequency modification of the method, the audio magneto-telluric (AMT) sounding. Despite advance in
technology, MT alone cannot be used for mineral exploration and it is highly costly (Varentsov et al., 2013).
Also, new MT data interpretations need to be developed to make analysis easier. More information about
magneto-telluric can be found in a paper by (Aboud et al., 2014).
Table 3:Geophysical techniques in mining related research (Most appropriate Δ, appropriate or may be applied •)
Method
Gold
Iron
ore
Copper
Diamond
Sulfide
Manganese
Molybdenum
Chromate
Bauxite
Coal
Limestone
Marble
Phosphate
Uranium
Fault
zone
Rock
slide
Waste
dump
Magnetic • Δ • • • Δ Δ Δ • • • • • •
Gravity Δ • • Δ • • • • Δ • • • • •
Resistivity • Δ • • • • Δ • Δ Δ • Δ • •
EM • • • Δ • • • • • • • •
IP • • Δ • •
GPR • • • Δ Δ
SP • • Δ • • Δ •
Seismic • • • • Δ • • Δ •
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Radiometric Δ Δ •
Seismic techniques
Seismic methods when applied, measure the arrival time of wave that have travelled through the elastic media or
rocks from the source (hammer or detonation of dynamite) at the surface to the receiver (geophones). The
variation in density of minerals and rocks make the velocity of wave differ from one point to the other. Also, the
arrival time of the wave differs depend on the density of the media. Seismic techniques are mostly being use in
exploration for oil and gas but also have some applications in mining industries especially for locating metallic
ore deposits in sedimentary basin. Seismic techniques are also applicable for investigation of basement depth
and crustal structure of underlain rocks. The approach has been applied to determine the background condition
in coal mine (Fallon et al., 1997; Zou et al., 2013) and salt cavities (Kosecki et al., 2009). As illustrated in
Figure (2), seismic techniques are of two type; reflection and refraction. The formal base its principle on law of
reflection of wave while the later based its principle on law of refraction of wave. Data acquisition can be
carried out on land or sea by creating vibration using explosive material.
Radiometric technique
Radioactive technique involves measuring the emission of gamma ray ( -ray) from radioactive elements using
ɣ
Geiger-Muller or scintillation counter. The data can be taken on ground and in air (airborne radiometric survey).
Radioactive elements are unstable in nature and they disintegrate to form daughter isotopes at a specific rate of
decay. Radiometric technique is a well know approach in exploration for nuclear minerals. It can be used in
exploration for potassium, thorium, uranium, carbon and rubidium. Apart from exploration applications of
radiometric technique, it can also be used in radon assessment in underground mining to prevent radiation
hazard (Adagunodo et al., 2018; Bochiolo et al., 2012; Gaafar et al., 2016; Kaniu et al., 2018) for workers at
mine sites.
4. DISCUSSION
It was observed that most geophysical techniques measure electrical properties of the rocks and mineral to
unravel ore deposits. The resistivity method is used to map spatial variations in subsurface electrical
conductivity, while the induced polarization (IP) method is used to map variations in chargeability. Table (2)
presents methods used by different researchers for ore prospecting. Research works presented in the table were
selected based on available information. Table (3) presents appropriate methods that can be applied in mining
exploration. Many authors failed to include area covered during their survey. It is highly important to present
area covered during geophysical survey or give number of traverse and line with their space interval from which
interested reader can get idea of area covered for future research. Table (2 and 3) clearly show that magnetic
method has wide range of applications because it was applied in almost all research work presented and for
different applications. Though, it is the oldest geophysical method but advance in technology makes it relevant
in many area of geophysical, geological and mining research.
5. CONCLUSION
Geophysical methods has wide range of applications in many area of earth related sciences and engineering
disciplines. Combination of more than two geophysical methods can provide better information to arrive at good
conclusion. Geophysical surveys required in-depth knowledge of technicality involve in data acquisition,
analysis and interpretation. Different method has distinct techniques, thus researcher must understand the
procedures of the applicable method(s). The geophysical techniques in mining fields were reviewed and
classification of different methods was revisited using physical parameters. Methods used by researchers in ore
exploration were presented to be a guide for other researchers in mineral industries and related fields. Magnetic
method happens to be the most widely used technique in mineral exploration while radiometric method has
limited application because it is mainly for radioactive mineral exploration.
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