![A survey on smart grid technologies and applications
Dileep G.
Department Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Madanapalle Institute of Technology & Science, Madanapalle, Andhra Pradesh, 517325, India
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 1 January 2019
Received in revised form
16 August 2019
Accepted 18 August 2019
Available online 23 August 2019
Keywords:
Smart grid
Smart substation
Smart sensor
Smart metering
Home and building automation
a b s t r a c t
The Smart Grid is an advanced digital two-way power flow power system capable of self-healing,
adaptive, resilient and sustainable with foresight for prediction under different uncertainties. In this
paper, a survey on various Smart Grid enabling technologies, Smart Grid metering and communication,
cloud computing in Smart Grid and Smart Grid applications are explored in detail. Opportunities and
future of Smart Grid is also described in this paper. For Smart grid enabling technologies Smart meters,
smart sensors, vehicle to grid, plug in hybrid electric vehicle technology, sensor and actuator networks
are explored. Advanced metering infrastructure, intelligent electronic devices, phasor measurement
units, wide area measurement systems, local area network, home access network, neighborhood area
network, wide area networks and cloud computing are explored for Smart Grid metering and
communication. Home and building automation, smart substation, feeder automation is explored for
smart grid applications. Associations of initial studies for the next step in smart grid applications will
provide an economic benefit for the authorities in the long term, and will help to establish standards to
be compatible with every application so that all smart grid applications can be coordinated under the
control of the same authorities. Therefore, this study is expected to be an important guiding source for
researchers and engineers studying the smart grid. It also helps transmission and distribution system
operators to follow the right path as they are transforming their classical grids to smart grids.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Majority of the world's electricity distribution system or ‘grid
network’ was built when energy was reasonably low cost. Minor
upgrading has been made to the primitive grid network to meet up
with the rising demand of energy. Still the utility grid operates in
the way it did almost 100 years ago, energy flows from central
power plants to consumers through utility grid and by preserving
surplus capacity reliability is ensured. Such a system is environ-
mentally extravagant and incompetent and consumer of fossil fuels,
that is a principal emitter of particulates and greenhouse gases, and
not well suited to distributed energy resources (DERs). In addition,
the utility grid may not have sufficient capacity to meet demand in
future. Revolutionary changes in communication systems, mainly
inspired by the Internet, presents greater control and monitoring
possibility all over the power system and hence more low cost,
flexible and effective operation. The Smart Grid [1e10] is a chance
to utilize the new communication technologies and information to
revolutionize the conventional electrical power system. However,
any significant change made in conventional power system re-
quires careful justification and expensive due to the scale of in-
vestment that has been made in it over the years and the huge size
of the power system. The consent among climate scientists is clear
that the man-made greenhouse gases are leading to dangerous
climate change. With regards to climate change, Smart Grid is
capable of facilitating climate change mitigation (CCM) and climate
change adaptation (CCA) from both a behavioral and institutional
perspective (energy conservation and demand management) as
well as from a technological standpoint (i.e., the integration of
renewable energy sources). Integration of renewable energy
through Smart Grid help to reduce the emission of carbon partic-
ulate and greenhouse gases, thereby helps in CCM. Energy con-
servation and demand management programs included in Smart
Grid helps in reducing energy consumption. Integrating climate
change considerations into Smart Grid planning and deployment,
electricity stakeholders can ensure that the implemented Smart
Grid technology does not contribute to greenhouse gas emissions
and does not result in a grid that is vulnerable to climate change-
related damage. Reduction in wasted energy, losses and effective
management of loads needs accurate information. State of utility
grid becomes observable and different possibilities for control
E-mail address: dileepmon2@gmail.com.
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![emerge once monitoring of all the parts of the power system is
done. Future de-carbonized electrical power system is likely to rely
on generation from a combination of renewable DERs, nuclear
power plants and fossil-fuelled plants with carbon capture and
storage [11e22]. Combination of different generator modules in-
creases the difficulty to manage the power system to run at con-
stant output for commercial and technical reasons. It is hard to
control and monitoring cost-effective and synchronized operation
such a power system without the help a smarter grid. Hence, Smart
Grid is essential for future power system [23e28].
The choice of Smart Grid has been evolved into a goal from a
vision and it is being realized slowly all around the globe. Smart
Grid initiatives across the globe are facilitated by concrete energy
policies, audit and management [29e37]. Many developed coun-
tries have already installed Smart Grid technologies in the elec-
tricity network. But there are many other countries which are
lagging in Smart Grid technology implementation. This paper
traces the emergence of Smart Grid as a need to modernize the
conventional utility grid [38e51]. Large number of research papers
have been reviewed to included best basic knowledge of Smart Grid
fundamentals, technologies, functionalities, characteristics, needs,
challenges and future scope. Each components of Smart Grid
technologies like smart meters, smart sensors, and its application in
Smart Grid has also been explained in detail. The role of Smart Grid
metering and communication technologies for real time measure-
ment and monitoring purpose, with the challenge of data privacy
and security, has also been explored.
2. Smart grid: the definitions
The concept of Smart Grid unites a number of technologies,
consumer solutions and addresses several policy and regulatory
drivers. Smart Grid does not have any single obvious definition.
Definition of Smart Grid by European technology platform is,
“A Smart Grid is an electricity network that can intelligently inte-
grate the actions of all users connected to it-generators, consumers
and those that do both-in order to efficiently deliver sustainable,
economic and secure electricity supplies.”
Abbreviation
ADC Analog to digital converter
AMI Advanced metering infrastructure
AMR Automatic meter reading
BAS Building automation system
BIPV Building integrated photovoltaic
CBM Circuit breaker monitor
CCA Climate change adaptation
CCM Climate change mitigation
CHP Combined heat and power
CS Compressive sensing
DA Distribution automation
DERs Distributed energy resources
DERMS Distributed energy resource management systems
DFR Digital fault recorder
DFRA Digital fault recorder assistant
DG Distributed generation
DMS Distribution management system
DPR Digital protective relays
DPRA Digital protective relay analysis
DSM Demand side management
DULRs Dual-use line relays
EM Electromagnetic
EMS Energy management system
ESI Energy services interface
FA Feeder automation
FAN Field area networks
FACTS Flexible AC transmission systems
FERC Federal energy regulatory commission
FLISR Fault location, isolation and service restoration
HAN Home area network
HMI Human machine interface
IADS Integrated automated dispatch systems
IEDs Intelligent electronic devices
IHD In-home display
GD Generation dispatch
GFR Grid frequency regulation
GMC Grid monitoring and control
GPS Global positioning system
GUI Graphical user interface
LAN Local area network
MUs Merging units
NAN Neighborhood area network
NCAP network capable application processor
NCIT Non-conventional instrument transformers
NIC Network interface card
NIST National institute of standards and technology
OMS Outage management system
PARs Phase angle regulating transformers
PCUs Power conditioning units
PDCs Phasor data concentrators
PHEV Plug in hybrid electric vehicle
PLC Programmable logic controllers
PMU Phasor measurement unit
PV Photovoltaic
RESs Renewable energy sources
RFEH Radio frequency energy harvesting
RTP Real time pricing
RTUs Remote terminal units
R&D Research and development
SA Substation automation
SANETs Sensor and actuator networks
SGCC Smart Grid control center
SNTP Simple network time protocol
SPV Solar photovoltaic
STIM Smart transducer interface module
TEG Thermoelectric generator
TOU Time-of-use
T&D Transmission and distribution
VTC Video teleconferencing
V2G Vehicle to Grid
WAMS Wide area measurement systems
WAN Wide area networks
Nomenclature
Hz Hertz
kVAR kilovolt-ampere reactive
kW kilowatt
kWh kilowatt hour
s Seconds
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![(AMR) systems is an example for this. AMR in the distribution
network allows utilities to read the status from consumers' pre-
mises, alarms and consumption records remotely. As shown in
Fig. 3, the major drawback of AMR technology is that it does not
does not address DSM. Capability of AMR is restricted to reading
meter data due to its one-way communication system. Based on the
information received from the meters it does not allow utilities take
corrective action. In other words, transition to the Smart Grid is not
possible with AMR systems, since pervasive control at all levels is
not possible with AMR alone. Utilities across the world have been
moved to AMI, rather than investing on AMR. AMI presents utilities
with the ability to modify service level parameters of consumers.
Through AMI, utilities can congregate their fundamental targets for
revenue protection and load management. AMI gathers instanta-
neous information about individual and aggregated demand, put
caps on consumption and performs various revenue models to
control their costs. The coming out of AMI heralded a determined
move by stakeholders to further improve the ever-changing con-
cepts around the Smart Grid. In reality, one of the main criteria that
the utilities consider in choosing among AMI technologies is
whether or not they will be compatible with their yet-to-be-
realized Smart Grid's technologies and topologies. Hence, evolu-
tion of electric grid can be summarized as, (i) adding nerves, (ii)
adding brains, (iii) adding muscles and (iv) adding bones. Adding
nerves involves the addition of sensory devices at utility grid level
and consumer level. The primary motive of this is to provide data
from the smart choice to entire system. Smart meters and AMI are
consumer level nerve system of Smart Grid. Advanced visualization
technologies are employed at the transmission and distribution
level to provide utility grid operators more real-time, wide-area
awareness of grid status. This capability will allow for enhanced
optimization of power generation, transmission and distribution, as
well as more rapid response to problems. Synchrophasors deployed
for measuring voltage and current readings in transmission lines is
an example for advanced visualization technology. Adding brains
refers to processing and using the information sensed by Smart
Grid nerves effectively. DR is primary form of this at consumer
level. DR is a change in consumer energy consumption in response
to a signal from utilities. Adding muscles involves the addition of
DERs, combined heat and power (CHP) plants and storage devices
into the utility grid thereby making the grid more reliable and
secure. Adding bones refer to the improvement that is made in the
transmission and distribution lines to facilitate power line
communication and integration of DERs. Components of Smart Grid
are listed in Table 1 and comparison of traditional grid with the
Smart Grid is listed in Table 2.
6. Smart grid reference architecture
The national institute of standards and technology (NIST) Smart
Grid reference architecture consists of several domains and its sub-
domains, each of which contains many actors and applications [52].
Actors comprises of devices, computer systems or software pro-
grams, etc. Actors have the facility to formulate decisions and in-
formation exchange with other actors through network interfaces.
The tasks that performed by the actors within the domainare
termed as applications. Applications are carried by a single actor or
by several actors working together. The actors cluster domains to
discover the commonalities which will define the interfaces. Usu-
ally, actors in the same domain have similar objectives. Commu-
nications within the same domain may have similar necessities and
characteristics. Domains may contain other domains. Flows repre-
sent the flow of information or energy through the utility grid. The
point of access between a system and domain is represented by
interfaces. There exist both communications and electrical in-
terfaces. Communications interfaces will be bidirectional and
represent the access point for information to enter and exit a sys-
tem or domain. They represent logical connections rather than
physical connections. The Smart Grid domains are listed briefly in
Table 3 and discussed in more detail in the sections that follow.
The actors in a particular domain frequently interact with actors
in other domains to enable Smart Grid functionality. Fig. 4 shows
the domains in Smart Grid. The conceptual model is a legal and
regulatory framework which includes policies and necessities that
apply to various actors and applications and to their interactions.
Regulations, adopted by the federal energy regulatory commission
(FERC) at the federal level and by public utility commissions at the
state and local levels, govern many aspects of the Smart Grid. Such
regulations are intended to ensure that electric rates are fair and
reasonable and that security, reliability, safety, privacy and other
public policy requirements are met. The transition to the Smart
Grid introduces new regulatory considerations, which may tran-
scend jurisdictional boundaries and require increased coordination
among federal, state and local lawmakers and regulators. The
Fig. 2. The evolution of the Smart Grid.
Fig. 3. Smart Grid returns on investments.
Table 1
Major components of the Smart Grid.
Nerves - AMI (network and meters)
- Advanced visualization and grid sensing technology
Brains - DR (via. dynamic pricing)
- Building energy management systems (EMS)
- Data management systems (DMS)
- End-use energy efficiency
Muscle - DGs from CHP, renewable and other sources
- Energy storage technologies (including PHEVs)
Bones - New transmission lines (superconducting and HVDC)
- New substation equipments and transformers
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![Real time monitoring based on PMU, state estimators, communi-
cation technologies and sensors are transmission subsystems
intelligent enabling tools for developing smart transmission
functionality.
7.4. Monitoring and control technology component
Monitoring and control technology component consist of de-
vices for self-monitoring, self -healing, predictability and adapt-
ability of generation, smart intelligent network and devices enough
to handle reliability issues, instability and congestion. This new
flexible grid has to resist shock (reliability and durability) and be
dependable to provide real-time changes in its use. Smart energy
efficient use devices and smart distributed DERs has inbuilt
monitoring and control capability. Such devices are self-aware and
can make actions independently based on the situational
awareness.
7.5. Intelligent grid distribution subsystem component
The distribution network is last stage in transmission of power
to consumers. Primary and secondary distribution feeders supply to
small industrial, commercial and residential consumers. At distri-
bution level, intelligent support schemes will have monitoring ca-
pabilities for automation using communication links between
utility control and consumers, smart meters, AMI and energy
management components. The automation function will be pre-
pared with self - learning capability, including modules for auto-
matic billing, fault detection, restoration and feeder
reconfiguration, voltage optimization and load transfer and real
time pricing (RTP).
7.6. Demand side management component
DSM and energy efficiency options are developed for modifying
the consumer demand to cut down operating cost by reducing the
use of expensive generators and postpone capacity addition. DSM
options contribute to reliability of generation and reduce emis-
sions. These options have an overall impact on the utility load
curve. A standard protocol for consumer delivery with two-way
information highway technologies is essential. Smart energy
buildings and smart homes, plug-and-play, clean air requirements,
demand-side meters and consumer interfaces for better energy
efficiency will be in place.
8. Smart grid technologies
By incorporating few technologies, the transition of the con-
ventional electric grid to Smart Grid is possible. The Smart Grid
technologies that helps in the transition are discussed in next
sections.
8.1. Smart meters
Smart meter is an electricity or gas meter that has metering as
well as communication abilities [53e68]. It measures energy con-
sumption data and permits it to read remotely and displayed on a
device within the home or transmitted securely. The meter can also
receive information remotely, e.g., switch from credit to prepay-
ment mode or to update tariff information. It has two key functions
to perform: (i) for providing data on energy usage to consumers to
help control over consumption and cost and (ii) for sending data to
the utility for peak-load requirements, load factor control and to
develop pricing strategies on the basis of consumption information.
Key feature of smart meters are automated data reading and two-
way communication between utilities and consumers. Smart me-
ters are developed to measure electricity, gas and water con-
sumption data's. In Smart Grid, smart meters provide consumers
with knowledge about how and when they use energy and how
much they pay for per kilowatt hour of energy. This will result in
better pricing information and more accurate bills and it will
guarantee faster outage detection and restoration by the utility.
Additional features of smart meters include tariff options, tax
credits, DR rates, smart thermostat, prepaid metering, switching,
enhanced grid monitoring, remote connect/disconnect of users,
appliance control and monitoring and participation in voluntary
rewards programs for reduced consumption. Smart meter outputs
can be used for voltage stability and security assessment also. Fig. 6
shows a smart meter front view.
8.2. Automated meter reading
AMR devices let utilities to read meters remotely, removing the
requirement to send a worker to read each meter separately [69].
While they do represent a certain amount of two-way communi-
cation, this functionality is limited and does not increase the effi-
ciency or reliability of the utility grid. They do not have any inbuilt
home displays to show the energy consumption pattern to the
consumer, hence consumer remains unaware of their energy con-
sumption. Due to this, the utilities cannot communicate to the
consumers about their energy consumption, thus consumers
cannot adjunct their consumption during peak hours and save
Fig. 5. The intelligent grid.
Fig. 6. Smart meter.
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![energy. AMR in the distribution network lets utilities read the
status from consumers' premises, alarms and consumption records
remotely. Capability of AMR is restricted to reading meter data due
to its one-way communication system [70]. Based on the infor-
mation received from the meters it does not let utilities take
corrective action. In other words, transition to the Smart Grid is not
possible with AMR systems, since pervasive control at all levels is
not possible with AMR alone [71]. AMR is the collection of con-
sumption data from consumer's like electric meters and smart
meters remotely using telephony, radio frequency, power-line or
satellite communications technologies and process the data to
generate the bill. Fig. 7 shows block diagram of an AMR system.
Functions of each block are explained below.
Reading unit carry out two important jobs basically. Initially, the
reading from analog meters is converted into digital. Subsequently
the data are processed to communication unit for transmission.
(2) Communication unit
This is one of the most challenging and important part of this
system. Data is the most important part for meter reading and
billing system, hence this part is challenging. Data transmission
should be in an efficient manner without any loss of data.
(3) Data receiving and processing unit
Data receiving and processing unit receives the data transmitted
from the communication unit and processes it for future purpose.
(4) Billing system
Billing system is the final stage of AMR which takes the meter
number and can generate bill for that meter. It uses the data of the
database those are collected from the meter reading through all the
unit of our system. Analysis on electricity usage for each meter can
be also carried out using this system.
8.3. Vehicle to grid (V2G)
The incorporation of electric vehicles and Plug in hybrid electric
vehicle (PHEV) is an additional part of the Smart Grid system. V2G
power employs electric-drive vehicles to provide power to partic-
ular electric markets [72e82]. Fuel cells, battery or hybrid of these
two is employed to store energy in vehicles. There are three main
different versions of the V2G concept (i) a hybrid or fuel cell vehicle,
(ii) a battery-powered or plug-in hybrid vehicle or (iii) a solar
vehicle, all of which involve an onboard battery. The major ad-
vantages of V2G are (i) it provides storage space for renewable
energy generation and (ii) it stabilizes large scale wind generation
via regulation. PHEV significantly cut down the local air pollution
problems. Hybridization of electric vehicles and associations to the
utility grid conquers the limitations of their use including battery
weight/size, cost and short range of application. PHEV offers an
alternative to substitute the use of petroleum based energy sources
and to reduce overall emissions by using a mix of energy resources.
The use of PHEVs potentially has a significant positive impact on
the electric power system from the point of view of increasing
electric energy consumption, substituting petroleum fuels with
unconventional sources of energy. The associations between vehi-
cles and the utility grid are illustrated in Fig. 8. The connections
between vehicles and utility grid are illustrated in Fig. 8. Electricity
flows one-way from generators through the grid to electricity users.
The flow is two ways from electric vehicles. A control signal is
needed in order to communicate with the electric vehicles when
the grid needs energy. In Fig. 8, the grid operator is labeled ISO, for
independent system operator. The control signal from the ISO could
be a broadcast radio signal, or through a cell phone network, direct
Internet connection, or power line carrier. In any case, the grid
operator sends requests for power to a large number of vehicles. It
may do so directly to individual cars, or it may communicate with
parking lot operators for example, who in turn would communicate
with the fleet of parked cars at their disposal.
Two types of power interactions are possible between the
vehicle and utility grid.G2V consists of utility grid supplying energy
to the plug-in vehicle through a charge port. A V2G vehicle is
capable of providing energy back to the utility grid. V2G presents
the potential for the grid system operator to call on the vehicle as a
distributed energy source. V2G technology can be employed,
turning each vehicle with its 20 to 50 kWh battery pack into a
distributed load balancing device or emergency power source.
Electricity flows all over the utility grid from generators to con-
sumers whereas unused energy flows back and forth from the
electric vehicles as shown in Fig. 8 (the lines with two arrows).
During off-peak time, battery electric vehicles can charge and
during peak time, battery can discharge through the utility grid.
There are two basic V2G architecture (i) deterministic archi-
tecture and (ii) aggregative architecture. In deterministic architec-
ture, services are provided to the plug-in vehicles directly from the
grid system operator. A direct line of communication exists be-
tween plug-in vehicles and grid system operator, thus each vehicle
can be treated as a deterministic resource. The vehicle is permitted
to bid and carry out services when it is at the charging station. The
contracted payment for the previous full hours is made and the
contract is ended when the vehicle leaves the charging station. The
availability and reliability achievable by means of the deterministic
V2G architecture is about 92% and 95% respectively. Deterministic
architecture is simple and easy to implement, but it prevents V2G
from providing several services that require high power and energy
minimum thresholds.
Fig. 9 shows the connections in deterministic approach. In
aggregative architecture, an intermediate aggregator is inserted in
between grid system operator and plug-in vehicle. The aggregator
can bid to carry out auxiliary services at any time, while the indi-
vidual vehicles can engage and disengage from the aggregator as
they arrive at and leave from charging stations. Fig. 10 shows the
connections in aggregative approach. Availability and reliability of
Fig. 7. Block diagram of an AMR system.
(1) Reading unit
Fig. 8. The connections between vehicles and the utility grid.
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![base load generators is about 93% and 98.9% respectively. An ag-
gregation of PEVs will be needed in order to participate in the
energy market. In fact, two different approaches can be followed:
cost.
Function-based power drawn scheduling and price-sensitive
energy bidding [16]. The first one, which is suitable for the deter-
ministic V2G architecture, consists in establishing the PEV charging
profile on the basis of the energy price given by the day-ahead
market and in updating it dynamically. As a result, each PEV is
responsible for its charging without interference from the system
operator: in the hours of cheapest prices, the PEV should recharge
at its maximum rate. On the other hand, the price-sensitive energy
bidding approach entails that the PEV fleet participates in the day-
ahead market and the amount of energy purchased depends on the
price the PEV owner is willing to pay. This approach, which is not
possible for the V2G deterministic architecture, is particularly
suitable for the aggregative one. However, in both cases, PEVs can
participate in the services markets. Since the aggregative V2G ar-
chitecture would appear to be the most promising one, several
studies have been carried out aiming to define the role and tasks of
this framework, which is also defined aggregator. Its role may be
acting as an intermediary between each PEV owner and the system
operator, whereas its tasks may consist in grouping a certain
number of PEVs, appropriately coordinating their charging, and
providing profitable services.
Advantages,
(1) Peak load leveling.
(2) Carbitrage.
(3) Backup power solutions
8.4. Plug in hybrid electric vehicle technology
A PHEV is a hybrid electric vehicle with a larger battery pack
[83e102]. So, it runs on electricity when its battery SOC is high or
else, the IC engine takes over and the vehicle uses gasoline similar
to a hybrid vehicle. The battery pack can be recharged via a plug
which provides connection to the utility grid; hence, a PHEV,
compared to conventional cars, has an extra equipment to connect
to an external electrical source for recharging. PHEVs are charac-
terized by their all-electric range. In cases of extreme emergencies
like a sudden increase in oil prices or major decrease in oil supplies,
the stored or unused energy that utilities preserve during night
time or off-peak time can be utilized to support the vehicles. It must
also considered that efficiency of electric drive systems is about 70%
only, as an example, a first-generation PHEV can travel about 75
cents per gallon of gas or about 3-4miles per kWh. All PHEV vehi-
cles will be employed with connection to the utility grid for elec-
trical energy flow, a logical connection or control is compulsory for
communication with the utility grid operator and onboard meter-
ing and controls. Fuel cells can generate power from gaseous and
liquid fuels and PHEV can function in either capacity. Fig. 11 shows
the major architectures of PHEV.
The architecture of a PHEV is defined based on the connection
between their power train components. These components are the
IC engines, PEI, battery (B), motor/generator (M/G) and trans-
mission (T/R). Four major architectures are (i) series (electrically
coupling), (ii) parallel (mechanically coupling), (iii) series-parallel
(mechanical and electrical coupling) and (iv) complex (mechani-
cal and electrical coupling). Fig. 3.8 shows these four architectures.
However, series (e.g., Chevrolet Volt) and complex (e.g., Toyota
Prius) topologies are the most well-known architectures for PHEVs.
The battery charger can be on-board or external to the vehicle. On-
board chargers are limited in capacity by their weight and size,
dedicated off-board chargers can be as large and powerful as the
user can afford, but require returning to the charger; high-speed
chargers may be shared by multiple vehicles. PHEV operates in
three modes (i) charge-sustaining (ii) charge-depleting and (iii)
blended mode or mixed modes. These vehicles can be designed to
drive for an extended range in all-electric mode; either at low
speeds only or at all speeds. These modes manage the vehicle's
battery discharge strategy and their use has a direct effect on the
Fig. 9. Deterministic approach of vehicle to utility grid connection.
Fig. 10. Aggregative approach of vehicle to utility grid connection.
Fig. 11. PHEV architectures (a) Series, (b) parallel, (c) series parallel and (d) complex.
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![size and type of battery required. In charge-sustaining mode certain
amount of charge above battery SOC is sustained for emergency
use. Before reaching SOC, vehicle's IC engine or fuel cell will be
engaged. Charge-depleting mode permits a fully charged PHEV to
operate exclusively on electric power until its battery SOC is
depleted to a predetermined level, at which time the vehicle's IC
engine or fuel cell will be engaged. This period is the vehicle's all-
electric range. This is the only mode that a battery electric vehicle
can operate in, hence their limited range. Mixed mode describes a
trip using a combination of multiple modes. For example, a car may
begin a trip in low speed charge-depleting mode, then enter onto a
freeway and operate in blended mode. The driver might exit the
freeway and drive without the IC engine until all-electric range is
exhausted. The vehicle can revert to a charge sustaining-mode until
the final destination is reached. This contrasts with a charge-
depleting trip which would be driven within the limits of a
PHEV's all-electric range.
Advantages of PHEV,
(1) Operating costs.
(2) Vehicle-to-grid electricity.
(3) Fuel efficiency and petroleum displacement.
Disadvantages of PHEV,
(1) Cost of batteries.
(2) Recharging outside home garages.
(3) Emissions shifted to electric plants.
(4) Tiered rate structure for electric bills.
(5) Lithium availability and supply security.
8.5. Smart sensor
Smart sensors are defined as sensors that provide analog signal
processing of recorded signals, digital representation of the analog
signal, address and data transfer through a bidirectional digital bus,
manipulation, and computation of the sensor-derived data
[103e111]. Fig. 12 shows basic architecture of IEEE 1451 standard
for smart sensor network. Main components are transducer elec-
tronic data sheet (TEDS), transducer independent interface (TII),
smart transducer interface module (STIM) and network capable
application processor (NCAP). A smart sensor provides additional
functions further than those required for generating an accurate
demonstration of the sensed quantity. It is composed of many
processing components integrated with the sensor on the same
chip. Has intelligence of some forms and provide value-added
functions beyond passing raw signals, leveraging communications
technology for telemetry and remote operation/reporting. Objec-
tives of smart sensors consist of integrating and sustaining the
distributed sensor system measuring intelligently and smartly,
crafting a general platform for controlling, computing, yielding cost
effectiveness and communication toward a common goal and
interfacing different type's sensors. The virtual sensor is a compo-
nent of the smart sensor, which is a physical transducer/sensor, plus
a connected digital signal processing (DSP) and signal conditioning
necessary for obtaining reliable estimates of the essential sensory
information.
Smart sensors enable more accurate and automated collection
of environmental data with less erroneous noise amongst the
accurately recorded information. It offers functionalities beyond
conventional sensors through fusion of embedded intelligence to
process raw data into actionable information that can trigger
corrective or predictive actions. Smart sensors are extensively
employed in monitoring and control mechanisms in variety of
fields including Smart Grid, battlefield, exploration and a great
number of science applications. For supporting Smart Grid moni-
toring and diagnostics applications, automated, reliable, online and
off-line analysis systems are required in conjunction with smart
sensors. Smart sensors enable condition monitoring and diagnosis
of main substation and line equipment including transformers,
circuit breakers, relays, cables, capacitors, switches and bushings.
Fig. 13 shows the basic block diagram of smart sensor. A sensing
unit senses the changes in parameters and then it is conditioned
and converted to digital signal using a signal conditioning and
digitalization unit. An analog to digital converter (ADC) is included
in signal conditioning and digitalization unit to convert sensed
analog signal to digital. Digital equivalent of the measured analog
signals are processed and analyzed by the central processing unit. A
copy of processed data is stored in memory of the main processor
for future use and made available to local users through local hu-
man machine interface (HMI) and remote users through remote
HMI. A communication interface is also incorporated with the
smart sensor module for transmitting and receiving the sensed
signals and commands. Task processing is carried out by main
processor and communication interface.
To deliver the best value, the sensor systems might be arranged
in three tiers depending upon the available architecture and
application necessities. They are (i) local level, (ii) station/feeder
level and (iii) centralized control room level. Local level sensor is a
stand-alone device with embedded intelligence for local data pro-
cessing and local/remote communications. Fig. 14 shows the basic
structure of a local level sensor. Station/feeder level sensors
Fig. 12. The IEEE 1451 standard for smart sensor network. Fig. 13. Basic components of a smart sensor.
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![performs monitoring and diagnostics of distributed systems
outside the substation environment. The basic structures of radial
and meshed topologies of station/feeder level sensor are shown in
Fig. 15 and Fig. 16 respectively. Centralized control room level
performs system-wide monitoring and diagnostics applications.
Fig. 17 shows the basic structure of a centralized control room level
sensor.
8.6. Sensor and actuator networks (SANETs) in smart grid
From information flow and energy flow point of view, Smart Grid
applications of SANET can be observed as energy flow management
and optimization by making use of the information flow [112]. The
facility of physical parameter sensing, physical device control and
decision making are necessary for this processing. Fig. 18 shows a
high-level description of SANET in Smart Grid. By employing SANET
energy flow and its supporting infrastructures are sensed in Smart
Grid. The sensed data is then transmitted to controllers through
information flow for making decision. Through the information
flow, controllers formulate issue control commands and control
decisions to the actuators. Actuators execute the control tasks on
receiving the control commands. The three main driving forces of
Smart Grid include enhancing energy efficiency, improving security
and reliability and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Applications
of SANET in three main areas are explained below.
8.6.1. DERs penetration
DERs include variable and non-variable sources. Non-variable
DERs have been already employed widely in existing utility grids
for decades. But due to discontinuous nature, integration of variable
DER sources, such as solar photovoltaic (SPV) system and wind, in
large amount might cause severe problems in maintaining the
stability of the utility grid. By employing SANET, precise and up-to
date atmospheric conditions, such as wind speed and solar inso-
lation can be obtained to forecast the characteristics of the DER
generators. Additionally, on the basis of predictions and measure-
ments, compensation mechanisms can be implemented to control
the backup generators according to the need, advanced storage
devices or even consumer power loads to address the variations of
the DER supplies.
8.6.2. Grid monitoring and control (GMC)
GMC is necessary for reliable, secure and high quality electricity
services. GMC play a key role in SANET, it continuously monitors
and control the entire system efficiently. Preventive and corrective
functions are core duties of SANET in GMC. Specially, SANET is
required to prevent potential failures, detect and predict distur-
bances, monitor equipment health, enable self-healing or fast auto-
restoration and react rapidly to energy generation, consumption
fluctuations and catastrophic events. Different types of SANET have
been used for GMC, such as SCADA, WAMS and PMU which provide
real-time monitoring on power quality, reliability and in some cases
react to them automatically on a regional and even national scale.
Fig. 14. Basic structure of a local level sensor.
Fig. 15. Basic structure of a station/feeder level sensor (radial topology).
Fig. 16. Basic structure of a station/feeder level sensor (meshed topology).
Fig. 17. Basic structure of a centralized control room level sensor.
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![power system. Initially, telephone was employed to communicate
line loadings back to the control center as well as to dispatch op-
erators to execute switching operations at substations. But, with
the increase in the DG penetration, network connections for indi-
vidual DERs in Smart Grid network are becoming difficult day by
day due to a number of network constraints, e.g., thermal overloads
and voltage limits as well as hardwired connection complexities.
Hence, the success of Smart Grid depends on the application of
efficient and cost effective communication system for measuring,
monitoring and controlling purpose [113-130], [131-150], [151-
158]. High-speed, fully integrated, two-way communication tech-
nologies will permit the Smart Grid to be a dynamic, interactive
mega infrastructure for real -time information and power ex-
change. This technology plays a crucial role in the performance of
the Smart Grid by monitoring, measuring and transferring real time
data for control purpose. For the secured transmission of highly
sensitive data within the communication network, formalized
standards and protocols are necessary. Apparently, existing moni-
toring, measuring and control technology plays a role in Smart Grid
network too. Setting up suitable standards, interoperability and
cyber security needs careful study, for example, formalizing the
protocols and standards for the secure transmission of highly
sensitive and critical information within the proposed communi-
cation system. Furthermore, open architecture's plug-and-play
environment will provide secure network smart sensors and con-
trol devices, protection systems, control centers and users.
9.1. Advanced Metering Infrastructure
AMI is not a single technology; it is an incorporation of several
technologies which provides an intelligent connection between
utilities and consumers [159e165]. As shown in Fig. 21, AMI is the
convergence of utility grid, the communication infrastructure and
the supporting information infrastructure. The primary motivation
for developing a network centric AMI is industry security re-
quirements and implementation guidance. The telecom, cable and
defense industries present numerous examples of standards, ne-
cessities and best practices that are directly applicable to AMI
implementations. Deploying an AMI is a basic step in moderniza-
tion of utility grid. AMI provides information to the consumers
which are required to make intelligent decisions, the capability to
implement those decisions and a variety of choices leading to sig-
nificant benefits. Additionally, utilities are able to improve con-
sumer service greatly by asset management processes and refining
utility operating based on AMI data. Through the incorporation of
many technologies (such as integrated communications, HANs,
smart metering, standardized software interfaces and data man-
agement applications) with asset management processes and
existing utility operations, AMI gives an important link between the
generation, utility grid, consumers, storage and their loads. Initially,
AMR technologies were employed to improve the accuracy of meter
reading and to reduce costs. The benefits of two-way interactions
between utilities, consumers and their loads led to the evolution of
AMI from AMR.
Following are principal characteristics of AMI,
(i) AMI technologies provide the basic link between the utility
grid and the consumer.
(ii) Generation and storage options distributed at consumer site
can be monitored and controlled via AMI technologies.
(iii) Markets are enabled by connecting the utility grid and the
consumer through AMI and allowing them to participate
actively, either as load that is responsive directly to price
signals, or as part of load that can be bid into various types of
markets.
(iv) Smart meters employed with power quality monitoring
abilities which facilitate quick detection, diagnosis and res-
olution of power quality problems.
(v) Remote connection and disconnection of individual supply.
(vi) Facilitates more distributed operating model that decreases
the vulnerability of the utility grid to terrorist attacks.
(vii) Automatically send the consumption data to the utility at
pre-defined intervals.
(viii) Helps in self-healing by detecting and locating failures,
serving in outage management system (OMS) more accu-
rately and quickly.
(ix) Provides an ever-present distributed communications infra-
structure having excess capacity that can be used to accel-
erate the deployment of advanced distribution operations
equipment and applications.
(x) AMI data provides the granularity and timeliness of infor-
mation required to improve asset management and
operations.
AMI infrastructure comprises of HANs, including communi-
cating thermostats, communication networks from the meters to
local data concentrators, smart meters and back-haul communi-
cations networks to corporate data centers, meter data manage-
ment systems (MDMS) and at last, data addition into existing and
new software platforms. In addition to this, AMI provides a very
“intelligent” step toward modernizing the entire power system.
AMI technology and interference is shown in Fig. 22.
At consumer level, smart meters communicate data on energy
consumption to both utilities and consumers. To make consumers
more aware of their energy usage, smart meters communicate with
IHDs also. Smart meters incorporated to AMI performs time-based
pricing, net metering, consumption data for utility and consumer,
loss of power (and restoration) notification, power quality moni-
toring, remote turn on/turn off operations, energy prepayment,
tamper and energy theft detection, load limiting for “bad pay” or
DR purposes, communications with other intelligent devices in
home. Additionally, electric pricing information provided by the
utility allows load control devices like smart thermostats to
modulate electric demand, based on pre-established consumer
price preferences. Based on these economic signals more advanced
consumers employ DERs. Consumer portals access the AMI data in
ways that facilitate more intelligent energy consumption decisions,
even providing interactive services like prepayment. The utility
employs enhanced office systems that collect and analyze AMI data
to help optimizing economics, operations and consumer service.
For example, AMI gives instant feedback on power quality and
consumer outages, enabling the utility to address utility grid de-
ficiencies rapidly. AMI's two-way communication infrastructure
also supports utility grid automation at the circuit and station level.Fig. 21. Building blocks of AMI.
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![AMI is a complex system of technologies that must be integrated
with utilities' information technology systems, including consumer
information systems, geographical information systems, work
management system, mobile workforce management, SCADA/DMS,
OMS, feeder automation system, etc.
9.2. Intelligent electronic devices
Power system monitoring and control is basically carried out by
SCADA systems primarily based on the data that collected and fed
from RTUs situated in substations. In substation switchyard, RTUs
are wired to the CB links and each change in the CB status contact is
provoked in form of alarm to the operators. The RTUs also collects
analog measurement data's obtained through instrument trans-
formers (CTs and VTs) and connecting transducers. If the measured
analog value is above the threshold value, it is reported either as an
operator measurement or an alarm. The data recorded by RTU
cannot be accessed locally by the consumer; it will be only acces-
sible after it has been sent to a centralized location. In addition to
this, the SCADA system design is not the most robust one; there is a
possibility of errors in the readings because of malfunctioning of
transducers, CB contacts, RTUs or SCADA communication equip-
ment. Comparatively slow scanning rate of SCADA for measure-
ments (1e10s) is another performance concern. The SCADA systems
fail to track dynamic changes occurring for intervals shorter than
the SCADA scan time. The limitations in capabilities of SCADA can
be overturned by inclusion of IEDs. IEDs are microprocessor based
devices with ability to exchange data and control signals with
another device over communication link. This new unit provides
real-time synchronization for event reporting [166e172]. IEDs can
be regarded as the eyes and ears of any remote power management
systems. IEDs are installed to improve monitoring, control, pro-
tection and data acquisition capabilities of the power system. Be-
sides their main function, IEDs are capable to record various types
of data. Redundancy and amount of data coming from a substation
can be improved in this way. If designing of IEDs are with interface
to global positioning system (GPS), further improvement in data
usage can be achieved with automating system disturbance anal-
ysis. IEDs receive data from power equipment and sensors and can
issue control commands, such as tripping CBs, if they sense any
abnormality in current, voltage or frequency or lower/raise voltage
levels in order to maintain the desired level. Common types of IEDs
consist of CB controllers, capacitor bank switches, voltage regula-
tors, protective relaying devices, recloser, controllers, LTC control-
lers etc. By a setting file this is normally controlled. Usually one of
the most time consuming roles of a protection tester is the testing
of setting files. Fig. 23 shows functional architecture of IED.
Digital protective relays (DPR) are primarily IEDs, using a
microprocessor to perform several monitoring, control and pro-
tective functions. A usual IED can contain around 5e8 control
functions controlling separate devices, an auto-reclose function,
5e12 protection functions, communication functions, self-
monitoring function etc. Thus, they are appropriately named as
intelligent electronic devices. Three types of IEDs have been
considered in this section, circuit breaker monitor (CBM), digital
fault recorder (DFR) and DPR. These devices can measure internal
CB control signals, relay trip signal, phase currents and voltages,
internal relay logic operands and oscillography data. The CBM is
designed to monitor condition of CBs and control circuit signals
during opening and closing process. The DPR is designed to monitor
transmission line when a fault is detected and operating conditions
on trip CBs. The DPR responds to sudden change in current, voltage,
impedance, frequency and power flow and it will trip substation
CBs for faults up to a certain distance away from the substation. The
DFR is a device which is primarily designed to capture and store
short duration transient events, trends of input quantities such as
power, harmonics, frequency, RMS and power factor and longer-
term disturbances. After being triggered by a pre-set trigger
value, the device records large amount of data. Automated analysis
application can be developed for each type of devices. Data recor-
ded by each device is converted to a standard format using the
application and reports are generated per each IED type. Those
reports are small in size and can be sent easily out of substation
through communication infrastructure (in case of multiple events).
All extracted data and information are available instantly after
event occurrence.
9.2.1. Circuit breakers monitor analysis (CBMA)
CBMA carries out analysis of waveform taken from the CB con-
trol circuit using a CBM and produces an event report and suggests
repair actions. The solution is executed using an expert system for
making decision and advanced wavelet transforms for extracting
waveform feature. It facilitates maintenance crews, operators and
protection engineers to consistently and quickly estimate CB per-
formance, recognize performance shortages and outline probable
causes for formal functioning. Fig. 24 shows software modules of
CBMA.
9.2.2. Digital protective relay analysis (DPRA)
DPRA is an expert system which automates diagnosis and vali-
dation of relay operation. Different relay reports and files are taken
as inputs and it generates reports by analyzing taken inputs using
embedded expert system. Diagnosis and validation of relay oper-
ation is based on comparison of expected and actual relay behavior
in terms of the status and timing of logic operands. Fig. 25 shows
software modules of DPRA.
9.2.3. Digital fault recorder assistant (DFRA)
DFRA carry out automated analysis and DFR event records data
integration. It converts various DFR native file formats to COM-
TRADE. Additionally, DFRA carry out signal processing to find out
Fig. 23. Functional architecture of IED.
Fig. 24. Circuit breakers monitor analysis architecture.
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![pre- and post-fault analog values, statuses of the digital channels
(related to auxiliary breaker, communication signals and relay trip),
faulted phases and fault type. It also checks and evaluates fault
location, system protection, etc. Fig. 26 shows software modules of
DFRA.
DPRA and DFRA can carry out thorough disturbance event
analysis. Though, DFRA cannot carry out complete analysis on
operation of protective relays, since the internal states of a pro-
tective relay cannot be recorded using DFR device. In contrast,
DPRA can diagnose and validate the relay operations totally, but
disturbance information might not be complete, because DPR col-
lects data from single transmission line only. DFRA cannot execute
the CB tripping operation analysis because CB control circuit signals
are not monitored by DFR device, but CBMA provide this infor-
mation in detail. Data incorporation across the whole substation is
necessary to accomplish full IED data utilization. To realize full
event explanation, the results of various analyses have to be
merged. The whole idea is to collect and incorporate data auto-
matically from all substation IEDs, examine it and extract infor-
mation needed for different type of users such as system operators,
protection engineers, maintenance staff, etc. Data can be examined
at the substation level and conclusion can be sent to the mainte-
nance and protection group directly. Another approach is to pre-
process data then extract and send it to the control center, where
the information is merged with data from SCADA, processed by
centralized applications and the results prepared for various user
groups. By combining data from CBMA, DPRA and DFRA compre-
hensive reports are generated.
9.2.4. Information for system operators
Responsibility of decision making on system operation and
restoration are with system operators. When an event occurs in the
system, they are interested to know that the fault is permanent or
not, location of the fault and whether CB and relays operated
correctly. IED devices collect more data than RTUs, hence, the extra
data can be used to verify and complement with the SCADA
reading. Normally right conclusion is only being made by using IED
data. To improve the accuracy of the analysis data obtained from
SCADA through RTUs can be combined with data obtained from
IEDs; this will provide better results to the operator.
9.2.5. Information for protection engineers
Responsibility on the final assessment on rightness of any sys-
tem response to a given fault condition is with protection engi-
neers. They have to check operation of each device using the
information gathered by IED and in case of misoperation they need
to find out the cause for device misoperation or failure. Generally,
they are involved in DPR operation during the event. Major infor-
mation needed for protection engineers, are name of substation,
fault type, duration and range, affected circuit, triggered time and
date, event outcome and devices operation with major focus on
relay operation. If the fault was removed within the specified time
and all devices operate properly, there is no need for any supple-
mentary data and second level of report that have further infor-
mation will not be generated. Second level of the report explains
displays signal waveforms and internal logic operation of relay. It
lists series of the relay signals status and recommends remedial
actions.
9.2.6. Information for maintenance staff
Maintenance staffs are responsible for system repair and
restoration. Responsibility for monitoring CB operation is also with
this group. Report will be generated for maintenance staff which
consisting of information about signals affected by tripping oper-
ation, pre-, during and post-fault analog signals values, waveforms
display and suggestion for remedial actions.
9.3. Phasor measurement units
PMU is a device that measures the electrical waves on a utility
grid by employing a general time source for synchronization
[173e179]. The PMUs consist of branch current phasors and bus
voltage phasors, as well as locations information and other network
parameters. Time synchronization permits synchronized instanta-
neous measurements of various remote measurement points on
the utility grid. The resulting measurement is known as a syn-
chrophasor. PMU is the metering device whereas a synchrophasor
is the metered value. PMUs are considered to be one of the most
important measuring devices in the future of power systems. PMU
can be a devoted device, or the PMU role can be integrated into a
protective relay or other device. PMU can measure 50 Hz AC
waveforms (currents and voltages) usually at a rate of 48 samples
per cycle. Fig. 27 shows basic components of a PMU. The current
and voltage signals are converted to voltages with appropriate in-
strument transformers or shunts (usually within the range of
±10 V), so that they are matched with the requirements of the
Fig. 25. Digital protective relay analysis architecture.
Fig. 26. Digital fault recorder analysis architecture.
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![ADCs. By using an ADC for each phase the analog AC waveforms are
then digitized. A phase-locked oscillator along with a GPS provides
the required high-speed synchronized sampling with 1 ms preci-
sion. Though, PMUs might receive in multiple time sources
including non-GPS references which is calibrated and working
synchronously. The resultant time-stamped phasors can be trans-
mitted to a local or remote receiver at rates up to 120 samples per
second. Phasor measurements are taken with high accuracy from
various points of the power system at the same instant, permitting
the operator to visualize the precise angular difference between
various locations. Microprocessor based instrumentation such as
disturbance fault recorders (DFRs) and protection relays integrate
the PMU module with other existing functionalities as an extended
feature.
PMUs are appropriate for monitoring and control of voltage
stability. Offering wide area situational awareness, mitigate or even
prevent blackouts and phasor measurement work to ease conges-
tion. When incorporated with Smart Grid communications tech-
nologies, the taken measurements will provide dynamic visibility
into the power system. Implementation of Smart Grid with real
time measurement will improve every aspect of the power delivery
system including generation, transmission, distribution and con-
sumption. It will increase the potential of DGs integration, bringing
generation closer to the pocket loads. Additional utility monitoring
systems include electronic instrument transformers, dynamic line
rating technology, temperature, batteries, conductor sensors,
backscatter radios technology, cables, insulation contamination
leakage current and monitors for CB and current frequency. PMU
measurement system is shown in Fig. 28.
By employing phasor data concentrators (PDCs) technologies,
the phasor data is collected either at centralized locations or on-
site. The data is then transmitted to a regional monitoring system
which is maintained by the local ISO. These ISO's will monitor
phasor data from individual PMU's or from as many as 150 PMU's,
this monitoring provides an exact means of establishing controls
for power flow from multiple energy generation sources. Fig. 29
shows hierarchy of phasor measurement system and levels of PDCs.
9.4. Wide area measurement systems (WAMS)
WAMS is one of the most important components in Smart Grid
[180e189]. In comparison to the present SCADA system, measure-
ments of the system states are carried out at a comparatively higher
rate (5e60 samples per second versus one per 2e6 s). Additionally,
all system phasors are developed continuously and simultaneously,
rendering real-time information of power system parameters.
Thus, WAMS can improve the performance of utility grids signifi-
cantly by stability assessment, fault detection, remedial control
actions and supporting more accurate state estimation. Fig. 30
shows components of a typical WAMS. It comprises of PDCs for
aggregating and relaying measured data. Whereas PMUs are
employed widely in WAMS, the currently available dual-use line
relays (DULRs) introduce variability to modern WAMS construction.
DULRs are the protection digital relays for transformers and
transmission lines while providing system protection it can report
synchrophasor data. DULR is also called “branch PMU”, since it is
installed at transformers and along transmission lines. Even though
DULR can only monitor the current phasor of the branch and the
voltage phasor of its adjacent bus, still it is promising due to its low
construction cost. PMU and DULR interface WAMS with the power
system and they consist of CTs, VTs, synchronous GPS clocks and
instrumentation cables. Data measured by these devices are
transmitted to one or multiple layers of PDCs located at selected
locations in the system, where the data are aggregated, compressed
and sorted into a time-stamped measurement stream. Usually, the
data stream is then fed into application software at the central
controller for system state monitoring and control decision gen-
eration with various control objectives.
9.5. Local area network (LAN)
LAN is a packet data communication network system which
offers high-bandwidth communication over a comparatively
Fig. 27. Basic components of a phasor measurement unit.
Fig. 28. Conceptual diagram of a synchronized phasor measuring system. Fig. 29. Hierarchy of phasor measurement system.
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![restricted geographic area through an inexpensive transmission
media [190,191]. LAN is composed of two or more components and
disk storage with high capacity, which permits all computers in the
network to access a general set of rules. LAN has operating system
software which instructs network devices, interprets input and
permits the users to communicate with each other. In LAN each
hardware device is termed as a node. The LAN can incorporate
several hundred computers within a geographical stretch of
1e10 km. LAN can also interconnected together to form WAN. LAN
with similar architectures act as bridges which are transfer points,
whereas LAN with dissimilar architectures act as gateways which
converts data as it passes through it. LAN is a shared access tech-
nology, in which all connected devices share a common medium of
communication such as fiber optics, twisted pair, or coaxial cable.
The network interface card (NIC), a physical connection device,
connects LAN to the network. Communication between stations in
a system is managed by network software.
The advantages and special attributes of LAN include,
(1) Resource sharing: Permits intelligent devices (programs,
data files, printers and storage devices) to share resources.
Hence, installed software and database can be shared by
multiple users in LAN.
(2) Area covered: LAN is usually limited to a restricted
geographical area, for example, campus, office building etc.
(3) Cost and availability: Interface devices and application soft-
ware are reasonably priced and easily available.
(4) High channel speed: Capability to transfer data at rates be-
tween 1 and 10 million bits per second.
(5) Flexibility: Easy to maintain and operate and it grow/expand
with low chance of error.
Data transmission categories in LAN include, (i) unicast trans-
mission: Single packet of data is sent from the source node to the
destination node in the network. (ii) multicast transmission: Single
packet of data is copied and sent to specific subset of nodes in the
network; by using the multicast addresses the source node ad-
dresses the packet. (iii) broadcast transmission: Single packet of
data is copied and sent to all nodes in the network; source node
addresses the packet by using the broadcast address.
Topologies in LAN include, (i) bus topology: It is a linear LAN
topology in which the data transmitted from network station
propagates throughout the length of transmission medium and is
received by all other stations connected to it. (ii) ring bus topology:
A single closed loop is formed by connecting a series of devices one
another by unidirectional transmission link. (iii) star topology: The
end points in a network are connected to a switch by dedicated
links or common central hub. (iv) tree topology: It is similar to the
bus topology except that branches with multiple nodes are also
possible.
9.6. Home access network (HAN)
LAN limited to an individual home is called as HAN [192,193]. It
permits remote control of automated appliances and digital devices
all over the house. It facilitates the communication and sharing of
resources between computers, mobile and other devices over
network connections. HAN may be wired or wireless. It consists of
broad band internet connection that is shared between multiple
users through a vendor/third party wired or wireless modem. HAN
is subsystem within the Smart Grid dedicated to DSM and includes
DR and energy efficiency which are the main components in real-
izing value in a Smart Grid deployment. Smart meters, smart ap-
pliances and web based monitoring can be included into this level.
The advantages of HAN include,
(1) Asserting the utility in managing peak electric demand.
(2) Centralized asses to multiple appliances and devices.
(3) Effectively manage utility grid load by automatically con-
trolling high energy consuming systems with HAN and Smart
Grid infrastructure.
(4) HANs provide energy monitoring, controlling and energy
consumption information about appliances and devices and
hence support energy usage optimization by allowing the
consumers to receive price alert from the utility.
The main challenges of HAN are,
(1) Integration of various technology solutions is a major chal-
lenge, so that smart services, such as comfort, automation,
security, energy management and health can be offered
seamlessly.
(2) Interoperability is another key concern among the technol-
ogy solutions that needs to be resolved.
(3) Consumer privacy and security is an issue that needs to be
addressed.
The HAN include can be either wired or wireless. There are
many advantages associated with installing a wireless network
compared to a wired network such as mobility, cost-effectiveness
and adaptability. Wireless networking is relatively cheaper than
wired Networks since they require no cables between the com-
puters as well as lower long term costs due to less maintenance
since there is less equipment. The reduction of cables also reduces
the trip hazard caused by cables running along the floor in most
homes. Most wireless network equipment is plug-and-play, which
helps reduce the total cost such as vendor installation and elimi-
nates redundancy is case of a system crash. Wireless Networking is
also very mobile and versatile; it is adaptable to most situations and
requirements. Wireless networks can easily be set up and
dissembled, which is perfect for many people who are on tempo-
rary worksites/homes or leased space. It can also provide
networking in places where regular wire cannot reach such as the
backyard in a home situation. Access points can be used to boost
the wireless signal range if required. Since portable workstations
such as laptops have become popular, wireless networks can pro-
vide quick and easy access to the internet and workspaces for
students and teachers in universities etc. It is also extremely easy to
add other components onto this type of network such as easy
installation of VoIP and printers etc without the need to configure
one's computer. Since wireless networking is a relatively new and
contingent form of networking, it is filled with its own hazards and
problems such as unreliability and security. Wireless networks
have limited bandwidth; hence they cannot support video tele-
conferencing (VTC). It is also limited in its expandability due to the
lack of available wireless spectrum for it to occupy. Wireless
Fig. 30. Components of WAMS.
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![network can also be a security risk if not installed and maintained
properly. Wireless networks don't require any physical components
to connect up to it such as wires, only a wireless adapter is required
which significantly increases the accessibility of the network to
potential hackers. This scenario is worsened if the network doesn't
contain a password since it can then be accessed by anyone with
ease. Wireless networks also have an increased chance of jamming
and interference due to external factors such as fog and dust storms
or when a flying object such as an aeroplane passes over the field.
When too many people in the same area use wireless networks, the
band of air that they transmit signals on can become overloaded.
Wired networks have existed for a long time, therefore have
developed exponentially over the recent years. Improvements have
been made in the fields of speed, security and reliability. Wired
networks offer the fastest transfer speed of all the networks.
Gigabit Ethernet is currently the best choice for wired networks
and provides speeds of up to one gigabit per second. This is almost
three times faster than the best wireless connection available and
almost ninety times faster than a regular connection. Wired net-
works consist of physical, fixed connects which are not prone to
interference and fluctuations in available bandwidth caused by
factors such as walls. Features such as shielding (adding an
aluminium foil around the wires) and twisting at different
strengths help reduce interference. Wired networks also have a
better security system than wireless networks. The network itself is
harder to connect to since it has to be physically connected to
through wires which can become a hassle when trying to hack into
it. It cannot be accessed from anywhere since the signals are not
broadcasted. Wired networks mainly suffer the inverse of the ad-
vantages of a wireless network system such as lack of mobility and
greater cost. Wireless network requires greater resources such as
cabling, switch/hub and network cards to install and to maintain
therefore the initial and long term costs are much higher. It can also
be a large loss when it has to be disassembled and reinstalled since
they wiring has to be completely overhauled and is normally un-
usable after because of damage. Wired networks can also be a
hassle to install new components into because of all the hardware
required to do this. Cables and network cards are required to install
new computers to the system and wires need to be drawn from the
switch to the computers. The wiring can become messy and
indistinguishable very quickly and can become a potential safety
hazard due to the risk of triping.
9.7. Neighborhood area network (NAN)
NAN is a wireless community presently employed for wireless
local communication applications; it covers an area bigger than a
LAN [194e199]. A few architectural structures will focus on the
interoperability and integration of the different domains within the
Smart Grid. Domains consist of groups of individuals, devices,
systems or buildings having similar communications characteris-
tics. Bulk generation includes generators, plant control system and
market services interface; this domain interact with the trans-
mission domains and market operations through the Internet,
substation LANs and WANs. Transmission includes electric storage,
data collectors, controllers and substation devices; this domain
interacts with bulk generation and operations through substation
LANs and WANs; integrated with the distribution domain. Distri-
bution interacts with operations and consumers through field area
networks (FAN-provides connectivity to a large number of devices
spread throughout a given geographic area). Consumer includes
PHEVs, metering, consumer equipment, electric storage, energy
management systems (EMS), appliances and so on. Utilities domain
interacts with operations and consumers primarily through the
Internet. Utility and third party providers, which handle billing
consumer services, are included in this. Operations include SCADA,
web access management system and EMS; this domain can be sub-
divided into transmission, distribution and ISO/RTO.
9.8. Wide area networks (WAN)
WAN is a network that spans large geographical locations,
usually to interconnect multiple LANs [200].
WANs are usually classified into three separate connection
types,
(1) Point-to-point technologies.
(2) Circuit-switched technologies.
(3) Packet-switched technologies.
Point-to-point technologies (often termed as leased or dedi-
cated lines) are generally the costliest form of WAN technology.
Point-to-point technologies are generally leased from a utility and
offer assured bandwidth from one location to another. On the basis
of allocated bandwidth and distance of connection cost is deter-
mined. Normally, point-to-point links doesn't need any call-setup,
the connection is generally always on. Circuit switched technolo-
gies need call-setup to make connection on and transfer informa-
tion. Once data transfer is complete, the session will be torn down
(hence it is termed as on-demand circuit). Circuit switched lines are
normally low-speed as compared to point-to-point lines. Packet-
switched technologies share a common infrastructure between all
subscribers. Hence, bandwidth is not assured, but is allocated on a
best effort basis. Packet-switched technologies are not suited for
applications that need bandwidth consistently, but are noticeably
less expensive than devoted point-to-point lines.
9.9. Cloud architecture of smart grid
Cloud computing is an excellent method for Smart Grids due to
its flexible and scalable characteristics and its ability to handle large
volumes of data. In order to cope with the storage and communi-
cation of vast transferable data large-scale real-time computing
capabilities is necessary in construction of a Smart Grid [201e208].
But once the expended entities are in place, cloud computing will
unload the Smart Grid by presenting remote data storage, auto-
matic updates, reduced maintenance of IT systems by saving en-
ergy, money and manpower. Fig. 31 shows cloud architecture of
Smart Grid.
Fig. 32 shows data and energy flow in Smart Grid. It is a wide
multi-port system network node. Cloud architecture in Smart Grid
is distributed and dynamic. Different component has different
characteristics and its characteristics determine specific ways to
control it; hence, the system cannot employ a combined control
strategy. DGs and load may cut out or access at any time which
causes some problems to combined management. Microgrid and
the conventional network constitute a layered topology, various
subsystems creates layered information. Hence, multi-agent tech-
nology is introduced in Smart Grid, which constructs a platform
that can reflect capacity and status of each node as well as coor-
dinate the control of each node. The cloud architecture is a dynamic
and distributed. The different attributes of every component
determine that they must be controlled in specific ways; the system
can't utilize a unified control procedure.
The application brings a number of benefits to the consumers,
environment and the electricity company, in terms of its
functionality,
(1) Details of the consumers (associations, households and
buildings).
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![(2) Follow electricity consumption indicators and temperature
in real-time.
(3) Reading electricity consumption indicators at fixed intervals.
(4) Consumer recommendations on the best tariff plans ac-
cording to each user profile.
(5) Presenting consumption of electricity (through dynamic
analysis, reports and graphs).
(6) Outbreak alerts based on measurable factors and notifying
approved persons by desktop alerts and emails.
(7) Calculation and application of penalties.
(8) Issuing invoices each month automatically.
(9) Disconnecting bad-payers and notifying them by email.
(10) Presentation of financial statements (issuing and paying
billing, invoices, debt).
(11) Identifying abnormal power consumption caused.
The web presence of cloud platforms helps to share the infor-
mation on real-time energy usage and cost of energy with con-
sumers. Knowing in real-time their energy consumption,
homeowners can organize their energy consumption and reduce
their bills. Also this application recommends optimal tariff plan
according to consumer profile. Smart Grid cloud also provides tools
such as Verde via the Web to all applicable stakeholders, provides
services as such a Google earth to state, local entities to assess their
data in a standardized format, provides other measurement/
analytical services to all applicable stakeholders (enabling
interoperability and standardization), facilitate an incorporated
data sharing environment that will allow state and national level
analysis using the same information on demand.
10. Smart grid applications
Smart Grid technologies are equipped for home and building
automation, substation automation and feeder automation. Smart
Grid technologies enables the effective use of devices, detects faults
and isolate faulty devices and equipment's if necessary. Application
of Smart Grid technologies for home and building automation,
substation automation and feeder automation are described below.
10.1. Home and building automation
Home and building automation is part of Smart Grid network;
an automated home or building is termed as a smart home
[209e218]. In smart homes sources of energy and appliances are
coordinated and controlled in such manner that the Smart Grid
objectives are met optimally. Building smarter home needs smart
energy controllers which also having smart metering capabilities.
Fig. 33 shows the architecture of a typical smart home.
10.1.1. Main controller or the smart controller
The main controller is an intelligent, programmable device
capable of performing numerical processing, computations,
Fig. 31. Smart Grid cloud architecture.
Fig. 32. Data and energy flow in Smart Grid.
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![10.2. Smart substation
Conventionally a substation employs CBs, protection relays, VTs
and CTs all, which are wired collectively using, copper cables
[219e230]. With advances in digital technology, communications
and standards, this is now changing to what is known as the smart
substation in which, the workstations, protection devices and low
level transducers are connected together on an optical fiber com-
munications backbone. The substation system architecture is
divided into three levels; (i) the station level where operations,
engineering functions and reporting take place, (ii) the bay level
where system protection and control functions are implemented
and (iii) the process level where signals from VTs, CTs and other
transducers are transmitted. Fig. 36 shows the basic architecture of
smart substation.
Smart substation consists of several key components and ele-
ments as follows,
(1) Protection, monitoring and control devices (IED)
Primary devices (tap-changers, protection relays, VTs, CTs, etc.)
in the smart substation are implemented as IEDs. IED is a key
component of substation integration and automation. These de-
vices can communication with each other and with higher level
smart substation control via the IEC 61850 optical network.
Implemented to meet compliance necessities and save money. IEDs
control CBs, voltage regulators and capacitor bank switches. Typical
applications of IEDs in smart substation includes (i) DR, (ii) power
fault reporting in the event of failures, (iii) low-voltage stabiliza-
tion, (iv) asset management, (v) record load curves for future
planning, (vi) integrated automatic transformer monitoring and
(vi) automatically reconfigure the network in case of a fault.
(2) Sensors
Sensors are used to collect data from power equipment at the
substation yard such as CBs, transformers and power lines. Con-
ventional copper-wired analog apparatus are replaced by optical
apparatus with fiber-based sensors in smart substation for moni-
toring and metering. Single sensor might serve different types of
IEDs through a process bus. Advantages of fiber-based sensors in-
cludes (i) higher accuracy, (ii) reduced size and weight, (iii) higher
performance, (iv) high bandwidth, (v) wide dynamic range, (vi) safe
and environment friendly, (vii) no saturation and (viii) low
maintenance.
(3) Station and process bus
Exchange of signals between the bay level IED and station
control, the bay level IED and transducers, devices and system
equipment are carried by station bus and process bus respectively.
This provides a better reliability for main substations as compared
to a single bus. The station and process bus systems are usually
implemented using Ethernet switches (external or built into the
IED), connected together in a ring configuration.
(4) Supervisory control and data acquisition
SCADA is a system or a combination of systems that gathers data
from different sensors at a station or in other remote locations and
then sends these data to a central computer system, which then
manages and controls the data and controls devices in the field
remotely. Control and data acquisition equipment comprises of a
system with at least one master station, a communications system
and one or more RTUs. SCADA system has operator graphical user
interface (GUI), engineering applications that act on historian
software, data and other components.
(5) GPS time clock
The accurate time keeping is an important requirement of smart
substation. This guarantee the protection functions operate within
the required times and synchronizes smart substation in different
locations so that event and operation logs can be compared and trip
events analyzed. The preferred approach to achieving this is by the
use of a GPS clock to transmit time synchronization signals to the
IED, using simple network time protocol (SNTP).
(6) Electronic fiber optic CTs and VTs
A growing trend in the smart substation is the use of optical
current and voltage transducers (sometimes called non-
conventional instrument transformers-NCIT). These devices oper-
ate by measuring changes in the optical performance of fibers in the
presence of electric and magnetic fields. The transducers are able to
measure both current and voltage. As the signals are generated and
transmitted using optical fiber, transducer signals are not subject to
voltage drop issues and electromagnetic interference which can
affect conventional equipment. Optical transducers also tend to be
smaller, have improved linear characteristics and more accurately
reproduce the primary signal.
(7) Master stations
A master station comprises of a computer system which is
responsible for communicating with the field equipment and in-
cludes an HMI in the control room or elsewhere. The major
components of a master station are (i) data acquisition servers that
interface with the field devices through the communications
system, (ii) real-time data servers, (iii) application server, (iv)
historical server and (v) operator workstations with an HMI.
Hardware components in a master station are connected through
one or more LANs. Different types of master stations are (i) SCADA
master station, (ii) SCADA master station with AGC, (iii) EMS, (iv)
DMS and (vi) FA system. The primary functions of SCADA master
station are (i) data acquisition, (ii) user interface, (iii) remote
control, (iv) report writer and historical data analysis. The primary
functions of SCADA master station with AGC are (i) economic
dispatch, (ii) AGC and (iii) interchange transaction scheduling. The
primary functions of EMS are (i) state estimation, (ii) optimal
power flow, (iii) contingency analysis, (iv) three phase balancedFig. 36. Basic architecture of smart substation.
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![operator power flow, (v) dispatcher training simulator and (vi)
network configuration/topology processor. The primary functions
of DMS are (i) interface to consumer information system, (ii) three
phase unbalanced operator power flow, (iii) interface to outage
management, (iv) interface to automate mapping/facilities man-
agement and (v) map series graphics. The primary functions of FA
system are (i) two-way distribution communications, (ii) load
management, (iii) voltage reduction, (iv) fault identification/fault
isolation/service restoration, (v) short-term load forecasting and
(vi) power factor control.
(8) Remote terminal unit
RTUs are microprocessor-based device that interfaces with a
SCADA system. Provides data to the master station and enables the
master station to issue controls to the field equipment. RTUs have
physical hardware inputs to interface with field equipment and one
or more communication ports. When compared to conventional
substations, RTUs are smaller and more flexible in smart substation.
In smart substations, one smaller RTU (capable of accepting higher
level ac analog inputs) with distributed architecture approach is
employed for one or more substation equipment. Additional func-
tionalities include DFR and power quality monitoring and advances
in communications capabilities, with extra ports available to
communicate with IEDs.
(9) Merging units (MUs)
MUs collect signals from various equipment's and transducers.
These signals are then transmitted to other devices via the process
bus. MU is the interface between the traditional analog signals and
the bay controllers and protection relays.
(10) Data types and data flow
Two types of data sets are there in smart substation, they are (i)
operational or real-time data, which is for operating utility systems
and performing EMS software applications such as AGC and (ii)
nonoperational data, which is for historical, real-time and file type
data used for analysis, maintenance, planning, and other utility
applications. Operational data and nonoperational data have in-
dependent data collection mechanisms. Hence, two separate logical
data paths must also exist to transfer these data. One logical data
path connects the substation with the EMS and second data path
transfers nonoperational data from the substation to various utility
information technology systems.
Implementation of IEDs, smart sensor, electronic fiber optic CTs,
and VTs and high-speed communication techniques improves
overall performance of substation. The sensors in substation im-
proves measuring accuracy, thereby faults can be cleared easily to
maintain reliability. The digital substation offers numerous ad-
vantages over a conventional arrangement. These include,
(i) Better EMC performance and isolation of circuits.
(ii) Improved measurement accuracy and recording of
information.
(iii) Easy incorporation of modern electronic CT and VT sensors.
(iv) Interoperability between devices made by different
manufacturers.
(v) Improved reliability.
(vi) Easier and simpler installation.
(vii) Improved commissioning and operations.
10.3. Feeder automation (FA)
FA is the ability to monitor and control the distribution network
remotely, to collect and provide information to consumers in a
useful manner [231e243]. Some utilities refer to FA as distribution
automation (DA), while others may refer to it as SA. FA uses digital
sensors and switches with advanced communication and control
technologies to automate feeder switching, voltage and reactive
power management, equipment health monitoring and outage. FA
provides a building block for monitoring, control and protection of
the distribution system. From utility to utility the definition for FA
varies. FA products are designed for interoperability and rapid
automation implementation. These products offer SCADA interface
and facilitate FA with or without communications. FA products aid
to strengthen existing distribution systems and present a strong
foundation for building a totally implemented feeder scheme in the
future. FA products are a powerful tool for reducing operation costs
and improving consumer service. Solutions not only have to be
justified based on hard benefits, which are measurable to the
bottom-line (e.g., increased kWh sales, reduced operating and
maintenance costs, deferred or eliminated capital expenditures),
they must also satisfy the need of less tangible benefits. FA products
and system solutions can be incrementally incorporated and scaled
within existing utility feeder infrastructures. Fig. 37 shows the basic
FA architecture.
FA consists of several key components and elements as follows,
FA is achieved by employing number of field devices along the
distribution network. Few of the field devices employed for FA is
explained,
(1) Remote fault indicators
Remote fault indicators are sensors that detect current and
voltage levels on feeders outside usual operating boundaries. Op-
erators can utilize this information to determine the location of a
fault rapidly or distinguish between temporary high loads and a
fault, such as high motor starting current. Visual displays are
equipped with fault indicators to assist field crews and connected
to communications networks that are incorporated with SCADA or
distribution management system (DMS) for providing greater ac-
curacy in locating and identifying faults.
Fig. 37. Basic feeder automation architecture.
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![and wave energy) which is stochastic in nature, must be
developed.
(3) Developing decentralized architectures: Decentralized ar-
chitectures must be developed to enable harmonious oper-
ation of small-scale electricity supply systems with the total
system.
(4) Communications: Developing a communication infrastruc-
ture which allows the operation and trade of potentially
millions parties in a single market.
(5) Active demand side: Enabling all consumers to play an active
role in the operation of the system, with or without their
own generation.
(6) Integrating intermittent generation: Finding the best ways
for integrating intermittent generation like residential mi-
cro-generation.
(7) Enhanced intelligence of generations: The problems associ-
ated with enhanced intelligence generation schemes (like
FREEDM) system must be resolved to revolutionize the
utility grid.
(8) Advanced power system monitoring, protection and control:
Advanced measurement schemes like synchronized phasor
measurements must be common to achieve synchronization
by same time.
(9) Capturing the benefits of DG and storage: Advanced tech-
nologies must be developed to capture DERs more effec-
tively. Hybrid energy system, such as, SPV-Wind, SPV-fuel
cells e. t. c are necessary to maintain reliability and to power
remote areas.
(10) Preparing for electrical vehicles: Electrical vehicles are
mostly emphasized due to their mobile and highly dispersed
character and possible massive employment in the next
years, which would yield a key challenge.
14. Conclusion
In this paper an overview on evolution of Smart Grid, its func-
tions, components, technologies, advantages, challenges, charac-
teristics, applications, benefits, opportunities and future scope is
given. Various Smart Grid technologies like smart meters, smart
sensors, V2G and PHEV and its application in Smart Grid has also
been explained in detail. The role of Smart Grid metering and
communication technologies like AMI, IEDs, PMUs, WAMS, LAN,
WAN, NAN and HAN for real time measurement and monitoring
purpose, with the challenge of data privacy and security, has also
been explored. Smart Grid cloud architecture and advantages are
also presented. Applications of Smart Grid technologies for home
and building automation, smart substation and feeder automation
has also been discussed. It is difficult to predict exact future of the
Smart Grid, but current innovations show an active merging of
sectors, mechanics and communities for a common goal. At the end
future research possibilities in Smart Grid is explained in “The
Future: The key challenges of Smart Grid” sections. Smart Grid can
be more effective in helping environmental conservation and en-
ergy sustainability. There are opportunities for research in the areas
of time series forecasting, power quality and reliability studies,
battery systems, cloud computing, power flow optimization, and
renewable energy integration.
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A survey on smart grid technologies and applications
- 1. A survey on smart grid technologies and applications Dileep G. Department Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Madanapalle Institute of Technology & Science, Madanapalle, Andhra Pradesh, 517325, India a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 1 January 2019 Received in revised form 16 August 2019 Accepted 18 August 2019 Available online 23 August 2019 Keywords: Smart grid Smart substation Smart sensor Smart metering Home and building automation a b s t r a c t The Smart Grid is an advanced digital two-way power flow power system capable of self-healing, adaptive, resilient and sustainable with foresight for prediction under different uncertainties. In this paper, a survey on various Smart Grid enabling technologies, Smart Grid metering and communication, cloud computing in Smart Grid and Smart Grid applications are explored in detail. Opportunities and future of Smart Grid is also described in this paper. For Smart grid enabling technologies Smart meters, smart sensors, vehicle to grid, plug in hybrid electric vehicle technology, sensor and actuator networks are explored. Advanced metering infrastructure, intelligent electronic devices, phasor measurement units, wide area measurement systems, local area network, home access network, neighborhood area network, wide area networks and cloud computing are explored for Smart Grid metering and communication. Home and building automation, smart substation, feeder automation is explored for smart grid applications. Associations of initial studies for the next step in smart grid applications will provide an economic benefit for the authorities in the long term, and will help to establish standards to be compatible with every application so that all smart grid applications can be coordinated under the control of the same authorities. Therefore, this study is expected to be an important guiding source for researchers and engineers studying the smart grid. It also helps transmission and distribution system operators to follow the right path as they are transforming their classical grids to smart grids. © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Majority of the world's electricity distribution system or ‘grid network’ was built when energy was reasonably low cost. Minor upgrading has been made to the primitive grid network to meet up with the rising demand of energy. Still the utility grid operates in the way it did almost 100 years ago, energy flows from central power plants to consumers through utility grid and by preserving surplus capacity reliability is ensured. Such a system is environ- mentally extravagant and incompetent and consumer of fossil fuels, that is a principal emitter of particulates and greenhouse gases, and not well suited to distributed energy resources (DERs). In addition, the utility grid may not have sufficient capacity to meet demand in future. Revolutionary changes in communication systems, mainly inspired by the Internet, presents greater control and monitoring possibility all over the power system and hence more low cost, flexible and effective operation. The Smart Grid [1e10] is a chance to utilize the new communication technologies and information to revolutionize the conventional electrical power system. However, any significant change made in conventional power system re- quires careful justification and expensive due to the scale of in- vestment that has been made in it over the years and the huge size of the power system. The consent among climate scientists is clear that the man-made greenhouse gases are leading to dangerous climate change. With regards to climate change, Smart Grid is capable of facilitating climate change mitigation (CCM) and climate change adaptation (CCA) from both a behavioral and institutional perspective (energy conservation and demand management) as well as from a technological standpoint (i.e., the integration of renewable energy sources). Integration of renewable energy through Smart Grid help to reduce the emission of carbon partic- ulate and greenhouse gases, thereby helps in CCM. Energy con- servation and demand management programs included in Smart Grid helps in reducing energy consumption. Integrating climate change considerations into Smart Grid planning and deployment, electricity stakeholders can ensure that the implemented Smart Grid technology does not contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and does not result in a grid that is vulnerable to climate change- related damage. Reduction in wasted energy, losses and effective management of loads needs accurate information. State of utility grid becomes observable and different possibilities for control E-mail address: dileepmon2@gmail.com. Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Renewable Energy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.08.092 0960-1481/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625
- 2. emerge once monitoring of all the parts of the power system is done. Future de-carbonized electrical power system is likely to rely on generation from a combination of renewable DERs, nuclear power plants and fossil-fuelled plants with carbon capture and storage [11e22]. Combination of different generator modules in- creases the difficulty to manage the power system to run at con- stant output for commercial and technical reasons. It is hard to control and monitoring cost-effective and synchronized operation such a power system without the help a smarter grid. Hence, Smart Grid is essential for future power system [23e28]. The choice of Smart Grid has been evolved into a goal from a vision and it is being realized slowly all around the globe. Smart Grid initiatives across the globe are facilitated by concrete energy policies, audit and management [29e37]. Many developed coun- tries have already installed Smart Grid technologies in the elec- tricity network. But there are many other countries which are lagging in Smart Grid technology implementation. This paper traces the emergence of Smart Grid as a need to modernize the conventional utility grid [38e51]. Large number of research papers have been reviewed to included best basic knowledge of Smart Grid fundamentals, technologies, functionalities, characteristics, needs, challenges and future scope. Each components of Smart Grid technologies like smart meters, smart sensors, and its application in Smart Grid has also been explained in detail. The role of Smart Grid metering and communication technologies for real time measure- ment and monitoring purpose, with the challenge of data privacy and security, has also been explored. 2. Smart grid: the definitions The concept of Smart Grid unites a number of technologies, consumer solutions and addresses several policy and regulatory drivers. Smart Grid does not have any single obvious definition. Definition of Smart Grid by European technology platform is, “A Smart Grid is an electricity network that can intelligently inte- grate the actions of all users connected to it-generators, consumers and those that do both-in order to efficiently deliver sustainable, economic and secure electricity supplies.” Abbreviation ADC Analog to digital converter AMI Advanced metering infrastructure AMR Automatic meter reading BAS Building automation system BIPV Building integrated photovoltaic CBM Circuit breaker monitor CCA Climate change adaptation CCM Climate change mitigation CHP Combined heat and power CS Compressive sensing DA Distribution automation DERs Distributed energy resources DERMS Distributed energy resource management systems DFR Digital fault recorder DFRA Digital fault recorder assistant DG Distributed generation DMS Distribution management system DPR Digital protective relays DPRA Digital protective relay analysis DSM Demand side management DULRs Dual-use line relays EM Electromagnetic EMS Energy management system ESI Energy services interface FA Feeder automation FAN Field area networks FACTS Flexible AC transmission systems FERC Federal energy regulatory commission FLISR Fault location, isolation and service restoration HAN Home area network HMI Human machine interface IADS Integrated automated dispatch systems IEDs Intelligent electronic devices IHD In-home display GD Generation dispatch GFR Grid frequency regulation GMC Grid monitoring and control GPS Global positioning system GUI Graphical user interface LAN Local area network MUs Merging units NAN Neighborhood area network NCAP network capable application processor NCIT Non-conventional instrument transformers NIC Network interface card NIST National institute of standards and technology OMS Outage management system PARs Phase angle regulating transformers PCUs Power conditioning units PDCs Phasor data concentrators PHEV Plug in hybrid electric vehicle PLC Programmable logic controllers PMU Phasor measurement unit PV Photovoltaic RESs Renewable energy sources RFEH Radio frequency energy harvesting RTP Real time pricing RTUs Remote terminal units R&D Research and development SA Substation automation SANETs Sensor and actuator networks SGCC Smart Grid control center SNTP Simple network time protocol SPV Solar photovoltaic STIM Smart transducer interface module TEG Thermoelectric generator TOU Time-of-use T&D Transmission and distribution VTC Video teleconferencing V2G Vehicle to Grid WAMS Wide area measurement systems WAN Wide area networks Nomenclature Hz Hertz kVAR kilovolt-ampere reactive kW kilowatt kWh kilowatt hour s Seconds G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252590
- 3. In smarter grids the Smart Grid is defined as, “A Smart Grid uses sensing, embedded processing and digital communications to enable the electricity grid to be observable (able to be measured and visualized), controllable (able to manipulated and optimized), automated (able to adapt and self- heal), fully integrated (fully interoperable with existing systems and with the capacity to incorporate a diverse set of energy sources).” Definition of Smart Grid by U.S. department of energy is, “A Smart Grid uses digital technology to improve reliability, secu- rity and efficiency (both economic and energy) of the electrical system from large generation, through the delivery systems to electricity consumers and a growing number of distributed- generation and storage resources.” IEC definition for Smart Grid is, “The Smart Grid is a developing network of transmission lines, equipment, controls and new technologies working together to respond immediately to our 21st Century demand for electricity.” IEEE definition for Smart Grid is, “The smart grid is a revolutionary undertaking-entailing new communications-and control capabilities, energy sources, genera- tion models and adherence to cross jurisdictional regulatory structures.” From the aforementioned definitions, the Smart Grid can be described as a transparent, seamless and instantaneous two-way delivery of energy, information and enabling the electricity in- dustry to better manage energy delivery and transmission and empowering consumers to have more control over energy de- cisions. A Smart Grid incorporates the benefits of information technologies and advanced communications to deliver real-time information and enable the near-instantaneous balance of supply and demand on the electrical grid. Two-way exchange of infor- mation between the utility grid and consumer is one significant difference between Smart Grid and today's utility grid. For example, under the Smart Grid concept, a smart thermostat might receive a signal about electricity prices and respond to higher demand (and higher prices) on the utility grid by adjusting temperatures, saving the consumer money while maintaining comfort. Fig. 1shows a snapshot of the deliverance of the Smart Grid. Thus, the working definition becomes: “The Smart Grid is an advanced digital two-way power flow power system capable of self- healing, adaptive, resilient and sustainable with foresight for prediction under different un- certainties. It is equipped for interoperability with present and future standards of components, devices and systems that are cyber-secured against malicious attack.” Need for Smart Grid. (1) Opportunities to take advantage of improvements in elec- tronic communication technology to resolve the limitations and costs of the electrical grid have become apparent. (2) Concerns over environmental damage from fossil-fired po- wer stations. (3) The rapidly falling costs of renewable based sources point to a major change from the centralized grid topology to one that is highly distributed. Introducing Smart Grid to the electrical power utility grid infrastructure will, (1) Improves the reliability of utility grid by reducing power quality disturbances and reducing consequences and prob- ability of widespread blackouts. (2) Allows for the advancements and efficiencies yet to be envisioned. (3) Reduces electricity prices paid by consumers by exerting downward pressure. (4) Better affordability is maintained for energy consumers. (5) Greater choice of supply and information is provided to consumer. (6) Integrates renewable/nonconventional DERs. (7) Improves security by reducing the consequences and prob- ability of natural disasters and manmade attacks. (8) Facilitate higher penetration of alternating power generation sources. (9) Reduces loss of life and injuries from utility grid related events, thereby reduces safety issues. (10) Integrates electrical vehicles as generating and storing de- vices, thereby revolutionize the transportation sector. (11) Improves the overall efficiency by reducing loses and wastage of energy. (12) Smart Grid reduces environmental pollution by reducing emission of greenhouse gases and carbon particulates and provides cleaner power by promoting deployment of more renewable DERs. 3. Characteristics of smart grid Smart Grid employs innovative products and services along with intelligent control, communication, monitoring and self- healing technologies. The literature suggests the following attri- butes of the Smart Grid. (1) Smart Grid provides consumers better choice of supply and information also permits consumers to play a part in opti- mizing operation of the system. It enables demand side management (DSM) and demand response (DR) through the incorporation of smart appliances, smart meters, micro- generation, electricity storage and consumer loads and by providing consumers the information regarding energy use and prices. Information and incentives will be provided to consumers for revising their consumption pattern to over- come few constraints in the power system and improving the efficiency. (2) It allows the connection and operation of generators of all technologies and sizes and accommodates storage devices and intermittent generation. It accommodates and assists all types of residential micro-generation, renewable DERs, DGs and storage options, thereby considerably reduces the envi- ronmental impact of the whole electricity supply system. It allows ‘plug-and-play’ operation of microgenerators, thereby improves the flexibility. (3) It optimizes and operates assets efficiently by pursuing effi- cient asset management and operating delivery system (working autonomously, re-routing power) according to the need. This includes the utilizing of assets depending on when it is needed and what is needed. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2591
- 4. (4) It operates durably during cyber or physical attacks, disasters and delivers energy to consumers with enhanced levels of security and reliability. It improves and promises security and reliability of supply by predicting and reacting in a self- healing manner. (5) It provides quality in power supply to house sensitive equipment that enhances with the digital economy. (6) It opens access to the markets through increased aggregated supply, transmission paths, auxiliary service provisions and DR initiatives. 4. Functions of Smart Grid Functions of Smart Grid includes, (1) Exchange data on electricity generators, consumers and grids over the Internet and process this data by means of infor- mation technology (2) Integrate numerous new smaller electricity generation facilities. (3) Balance out fluctuations in electricity yields that arise as a result of the use of renewable energies. (4) Through sensors, communications, information processing, and actuators that allow the utility to use a higher degree of network coordination to reconfigure the system to prevent fault currents from exceeding damaging levels. (5) Using time synchronized sensors, communications, and in- formation processing. (6) Real-time determination of an element's (e.g., line, trans- former etc.) ability to carry load based on electrical and environmental conditions. (7) Using flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), phase angle regulating transformers (PARs), series capacitors, and very low impedance superconductors. (8) Adjustable protective relay settings (e.g., current, voltage, feeders, and equipment) that can change in real time based on signals from local sensors or a central control system (9) Automatic isolation and reconfiguration of faulted segments of distribution feeders or transmission lines via sensors, controls, switches, and communications systems (10) Automated separation and subsequent reconnection of an independently operated portion of the transmission and distribution (T&D) system (11) By coordinated operation of reactive power resources such as capacitor banks, voltage regulators, transformer load-tap changers, and distributed generation (DG) with sensors, controls, and communications systems (12) On-line monitoring and analysis of equipment, its perfor- mance, and operating environment in order to detect abnormal conditions. (13) Higher precision and greater discrimination of fault location and type with coordinated measurement among multiple devices. (14) Real-time measurement of customer consumption and management of load through Advanced Metering Infra- structure (AMI) systems and embedded appliance controllers that help customers make informed energy use decisions via real-time price signals, time-of-use (TOU) rates, and service options. (15) Real-time feeder reconfiguration and optimization to relieve load on equipment, improve asset utilization, improve dis- tribution system efficiency, and enhance system performance. (16) Customers are provided with information to make educated decisions about their electricity use. 5. Evolution of smart grid The existing electricity utility grid is a product of rapid urbani- zation and infrastructure developments in different parts of the world in the past century. Utility companies adopt similar tech- nology even though they exist in several differing geographies. Political, economic and geographic factors also have an influence on erection and development of electrical power system. Regardless of such differences, the fundamental topology of the existing elec- trical power system has stayed unchanged. Power industry has operated with clear differentiation between its generation, trans- mission and distribution subsystems with the inception of Smart Grid. Hence, different levels of automation, transformation and evolution have been shaped in each step. As shown in Fig. 1, the existing electricity utility grid is a hierarchical system in which power delivery to consumers at the bottom of the chain is guar- anteed by power plants at the top of the chain. The source has no real-time information about the termination point's service pa- rameters, system is a one-way pipeline. So, in order to withstand maximum estimated peak demand across its total load, utility grid is therefore over-engineered. Peak demand doesn't occur frequently; hence, a system designed based on peak demand is inefficient. Moreover, the system stability has decreased due huge rise in demand of power and low investments in infrastructure. With the safe margins fatigued, any irregularity across the distri- bution network or any unexpected surge in demand causing component failures can trigger catastrophic blackouts. Various levels of control and command functions have been introduced by the utility companies to ease troubleshooting and maintenance of the expensive upstream assets. SCADA is a typical example which is widely deployed. About 90% of all disturbances and power outages have their roots in the distribution network; from bottom of the chain, i.e. from distribution system, move towards Smart Grid has to start. Moreover, the inability of utilities (utility companies) to expand their generation capacity in line with the increasing elec- tricity demand and brisk increase in the cost of fossil fuels has hasten the requirement to modernize the distribution network by introducing new technologies that can help with revenue protec- tion and DSM. As shown in Fig. 2, most recent infrastructure in- vestments have been the focused on the metering side of the distribution system. Introduction of automatic meter reading Fig. 1. The existing electricity utility grid. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252592
- 5. (AMR) systems is an example for this. AMR in the distribution network allows utilities to read the status from consumers' pre- mises, alarms and consumption records remotely. As shown in Fig. 3, the major drawback of AMR technology is that it does not does not address DSM. Capability of AMR is restricted to reading meter data due to its one-way communication system. Based on the information received from the meters it does not allow utilities take corrective action. In other words, transition to the Smart Grid is not possible with AMR systems, since pervasive control at all levels is not possible with AMR alone. Utilities across the world have been moved to AMI, rather than investing on AMR. AMI presents utilities with the ability to modify service level parameters of consumers. Through AMI, utilities can congregate their fundamental targets for revenue protection and load management. AMI gathers instanta- neous information about individual and aggregated demand, put caps on consumption and performs various revenue models to control their costs. The coming out of AMI heralded a determined move by stakeholders to further improve the ever-changing con- cepts around the Smart Grid. In reality, one of the main criteria that the utilities consider in choosing among AMI technologies is whether or not they will be compatible with their yet-to-be- realized Smart Grid's technologies and topologies. Hence, evolu- tion of electric grid can be summarized as, (i) adding nerves, (ii) adding brains, (iii) adding muscles and (iv) adding bones. Adding nerves involves the addition of sensory devices at utility grid level and consumer level. The primary motive of this is to provide data from the smart choice to entire system. Smart meters and AMI are consumer level nerve system of Smart Grid. Advanced visualization technologies are employed at the transmission and distribution level to provide utility grid operators more real-time, wide-area awareness of grid status. This capability will allow for enhanced optimization of power generation, transmission and distribution, as well as more rapid response to problems. Synchrophasors deployed for measuring voltage and current readings in transmission lines is an example for advanced visualization technology. Adding brains refers to processing and using the information sensed by Smart Grid nerves effectively. DR is primary form of this at consumer level. DR is a change in consumer energy consumption in response to a signal from utilities. Adding muscles involves the addition of DERs, combined heat and power (CHP) plants and storage devices into the utility grid thereby making the grid more reliable and secure. Adding bones refer to the improvement that is made in the transmission and distribution lines to facilitate power line communication and integration of DERs. Components of Smart Grid are listed in Table 1 and comparison of traditional grid with the Smart Grid is listed in Table 2. 6. Smart grid reference architecture The national institute of standards and technology (NIST) Smart Grid reference architecture consists of several domains and its sub- domains, each of which contains many actors and applications [52]. Actors comprises of devices, computer systems or software pro- grams, etc. Actors have the facility to formulate decisions and in- formation exchange with other actors through network interfaces. The tasks that performed by the actors within the domainare termed as applications. Applications are carried by a single actor or by several actors working together. The actors cluster domains to discover the commonalities which will define the interfaces. Usu- ally, actors in the same domain have similar objectives. Commu- nications within the same domain may have similar necessities and characteristics. Domains may contain other domains. Flows repre- sent the flow of information or energy through the utility grid. The point of access between a system and domain is represented by interfaces. There exist both communications and electrical in- terfaces. Communications interfaces will be bidirectional and represent the access point for information to enter and exit a sys- tem or domain. They represent logical connections rather than physical connections. The Smart Grid domains are listed briefly in Table 3 and discussed in more detail in the sections that follow. The actors in a particular domain frequently interact with actors in other domains to enable Smart Grid functionality. Fig. 4 shows the domains in Smart Grid. The conceptual model is a legal and regulatory framework which includes policies and necessities that apply to various actors and applications and to their interactions. Regulations, adopted by the federal energy regulatory commission (FERC) at the federal level and by public utility commissions at the state and local levels, govern many aspects of the Smart Grid. Such regulations are intended to ensure that electric rates are fair and reasonable and that security, reliability, safety, privacy and other public policy requirements are met. The transition to the Smart Grid introduces new regulatory considerations, which may tran- scend jurisdictional boundaries and require increased coordination among federal, state and local lawmakers and regulators. The Fig. 2. The evolution of the Smart Grid. Fig. 3. Smart Grid returns on investments. Table 1 Major components of the Smart Grid. Nerves - AMI (network and meters) - Advanced visualization and grid sensing technology Brains - DR (via. dynamic pricing) - Building energy management systems (EMS) - Data management systems (DMS) - End-use energy efficiency Muscle - DGs from CHP, renewable and other sources - Energy storage technologies (including PHEVs) Bones - New transmission lines (superconducting and HVDC) - New substation equipments and transformers G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2593
- 6. conceptual model must be consistent with the legal and regulatory framework and support its evolution over time. The standards and protocols identified in the framework also must align with existing and emerging regulatory objectives and responsibilities. The con- ceptual model is intended to be a useful tool for regulators at all levels to assess how best to achieve public policy goals that, along with business objectives, motivate investments in modernizing the nation's electric power infrastructure and building a clean energy economy. Various domains of Smart Grid conceptual model are explained below. (1) Consumer domain The consumer is finally the stakeholder that the whole utility grid was created to support. Actors in the consumer domain allow the consumers to manage their energy consumption and genera- tion. Some actors also offer control and information flow between the consumer and the other domains. The boundaries of the con- sumer domain are usually considered to be the utility meter and the energy services interface (ESI). The ESI provides a safe interface for utility-to- consumer interactions. The ESI in turn can act as a bridge to facility-based systems such as a building automation system (BAS) or a consumer's energy management system (EMS). The consumer domain is generally segmented into sub-domains for home, building/commercial and industrial. The energy re- quirements of these sub-domains are usually set at less than 20 kW of demand for home, 20e200 kW for building/commercial and over 200 kW for industrial. Every sub-domain has several actors and applications, which may also be there in the other sub-domains. Each sub-domain has an ESI and a meter actor that may be located on the EMS or in the meter or in an independent gateway. The ESI is the primary service interface to the consumer domains. Through AMI infrastructure or via another means, such as the Internet ESI communicate with other domains. The ESI communi- cates to devices and systems within the consumer premises across a local area network (LAN) or home area network (HAN). There may Table 2 Comparison of conventional utility grid and Smart Grid. Characteristics Conventional utility grid Smart Grid Active participation consumer Consumers are uninformed and they do not participate Consumers are involved, informed and participate actively Provision of power quality for the digital economy Response to power quality issues are slow Rapid resolution of power quality issues with priority Accommodation of all generation Many obstacles exist for integration of DERs Many DERs with plug- and- play option can be integrated at any time Optimization of assets Little incorporation of operational data with asset management- business process silos Greatly expanded data acquisition of grid parameters; focus on prevention, minimizing impact to consumers New products, services and markets Limited and poorly integrated wholesale markets; limited opportunities for consumers Mature and well-integrated wholesale markets; growth of new electricity markets for consumers Resiliency against cyber attack and natural disasters Vulnerable to malicious acts of terror and natural disasters; slow response Resilient to cyber attack and natural disasters; rapid restoration capabilities Anticipating responses to system disturbances (self-healing) Responds to prevent further damage; focus on protecting assets following a fault Automatically detects and responds to problems; focus on prevention, minimizing impact to consumers Topology Mainly radial Network Restoration Manual Decentralized control Reliability Based on static, offline models and simulations Proactive, real-time predictions, more actual system data Power flow control Limited More extensive Generation Centralized Centralized and distributed, substantial RES and energy storage Operation & maintenance Manual and dispatching Distributed monitoring, diagnostics and predictive Interaction with energy users Limited to large energy users Extensive two-way communications System communications Limited to power companies Expanded and real-time Reaction time Slow Reaction time Extremely quick reaction time Table 3 Smart Grid domains in conceptual model. Domain Actors in the domain Consumer End users of electricity, may also generate, store and manage the energy usage Markets The participants and operators exchange Utilities The organization that provides service to the consumer Operations The managers in movement of electricity Bulk generation The bulk quantity generator of electricity, can be also stored for future use Transmission The transporter of electricity over long distance Distribution The distributor of energy to consumer Fig. 4. Smart Grid conceptual model. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252594
- 7. be more than one EMS and hence more than one communications path per consumer. The EMS is the doorway for applications like in- home display (IHD) of consumer usage, monitoring and control of DG, remote load control, reading of non-energy meters and inte- gration with building management systems and enterprise. The EMS may provide logging/auditing for cyber security purposes. The consumer domain is electrically connected to the distribution domain. It communicates with the market, operations, distribution and utility domains. Typical application within the consumer domain is listed in Table 4. (2) Markets domain The utility grid assets are bought and sold in markets. Actors in the markets domain exchange price, and balance supply and de- mand within the power system. The boundaries of the market domain include the edge of consumer domain, the operations domain where controls happen, the domains supplying assets (e.g. generation, transmission, etc). Communication among the markets domain and the energy supplying domains are vital because effi- cient matching of consumption with production is reliant on mar- kets. Energy supply domains comprises of bulk generation domain and DERs. DER is located in the transmission, distribution and consumer domains. To some extent DERs participate in markets today and will contribute to a larger extent as the Smart Grid be- comes more interactive. Communications for markets domain in- teractions must be auditable, reliable and traceable. They must support e-commerce standards for non-repudiation and integrity. The permitted latency in communications with these resources must be reduced as the percentage of energy supplied by small DER increases. The burning challenges in the markets domain are extension of DER signals and price to each of the consumer sub- domains, expanding abilities of the aggregators, interoperability across all utilities and consumers of market information, simpli- fying the market rules, evolving communication mechanisms for prices and energy characteristics between and throughout the markets and consumer domains and managing the growth and regulation of retail and wholesale energy sales. Typical application within the market domain is listed in Table 5. (3) Utility domain Actors in the utility domain perform services to support the business processes of power producers, distributors and con- sumers. These business processes range from conventional utility services such as billing and consumer account management to enhanced consumer services such as management of energy use and home energy generation. The utility must not compromise the stability, reliability, integrity, cyber security and safety of the elec- trical power network when delivering existing or emerging ser- vices. The utility domain shares interfaces with the operations, markets and consumer domains. Communications with the oper- ations domain are vital for situational awareness and system con- trol, communications with the consumer and markets domains are vital for enabling economic growth through the development of “smart” services. Utilities will produce new and innovative prod- ucts and services to meet the new necessities and opportunities presented by the evolving Smart Grid. Services may be performed Table 4 Typical application within the consumer domain. Application Description Home/building automation System which is able of monitoring and controlling a range of functions within a building such as lighting and temperature control. Industrial automation System which controls industrial processes such as warehousing or manufacturing. Micro-generation Comprises of all types of DGs including; solar, wind and hydro generators. May be monitored, dispatched or controlled via communications. Storage Means to store energy that may be converted directly or through a process to electricity. Thermal storage units and batteries are examples. Table 5 Typical application within the market domain. Example Description Market management Market managers include independent system operators (ISOs) for wholesale markets and forward markets in various ISO/regional transmission organizations (RTOs) regions. There are services, transmission and DR markets as well. Retailing Retailers trade power to consumers and may aggregate or broker DER between market or consumers in the future. Most are connected to a trading organization to allow participation in the wholesale market. DER aggregation Smaller participants are combined together by aggregators (as utilities or consumers or curtailment) to enable DERs to play in the larger markets. Trading Traders are participants in markets, which include aggregators for consumption, provision, curtailment and other qualified entities. There are a number of companies whose main business is the selling and buying of energy. Market operations Helps in smooth functioning of market. Functions include price quotation streams, balancing, audit, financial and goods sold clearing and more. Auxiliary operations Provide a market to provide spinning reserve, voltage support, frequency support and other auxiliary services as defined by FERC and various ISO. These markets function are on basis of regional or ISO usually. Table 6 Typical application within utility domain. Example Description Consumer management Managing consumer relationships by giving point-of-contact and solving consumer issues and problems effectively. Home management Monitoring and controlling home energy and responding to Smart Grid signals while minimizing impact on home occupants. Building management Monitoring and controlling building energy and responding to Smart Grid signals while minimizing impact on building occupants. Account management Managing the utility and consumer business accounts. Billing Managing consumer billing information, sending billing statements and processing received payments. Emerging services All of the services and innovations that have yet to be created. These will be instrumental in defining the Smart Grid of the future. Installation & maintenance Installing and maintaining premises equipment that interacts with the Smart Grid. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2595
- 8. by the utilities, by existing third parties or by new participants drawn by the new business models. The major challenge in the utility domain is to develop the key interfaces and standards that will enable a dynamic market-driven ecosystem while protecting the critical power infrastructure. These interfaces must be capable to operate over a variety of networking technologies while main- taining consistent messaging semantics. Typical application within utility domain is listed in Table 6. Few benefits to the utility domain from the employment of the Smart Grid include, (4) Operations domain The responsibility for smooth operation of power system is with actors in the operations domain. Today, a regulated utility is responsible for bulk of these functions. The Smart Grid enables more of them to be outsourced to utilities, others may evolve over time. No matter how the markets and utility domains evolve, still there will be basic functions required for planning and operating the service delivery points of a “wires” company. In transmission operations, EMS is employed to analyze and operate the trans- mission power system efficiently and reliably, whereas in distri- bution operations, similar DMS are employed for analyzing and operating the distribution system. Typical application within op- erations domain is listed in Table 7. (5) Generation domain Generation domain is responsible for generating electricity for delivery to consumers. The transmission domain is usually the boundary of the generation domain. The bulk generation domain is connected to the transmission domains electrically and shares in- terfaces with the markets, operations and transmission domains. Communications with the transmission domain is most important because without transmission, consumers cannot be served. The bulk generation domain should communicate main performance and quality of service issues such as scarcity and generator failure. These communications may cause the routing of electricity onto the transmission system from other sources. A lack of sufficient supply may be addressed directly (via operations) or indirectly (via mar- kets). New necessities for the bulk generation domain comprises of greenhouse gas emissions controls, increases in renewable energy sources (RESs), provision of storage to manage the variability of RESs. Actors in the bulk generation domain consist of various de- vices such as equipment monitors, protection relays, fault re- corders, remote terminal units (RTUs), programmable logic controllers (PLC) and user interfaces. Typical application within generation domain is listed in Table 8. (6) Transmission domain Transmission domain is responsible for the bulk transfer of electrical power from generation station to distribution system through multiple substations. A transmission network is normally operated by an RTO or ISO whose primary responsibility is to maintain stability on the utility grid by balancing supply (genera- tion) with demand (load) across the transmission network. The transmission domain includes actors such as RTUs, power quality monitors, protection relays, substation meters, phasor measure- ment unit (PMU), fault recorders, sag monitors and substation user interfaces. The transmission domain might contain DER such as Table 7 Typical application within operations domain. Application Description Monitoring Supervises network topology, connectivity and loading conditions, including breaker and switch states, as well as control equipment status. They locate consumer telephone complaints and field crews. Control Supervise wide area, substation and local; carry out automatic or manual control. Fault management Enhance the speed at which faults can be identified, located and sectionalized, and the speed at which service can be restored. They provide information for consumers, coordinate workforce dispatch and compile information statistics. Analysis Operation feedback analysis roles compare records taken from real-time operation related with information on network incidents, connectivity and loading to optimize periodic maintenance. Reporting & statistics Operational statistics and reporting roles archive online data and perform feedback analysis about system efficiency and reliability. Network calculations Real-time network calculations provide system operators the capability to assess the reliability and security of the power system. Training Dispatcher training roles provide facilities for dispatchers that simulate the actual system they will be using. Records & assets Track and report on the substation and network equipment inventory, provide geospatial data and geographic displays, maintain records on non- electrical assets and perform asset-investment planning. Operation planning Perform simulation of network operations, schedule switching actions, load shedding, switching, dispatch repair crews, inform affected consumers and schedule importing of power. They keep the cost of imported power low via peak generation, DER or DR. Maintenance & construction Coordinate inspection, cleaning and adjustment of equipment; organize design and construction; schedule and dispatch maintenance and construction work; and capture records gathered by field technicians to view necessary information to perform their tasks. Extension planning Develop long-term plans for power system reliability; monitor performance, cost and schedule of construction and define projects to expand the network, such as new feeders, lines or switchgear. Consumer support Help consumers to purchase, install and troubleshoot power system services. They also relay and record consumer trouble reports. Table 8 Typical application within generation domain. Application Description Control Allow the operations domain to handle the power flow and the reliability of system. A phase-angle regulator within a substation to control power flow between two adjacent power systems is an example. Measure Provides visibility into power flow and condition of systems. Digital and analog measurements collected through the SCADA system from an RTU and provided to a grid control center in operations domain. Protect React quickly to faults and other events in the system that might cause brownouts, power outages or the destruction of equipment. Performed to maintain high levels of reliability and power quality. Record Permit other domains to review what happened on the grid for engineering, financial, operational and forecasting purposes. Asset Management Works to find out when equipment must have maintenance, compute the life expectancy of the device and record its history of operations and maintenance, so it can be reviewed in the future for operational and engineering decisions. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252596
- 9. electrical storage or peaking generation units. Energy and sup- porting auxiliary services are acquired through the markets domain, scheduled and operated from the operations domain and finally delivered through the transmission domain to the distri- bution system and finally to the consumer domain. The major ac- tivity in the transmission domain is in a substation. The transmission network is usually monitored and controlled through a SCADA system composed of a communication network, moni- toring devices and control devices. Typical applications in the transmission domain are listed in Table 9. (7) Distribution domain Distribution domain comprises of components which provides electrical interconnection between the transmission domain, the consumer domain and the metering points for consumption, distributed storage and DG. The distribution system can be ar- ranged in a variety of structures, including looped, radial or meshed. Reliability of distribution system depends on the types of actors that are deployed, its structure and the degree to which they communicate with each other and with the actors in other do- mains. Formerly distribution systems have been radial configura- tions, with little telemetry and almost all communications within the domain was performed by humans. Consumer with a telephone was the first installed sensor base in this domain, whose call ini- tiates the dispatch of a field crew to restore power. Traditionally, various communications interfaces within this domain were hier- archical and unidirectional, though they now normally can be considered to work in both directions, even as the electrical con- nections are beginning to do. In the Smart Grid, the distribution domain communicates more closely with the operations domain in real-time to handle the power flows related with more dynamic markets domain and other environmental and security-based fac- tors. The markets domain communicates with distribution domain in such a way that it will effect localized consumption and gener- ation. Consecutively, changes in behavior due to market forces may have structural and electrical impacts on the distribution domain and larger utility grid. In several models, third party consumer utility might communicate with the consumer domain using the infrastructure of the distribution domain; such a change would change the communications infrastructure selected for use within the domain. Actors in distribution domain comprise of protection relays, capacitor banks, sectionalizers, storage devices, reclosers and DGs. Typical applications in transmission domain are listed in Table 10. 7. Components of Smart Grid Fig. 5 shows an architectural framework which is partitioned into subsystems with layers of technology, intelligence, innovations and new tools. It involves bulk power generation, transmission, distribution and consumer level of the electric power system. The functions of each component are, 7.1. Smart devices interface component Electronic devices usually connected to other devices or net- works via different wireless protocols and, which can operate interactively and autonomously are termed as smart devices. Smart devices for monitoring and control forms a part of the generation components real time information processes. These resources must be effortlessly included in the operation of both DERs and centrally distributed. Several notable types of smart devices are smart cars, smart doorbells, smart refrigerators, smart bands, smart thermo- stats, smart locks, phablets and tablets, smartwatches, smart key chains, smartphones, smart speakers and others. 7.2. Storage component Due to the inconsistency of RES and mismatch between peak consumption and peak availability, it is significant to find methods to store the energy for future use. Storage component improves reliability and resiliency for the utility grid and electricity con- sumers. Energy storage technologies include flow batteries, ultra- capacitors, flywheels, pumped-hydro, super-conducting magnetic energy storage and compressed air. 7.3. Transmission subsystem component The transmission system that connects all main substation and load centers is backbone of an integrated power system. Reliability and efficiency at a reasonable cost is the ultimate aim of trans- mission operators and planners. Transmission lines should bear contingency and dynamic changes in load with no service inter- ruption. To guarantee performance, quality of supply and reliability certain standards are preferred. Strategies to realize Smart Grid performance at the transmission level consist of the design of advanced technology and analytical tools. Advanced technologies with included intelligence are used for performance analysis such as real-time stability assessment, reliability and market simulation tools, robust state estimation and dynamic optimal power flow. Table 9 Typical applications in the transmission domain. Application Description Substation The control and monitoring systems within a substation. Storage A system that controls the charging and discharging of an energy storage unit. Measurement & control Includes all types of measurement and control systems to measure, record, and control, with the intent of protecting and optimizing grid operation. Table 10 Typical applications in the transmission domain. Application Description Substation The control and monitoring systems within a substation. Storage A system that controls the charging and discharging of an energy storage unit. DG A power source located on the distribution side of the grid. DER Energy resources that are usually situated at a consumer or owned by the distribution grid operator. Measurement & control Includes all types of measurement and control systems to measure, record and control, with the intent of protecting and optimizing grid operation. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2597
- 10. Real time monitoring based on PMU, state estimators, communi- cation technologies and sensors are transmission subsystems intelligent enabling tools for developing smart transmission functionality. 7.4. Monitoring and control technology component Monitoring and control technology component consist of de- vices for self-monitoring, self -healing, predictability and adapt- ability of generation, smart intelligent network and devices enough to handle reliability issues, instability and congestion. This new flexible grid has to resist shock (reliability and durability) and be dependable to provide real-time changes in its use. Smart energy efficient use devices and smart distributed DERs has inbuilt monitoring and control capability. Such devices are self-aware and can make actions independently based on the situational awareness. 7.5. Intelligent grid distribution subsystem component The distribution network is last stage in transmission of power to consumers. Primary and secondary distribution feeders supply to small industrial, commercial and residential consumers. At distri- bution level, intelligent support schemes will have monitoring ca- pabilities for automation using communication links between utility control and consumers, smart meters, AMI and energy management components. The automation function will be pre- pared with self - learning capability, including modules for auto- matic billing, fault detection, restoration and feeder reconfiguration, voltage optimization and load transfer and real time pricing (RTP). 7.6. Demand side management component DSM and energy efficiency options are developed for modifying the consumer demand to cut down operating cost by reducing the use of expensive generators and postpone capacity addition. DSM options contribute to reliability of generation and reduce emis- sions. These options have an overall impact on the utility load curve. A standard protocol for consumer delivery with two-way information highway technologies is essential. Smart energy buildings and smart homes, plug-and-play, clean air requirements, demand-side meters and consumer interfaces for better energy efficiency will be in place. 8. Smart grid technologies By incorporating few technologies, the transition of the con- ventional electric grid to Smart Grid is possible. The Smart Grid technologies that helps in the transition are discussed in next sections. 8.1. Smart meters Smart meter is an electricity or gas meter that has metering as well as communication abilities [53e68]. It measures energy con- sumption data and permits it to read remotely and displayed on a device within the home or transmitted securely. The meter can also receive information remotely, e.g., switch from credit to prepay- ment mode or to update tariff information. It has two key functions to perform: (i) for providing data on energy usage to consumers to help control over consumption and cost and (ii) for sending data to the utility for peak-load requirements, load factor control and to develop pricing strategies on the basis of consumption information. Key feature of smart meters are automated data reading and two- way communication between utilities and consumers. Smart me- ters are developed to measure electricity, gas and water con- sumption data's. In Smart Grid, smart meters provide consumers with knowledge about how and when they use energy and how much they pay for per kilowatt hour of energy. This will result in better pricing information and more accurate bills and it will guarantee faster outage detection and restoration by the utility. Additional features of smart meters include tariff options, tax credits, DR rates, smart thermostat, prepaid metering, switching, enhanced grid monitoring, remote connect/disconnect of users, appliance control and monitoring and participation in voluntary rewards programs for reduced consumption. Smart meter outputs can be used for voltage stability and security assessment also. Fig. 6 shows a smart meter front view. 8.2. Automated meter reading AMR devices let utilities to read meters remotely, removing the requirement to send a worker to read each meter separately [69]. While they do represent a certain amount of two-way communi- cation, this functionality is limited and does not increase the effi- ciency or reliability of the utility grid. They do not have any inbuilt home displays to show the energy consumption pattern to the consumer, hence consumer remains unaware of their energy con- sumption. Due to this, the utilities cannot communicate to the consumers about their energy consumption, thus consumers cannot adjunct their consumption during peak hours and save Fig. 5. The intelligent grid. Fig. 6. Smart meter. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252598
- 11. energy. AMR in the distribution network lets utilities read the status from consumers' premises, alarms and consumption records remotely. Capability of AMR is restricted to reading meter data due to its one-way communication system [70]. Based on the infor- mation received from the meters it does not let utilities take corrective action. In other words, transition to the Smart Grid is not possible with AMR systems, since pervasive control at all levels is not possible with AMR alone [71]. AMR is the collection of con- sumption data from consumer's like electric meters and smart meters remotely using telephony, radio frequency, power-line or satellite communications technologies and process the data to generate the bill. Fig. 7 shows block diagram of an AMR system. Functions of each block are explained below. Reading unit carry out two important jobs basically. Initially, the reading from analog meters is converted into digital. Subsequently the data are processed to communication unit for transmission. (2) Communication unit This is one of the most challenging and important part of this system. Data is the most important part for meter reading and billing system, hence this part is challenging. Data transmission should be in an efficient manner without any loss of data. (3) Data receiving and processing unit Data receiving and processing unit receives the data transmitted from the communication unit and processes it for future purpose. (4) Billing system Billing system is the final stage of AMR which takes the meter number and can generate bill for that meter. It uses the data of the database those are collected from the meter reading through all the unit of our system. Analysis on electricity usage for each meter can be also carried out using this system. 8.3. Vehicle to grid (V2G) The incorporation of electric vehicles and Plug in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is an additional part of the Smart Grid system. V2G power employs electric-drive vehicles to provide power to partic- ular electric markets [72e82]. Fuel cells, battery or hybrid of these two is employed to store energy in vehicles. There are three main different versions of the V2G concept (i) a hybrid or fuel cell vehicle, (ii) a battery-powered or plug-in hybrid vehicle or (iii) a solar vehicle, all of which involve an onboard battery. The major ad- vantages of V2G are (i) it provides storage space for renewable energy generation and (ii) it stabilizes large scale wind generation via regulation. PHEV significantly cut down the local air pollution problems. Hybridization of electric vehicles and associations to the utility grid conquers the limitations of their use including battery weight/size, cost and short range of application. PHEV offers an alternative to substitute the use of petroleum based energy sources and to reduce overall emissions by using a mix of energy resources. The use of PHEVs potentially has a significant positive impact on the electric power system from the point of view of increasing electric energy consumption, substituting petroleum fuels with unconventional sources of energy. The associations between vehi- cles and the utility grid are illustrated in Fig. 8. The connections between vehicles and utility grid are illustrated in Fig. 8. Electricity flows one-way from generators through the grid to electricity users. The flow is two ways from electric vehicles. A control signal is needed in order to communicate with the electric vehicles when the grid needs energy. In Fig. 8, the grid operator is labeled ISO, for independent system operator. The control signal from the ISO could be a broadcast radio signal, or through a cell phone network, direct Internet connection, or power line carrier. In any case, the grid operator sends requests for power to a large number of vehicles. It may do so directly to individual cars, or it may communicate with parking lot operators for example, who in turn would communicate with the fleet of parked cars at their disposal. Two types of power interactions are possible between the vehicle and utility grid.G2V consists of utility grid supplying energy to the plug-in vehicle through a charge port. A V2G vehicle is capable of providing energy back to the utility grid. V2G presents the potential for the grid system operator to call on the vehicle as a distributed energy source. V2G technology can be employed, turning each vehicle with its 20 to 50 kWh battery pack into a distributed load balancing device or emergency power source. Electricity flows all over the utility grid from generators to con- sumers whereas unused energy flows back and forth from the electric vehicles as shown in Fig. 8 (the lines with two arrows). During off-peak time, battery electric vehicles can charge and during peak time, battery can discharge through the utility grid. There are two basic V2G architecture (i) deterministic archi- tecture and (ii) aggregative architecture. In deterministic architec- ture, services are provided to the plug-in vehicles directly from the grid system operator. A direct line of communication exists be- tween plug-in vehicles and grid system operator, thus each vehicle can be treated as a deterministic resource. The vehicle is permitted to bid and carry out services when it is at the charging station. The contracted payment for the previous full hours is made and the contract is ended when the vehicle leaves the charging station. The availability and reliability achievable by means of the deterministic V2G architecture is about 92% and 95% respectively. Deterministic architecture is simple and easy to implement, but it prevents V2G from providing several services that require high power and energy minimum thresholds. Fig. 9 shows the connections in deterministic approach. In aggregative architecture, an intermediate aggregator is inserted in between grid system operator and plug-in vehicle. The aggregator can bid to carry out auxiliary services at any time, while the indi- vidual vehicles can engage and disengage from the aggregator as they arrive at and leave from charging stations. Fig. 10 shows the connections in aggregative approach. Availability and reliability of Fig. 7. Block diagram of an AMR system. (1) Reading unit Fig. 8. The connections between vehicles and the utility grid. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2599
- 12. base load generators is about 93% and 98.9% respectively. An ag- gregation of PEVs will be needed in order to participate in the energy market. In fact, two different approaches can be followed: cost. Function-based power drawn scheduling and price-sensitive energy bidding [16]. The first one, which is suitable for the deter- ministic V2G architecture, consists in establishing the PEV charging profile on the basis of the energy price given by the day-ahead market and in updating it dynamically. As a result, each PEV is responsible for its charging without interference from the system operator: in the hours of cheapest prices, the PEV should recharge at its maximum rate. On the other hand, the price-sensitive energy bidding approach entails that the PEV fleet participates in the day- ahead market and the amount of energy purchased depends on the price the PEV owner is willing to pay. This approach, which is not possible for the V2G deterministic architecture, is particularly suitable for the aggregative one. However, in both cases, PEVs can participate in the services markets. Since the aggregative V2G ar- chitecture would appear to be the most promising one, several studies have been carried out aiming to define the role and tasks of this framework, which is also defined aggregator. Its role may be acting as an intermediary between each PEV owner and the system operator, whereas its tasks may consist in grouping a certain number of PEVs, appropriately coordinating their charging, and providing profitable services. Advantages, (1) Peak load leveling. (2) Carbitrage. (3) Backup power solutions 8.4. Plug in hybrid electric vehicle technology A PHEV is a hybrid electric vehicle with a larger battery pack [83e102]. So, it runs on electricity when its battery SOC is high or else, the IC engine takes over and the vehicle uses gasoline similar to a hybrid vehicle. The battery pack can be recharged via a plug which provides connection to the utility grid; hence, a PHEV, compared to conventional cars, has an extra equipment to connect to an external electrical source for recharging. PHEVs are charac- terized by their all-electric range. In cases of extreme emergencies like a sudden increase in oil prices or major decrease in oil supplies, the stored or unused energy that utilities preserve during night time or off-peak time can be utilized to support the vehicles. It must also considered that efficiency of electric drive systems is about 70% only, as an example, a first-generation PHEV can travel about 75 cents per gallon of gas or about 3-4miles per kWh. All PHEV vehi- cles will be employed with connection to the utility grid for elec- trical energy flow, a logical connection or control is compulsory for communication with the utility grid operator and onboard meter- ing and controls. Fuel cells can generate power from gaseous and liquid fuels and PHEV can function in either capacity. Fig. 11 shows the major architectures of PHEV. The architecture of a PHEV is defined based on the connection between their power train components. These components are the IC engines, PEI, battery (B), motor/generator (M/G) and trans- mission (T/R). Four major architectures are (i) series (electrically coupling), (ii) parallel (mechanically coupling), (iii) series-parallel (mechanical and electrical coupling) and (iv) complex (mechani- cal and electrical coupling). Fig. 3.8 shows these four architectures. However, series (e.g., Chevrolet Volt) and complex (e.g., Toyota Prius) topologies are the most well-known architectures for PHEVs. The battery charger can be on-board or external to the vehicle. On- board chargers are limited in capacity by their weight and size, dedicated off-board chargers can be as large and powerful as the user can afford, but require returning to the charger; high-speed chargers may be shared by multiple vehicles. PHEV operates in three modes (i) charge-sustaining (ii) charge-depleting and (iii) blended mode or mixed modes. These vehicles can be designed to drive for an extended range in all-electric mode; either at low speeds only or at all speeds. These modes manage the vehicle's battery discharge strategy and their use has a direct effect on the Fig. 9. Deterministic approach of vehicle to utility grid connection. Fig. 10. Aggregative approach of vehicle to utility grid connection. Fig. 11. PHEV architectures (a) Series, (b) parallel, (c) series parallel and (d) complex. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252600
- 13. size and type of battery required. In charge-sustaining mode certain amount of charge above battery SOC is sustained for emergency use. Before reaching SOC, vehicle's IC engine or fuel cell will be engaged. Charge-depleting mode permits a fully charged PHEV to operate exclusively on electric power until its battery SOC is depleted to a predetermined level, at which time the vehicle's IC engine or fuel cell will be engaged. This period is the vehicle's all- electric range. This is the only mode that a battery electric vehicle can operate in, hence their limited range. Mixed mode describes a trip using a combination of multiple modes. For example, a car may begin a trip in low speed charge-depleting mode, then enter onto a freeway and operate in blended mode. The driver might exit the freeway and drive without the IC engine until all-electric range is exhausted. The vehicle can revert to a charge sustaining-mode until the final destination is reached. This contrasts with a charge- depleting trip which would be driven within the limits of a PHEV's all-electric range. Advantages of PHEV, (1) Operating costs. (2) Vehicle-to-grid electricity. (3) Fuel efficiency and petroleum displacement. Disadvantages of PHEV, (1) Cost of batteries. (2) Recharging outside home garages. (3) Emissions shifted to electric plants. (4) Tiered rate structure for electric bills. (5) Lithium availability and supply security. 8.5. Smart sensor Smart sensors are defined as sensors that provide analog signal processing of recorded signals, digital representation of the analog signal, address and data transfer through a bidirectional digital bus, manipulation, and computation of the sensor-derived data [103e111]. Fig. 12 shows basic architecture of IEEE 1451 standard for smart sensor network. Main components are transducer elec- tronic data sheet (TEDS), transducer independent interface (TII), smart transducer interface module (STIM) and network capable application processor (NCAP). A smart sensor provides additional functions further than those required for generating an accurate demonstration of the sensed quantity. It is composed of many processing components integrated with the sensor on the same chip. Has intelligence of some forms and provide value-added functions beyond passing raw signals, leveraging communications technology for telemetry and remote operation/reporting. Objec- tives of smart sensors consist of integrating and sustaining the distributed sensor system measuring intelligently and smartly, crafting a general platform for controlling, computing, yielding cost effectiveness and communication toward a common goal and interfacing different type's sensors. The virtual sensor is a compo- nent of the smart sensor, which is a physical transducer/sensor, plus a connected digital signal processing (DSP) and signal conditioning necessary for obtaining reliable estimates of the essential sensory information. Smart sensors enable more accurate and automated collection of environmental data with less erroneous noise amongst the accurately recorded information. It offers functionalities beyond conventional sensors through fusion of embedded intelligence to process raw data into actionable information that can trigger corrective or predictive actions. Smart sensors are extensively employed in monitoring and control mechanisms in variety of fields including Smart Grid, battlefield, exploration and a great number of science applications. For supporting Smart Grid moni- toring and diagnostics applications, automated, reliable, online and off-line analysis systems are required in conjunction with smart sensors. Smart sensors enable condition monitoring and diagnosis of main substation and line equipment including transformers, circuit breakers, relays, cables, capacitors, switches and bushings. Fig. 13 shows the basic block diagram of smart sensor. A sensing unit senses the changes in parameters and then it is conditioned and converted to digital signal using a signal conditioning and digitalization unit. An analog to digital converter (ADC) is included in signal conditioning and digitalization unit to convert sensed analog signal to digital. Digital equivalent of the measured analog signals are processed and analyzed by the central processing unit. A copy of processed data is stored in memory of the main processor for future use and made available to local users through local hu- man machine interface (HMI) and remote users through remote HMI. A communication interface is also incorporated with the smart sensor module for transmitting and receiving the sensed signals and commands. Task processing is carried out by main processor and communication interface. To deliver the best value, the sensor systems might be arranged in three tiers depending upon the available architecture and application necessities. They are (i) local level, (ii) station/feeder level and (iii) centralized control room level. Local level sensor is a stand-alone device with embedded intelligence for local data pro- cessing and local/remote communications. Fig. 14 shows the basic structure of a local level sensor. Station/feeder level sensors Fig. 12. The IEEE 1451 standard for smart sensor network. Fig. 13. Basic components of a smart sensor. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2601
- 14. performs monitoring and diagnostics of distributed systems outside the substation environment. The basic structures of radial and meshed topologies of station/feeder level sensor are shown in Fig. 15 and Fig. 16 respectively. Centralized control room level performs system-wide monitoring and diagnostics applications. Fig. 17 shows the basic structure of a centralized control room level sensor. 8.6. Sensor and actuator networks (SANETs) in smart grid From information flow and energy flow point of view, Smart Grid applications of SANET can be observed as energy flow management and optimization by making use of the information flow [112]. The facility of physical parameter sensing, physical device control and decision making are necessary for this processing. Fig. 18 shows a high-level description of SANET in Smart Grid. By employing SANET energy flow and its supporting infrastructures are sensed in Smart Grid. The sensed data is then transmitted to controllers through information flow for making decision. Through the information flow, controllers formulate issue control commands and control decisions to the actuators. Actuators execute the control tasks on receiving the control commands. The three main driving forces of Smart Grid include enhancing energy efficiency, improving security and reliability and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Applications of SANET in three main areas are explained below. 8.6.1. DERs penetration DERs include variable and non-variable sources. Non-variable DERs have been already employed widely in existing utility grids for decades. But due to discontinuous nature, integration of variable DER sources, such as solar photovoltaic (SPV) system and wind, in large amount might cause severe problems in maintaining the stability of the utility grid. By employing SANET, precise and up-to date atmospheric conditions, such as wind speed and solar inso- lation can be obtained to forecast the characteristics of the DER generators. Additionally, on the basis of predictions and measure- ments, compensation mechanisms can be implemented to control the backup generators according to the need, advanced storage devices or even consumer power loads to address the variations of the DER supplies. 8.6.2. Grid monitoring and control (GMC) GMC is necessary for reliable, secure and high quality electricity services. GMC play a key role in SANET, it continuously monitors and control the entire system efficiently. Preventive and corrective functions are core duties of SANET in GMC. Specially, SANET is required to prevent potential failures, detect and predict distur- bances, monitor equipment health, enable self-healing or fast auto- restoration and react rapidly to energy generation, consumption fluctuations and catastrophic events. Different types of SANET have been used for GMC, such as SCADA, WAMS and PMU which provide real-time monitoring on power quality, reliability and in some cases react to them automatically on a regional and even national scale. Fig. 14. Basic structure of a local level sensor. Fig. 15. Basic structure of a station/feeder level sensor (radial topology). Fig. 16. Basic structure of a station/feeder level sensor (meshed topology). Fig. 17. Basic structure of a centralized control room level sensor. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252602
- 15. 8.6.3. Generation dispatch (GD) Excellent balance between the supply and demand is required to make a power system effective. GD and DSM are two effectual methods to maintain the balance required and thereby improve the energy efficiency. GD monitors and controls electricity generation so that the quantity of power generated meets the demands at any time. GD has been already employed in conventional utility grid and plays a vital role in it. Though, this function in Smart Grid must overcome extra challenges, since it has to dynamically manage considerable amount of DERs, particularly DERs at the consumer domain. Real-time grid frequency regulation (GFR) and renewable forecasting are two effective mechanisms to deal with the DERs penetration problem in GD. At control centers real-time DERs in- formation has to be sensed and gathered for renewable forecasting; and after quick analysis of the gathered information, suitable commands are issued to generation scheduling and regulation functions. Real-time GFR helps to optimize generation scheduling on the basis of variations of frequency and voltage level, very responsive hardware and high speed data transmission is required for this. DSM is counterpart of GD located in the generation domain, which works mainly in the consumer domain and interacts with the utility, operation domains and market. DSM manages demand side load in response to constraints of power supply. DSM is a significant application of SANET and imposes some particular functional necessities on the underlying SANET, such as facilities of real-time load monitoring, two-way data exchanging between the demand side and utilities, demand side load control and data processing. 8.6.4. Actors of SANET in smart grid SANET is composed of sensors, controllers, actuators and communication networks. Main sensors and actuators commonly used in Smart Grid are highlighted below. Main needs on controller and communication networks by the various Smart Grid applica- tions are also explained. 8.6.4.1. Sensors in Smart Grid. Fig. 19 shows the commonly used sensors in Smart Grid. The sensors are generally classified into three categories on the basis of type of the physical parameter mea- surement. They are (i) energy flow sensors, (ii) environment sen- sors and (iii) working condition sensors. Energy flow sensors are used to sense voltage, current, energy, power factor, frequency and magnetic and electric fields etc. Environment sensors are used to sense humidity, temperature, luminance movement and occu- pancy, solar intensity, wind speed and smoke and gas. Sensors for working condition usually measures pressure, speed, temperature, acceleration, vibration and position. 8.6.4.2. Actuators in Smart Grid. Fig. 20 shows the main actuators generally used in Smart Grid. The actuators are also classified into three categories on the basis of type of the physical phenomena or actions. They are (i) energy flow, (ii) working condition and (iii) actuators for user interface. Actuators for energy flow are used for breaker, dimmer and switch etc. Actuators for working condition are employed for valve, break and motor etc. User interface actu- ators are employed for light, speaker and display etc. 8.6.4.3. Controllers and control logic in smart grid. Based on the application necessities, controllers are reclassified into distributed micro-controllers, centralized control centers, complicated, powerful or simple and less powerful. Usually, two kinds of con- troller's works together to provide monitor and control function in a SANET application. Due to the large fluctuations in energy gen- eration and consumption, SANET applications in Smart Grid need more powerful controllers with powerful computational control logics, such as AI control and fuzzy control, to handle the dynamics. Additionally, SANET applications in Smart Grid might need a large number of controllers to work together. Hence, each controller must be of low cost to facilitate a large-scale deployment. 8.6.4.4. Communication network. To support the sophisticated features of Smart Grid, the volume of data exchanged between different actors in SANET unavoidably increases to a large number when compared to conventional utility grids. In the meantime, various SANET applications in Smart Grid generally have different communication necessities, in terms of bandwidth and trans- mission delay, etc. The necessities and characteristics on different SANET actors for the three main Smart Grid applications are sum- marized in Table 11. 8.6.4.5. Challenges of SANET in smart grid. The major design chal- lenges of SANET in Smart Grid are, Fig. 18. Relation of SANET and smart grid. Fig. 19. Sensors in smart grid. Fig. 20. Actuators in smart grid. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2603
- 16. (1) Distributed operation and heterogeneity Distributed operation and heterogeneity are two main charac- teristics of information flow in Smart Grid. Since, SANET depends on the information flow, the distributed operation and heteroge- neity, which provide the configuration of a connected and efficient information flow, become the two main challenges of SANET in Smart Grid. (2) Dynamics The dynamic behavior of utility grid is due to the variation of demands and supplies, continuously varying environmental con- ditions, dynamic user behaviors and other random events. In a Smart Grid, due to increased usage of DERs, such as solar and wind, makes the problem even more challenging. (3) Scalability A usual SANET application in Smart Grid might cover hundreds of kilometers, and engages in control and monitoring of thousands of pieces of devices and equipments. Scalability is a main challenge. It is essential to make use of protocols with low overhead and al- gorithms with linear complexity. (4) Flexibility Since, Smart Grid is still developing, new policies, technologies and consumer demands keep emerging and SANET must offer the flexibility to house all the diversities and growing factors. (5) Energy efficiency and cost efficiency One of the driving forces of Smart Grid is to improve the effi- ciency of the utility grid, and SANET itself must be energy efficient. Additionally, it must be cost effective to lower the deployment barrier. 8.6.5. SANET applications The service reusability and interoperability offered by SANET helps to develop diverse kinds of applications. (1) Context aware intelligent control To address the challenges of dynamics, context-aware intelli- gent control is proposed. The fundamental idea is to develop context-aware and proactive control logics to optimize perfor- mance of the system under dynamic environment. (i) Atmospheric conditions, such as humidity and temperature. (ii) Energy flow readings, such as demand level and power supply. (iii) Human behaviors, such as movement, preference on environment. (iv) Economic incentives, such as tiered electricity rates. (v) Regulation schemes, such as DERs penetration and DSM. Occupancy-based light control is a simple example of context- awareness, where the context is whether the room is occupied or not and light is turned on or off, based on it. The context-aware intelligent algorithms make use of the contexts, obtained by exploiting the services of person, to optimize the overall perfor- mance of a SANET application. (2) Compressive sensing (CS) CS is proposed to address the challenges of economy, energy efficiency and scalability. The fundamental idea of CS is to utilize data correlation in the space and time domains to decrease the communication cost and the hardware cost. 8.6.6. Device technologies Advanced device technologies help to improve the energy effi- ciency and economy and make a SANET more flexible and scalable for Smart Grid applications. SANET itself consumes certain power. Low power consumption design is essential to reduce the total power consumption. In SANET, all the main functions, such as sensing, control, data transmission and calculating consumes po- wer. Lists of possible mechanisms to reduce power consumption are listed in Table 12. Employing a mechanism on one actor has an impact on others. As an example, data aggregation and data compression can reduce the power requirement for data trans- mission, but increase the consumption of power for regenerating the data. Hence, optimization of power required to be considered from a system point of view. The process by which energy is derived from external sources, captured and stored is known as power harvesting. The major power harvesting mechanisms applicable to SANET in Smart Grid are listed in Table 13. Solar energy is the cleanest and most available renewable en- ergy source. The Modern technology can harness this energy for a variety of uses, including producing electricity, providing light and heating water for domestic, commercial or industrial application. Solar energy can also be used to meet our electricity requirements. Through solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells, solar radiation gets con- verted into DC electricity directly. This electricity can either be used as it is or can be stored in the battery. Basic component of photo- voltaic (PV) panel is solar cell, which is mainly made from pure silicon wafer. Solar cells work on the principle of photovoltaic ef- fect, the phenomenon by which incident solar radiations are con- verted into electrical energy directly. Following three conditions are to be satisfied for obtaining useful power from solar cell, Table 11 Requirements of SANET actors for different Smart Grid applications. SANET Actors DERs penetration GMC GD & DSM Sensors Energy flow Environment Energy flow Working condition Energy flow Working condition Actuators Energy flow Energy flow Working condition Energy flow Working condition User interface Controllers Distributed and centralized Dynamic level: High Cost: Medium to high Distributed and centralized Dynamic level: High Cost: Medium to high Distributed and centralized Dynamic level: High Cost: Low to medium Communication networks Bandwidth: Medium Delay: Medium Bandwidth: High Delay: Stringent Bandwidth: Low Delay: Medium G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252604
- 17. (1) Incident photons must be absorbed into the active part of semiconductor material and potential energy of the incident photons must be transferred to valence shell electrons. Further with this particular energy, electrons must be dis- lodged from the bond and freed. (2) The dislodged electrons having extra energy must be carried to the edge of semiconductor material so that it will be available for carrying to the load. This particular provision is fulfilled by creating an internal field in the material by forming p-n junction by a process known as doping. (3) The charged particles available at the edge of material must be carried to the load through an external circuitry. In order to create a p-n junction, two different layers of silicon wafer are doped with agents known as impurity atoms. Top layer of the wafer is doped with n-type dopant such as phosphorus. Outer most shell of phosphorus atoms contains five electrons, out of these five electrons, four combines with the silicon atom and remaining one move freely in the crystal lattice. Base layer of the silicon wafer is doped with p type dopant such as boron. Outer layer shell of boron atoms contains three free electrons, these three free elec- trons combines with the silicon atom leaving a hole, a positive charge. Electron from the neighboring bond jumps into the hole, leaving behind a positive charge; hence a positive charge moves freely in the crystal lattice. Atomic structure of dopant atom is similar to that of silicon atom. Base of the wafer, which is doped with boron is 1000 times thicker than top of the wafer which is doped with phosphorus. When p type and n type layers join together, electrons diffuse across the junction and create a barrier which prevents further electron flow. The junction formed at the point of contact of p type and n type material is known as p-n junction. An electric field is produced at p-n junction due to imbalance in electric charge, which in turn restricts further diffu- sion of the charges. Then the silicon cell is coated with antireflective coating to enhance the absorption of solar irradiation. Grid lines are drawn across the cell to collect electrons, which are released from the valence shell absorbing solar irradiation. These grid lines are then connected to metallic contacts provided at both ends of the solar cell. Metallic contacts act as the end terminal for external connection to load. When solar irradiation falls on the surface of panel, few of the photons get reflected from grid lines and surface of the cell. Remaining photons will penetrate into the substrate; those with less energy will pass the substrate without having an impact. Those photons with energy greater than the band gap dislodge electrons from the valence band and create electron hole pairs. On both sides of p-n junction electron hole pairs are created. Electron-hole pairs diffuse across the junction and swept away in the opposite direction by electric field across the junction and are fed to the load. If the incident solar radiation is more, more number of electron hole pairs will be created; hence more current will be generated by the panel. Radio frequency energy harvesting (RFEH) is an energy con- version technique employed for converting energy from the elec- tromagnetic (EM) field into the electrical domain (i.e., into voltages and currents). In particular, RFEH is a very appealing solution for use in body area networks as it allows low-power sensors and systems to be wirelessly powered in various application scenarios. Extracting energy from RF sources sets a challenging task to de- signers and researchers as they find themselves at the interface between the electromagnetic fields and the electronic circuitry. Piezoelectric energy harvesting methods convert oscillatory me- chanical energy into electrical energy. This technology, together with innovative mechanical coupling designs, can form the basis for harvesting energy from mechanical motion. The wind energy conversion systems convert wind energy into electrical energy by employing wind turbine and induction generator. Through a multiple-ratio gearbox wind turbine is coupled with the induction generator. The major parts of a wind turbine are the rotor, the na- celle and the tower. The generator and the transmission mecha- nisms are housed in nacelle. Rotor may have two or more blades. The kinetic energy of wind flow is captured by rotor blades in wind turbine and then through a gearbox it is transferred to the induc- tion generator side. The mechanical power developed by wind turbine is used to drive generator shaft to generate electric power. The slower rotational speed of wind turbine is converted to higher rotational speeds on the induction generator side by gearbox. A thermoelectric generator (TEG), also called a Seebeck generator, is a solid state device that converts heat flux (temperature differences) directly into electrical energy through a phenomenon called the Seebeck effect (a form of thermoelectric effect). Thermoelectric generators function like heat engines, but are less bulky and have no moving parts. 9. Smart grid metering and communication Communication plays a vital role in real-time operation of Table 12 Power conserving mechanism. SANET Actor Power conserving mechanism Sensing CS to exploit correlations in time and space domains Sensing on demand to avoid continuous and unnecessary sensing Control Event based control Calculating Low complexity algorithm Data transmission CS Distributed data processing and control instead of centralized control Data compression and data aggregation Low power data transmission technologies Table 13 Power harvesting mechanism. Type of energy Power harvesting device Ambient radiation SPV panel (solar energy) Antenna and transducer (RF energy) Kinetic Piezoelectric devices (mechanical strain, motion, vibration, noise) Micro-wind turbine (wind power) Thermal Thermoelectric generator (thermal gradient) G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2605
- 18. power system. Initially, telephone was employed to communicate line loadings back to the control center as well as to dispatch op- erators to execute switching operations at substations. But, with the increase in the DG penetration, network connections for indi- vidual DERs in Smart Grid network are becoming difficult day by day due to a number of network constraints, e.g., thermal overloads and voltage limits as well as hardwired connection complexities. Hence, the success of Smart Grid depends on the application of efficient and cost effective communication system for measuring, monitoring and controlling purpose [113-130], [131-150], [151- 158]. High-speed, fully integrated, two-way communication tech- nologies will permit the Smart Grid to be a dynamic, interactive mega infrastructure for real -time information and power ex- change. This technology plays a crucial role in the performance of the Smart Grid by monitoring, measuring and transferring real time data for control purpose. For the secured transmission of highly sensitive data within the communication network, formalized standards and protocols are necessary. Apparently, existing moni- toring, measuring and control technology plays a role in Smart Grid network too. Setting up suitable standards, interoperability and cyber security needs careful study, for example, formalizing the protocols and standards for the secure transmission of highly sensitive and critical information within the proposed communi- cation system. Furthermore, open architecture's plug-and-play environment will provide secure network smart sensors and con- trol devices, protection systems, control centers and users. 9.1. Advanced Metering Infrastructure AMI is not a single technology; it is an incorporation of several technologies which provides an intelligent connection between utilities and consumers [159e165]. As shown in Fig. 21, AMI is the convergence of utility grid, the communication infrastructure and the supporting information infrastructure. The primary motivation for developing a network centric AMI is industry security re- quirements and implementation guidance. The telecom, cable and defense industries present numerous examples of standards, ne- cessities and best practices that are directly applicable to AMI implementations. Deploying an AMI is a basic step in moderniza- tion of utility grid. AMI provides information to the consumers which are required to make intelligent decisions, the capability to implement those decisions and a variety of choices leading to sig- nificant benefits. Additionally, utilities are able to improve con- sumer service greatly by asset management processes and refining utility operating based on AMI data. Through the incorporation of many technologies (such as integrated communications, HANs, smart metering, standardized software interfaces and data man- agement applications) with asset management processes and existing utility operations, AMI gives an important link between the generation, utility grid, consumers, storage and their loads. Initially, AMR technologies were employed to improve the accuracy of meter reading and to reduce costs. The benefits of two-way interactions between utilities, consumers and their loads led to the evolution of AMI from AMR. Following are principal characteristics of AMI, (i) AMI technologies provide the basic link between the utility grid and the consumer. (ii) Generation and storage options distributed at consumer site can be monitored and controlled via AMI technologies. (iii) Markets are enabled by connecting the utility grid and the consumer through AMI and allowing them to participate actively, either as load that is responsive directly to price signals, or as part of load that can be bid into various types of markets. (iv) Smart meters employed with power quality monitoring abilities which facilitate quick detection, diagnosis and res- olution of power quality problems. (v) Remote connection and disconnection of individual supply. (vi) Facilitates more distributed operating model that decreases the vulnerability of the utility grid to terrorist attacks. (vii) Automatically send the consumption data to the utility at pre-defined intervals. (viii) Helps in self-healing by detecting and locating failures, serving in outage management system (OMS) more accu- rately and quickly. (ix) Provides an ever-present distributed communications infra- structure having excess capacity that can be used to accel- erate the deployment of advanced distribution operations equipment and applications. (x) AMI data provides the granularity and timeliness of infor- mation required to improve asset management and operations. AMI infrastructure comprises of HANs, including communi- cating thermostats, communication networks from the meters to local data concentrators, smart meters and back-haul communi- cations networks to corporate data centers, meter data manage- ment systems (MDMS) and at last, data addition into existing and new software platforms. In addition to this, AMI provides a very “intelligent” step toward modernizing the entire power system. AMI technology and interference is shown in Fig. 22. At consumer level, smart meters communicate data on energy consumption to both utilities and consumers. To make consumers more aware of their energy usage, smart meters communicate with IHDs also. Smart meters incorporated to AMI performs time-based pricing, net metering, consumption data for utility and consumer, loss of power (and restoration) notification, power quality moni- toring, remote turn on/turn off operations, energy prepayment, tamper and energy theft detection, load limiting for “bad pay” or DR purposes, communications with other intelligent devices in home. Additionally, electric pricing information provided by the utility allows load control devices like smart thermostats to modulate electric demand, based on pre-established consumer price preferences. Based on these economic signals more advanced consumers employ DERs. Consumer portals access the AMI data in ways that facilitate more intelligent energy consumption decisions, even providing interactive services like prepayment. The utility employs enhanced office systems that collect and analyze AMI data to help optimizing economics, operations and consumer service. For example, AMI gives instant feedback on power quality and consumer outages, enabling the utility to address utility grid de- ficiencies rapidly. AMI's two-way communication infrastructure also supports utility grid automation at the circuit and station level.Fig. 21. Building blocks of AMI. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252606
- 19. Huge amount of data flowing from AMI allows better planning of asset maintenance, improved management, additions and re- placements. The resulting more reliable and efficient utility grid is one of AMI's many benefits. AMI communications infrastructure supports continuous interaction between the consumer, the utility and the controllable electrical load. It has the potential to serve as the foundation for a multitude of modern utility grid functions beyond AMI. A range of architectures can be employed for data collection and communication, the most common being local concentrators that gather data from groups of meters and transmit that data to a central server through a backhaul channel. Various media like power line carrier, broadband over power lines, copper or optical fiber, Internet, wireless or combinations of these can be considered to provide part or all of this architecture. A HAN in- terfaces with a consumer portal to link smart meters to controllable electrical devices. Its energy management functions may include in IHDs to inform the consumer about energy cost and usage, responsiveness to price signals on the basis of consumer-entered preferences, set points that limit utility or local control actions to a consumer specified band, control of loads without continuing consumer involvement, consumer over-ride capability. The HAN/ consumer portal provides a smart interface to the market by acting as the consumer's “agent.” New value added services like security monitoring is also supported by HAN. A HAN can be implemented in a number of ways, with the consumer portal situated in any of several possible devices including the meter itself, the neighbor- hood collector, a stand-alone utility-supplied gateway or even within consumer supplied equipment. MDMS database with analytical tools facilitates interaction with other information sys- tems such as OMS, consumer information system, billing systems, enterprise resource planning, power quality management and load forecasting systems, mobile workforce management, geographic information system, transformer load management and utility's web site. One of the main functions of an MDMS is to perform validation, editing and estimation on the AMI data to guarantee that despite disruptions in the communications network or at consumer premises, the data flowing to the systems described above is whole and accurate. AMI provides benefits to consumers, utilities and society as a whole and are explained below, (i) Consumer benefits Consumer will have more choices about price and service, less interruption and more information with which to manage cost, consumption and other decisions. It also means better power quality, higher reliability and more accurate billing. A key benefit of AMI is its facilitation of DR and innovative energy tariffs. AMI helps the consumer to adjust their energy consumption in according to the present market prices. (ii) Utility benefits Utility benefits fall into two main categories, operations and billing. AMI helps the utility to avoid anticipated readings, provide timely and accurate bills, operate more reliably and efficiently and offer considerably better consumer service. AMI eliminates the training, health insurance, vehicle and other fixed cost expenses of manual meter reading. With AMI the utility can instantly point out the outage location, thus it can send the repair crews in a more efficient and timely way. Using AMI various maintenance and consumer service issues can be resolved cost-effectively and more quickly through remote diagnostics. (iii) Societal benefits . AMI improves energy efficiency in delivery and use, producing a positive environmental impact. It can accelerate the use of DGs, which can in turn encourage the use of DERs. And it is likely that emissions trading will be enabled by AMI's detailed measurement and recording capabilities. The challenges of AMI include, (i) High capital costs A full scale deployment of AMI involves expenditures on soft- ware and all hardware components, including meters, network infrastructure and network management software, along with cost associated with the installation and maintenance of meters and information technology systems. (ii) Standardization Interoperability standards need to be defined, which set uni- form requirements for AMI technology, deployment and general operations and are the keys to successfully connecting and main- taining an AMI-based grid system. (iii) Integration Fig. 22. Overview of AMI. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2607
- 20. AMI is a complex system of technologies that must be integrated with utilities' information technology systems, including consumer information systems, geographical information systems, work management system, mobile workforce management, SCADA/DMS, OMS, feeder automation system, etc. 9.2. Intelligent electronic devices Power system monitoring and control is basically carried out by SCADA systems primarily based on the data that collected and fed from RTUs situated in substations. In substation switchyard, RTUs are wired to the CB links and each change in the CB status contact is provoked in form of alarm to the operators. The RTUs also collects analog measurement data's obtained through instrument trans- formers (CTs and VTs) and connecting transducers. If the measured analog value is above the threshold value, it is reported either as an operator measurement or an alarm. The data recorded by RTU cannot be accessed locally by the consumer; it will be only acces- sible after it has been sent to a centralized location. In addition to this, the SCADA system design is not the most robust one; there is a possibility of errors in the readings because of malfunctioning of transducers, CB contacts, RTUs or SCADA communication equip- ment. Comparatively slow scanning rate of SCADA for measure- ments (1e10s) is another performance concern. The SCADA systems fail to track dynamic changes occurring for intervals shorter than the SCADA scan time. The limitations in capabilities of SCADA can be overturned by inclusion of IEDs. IEDs are microprocessor based devices with ability to exchange data and control signals with another device over communication link. This new unit provides real-time synchronization for event reporting [166e172]. IEDs can be regarded as the eyes and ears of any remote power management systems. IEDs are installed to improve monitoring, control, pro- tection and data acquisition capabilities of the power system. Be- sides their main function, IEDs are capable to record various types of data. Redundancy and amount of data coming from a substation can be improved in this way. If designing of IEDs are with interface to global positioning system (GPS), further improvement in data usage can be achieved with automating system disturbance anal- ysis. IEDs receive data from power equipment and sensors and can issue control commands, such as tripping CBs, if they sense any abnormality in current, voltage or frequency or lower/raise voltage levels in order to maintain the desired level. Common types of IEDs consist of CB controllers, capacitor bank switches, voltage regula- tors, protective relaying devices, recloser, controllers, LTC control- lers etc. By a setting file this is normally controlled. Usually one of the most time consuming roles of a protection tester is the testing of setting files. Fig. 23 shows functional architecture of IED. Digital protective relays (DPR) are primarily IEDs, using a microprocessor to perform several monitoring, control and pro- tective functions. A usual IED can contain around 5e8 control functions controlling separate devices, an auto-reclose function, 5e12 protection functions, communication functions, self- monitoring function etc. Thus, they are appropriately named as intelligent electronic devices. Three types of IEDs have been considered in this section, circuit breaker monitor (CBM), digital fault recorder (DFR) and DPR. These devices can measure internal CB control signals, relay trip signal, phase currents and voltages, internal relay logic operands and oscillography data. The CBM is designed to monitor condition of CBs and control circuit signals during opening and closing process. The DPR is designed to monitor transmission line when a fault is detected and operating conditions on trip CBs. The DPR responds to sudden change in current, voltage, impedance, frequency and power flow and it will trip substation CBs for faults up to a certain distance away from the substation. The DFR is a device which is primarily designed to capture and store short duration transient events, trends of input quantities such as power, harmonics, frequency, RMS and power factor and longer- term disturbances. After being triggered by a pre-set trigger value, the device records large amount of data. Automated analysis application can be developed for each type of devices. Data recor- ded by each device is converted to a standard format using the application and reports are generated per each IED type. Those reports are small in size and can be sent easily out of substation through communication infrastructure (in case of multiple events). All extracted data and information are available instantly after event occurrence. 9.2.1. Circuit breakers monitor analysis (CBMA) CBMA carries out analysis of waveform taken from the CB con- trol circuit using a CBM and produces an event report and suggests repair actions. The solution is executed using an expert system for making decision and advanced wavelet transforms for extracting waveform feature. It facilitates maintenance crews, operators and protection engineers to consistently and quickly estimate CB per- formance, recognize performance shortages and outline probable causes for formal functioning. Fig. 24 shows software modules of CBMA. 9.2.2. Digital protective relay analysis (DPRA) DPRA is an expert system which automates diagnosis and vali- dation of relay operation. Different relay reports and files are taken as inputs and it generates reports by analyzing taken inputs using embedded expert system. Diagnosis and validation of relay oper- ation is based on comparison of expected and actual relay behavior in terms of the status and timing of logic operands. Fig. 25 shows software modules of DPRA. 9.2.3. Digital fault recorder assistant (DFRA) DFRA carry out automated analysis and DFR event records data integration. It converts various DFR native file formats to COM- TRADE. Additionally, DFRA carry out signal processing to find out Fig. 23. Functional architecture of IED. Fig. 24. Circuit breakers monitor analysis architecture. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252608
- 21. pre- and post-fault analog values, statuses of the digital channels (related to auxiliary breaker, communication signals and relay trip), faulted phases and fault type. It also checks and evaluates fault location, system protection, etc. Fig. 26 shows software modules of DFRA. DPRA and DFRA can carry out thorough disturbance event analysis. Though, DFRA cannot carry out complete analysis on operation of protective relays, since the internal states of a pro- tective relay cannot be recorded using DFR device. In contrast, DPRA can diagnose and validate the relay operations totally, but disturbance information might not be complete, because DPR col- lects data from single transmission line only. DFRA cannot execute the CB tripping operation analysis because CB control circuit signals are not monitored by DFR device, but CBMA provide this infor- mation in detail. Data incorporation across the whole substation is necessary to accomplish full IED data utilization. To realize full event explanation, the results of various analyses have to be merged. The whole idea is to collect and incorporate data auto- matically from all substation IEDs, examine it and extract infor- mation needed for different type of users such as system operators, protection engineers, maintenance staff, etc. Data can be examined at the substation level and conclusion can be sent to the mainte- nance and protection group directly. Another approach is to pre- process data then extract and send it to the control center, where the information is merged with data from SCADA, processed by centralized applications and the results prepared for various user groups. By combining data from CBMA, DPRA and DFRA compre- hensive reports are generated. 9.2.4. Information for system operators Responsibility of decision making on system operation and restoration are with system operators. When an event occurs in the system, they are interested to know that the fault is permanent or not, location of the fault and whether CB and relays operated correctly. IED devices collect more data than RTUs, hence, the extra data can be used to verify and complement with the SCADA reading. Normally right conclusion is only being made by using IED data. To improve the accuracy of the analysis data obtained from SCADA through RTUs can be combined with data obtained from IEDs; this will provide better results to the operator. 9.2.5. Information for protection engineers Responsibility on the final assessment on rightness of any sys- tem response to a given fault condition is with protection engi- neers. They have to check operation of each device using the information gathered by IED and in case of misoperation they need to find out the cause for device misoperation or failure. Generally, they are involved in DPR operation during the event. Major infor- mation needed for protection engineers, are name of substation, fault type, duration and range, affected circuit, triggered time and date, event outcome and devices operation with major focus on relay operation. If the fault was removed within the specified time and all devices operate properly, there is no need for any supple- mentary data and second level of report that have further infor- mation will not be generated. Second level of the report explains displays signal waveforms and internal logic operation of relay. It lists series of the relay signals status and recommends remedial actions. 9.2.6. Information for maintenance staff Maintenance staffs are responsible for system repair and restoration. Responsibility for monitoring CB operation is also with this group. Report will be generated for maintenance staff which consisting of information about signals affected by tripping oper- ation, pre-, during and post-fault analog signals values, waveforms display and suggestion for remedial actions. 9.3. Phasor measurement units PMU is a device that measures the electrical waves on a utility grid by employing a general time source for synchronization [173e179]. The PMUs consist of branch current phasors and bus voltage phasors, as well as locations information and other network parameters. Time synchronization permits synchronized instanta- neous measurements of various remote measurement points on the utility grid. The resulting measurement is known as a syn- chrophasor. PMU is the metering device whereas a synchrophasor is the metered value. PMUs are considered to be one of the most important measuring devices in the future of power systems. PMU can be a devoted device, or the PMU role can be integrated into a protective relay or other device. PMU can measure 50 Hz AC waveforms (currents and voltages) usually at a rate of 48 samples per cycle. Fig. 27 shows basic components of a PMU. The current and voltage signals are converted to voltages with appropriate in- strument transformers or shunts (usually within the range of ±10 V), so that they are matched with the requirements of the Fig. 25. Digital protective relay analysis architecture. Fig. 26. Digital fault recorder analysis architecture. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2609
- 22. ADCs. By using an ADC for each phase the analog AC waveforms are then digitized. A phase-locked oscillator along with a GPS provides the required high-speed synchronized sampling with 1 ms preci- sion. Though, PMUs might receive in multiple time sources including non-GPS references which is calibrated and working synchronously. The resultant time-stamped phasors can be trans- mitted to a local or remote receiver at rates up to 120 samples per second. Phasor measurements are taken with high accuracy from various points of the power system at the same instant, permitting the operator to visualize the precise angular difference between various locations. Microprocessor based instrumentation such as disturbance fault recorders (DFRs) and protection relays integrate the PMU module with other existing functionalities as an extended feature. PMUs are appropriate for monitoring and control of voltage stability. Offering wide area situational awareness, mitigate or even prevent blackouts and phasor measurement work to ease conges- tion. When incorporated with Smart Grid communications tech- nologies, the taken measurements will provide dynamic visibility into the power system. Implementation of Smart Grid with real time measurement will improve every aspect of the power delivery system including generation, transmission, distribution and con- sumption. It will increase the potential of DGs integration, bringing generation closer to the pocket loads. Additional utility monitoring systems include electronic instrument transformers, dynamic line rating technology, temperature, batteries, conductor sensors, backscatter radios technology, cables, insulation contamination leakage current and monitors for CB and current frequency. PMU measurement system is shown in Fig. 28. By employing phasor data concentrators (PDCs) technologies, the phasor data is collected either at centralized locations or on- site. The data is then transmitted to a regional monitoring system which is maintained by the local ISO. These ISO's will monitor phasor data from individual PMU's or from as many as 150 PMU's, this monitoring provides an exact means of establishing controls for power flow from multiple energy generation sources. Fig. 29 shows hierarchy of phasor measurement system and levels of PDCs. 9.4. Wide area measurement systems (WAMS) WAMS is one of the most important components in Smart Grid [180e189]. In comparison to the present SCADA system, measure- ments of the system states are carried out at a comparatively higher rate (5e60 samples per second versus one per 2e6 s). Additionally, all system phasors are developed continuously and simultaneously, rendering real-time information of power system parameters. Thus, WAMS can improve the performance of utility grids signifi- cantly by stability assessment, fault detection, remedial control actions and supporting more accurate state estimation. Fig. 30 shows components of a typical WAMS. It comprises of PDCs for aggregating and relaying measured data. Whereas PMUs are employed widely in WAMS, the currently available dual-use line relays (DULRs) introduce variability to modern WAMS construction. DULRs are the protection digital relays for transformers and transmission lines while providing system protection it can report synchrophasor data. DULR is also called “branch PMU”, since it is installed at transformers and along transmission lines. Even though DULR can only monitor the current phasor of the branch and the voltage phasor of its adjacent bus, still it is promising due to its low construction cost. PMU and DULR interface WAMS with the power system and they consist of CTs, VTs, synchronous GPS clocks and instrumentation cables. Data measured by these devices are transmitted to one or multiple layers of PDCs located at selected locations in the system, where the data are aggregated, compressed and sorted into a time-stamped measurement stream. Usually, the data stream is then fed into application software at the central controller for system state monitoring and control decision gen- eration with various control objectives. 9.5. Local area network (LAN) LAN is a packet data communication network system which offers high-bandwidth communication over a comparatively Fig. 27. Basic components of a phasor measurement unit. Fig. 28. Conceptual diagram of a synchronized phasor measuring system. Fig. 29. Hierarchy of phasor measurement system. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252610
- 23. restricted geographic area through an inexpensive transmission media [190,191]. LAN is composed of two or more components and disk storage with high capacity, which permits all computers in the network to access a general set of rules. LAN has operating system software which instructs network devices, interprets input and permits the users to communicate with each other. In LAN each hardware device is termed as a node. The LAN can incorporate several hundred computers within a geographical stretch of 1e10 km. LAN can also interconnected together to form WAN. LAN with similar architectures act as bridges which are transfer points, whereas LAN with dissimilar architectures act as gateways which converts data as it passes through it. LAN is a shared access tech- nology, in which all connected devices share a common medium of communication such as fiber optics, twisted pair, or coaxial cable. The network interface card (NIC), a physical connection device, connects LAN to the network. Communication between stations in a system is managed by network software. The advantages and special attributes of LAN include, (1) Resource sharing: Permits intelligent devices (programs, data files, printers and storage devices) to share resources. Hence, installed software and database can be shared by multiple users in LAN. (2) Area covered: LAN is usually limited to a restricted geographical area, for example, campus, office building etc. (3) Cost and availability: Interface devices and application soft- ware are reasonably priced and easily available. (4) High channel speed: Capability to transfer data at rates be- tween 1 and 10 million bits per second. (5) Flexibility: Easy to maintain and operate and it grow/expand with low chance of error. Data transmission categories in LAN include, (i) unicast trans- mission: Single packet of data is sent from the source node to the destination node in the network. (ii) multicast transmission: Single packet of data is copied and sent to specific subset of nodes in the network; by using the multicast addresses the source node ad- dresses the packet. (iii) broadcast transmission: Single packet of data is copied and sent to all nodes in the network; source node addresses the packet by using the broadcast address. Topologies in LAN include, (i) bus topology: It is a linear LAN topology in which the data transmitted from network station propagates throughout the length of transmission medium and is received by all other stations connected to it. (ii) ring bus topology: A single closed loop is formed by connecting a series of devices one another by unidirectional transmission link. (iii) star topology: The end points in a network are connected to a switch by dedicated links or common central hub. (iv) tree topology: It is similar to the bus topology except that branches with multiple nodes are also possible. 9.6. Home access network (HAN) LAN limited to an individual home is called as HAN [192,193]. It permits remote control of automated appliances and digital devices all over the house. It facilitates the communication and sharing of resources between computers, mobile and other devices over network connections. HAN may be wired or wireless. It consists of broad band internet connection that is shared between multiple users through a vendor/third party wired or wireless modem. HAN is subsystem within the Smart Grid dedicated to DSM and includes DR and energy efficiency which are the main components in real- izing value in a Smart Grid deployment. Smart meters, smart ap- pliances and web based monitoring can be included into this level. The advantages of HAN include, (1) Asserting the utility in managing peak electric demand. (2) Centralized asses to multiple appliances and devices. (3) Effectively manage utility grid load by automatically con- trolling high energy consuming systems with HAN and Smart Grid infrastructure. (4) HANs provide energy monitoring, controlling and energy consumption information about appliances and devices and hence support energy usage optimization by allowing the consumers to receive price alert from the utility. The main challenges of HAN are, (1) Integration of various technology solutions is a major chal- lenge, so that smart services, such as comfort, automation, security, energy management and health can be offered seamlessly. (2) Interoperability is another key concern among the technol- ogy solutions that needs to be resolved. (3) Consumer privacy and security is an issue that needs to be addressed. The HAN include can be either wired or wireless. There are many advantages associated with installing a wireless network compared to a wired network such as mobility, cost-effectiveness and adaptability. Wireless networking is relatively cheaper than wired Networks since they require no cables between the com- puters as well as lower long term costs due to less maintenance since there is less equipment. The reduction of cables also reduces the trip hazard caused by cables running along the floor in most homes. Most wireless network equipment is plug-and-play, which helps reduce the total cost such as vendor installation and elimi- nates redundancy is case of a system crash. Wireless Networking is also very mobile and versatile; it is adaptable to most situations and requirements. Wireless networks can easily be set up and dissembled, which is perfect for many people who are on tempo- rary worksites/homes or leased space. It can also provide networking in places where regular wire cannot reach such as the backyard in a home situation. Access points can be used to boost the wireless signal range if required. Since portable workstations such as laptops have become popular, wireless networks can pro- vide quick and easy access to the internet and workspaces for students and teachers in universities etc. It is also extremely easy to add other components onto this type of network such as easy installation of VoIP and printers etc without the need to configure one's computer. Since wireless networking is a relatively new and contingent form of networking, it is filled with its own hazards and problems such as unreliability and security. Wireless networks have limited bandwidth; hence they cannot support video tele- conferencing (VTC). It is also limited in its expandability due to the lack of available wireless spectrum for it to occupy. Wireless Fig. 30. Components of WAMS. G. 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- 24. network can also be a security risk if not installed and maintained properly. Wireless networks don't require any physical components to connect up to it such as wires, only a wireless adapter is required which significantly increases the accessibility of the network to potential hackers. This scenario is worsened if the network doesn't contain a password since it can then be accessed by anyone with ease. Wireless networks also have an increased chance of jamming and interference due to external factors such as fog and dust storms or when a flying object such as an aeroplane passes over the field. When too many people in the same area use wireless networks, the band of air that they transmit signals on can become overloaded. Wired networks have existed for a long time, therefore have developed exponentially over the recent years. Improvements have been made in the fields of speed, security and reliability. Wired networks offer the fastest transfer speed of all the networks. Gigabit Ethernet is currently the best choice for wired networks and provides speeds of up to one gigabit per second. This is almost three times faster than the best wireless connection available and almost ninety times faster than a regular connection. Wired net- works consist of physical, fixed connects which are not prone to interference and fluctuations in available bandwidth caused by factors such as walls. Features such as shielding (adding an aluminium foil around the wires) and twisting at different strengths help reduce interference. Wired networks also have a better security system than wireless networks. The network itself is harder to connect to since it has to be physically connected to through wires which can become a hassle when trying to hack into it. It cannot be accessed from anywhere since the signals are not broadcasted. Wired networks mainly suffer the inverse of the ad- vantages of a wireless network system such as lack of mobility and greater cost. Wireless network requires greater resources such as cabling, switch/hub and network cards to install and to maintain therefore the initial and long term costs are much higher. It can also be a large loss when it has to be disassembled and reinstalled since they wiring has to be completely overhauled and is normally un- usable after because of damage. Wired networks can also be a hassle to install new components into because of all the hardware required to do this. Cables and network cards are required to install new computers to the system and wires need to be drawn from the switch to the computers. The wiring can become messy and indistinguishable very quickly and can become a potential safety hazard due to the risk of triping. 9.7. Neighborhood area network (NAN) NAN is a wireless community presently employed for wireless local communication applications; it covers an area bigger than a LAN [194e199]. A few architectural structures will focus on the interoperability and integration of the different domains within the Smart Grid. Domains consist of groups of individuals, devices, systems or buildings having similar communications characteris- tics. Bulk generation includes generators, plant control system and market services interface; this domain interact with the trans- mission domains and market operations through the Internet, substation LANs and WANs. Transmission includes electric storage, data collectors, controllers and substation devices; this domain interacts with bulk generation and operations through substation LANs and WANs; integrated with the distribution domain. Distri- bution interacts with operations and consumers through field area networks (FAN-provides connectivity to a large number of devices spread throughout a given geographic area). Consumer includes PHEVs, metering, consumer equipment, electric storage, energy management systems (EMS), appliances and so on. Utilities domain interacts with operations and consumers primarily through the Internet. Utility and third party providers, which handle billing consumer services, are included in this. Operations include SCADA, web access management system and EMS; this domain can be sub- divided into transmission, distribution and ISO/RTO. 9.8. Wide area networks (WAN) WAN is a network that spans large geographical locations, usually to interconnect multiple LANs [200]. WANs are usually classified into three separate connection types, (1) Point-to-point technologies. (2) Circuit-switched technologies. (3) Packet-switched technologies. Point-to-point technologies (often termed as leased or dedi- cated lines) are generally the costliest form of WAN technology. Point-to-point technologies are generally leased from a utility and offer assured bandwidth from one location to another. On the basis of allocated bandwidth and distance of connection cost is deter- mined. Normally, point-to-point links doesn't need any call-setup, the connection is generally always on. Circuit switched technolo- gies need call-setup to make connection on and transfer informa- tion. Once data transfer is complete, the session will be torn down (hence it is termed as on-demand circuit). Circuit switched lines are normally low-speed as compared to point-to-point lines. Packet- switched technologies share a common infrastructure between all subscribers. Hence, bandwidth is not assured, but is allocated on a best effort basis. Packet-switched technologies are not suited for applications that need bandwidth consistently, but are noticeably less expensive than devoted point-to-point lines. 9.9. Cloud architecture of smart grid Cloud computing is an excellent method for Smart Grids due to its flexible and scalable characteristics and its ability to handle large volumes of data. In order to cope with the storage and communi- cation of vast transferable data large-scale real-time computing capabilities is necessary in construction of a Smart Grid [201e208]. But once the expended entities are in place, cloud computing will unload the Smart Grid by presenting remote data storage, auto- matic updates, reduced maintenance of IT systems by saving en- ergy, money and manpower. Fig. 31 shows cloud architecture of Smart Grid. Fig. 32 shows data and energy flow in Smart Grid. It is a wide multi-port system network node. Cloud architecture in Smart Grid is distributed and dynamic. Different component has different characteristics and its characteristics determine specific ways to control it; hence, the system cannot employ a combined control strategy. DGs and load may cut out or access at any time which causes some problems to combined management. Microgrid and the conventional network constitute a layered topology, various subsystems creates layered information. Hence, multi-agent tech- nology is introduced in Smart Grid, which constructs a platform that can reflect capacity and status of each node as well as coor- dinate the control of each node. The cloud architecture is a dynamic and distributed. The different attributes of every component determine that they must be controlled in specific ways; the system can't utilize a unified control procedure. The application brings a number of benefits to the consumers, environment and the electricity company, in terms of its functionality, (1) Details of the consumers (associations, households and buildings). G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252612
- 25. (2) Follow electricity consumption indicators and temperature in real-time. (3) Reading electricity consumption indicators at fixed intervals. (4) Consumer recommendations on the best tariff plans ac- cording to each user profile. (5) Presenting consumption of electricity (through dynamic analysis, reports and graphs). (6) Outbreak alerts based on measurable factors and notifying approved persons by desktop alerts and emails. (7) Calculation and application of penalties. (8) Issuing invoices each month automatically. (9) Disconnecting bad-payers and notifying them by email. (10) Presentation of financial statements (issuing and paying billing, invoices, debt). (11) Identifying abnormal power consumption caused. The web presence of cloud platforms helps to share the infor- mation on real-time energy usage and cost of energy with con- sumers. Knowing in real-time their energy consumption, homeowners can organize their energy consumption and reduce their bills. Also this application recommends optimal tariff plan according to consumer profile. Smart Grid cloud also provides tools such as Verde via the Web to all applicable stakeholders, provides services as such a Google earth to state, local entities to assess their data in a standardized format, provides other measurement/ analytical services to all applicable stakeholders (enabling interoperability and standardization), facilitate an incorporated data sharing environment that will allow state and national level analysis using the same information on demand. 10. Smart grid applications Smart Grid technologies are equipped for home and building automation, substation automation and feeder automation. Smart Grid technologies enables the effective use of devices, detects faults and isolate faulty devices and equipment's if necessary. Application of Smart Grid technologies for home and building automation, substation automation and feeder automation are described below. 10.1. Home and building automation Home and building automation is part of Smart Grid network; an automated home or building is termed as a smart home [209e218]. In smart homes sources of energy and appliances are coordinated and controlled in such manner that the Smart Grid objectives are met optimally. Building smarter home needs smart energy controllers which also having smart metering capabilities. Fig. 33 shows the architecture of a typical smart home. 10.1.1. Main controller or the smart controller The main controller is an intelligent, programmable device capable of performing numerical processing, computations, Fig. 31. Smart Grid cloud architecture. Fig. 32. Data and energy flow in Smart Grid. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2613
- 26. running optimization subroutines, metering, setting up a two-way communication with the Smart Grid control center (SGCC) and taking decisions on the basis of specified real time constraints. It also has the capability to control the electrical appliances directly. 10.1.2. Smart grid control center SGCC is the gateway of smart controller's to the energy world; a computer performs the function of energy database and energy exchange. It is owned and functioned by a regulatory body on behalf of utilities. Depending upon the features offered to the consumers, the scope of information in the energy database of SGCC varies. Normally, the information contained in the exchange consists of past, present and the future prices of energy from various utilities and other related costs, like discounts, offers, lock in period etc. If more than one rate is valid, then the time at which each rate is applicable should be displayed. Information about traded volumes and information and profiles of different connected members/users of the SGCC. Fig. 34 shows typical information in SGCC. The main controller and the optimization algorithms running in it need lot of inputs from SGCC. The controller has to depend on the stored information, if present information is not available from SGCC. The optimization algorithms will not be capable to make the actions on the basis of latest energy information. An SGCC must be there in each geographical area and all the consumers and utilities in that region must be connected to the SGCC. Every consumer must have an account in SGCC and they can access this account to gather the information associated with them. Consumers can forecast their energy consumption and through SGCC they can inform to utility about the forecasts. The utility can choose to reward the consumer based on the accuracy of the forecasts. It must act as a database for storing the information about energy system. A significant feature of SGCC is that it acts as a backup information storage system. The main controller accesses the SGCC periodically and gathers data like utilities details, applicable rates, energy consumed, information related to power quality, etc. Thus, any information which has contractual or financial importance will be stored in SGCC and the local controller database. Utilities access SGCC to place in their latest offers, to know the total number of consumers availing their service, update the present and future prices and to know about their consumer's consumption patterns. This information is not available to the consumers. SGCC also keeps the consumers credit reports, which is only accessible to the utilities. Through internet (through their PC), connected to controller, consumers access the SGCC to check the present and future energy prices to know about their consumption patterns and to initiate the changeover to a different utility when needed. Information regarding the service levels of each utility will be also available in SGCC. SGCC also acts as a gateway for the consumer complaints. In the complaint database of SGCC, information about the complaints for each utility will be stored and will be published periodically to let consumers to choose the utility they would like. It will be also a center of infor- mation for the consumers to inform their energy related restoration activities, blackouts and outages, present and future shortages. This will permit the consumers to plan accordingly. SGCC also houses information for each utility according to the source of energy i.e., from the non-renewable, renewable, nuclear etc. The changes in energy policy, initiated by the utility or by the government, will be published on SGCC and will be accessed by the consumers. 10.1.3. Sources of energy Normally, sources of energy can be any one or combination of following (i) supply from the utility grid (ii) supply of gas and (ii) other locally offered DGs like wind energy, building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV), small-hydro, bio-mass with output of few kilowatt and storage devices. 10.1.4. Controlled appliances Various energy consuming devices in the home are controlled appliances. The controlled appliances/loads are generally classified into Type-A, Type-B and Type-C. The loads which do not permit much flexibility in switching are termed as Type-A loads. Their switching operation cannot be timed according to the requirement, i.e., switching cannot be much advanced or delayed and are either intermittent or continuous following a specific pattern. The ex- amples are domestic entertainment appliances, lighting loads, refrigerator and appliances needed during the cooking etc. The loads which offer switching flexibility is termed as Type-B loads, their switching can be timed. The examples are dish washers,Fig. 33. Architecture for smarter homes. Fig. 34. Typical information in SGCC. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252614
- 27. dryers, washing machine etc. They switch off automatically when the process is complete. The loads which do offer flexibility in terms of switching but need human intervention are termed as Type-C loads. Examples of this type of load are vacuum cleaners, electric iron etc. Numbers of Type-C loads are decreasing day by day due to rapid growth of automation industry. 10.1.5. Network interfaces The main controller interacts with the SGCC through network interfaces. The network interface can be an optical interface or electrical or combination of these. Moreover, the interface can be built in the controller also. 10.1.6. MMI console or the user interface MMI console permits access to the information on SGCC, house owner to interact with the controller, configure the controller, update the software, change the settings etc. 10.1.7. The controller to appliances interface This interface usually consists of relays. The relays will switch on or switch off the power supply to individual appliances on the basis of commands from the controller. This interface can be a separate module or can be incorporated with the main controller. Modern day multifunction relays employed in the control and protection applications permits seamless integration of switching interface and controller. 10.1.8. The main controller The main controller is a computer in which the software needed to build the intelligence related to energy in the house is stored. Enormous functionalities can be built in the controller depending upon sources of energy available in the controlled area, diversity and variety of the loads etc. Main controller receives the clocks signal from SGCC and hence works in synchronized with it. Fea- tures of main controller in different control areas are, (1) Features of controller in a simple residential area The main controller periodically contacts the SGCC and down- loads the energy updates. Main controller downloads the newest energy prices from SGCC and uses the information to work out the energy usage charges with the present utility. On the basis of switching costs, present and future prices of energy, compulsory lock in period of present utility and the projected energy con- sumption will decide whether to continue with the present utility or initiate a switch over process. User will initiate utility switch over process. On the basis of previous energy trends controller can forecast the future energy consumption. When the rate of energy is lowest, Type-B loads like water pumps, dryers and washing ma- chines etc., which offer flexibility in switching and are not contin- uous, should be switched. The controller must be programmed to supply these loads only when the rate of energy is low. It records the daily, weekly and monthly energy consumption and will pro- vide the details to the house owner on request. Data related to power quality would be also recorded for legal and contractual purpose. Depending upon the power factor in the controlled area, controller could switch on or switch off the reactive power equip- ment for power factor correction. Based on the availability of solar radiations the controller will be also programmed to switch off the lights in some parts of controlled area, so that lighting loads are switched on only when needed. After certain time, supply toType-C loads must be automatically cut off to save energy; the controller must be programmed for the same. Loads like electric iron etc. are not often used for an hour. The controller must assume that the load has been left on accidently, if it senses that the load is on for more than an hour, it must switch off the supplies. This will avoid energy wastage and more significantly a chance of fire. (2) Features of controller with BIPV in the controlled area BIPV is an unconventional source of energy employed in areas receiving high density of solar irradiation and it is the most com- mon energy producing source in homes. Since, there is no land cost involved, BIPV is cheapest than all other SPV systems. Additionally, BIPV reduces the cooling load by converting part of the incident radiations into electrical energy. The controller algorithm must be customized to optimize the energy bills when BIPV is incorporated as one of the sources. In such a case the controller must also do the following, (3) Features of controller with energy storage To overcome the peak load demand, Microgrid networks em- ploys energy storage devices. The surplus energy is pumped into the storage devices when the demand is low and it is retrieved when the demand is high. The cost of electrical energy during the peaking times are higher than the off peak times. The controller algorithms must be designed to extract profit from stretch between peak and off peak rates when the storage device is part domestic energy system. The controller considers the storage system as an additional Type-B load, activating PCU and permitting energy storage when the energy cost is low and it is retrieved when the rates are high. It also keeps proof of full cycle efficiency of the storage system. The full cycle losses in the storage system and its related auxiliary system must be lower than the spread between the peak and the off peak rates, else the energy cost will increase. (4) Features of controller with heating systems in controlled area During off-peak hours, at times cost of electricity might become cheaper than the cost of gas. In such cases the controller can reduce the energy bills by switching the heating system sources between electricity and gas. On the basis of spot prices of electricity and gas and efficiency of electricity and gas based heating system, the switching over is decided. Each load cannot be designed to have dual energy sources, only heating loads can be switched over to electricity and gas. The controller must have the intelligence to take decision on switchover of the source. The efficiencies of electricity based and gas based heating system should have considered by the algorithm while switching. (5) Remote access features One of the foremost advantages of smart controller is its ability to permit remote access to the owner. Through the SGCC consumer can access the controller from a remote site on Internet through a secured password based system. The consumer can turn on or turn off the main energy inputs and appliances according to his wish. This characteristic of a smart controller helps to decrease the ac- cidents caused by the appliances left on by the consumer during the vacations. On the other hand, the main controller can be pro- grammed to turn off few appliances i.e. Type-B and Type-C loads, when it detects idleness in the house for a certain period. Fig. 35 shows typical information's stored in a smart home controller. 10.1.9. Automated processes Smart Grid provides the chance of setting up automatic pro- cesses that are advantageous to all the consumers. These processes help the consumers to decrease the amount spent on energy by G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2615
- 28. choosing cheaper source or by decreasing the energy consumption and helps to improve level of services. Three such processes are discussed below, (1) The utility changeover process The utility changeover process will be initiated by the main controller or manually by the consumer based on present and future prices of energy, the forecasted future energy consumption and the changeover costs. The controller periodically assesses the information regarding the energy prices and works out the eco- nomics in automatic changeover process. The controller will be asked to initiate the changeover process on receiving the instruc- tion from the consumer in the manual change over process. Once the controller is manually instructed by the consumer, the controller sends a message to the SGCC requesting it officially to make the changeover. Details of the consumer will be forwarded to the new utility and if the new utility accepts the credentials of the consumer, a confirmation is issued to the consumer for the official change over. The utility issues the terms and conditions or the contract also at same time. Under the user profile, the terms and conditions must be also displayed on SGCC, as these would influ- ence the changeover decision. Though for an extra security, the contract is sent to the consumer in digital format. The consumer can accept or reject the contract, if not rejected within certain time it would be deemed to be accepted. An acceptance letter is sent back to the utility and also one copy of the acceptance letter is stored in the SGCC, once the contract is accepted or deemed to have been accepted. A unique number is assigned to the contract and this number is communicated to the consumer and the utility. The consumer and utility can also assign their own contract numbers internally. Though, in the energy market, the contract will identi- fied by the number given by SGCC. SGCC sends the request of changeover to the existing utility and after receiving the confir- mation from the utility it forwards the confirmation to the con- sumer or the controller. SGCC will debits the account of the consumer on the basis of total energy consumed until the changeover process with the changeover costs. The debits made from the account of the consumer are then credited to the partic- ular utility (outgoing utility) accounts. The changeover process will be formally completed after resetting the meter and storing new tariff in the controller which will work out the energy consumption of the consumer. (2) Complaint addressing mechanism In Smart Grid, consumers can monitor their energy consump- tion pattern and the rate at which the consume energy. Hence, the complaints related with billing will be substantially low in Smart Grids. As these details will be available online as well as locally, hence, the chances of complaints and error will be reduced. The Smart Grid can assist fair and impartial investigation against the complaints. The steps involved in complaint mechanism are, the consumer registers a complaint in SGCC. The complaint can be either quality of power supply related or billing related. An inves- tigation is carried out based on the details of complaint in SGCC. The data from main controller is demanded in case of any doubts. The data stored in the consumer's account of SGCC has a backup in the hard disk of controller. The investigation reports are forwarded to the consumer and necessary action is taken by the utility. The consumer can be effectively compensated if the investigation proves that the utility is at fault. A database for complaint is also maintained and if the complaints are proved to be real then it is moved to database for public view and it helps the other consumers for proper selection of utility. Unsolved complaints which remain for a particular period of time will be moved to another database for public view. The complaint database will record the name of the utility and it will help the consumers to determine the quality of the services provided by the utility. (3) Automated billing and collection mechanism Automated billing mechanism helps the utility by reducing the collection efforts and consumer by reducing the work concerned with periodic payments. Following are the steps involved in an automated billing and collection mechanism. The utilities set up payment mode like payment when the energy consumption goes beyond a particular amount or payment every month based on actual energy consumption. The consumer selects a particular payment mode from the options offered by the utility. The payment conditions are decided jointly and it is stored in SGCC and controller. Details of payment are also stored in main controller. Details of energy consumption are also sent to SGCC by main controller daily, which then transfers these details to the related utility. The utility fixes the bill on the basis of payment options selected by the consumer and sends it to SGCC for sending to the consumer. The bill includes the total amount and the date in which the amount is likely to be deducted from the account. Using the data available in the controller, consumer can validate the details. Once the payment has been credited, utility sends a confirmation to the consumer. For certain period the records will be stored in SGCC. Records of payment will be also stored in the main controller. Finally, the main advantages home and building automation are, (1) Improved energy prices due to competition in energy market. (2) Improved services due to increased service monitoring. (3) Switch over from one utility to another is easier and the process is also faster. (4) For the poor quality of supply consumers will get compensation. (5) Integration of home based DERs with the home energy sys- tem become much easier. (6) Automated load controlling helps in distributing load over time which is beneficial to the consumer and utility grid. Fig. 35. Typical information's in a smart home controller. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252616
- 29. 10.2. Smart substation Conventionally a substation employs CBs, protection relays, VTs and CTs all, which are wired collectively using, copper cables [219e230]. With advances in digital technology, communications and standards, this is now changing to what is known as the smart substation in which, the workstations, protection devices and low level transducers are connected together on an optical fiber com- munications backbone. The substation system architecture is divided into three levels; (i) the station level where operations, engineering functions and reporting take place, (ii) the bay level where system protection and control functions are implemented and (iii) the process level where signals from VTs, CTs and other transducers are transmitted. Fig. 36 shows the basic architecture of smart substation. Smart substation consists of several key components and ele- ments as follows, (1) Protection, monitoring and control devices (IED) Primary devices (tap-changers, protection relays, VTs, CTs, etc.) in the smart substation are implemented as IEDs. IED is a key component of substation integration and automation. These de- vices can communication with each other and with higher level smart substation control via the IEC 61850 optical network. Implemented to meet compliance necessities and save money. IEDs control CBs, voltage regulators and capacitor bank switches. Typical applications of IEDs in smart substation includes (i) DR, (ii) power fault reporting in the event of failures, (iii) low-voltage stabiliza- tion, (iv) asset management, (v) record load curves for future planning, (vi) integrated automatic transformer monitoring and (vi) automatically reconfigure the network in case of a fault. (2) Sensors Sensors are used to collect data from power equipment at the substation yard such as CBs, transformers and power lines. Con- ventional copper-wired analog apparatus are replaced by optical apparatus with fiber-based sensors in smart substation for moni- toring and metering. Single sensor might serve different types of IEDs through a process bus. Advantages of fiber-based sensors in- cludes (i) higher accuracy, (ii) reduced size and weight, (iii) higher performance, (iv) high bandwidth, (v) wide dynamic range, (vi) safe and environment friendly, (vii) no saturation and (viii) low maintenance. (3) Station and process bus Exchange of signals between the bay level IED and station control, the bay level IED and transducers, devices and system equipment are carried by station bus and process bus respectively. This provides a better reliability for main substations as compared to a single bus. The station and process bus systems are usually implemented using Ethernet switches (external or built into the IED), connected together in a ring configuration. (4) Supervisory control and data acquisition SCADA is a system or a combination of systems that gathers data from different sensors at a station or in other remote locations and then sends these data to a central computer system, which then manages and controls the data and controls devices in the field remotely. Control and data acquisition equipment comprises of a system with at least one master station, a communications system and one or more RTUs. SCADA system has operator graphical user interface (GUI), engineering applications that act on historian software, data and other components. (5) GPS time clock The accurate time keeping is an important requirement of smart substation. This guarantee the protection functions operate within the required times and synchronizes smart substation in different locations so that event and operation logs can be compared and trip events analyzed. The preferred approach to achieving this is by the use of a GPS clock to transmit time synchronization signals to the IED, using simple network time protocol (SNTP). (6) Electronic fiber optic CTs and VTs A growing trend in the smart substation is the use of optical current and voltage transducers (sometimes called non- conventional instrument transformers-NCIT). These devices oper- ate by measuring changes in the optical performance of fibers in the presence of electric and magnetic fields. The transducers are able to measure both current and voltage. As the signals are generated and transmitted using optical fiber, transducer signals are not subject to voltage drop issues and electromagnetic interference which can affect conventional equipment. Optical transducers also tend to be smaller, have improved linear characteristics and more accurately reproduce the primary signal. (7) Master stations A master station comprises of a computer system which is responsible for communicating with the field equipment and in- cludes an HMI in the control room or elsewhere. The major components of a master station are (i) data acquisition servers that interface with the field devices through the communications system, (ii) real-time data servers, (iii) application server, (iv) historical server and (v) operator workstations with an HMI. Hardware components in a master station are connected through one or more LANs. Different types of master stations are (i) SCADA master station, (ii) SCADA master station with AGC, (iii) EMS, (iv) DMS and (vi) FA system. The primary functions of SCADA master station are (i) data acquisition, (ii) user interface, (iii) remote control, (iv) report writer and historical data analysis. The primary functions of SCADA master station with AGC are (i) economic dispatch, (ii) AGC and (iii) interchange transaction scheduling. The primary functions of EMS are (i) state estimation, (ii) optimal power flow, (iii) contingency analysis, (iv) three phase balancedFig. 36. Basic architecture of smart substation. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2617
- 30. operator power flow, (v) dispatcher training simulator and (vi) network configuration/topology processor. The primary functions of DMS are (i) interface to consumer information system, (ii) three phase unbalanced operator power flow, (iii) interface to outage management, (iv) interface to automate mapping/facilities man- agement and (v) map series graphics. The primary functions of FA system are (i) two-way distribution communications, (ii) load management, (iii) voltage reduction, (iv) fault identification/fault isolation/service restoration, (v) short-term load forecasting and (vi) power factor control. (8) Remote terminal unit RTUs are microprocessor-based device that interfaces with a SCADA system. Provides data to the master station and enables the master station to issue controls to the field equipment. RTUs have physical hardware inputs to interface with field equipment and one or more communication ports. When compared to conventional substations, RTUs are smaller and more flexible in smart substation. In smart substations, one smaller RTU (capable of accepting higher level ac analog inputs) with distributed architecture approach is employed for one or more substation equipment. Additional func- tionalities include DFR and power quality monitoring and advances in communications capabilities, with extra ports available to communicate with IEDs. (9) Merging units (MUs) MUs collect signals from various equipment's and transducers. These signals are then transmitted to other devices via the process bus. MU is the interface between the traditional analog signals and the bay controllers and protection relays. (10) Data types and data flow Two types of data sets are there in smart substation, they are (i) operational or real-time data, which is for operating utility systems and performing EMS software applications such as AGC and (ii) nonoperational data, which is for historical, real-time and file type data used for analysis, maintenance, planning, and other utility applications. Operational data and nonoperational data have in- dependent data collection mechanisms. Hence, two separate logical data paths must also exist to transfer these data. One logical data path connects the substation with the EMS and second data path transfers nonoperational data from the substation to various utility information technology systems. Implementation of IEDs, smart sensor, electronic fiber optic CTs, and VTs and high-speed communication techniques improves overall performance of substation. The sensors in substation im- proves measuring accuracy, thereby faults can be cleared easily to maintain reliability. The digital substation offers numerous ad- vantages over a conventional arrangement. These include, (i) Better EMC performance and isolation of circuits. (ii) Improved measurement accuracy and recording of information. (iii) Easy incorporation of modern electronic CT and VT sensors. (iv) Interoperability between devices made by different manufacturers. (v) Improved reliability. (vi) Easier and simpler installation. (vii) Improved commissioning and operations. 10.3. Feeder automation (FA) FA is the ability to monitor and control the distribution network remotely, to collect and provide information to consumers in a useful manner [231e243]. Some utilities refer to FA as distribution automation (DA), while others may refer to it as SA. FA uses digital sensors and switches with advanced communication and control technologies to automate feeder switching, voltage and reactive power management, equipment health monitoring and outage. FA provides a building block for monitoring, control and protection of the distribution system. From utility to utility the definition for FA varies. FA products are designed for interoperability and rapid automation implementation. These products offer SCADA interface and facilitate FA with or without communications. FA products aid to strengthen existing distribution systems and present a strong foundation for building a totally implemented feeder scheme in the future. FA products are a powerful tool for reducing operation costs and improving consumer service. Solutions not only have to be justified based on hard benefits, which are measurable to the bottom-line (e.g., increased kWh sales, reduced operating and maintenance costs, deferred or eliminated capital expenditures), they must also satisfy the need of less tangible benefits. FA products and system solutions can be incrementally incorporated and scaled within existing utility feeder infrastructures. Fig. 37 shows the basic FA architecture. FA consists of several key components and elements as follows, FA is achieved by employing number of field devices along the distribution network. Few of the field devices employed for FA is explained, (1) Remote fault indicators Remote fault indicators are sensors that detect current and voltage levels on feeders outside usual operating boundaries. Op- erators can utilize this information to determine the location of a fault rapidly or distinguish between temporary high loads and a fault, such as high motor starting current. Visual displays are equipped with fault indicators to assist field crews and connected to communications networks that are incorporated with SCADA or distribution management system (DMS) for providing greater ac- curacy in locating and identifying faults. Fig. 37. Basic feeder automation architecture. G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252618
- 31. (2) Smart relays Smart relays apply sophisticated software to accurately detect, isolate and diagnose the cause of faults. They may be installed on devices in automated switching schemes or in utility substations for feeder protection. Device controls are activated according to algorithms and equipment settings. The relays also store and pro- cess data to send back to grid operators and back office systems for further analysis. Advances in relay and sensor technologies have enhanced the detection of high impedance faults difficult to detect with conventional relays, that occur when energized power lines contact a foreign object, but such contact only produces a low-fault current. (3) Automated feeder switches and reclosers Automated feeder switches open and close to isolate faults and reconfigure faulted segments of the distribution feeder to restore power to consumers on line segments without a fault. They are normally configured to work with smart relays to operate in response to signals from utilities, distribution management sys- tems or control commands from autonomous control packages. Switches can be also configured to open and close at programmed sequences and intervals when fault currents are detected. This ac- tion, known as reclosing, is used to stop power flow to a feeder that has been impacted by a hindrance and re-energize after the obstruction has cleared itself from the line. Reclosing reduces the probability of continuous outages when trees and other objects temporarily contact power lines during high winds and storms. (4) Automated capacitors Utilities employ capacitors for reactive power compensation requirements caused by inductive loads from overhead lines, con- sumer equipment or transformers. Reactive power compensation reduces the total amount of power that need to be provided by power plants, resulting in a flatter voltage profile along the feeder and less energy wasted from electrical losses in the feeder. A dis- tribution capacitor bank consists of a group of capacitors connected together. The capacity of the banks installed on distribution feeders depends on the number of capacitors, and usually ranges from 300 to 1800 kV-ampere reactive (kVAR). Capacitor banks are mounted on substation structures, distribution poles or “pad-mounted” in enclosures. (5) Automated voltage regulators and LTCs Transformers that make small adjustments to voltage levels in response to changes in load are termed as voltage regulators. They are installed along distribution feeders and in substations to regulate downstream voltage. Multiple “raise” and “lower” posi- tions are available with voltage regulators and can automatically adjust according to loads, feeder configurations and device settings. (6) Automated feeder monitors Feeder monitors measure load on distribution lines and equip- ment and can trigger alarms when equipment or line loadings reach potentially damaging levels. Monitors deliver data in near- real time to office systems and analysis tools so that grid opera- tors can successfully assess loading trends and take corrective switching actions, such as repairing equipment when necessary, transferring load or taking equipment offline. These field devices are employed in coordination with information and control sys- tems to avoid outages from occurring due to overload conditions or equipment failure. (7) Transformer monitors Transformer monitors are equipment health sensors for measuring parameters, such as insulation oil temperatures of po- wer transformer, which can reveal possibilities for abnormal operating conditions and premature failures. To measure various parameters of different types of devices these devices can be configured. Usually, these devices are applied on substation transformers and other equipment whose breakdown would result in considerable cost and reliability impacts for utilities and consumers. Performance of FA technology in four main areas are described below, (1) Reliability and outage management FA technologies provided highly developed ability for operators to locate, detect and diagnose faults. In particular fault location, isolation and service restoration (FLISR) technologies can automate power restoration within seconds by isolating faults automatically and switching a few consumers to adjacent feeders. FLISR can decrease the number of affected consumers and consumer minutes of disruption by half during a feeder outage for certain feeders. Fully automated validation and switching normally improves reli- ability than operator initiated switching with manual validation. Accurate fault location allows the operators to send repair crews precisely and inform consumers on outage status, which in turn reduces repair costs and outage length, reduces the load on con- sumers to report outages and guarantees satisfaction of consumer. (2) Voltage and reactive power management Automated power factor correction and voltage regulation en- ables utilities to reduce peak demands; more efficiently utilize existing assets, improve power quality and defer capital in- vestments for the growing digital economy. Utilities use CVR to reduce energy consumption, reduce feeder voltage levels and improve the distribution system efficiency particularly during peak demand times. Automated power factor correction provides new ability to utilities for boosting power quality and managing reactive power flows. (3) Equipment health monitoring Installing sensors on main components (e.g., transformer banks and power lines) to assess equipment health parameters can pro- vide real-time alerts for abnormal conditions of equipment as well as analytics that help utilities to plan preventative equipment maintenance, repair and replacement. (4) Integration of DERs Grid integration of DERs needs highly developed tools to monitor and dispatch DERs, and to address new control and power flow issues, such as reactive power management, voltage fluctua- tions, harmonic injection and low-voltage ride through. Few Smart Grid networks have been tested distributed energy resource man- agement systems (DERMS) and integrated automated dispatch systems (IADS) on small DER installments. 11. Benefits of Smart Grid Benefits of Smart Grid are, G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e2625 2619
- 32. (1) Self-Healing: detects and responds to routine problems and quickly recovers if they occur, minimizing downtime and financial loss. (2) Motivates and includes the consumer: visibility into real- time pricing, and affords them the opportunity to choose the volume of consumption and price that best suits their needs. (3) Provides Power Quality for 21st Century Needs: provides power free of sags, spikes, disturbances and interruptions. (4) Accommodates all generation and storage options: “plug- and-play” interconnection to multiple and distributed sources. (5) Enables markets: supports energy markets that encourage both investment and innovation. (6) Optimizes assets and operates efficiently: build less new infrastructure, transmit more power through existing sys- tems, and thereby spend less to operate and maintain the grid. For consumers, (1) Offer up-to-the-moment information on their energy usage (2) Enable electric cars, smart appliances, and other smart de- vices to be charged and programmed to run during off-peak hours to lower energy bills. (3) Open up a wider range of electricity pricing options. For utilities and other stakeholders, (1) Reduce inefficiencies in energy delivery. (2) Quickly restore power after outages. (3) Improve management of distributed energy resources, including Microgrid operations and storage management. (4) Integrate the sustainable resources of wind and solar energy more fully into the grid. (5) Increase grid reliability and reduce the frequency of power blackouts and brownouts. (6) Increase grid resiliency. 12. Opportunities of smart grid Smart Grid technologies help in, (1) Upgrading and expanding infrastructure to improve inter- connectivity and communications. (2) Build up smart tools and technologies to exploit DR, demand load control and energy efficiency. (3) Helps in educating the consumers. (4) Creating models to promote Smart Grid investment and inform regulatory frameworks. (5) Build up infrastructure to guarantee cyber security and resilience. (6) Regulations in communication, price and cyber security. Local, The local opportunities of Smart Grid include, (1) Integrated communications (i) Data acquisition, protection and control and allow con- sumers to interact with intelligent electronic devices in an integrated system. (ii) To connect components to open architecture for real- time information and control, information and data exchange to optimize system reliability, asset utilization and security. (iii) Areas for improvement include: Substation automation (SA),DR, feeder automation (FA), SCADA, EMSs, wireless mesh networks and other technologies, power-line carrier communications and fiber optics. (2) Sensing and measurement (i) Support acquiring data to evaluate the health and integrity of the grid and support automatic meter reading, elimination of billing estimates and prevent energy theft. (ii) To support faster and more accurate responses. (3) Advanced components (i) Used to determine the electrical behavior of the grid and can be applied in either standalone applications or connected together to create complex systems such as Microgrids. (ii) To apply the latest research in superconductivity, stor- age, power electronics, and diagnostics. (iii) The success, availability and affordability of these com- ponents will be based on fundamental research and development (R&D) gains in power electronics, super- conductivity, materials, chemistry, and microelectronics. (4) Advanced control methods (i) To monitor essential components that enable rapid di- agnostics and precise solutions appropriate for any event. (ii) Using the devices and algorithms that will analyze, di- agnose, and predict grid conditions and autonomously take appropriate corrective actions to eliminate, miti- gate, and prevent outages and power quality disturbances. (5) Improved interfaces and decision support. Convert complex power-system data into information that can be easily understood by grid operators. Regional and national opportunities of Smart Grid include, (1) Provide higher quality power that will save money lost on outages. (2) Accommodate all generation and energy storage options. (3) Motivate consumers to actively participate in grid operations. (4) Be self-healing. (5) Resist attack. Global opportunities of Smart Grid are, (1) Run the grid more efficiently. (2) Enable higher penetration of intermittent power genera- tion's sources. (3) Enable electricity markets to flourish. 13. The future: the key challenges of smart grid The major challenges that Smart Grid facing are, (1) Strengthening the utility grid: It must be ensured that the utility grid has sufficient transmission capacity to accom- modate more energy resources, especially renewable resources. (2) Moving offshore: Most effective and efficient connections for offshore wind farms and for other marine technologies (tidal G. Dileep / Renewable Energy 146 (2020) 2589e26252620
- 33. and wave energy) which is stochastic in nature, must be developed. (3) Developing decentralized architectures: Decentralized ar- chitectures must be developed to enable harmonious oper- ation of small-scale electricity supply systems with the total system. (4) Communications: Developing a communication infrastruc- ture which allows the operation and trade of potentially millions parties in a single market. (5) Active demand side: Enabling all consumers to play an active role in the operation of the system, with or without their own generation. (6) Integrating intermittent generation: Finding the best ways for integrating intermittent generation like residential mi- cro-generation. (7) Enhanced intelligence of generations: The problems associ- ated with enhanced intelligence generation schemes (like FREEDM) system must be resolved to revolutionize the utility grid. (8) Advanced power system monitoring, protection and control: Advanced measurement schemes like synchronized phasor measurements must be common to achieve synchronization by same time. (9) Capturing the benefits of DG and storage: Advanced tech- nologies must be developed to capture DERs more effec- tively. Hybrid energy system, such as, SPV-Wind, SPV-fuel cells e. t. c are necessary to maintain reliability and to power remote areas. (10) Preparing for electrical vehicles: Electrical vehicles are mostly emphasized due to their mobile and highly dispersed character and possible massive employment in the next years, which would yield a key challenge. 14. Conclusion In this paper an overview on evolution of Smart Grid, its func- tions, components, technologies, advantages, challenges, charac- teristics, applications, benefits, opportunities and future scope is given. Various Smart Grid technologies like smart meters, smart sensors, V2G and PHEV and its application in Smart Grid has also been explained in detail. The role of Smart Grid metering and communication technologies like AMI, IEDs, PMUs, WAMS, LAN, WAN, NAN and HAN for real time measurement and monitoring purpose, with the challenge of data privacy and security, has also been explored. Smart Grid cloud architecture and advantages are also presented. Applications of Smart Grid technologies for home and building automation, smart substation and feeder automation has also been discussed. It is difficult to predict exact future of the Smart Grid, but current innovations show an active merging of sectors, mechanics and communities for a common goal. At the end future research possibilities in Smart Grid is explained in “The Future: The key challenges of Smart Grid” sections. Smart Grid can be more effective in helping environmental conservation and en- ergy sustainability. 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