Academic Writing A Practical Guide For Students

Academic
Writing
A practical guide for students
Stephen Bailey

Text © Stephen Bailey 2003
Original illustrations © Nelson Thornes Ltd 2003
The right of Stephen Bailey to be identified as author of this work has been asserted
by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
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First published in 2003 by Nelson Thornes Ltd
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by RoutledgeFalmer
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
RoutledgeFalmer is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 0 7487 6838 6
Illustrations by Oxford Designers and Illustrators
Page make-up by Northern Phototypesetting Co. Ltd, Bolton
ISBN 0-203-46412-5 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-47059-1 (Adobe eReader Format)
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004.
(Print Edition)

I would like to thank the staff and students at the Centre for English
Language Education (CELE) at The University of Nottingham who have
piloted these materials, and in particular my colleagues Ann Smith, Janet
Sanders and Sandra Haywood for their specific contributions in unravelling
some of the finer points of academic language. My wife, Rene, deserves my
warmest thanks for her unfailing support, advice and encouragement over
the whole period of the project’s development.
The author and publishers wish to thank the following for permission to
reproduce photographs and other copyright material in this book.
Corel 76 (NT) p 29; Corel 102 (NT) p 90; Corel 392 (NT) p 118; Corel 631 (NT)
p33; Corel 786 (NT) p 19; Corel 787 (NT) p 41; Joe Cornish/Digital Vision LL
(NT) p 38; Illustrated London News V1 (NT) p 56; Illustrated London News
V2 (NT) p 4; Photodisc 31 (NT) p 78 ; Photodisc 41 (NT) p 46; Photodisc 46
(NT) pp 56, 80; Photodisc 71 (NT) p 8; Photodisc 72 (NT) p 17; Stockbyte 31
(NT) p 60.
Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders and the publishers
apologise to anyone whose rights have been inadvertently overlooked and
will be happy to recitfy any errors or omissions.
Acknowledgements
Teachers and lecturers using this book with a class will be able to find
extra teaching material within the teacher resources section of the
RoutledgeFalmer website at http://www.routledgefalmer.com/

Part 1:
The Writing Process 1
Student introduction 1
1. Background to writing Writing Foundations 3
2. Developing plans from titles 6
3. Evaluating a text Reading and Note-Making 9
4. Understanding purpose and register 12
5. Selecting key points 15
6. Note-making 18
7. Paraphrasing 21
8. Summary writing 23
9. Combining sources 26
10. Planning a text Writing Stages 29
11. Organising paragraphs 32
12. Organising the main body 36
13. Introductions 39
14. Conclusions 42
15. Re-reading and re-writing 45
16. Proof-reading 48
Part 2:
Elements of Writing 51
1. Cause and effect Flooding results from heavy rain 53
2. Cohesion The former/the latter 55
3. Comparisons His work is more interesting than hers 57
4. Definitions An assignment is a task given to students … 60
5. Discussion Benefits and drawbacks 62
6. Examples Many departments, for instance medicine, 65
7. Generalisations Computers are useful machines 67
8. Numbers The figures in the report … 70
9. References and quotations As Donner (1997) pointed out 73
10. Style It is generally agreed that … 76
11. Synonyms Interpretation/explanation 79
12. Visual information Graphs, charts and tables 81
Contents
Introduction vi

Part 3:
Accuracy in Writing 85
1. Abbreviations i.e./WTO 87
2. Adverbs currently/eventually 89
3. Articles a/an/the 91
4. Caution Poor education tends to lead to crime 93
5. Conjunctions furthermore/however 95
6. Formality in verbs speed up/accelerate 98
7. Modal verbs may/could/should 100
8. Nationality language Spain/Spanish 102
9. Nouns and adjectives efficiency/efficient 104
10. Nouns: countable and uncountable business/businesses 106
11. Passives The gases were discovered 108
12. Prefixes and suffixes undergraduate/graduate 110
13. Prepositions The purpose of this paper … 113
14. Prepositions after verbs concentrate on 115
15. Punctuation ‘ ? : 117
16. Referring verbs Martins (1975) claimed that … 119
17. Relative pronouns that/which 121
18. Singular/ plural The team is/are 123
19. Tenses Few scientists dispute/have disputed 125
20. Time words and phrases since the nineteenth century 128
Part 4:
Writing Models 131
1. Formal letters Letter layout and letters of application 133
2. CVs Layout and phrasing of a curriculum vitae 135
3. Designing and reporting surveys Survey reports and questionnaire design 137
4. Comparison essay A comparison of classroom learning with
internet-based teaching 139
5. Discursive essay Education is the most important factor in
national development – Discuss 141
Writing Tests 143
Answers 146
Sources 191
vi Contents

Academic Writing is designed for anybody who is studying (or planning to
study) at English-medium colleges and universities and has to write essays
and other assignments for exams or coursework. International students
especially find the written demands of their courses extremely challenging.
On top of the complexity of the vocabulary of academic English they have to
learn a series of conventions in style, referencing and organisation.
Academic Writing is a flexible course that allows students to work either with a
teacher or by themselves, to practise those areas which are most important for
their studies. Many students find that they have very limited time to prepare
for their courses, and that writing is only one of several skills they need to
master. The structure of the book has been made as simple as possible to allow
users to find what they want quickly.
The course is organised to provide maximum hands-on practice for students.
Skills are developed from writing at the paragraph level, through organising
the various sections of an essay, to discussing statistics and describing charts.
This book is divided into four parts:
1) The Writing Process guides students from the initial stage of
understanding an essay title, through reading and note-making, to the
organisation of an essay and the final stage of proof-reading.
2) Elements of Writing deals with the key skills that are needed for all types
of assignments, such as making definitions and giving references, and is
organised alphabetically.
3) Accuracy in Writing gives remedial practice in those areas that students
tend to find most confusing, such as definite articles and relative
pronouns, again in alphabetical order.
4) Writing Models gives examples of the types of writing that students
commonly need, including letters and survey reports.
All units are cross-referenced and a comprehensive key is provided at the end.
There is also a Writing Tests section for assessing level and progress.
Although every effort has been made to make Academic Writing as useful and
accurate as possible, if students or teachers have any comments, criticisms or
suggestions I would be very pleased to hear from them.
Stephen Bailey
academicwriting@beeb.net
Introduction
Instructions to students are printed like this:
Complete the sentences with suitable words from the box below.
Cross-references in margins look like this:
2.11 Synonyms
This means: refer to the unit on synonyms in Part 2 (Unit 11).
cross reference

Student Introduction
Most academic courses in English-medium colleges and universities use
essays to assess students’ work, both as coursework, for which a deadline
one or two months ahead may be given, and in exams, when an essay
often has to be completed in an hour.
The process of writing essays for coursework assignments can be shown
in a flowchart:
1. The Writing Process
Part 1, The Writing Process, examines each of these stages in turn. If
students are concerned only with preparing for exam writing they could
omit the reading and note-making stages, but if they have sufficient time
they should work through every unit, preferably in the order given, for
each stage builds on the previous one.
Although it is essential to understand the basic writing process, at the
same time it will be useful to be aware of the elements which contribute
to good academic writing. When practising note-making, for example, it is
helpful to be aware of the conventions of referencing, and so students
should use the cross-reference boxes to look at the unit on References and
Quotations in Part 2.
Understand essay title/requirements
Assess reading texts – choose most appropriate
Select relevant areas of texts Keep record for
references
Make notes on relevant areas,
using paraphrasing & summarising skills Combine a variety
of sources where
necessary
Select appropriate structure for essay/plan
Organise & write main body
Organise & write introduction
Organise & write conclusion
Critically read & re-write where necessary
Final proof-reading

Writing Foundations 3
1. Background to Writing
Some of the terms used to describe different types of writing assignments can
be confusing. In addition, students need to be clear about the basic components
of written texts. This unit provides an introduction to these topics.
1. Students may have to produce various types of written work as part of
their courses.
Complete the table to show the main purpose of the following, and
their usual approximate length.
Type Purpose Length
letter for formal and informal usually less than 500
communication words
notes
report
project
essay
thesis/dissertation
article/paper
2. Organisation of texts.
a) Explain the following terms in italic:
Shorter texts, e.g. essays, are normally organised in the form:
Introduction > Main Body > Conclusion
Longer texts, e.g. dissertations and articles, may include (depending on
subject area):
Abstract > Contents > Introduction > Main Body > Case Study >
Discussion > Findings > Conclusion > Acknowledgements >
Bibliography/References > Appendices
Books may also contain:
Dedication > Foreword > Preface > Index
b) Match the definitions below to one of the terms in (2a).
i) Short summary (100–200 words) of the writer’s purpose and
findings (. . . . . . .)
ii) Section where various people who assisted the writer are
thanked (. . . . . . .)
iii) Final part where extra data, too detailed for the main text, are
stored (. . . . . . .)
iv) List of all the books that the writer has consulted (. . . . . . .)
v) Section looking at a particular example relevant to the
main topic (. . . . . . .)
vi) Introductory part of book which may give the writer’s
motives (. . . . . . .)
vii) Alphabetical list of all topics in the text (. . . . . . .)

3. Other text features.
Abbreviations are often used to save space:
Call Centres (CCs) feature prominently in the technology mix.
Italic is used to show titles and words from other languages:
Where once the titles of Armchair Theatre and The Wednesday Play celebrated …
Squatter housing (called gecekondu in Turkish) …
Footnotes are used to indicate references at the bottom of the page:
In respect of Singapore the consensus is that the government has made a difference.3
Endnotes are given to show references at the end of the article or chapter:
The market for masonry construction may be divided into housing and non-housing sectors [1]
Quotation marks are used to draw attention to a phrase, perhaps because
it is being used in an unusual or new way:
The research shows that the ‘pains of imprisonment’ for women are…
4 Part 1: The Writing Process
3.1 Abbreviations
2.9 References and
Quotations
3.15 Punctuation
cross reference
4. All types of writing consist of a number of key elements.
Label the items in the text.
a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE ORIGINS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction
c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . It is generally agreed that the Industrial Revolution began
in Britain during the eighteenth century, with significant
developments in the iron, steel and textile industries. But
it is less clear what caused this sudden increase in
production in key areas; different writers have examined
the availability of capital, the growth of urban
populations and the political and

d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . religious climate. All of these may have played a part, but first
it is necessary to consider the precise nature of what is meant by
‘Industrial Revolution’.
e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industry had existed for thousands of years prior to the
eighteenth century, but before this time society as a whole
remained agricultural. With the arrival of the ironworks and
cotton mills whole towns were dominated by industrial activity.
At the same time, agriculture itself went through significant
changes which produced more food for the growing urban
population.
5. Why are all texts divided into paragraphs? How long are paragraphs?
Read the following text, from the introduction to an essay, and divide
it into a suitable number of paragraphs.
INVESTMENT
Most people want to invest for the future, to cover unexpected financial difficulties and provide
them with security. Different people, however, tend to have different requirements, so that a 25-
year-old just leaving university would be investing for the long-term, whereas a 60-year-old who
had just retired would probably invest for income. Despite these differences, certain principles
apply in most cases. The first issue to consider is risk. In general, the greater the degree of risk
in investment, the higher the return. Shares, for example, which can quickly rise or fall in value,
typically have a higher yield than bonds, which offer good security but pay only about 5%.
Therefore all investors must decide how much risk is appropriate in their particular situation.
Diversification must also be considered in an investment strategy. Wise investors usually seek
to spread their investments across a variety of geographical and business sectors. As accurate
predictions of the future are almost impossible, it is best to have as many options as possible.
A further consideration is investor involvement. Some investors opt for a high degree of
involvement and want to buy and sell regularly, constantly watching the markets. Others want to
invest and then forget about it. Personal involvement can be time-consuming and worrying, and
many prefer to leave the management of their portfolios to professional fund managers.
1.11 Organising Paragraphs
1.12 Organising the Main
Body
cross reference

2. Developing Plans from Titles
Most written work begins with a title, and students must be quite clear what
question the title is asking before starting to plan the essay and read around the
topic. This unit deals with analysing titles and making basic plans.
1. When preparing to write an essay, it is essential to identify the main
requirements of the title. You must be clear about what areas your
teacher wants you to cover. This will then determine the organisation of
the essay. For example:
Academic qualifications are of little practical benefit in the real world – Discuss.
Here the key word is discuss. Discussing involves examining the benefits
and drawbacks of something.
Underline the key words in the following titles and consider what
they are asking you to do.
a) Define Information Technology (IT) and outline its main applications in medicine.
b) Compare and contrast the appeal process in the legal systems of Britain and the USA.
c) Evaluate the effect of mergers in the motor industry in the last ten years.
d) Trace the development of primary education in Britain. Illustrate some of the issues
currently facing this sector.
Note that most of the titles above have two terms in the title. You must
decide how much importance to give to each section of the essay (e.g. title
(a) might demand 10% for the definition and 90% for the outline).
2. The following terms are also commonly used in essay titles.
Match the terms to the definitions on the right.
Analyse Give a clear and simple account
Describe Make a proposal and support it
Examine Deal with a complex subject by giving the main points
State Divide into sections and discuss each critically
Suggest Give a detailed account
Summarise Look at the various parts and their relationships
3. Almost all essays, reports and articles have the same basic pattern of
organisation:
Introduction
Main body
Conclusion
The structure of the main body depends on what the title is asking you to
do. In the case of a discuss type essay, the main body is often divided into
two parts, one looking at the advantages of the topic and the other
looking at the disadvantages.
A plan for the first example might look like this:
1.10 Planning a Text
2.5 Discussion
cross reference

Academic qualifications are of little practical benefit in the real world – Discuss.
Introduction variety of different qualifications
different methods of assessment
Benefits international standards for professions, e.g. doctors
students have chance to study latest theories
qualifications lead to better salaries and promotion
Drawbacks many successful people don’t have qualifications
many qualified people don’t have jobs
Conclusion qualifications are useful but not guarantees of success
4. Write a plan for one of the titles in (1).
title
introduction
main body
conclusion
5. Teachers often complain that students write essays that do not answer
the question set.
Consider the following titles and decide which sections should be
included in each essay.
a) Describe the growth of the European Union since 1975 and suggest its
likely form by 2010.
A short account of European history 1900–2000
An analysis of candidates for membership before 2010
A discussion of the current economic situation in Europe
An outline of the enlargement of the EU between 1975 and now
b) Summarise the arguments in favour of privatisation and evaluate its
record in Britain.
A case study of electricity privatisation
An analysis of less successful privatisations
A study of major privatisations in the UK
A discussion of the benefits achieved by privatisation
c) To what extent is tuberculosis (TB) a disease of poverty?
A definition of TB

A report on the spread of TB worldwide
A case study showing how TB relates to social class
A discussion of new methods of treating the disease
d) Nursery education is better for children than staying at home with
mother – Discuss.
A study of the growth of nurseries since 1995
A report on the development of children who remain at home until
five
A discussion comparing speaking ability in the two groups of
children
An outline of the increase of women in the labour market since 1960
e) Compare studying in a library with using the internet. Will the former
become redundant?
The benefits of using books
The drawbacks of internet sources
Predicted IT developments in the next 15 years
An outline of developments in library services since 1945
6. Underline the key terms in the following titles and decide what you are
being asked to do.
Example:
Relate the development of railways to the rise of nineteenth-century
European nationalism.
Relate means to link one thing to another. The title is asking for links to be
made between the growth of railways in Europe in the nineteenth
century and the political philosophy of nationalism. The writer must
decide if there was a connection or not.
a) Identify the main causes of rural poverty in China.
b) Calculate the likely change in coffee consumption that would result
from a 10% fall in the price of coffee beans.
c) Classify the desert regions of Asia and suggest possible approaches to
halting their spread.

Reading and Note-Making 9
3. Evaluating a Text
Having understood the title and made an outline plan, your next step is probably
to read around the subject. Although you may be given a reading list, it is still
vital to be able to assess the usefulness of journal articles and books. Time spent
learning these skills will be repaid by saving you from using unreliable or irrelevant
materials.
1. When reading a text, it is important to ask yourself questions about the
value of the text. Is this text fact or opinion? If fact, is it true? If opinion,
do I agree? Can this writer be trusted? These questions can be shown in
a diagram:
Start here
2. Read the following sentences and decide first if they are fact or opinion.
Then decide if the factual sentences are true, and if you agree with the
opinions in the other sentences.
Opinion Agree or True or
or fact? disagree? false?
a) The USA has the biggest economy in the world
b) Shakespeare wrote textbooks
c) Shakespeare was a great writer
d) Smoking can be dangerous
e) Too many people (32%) smoke in Britain
f) 95% of criminals cannot read
g) Poor education causes 75% of crime
FACT
TRUSTWORTHY
AND USEFUL
TRUE OR
FALSE? FALSE
TRUE
DISAGREE
AGREE OR
DISAGREE?
?
OPINION
FACT OR
OPINION?
AGREE

3. It can be seen that even short sentences can contain a mixture of fact and
opinion. Most longer texts, of course, consist of both.
Read the following and underline facts ( ____ ) and opinions ( ).
a) Britain has one of the highest crime rates in the world.
b) A robbery takes place every five seconds. A car is stolen every minute. Clearly,
criminals are not afraid of the police.
c) Even if they are caught, few criminals ever appear in court.
d) Most of those who are found guilty are let off with a tiny fine.
e) To restore law and order, we need many more police and much tougher punishments.
4. The previous sentences can be evaluated as follows:
a) Fact, but only partly true. Britain does not have one of the highest
overall crime rates in the world. For some crimes, e.g. car crime, the
rate is high, but other countries, e.g. South Africa and the USA, have
much higher rates of violent crime.
b) These facts may or may not be true, but it is not clear from them that
criminals are unafraid of the police.
c) Fact, but not true. A significant number of those arrested are charged
and later prosecuted.
d) This statement is vague. A fine is not letting off. What is meant by tiny?
e) This is a half-truth. More police would probably help reduce crime, but
it is not clear if stronger punishments would have that result.
From this it can be seen that even if the facts are correct, the opinions that
are expressed may not be reliable. The evaluation above would suggest
that the writer of the original text could not be trusted, and it would be
better to look for another source.
5. Evaluate the following passages in a similar way. First underline
facts and opinion, then decide if the text as a whole is trustworthy.
a) Every year large numbers of students travel abroad to study at university. Most of them
spend thousands of pounds on their degree courses. The cost of travel and
accommodation adds significantly to their expenses. But they could save a lot of
money by studying their courses online, using the internet and email. Increasing
numbers of universities are offering tuition by the internet, and this has many
advantages for students. In the future most students are likely to stay at home and
study in front of a computer.
b) London is an ideal city for young students. Britain’s lively capital, with a population of
two million, is the perfect place to live and study. Cheap, comfortable accommodation
is always available, and transport is provided by the clean and reliable underground
system. Another advantage is the friendly citizens, who are well-known for their custom
of stopping to chat with strangers. Overall, London is probably the best place in the
world to study English.

c) A leading academic has claimed that European unemployment has been made worse
by high rates of home ownership. He argues that the growing trend towards owner-
occupation is the best explanation for the high rates of unemployment in Europe. This,
he argues, is because home owning makes people more reluctant to move if they lose
their job. His research suggests that a strong private rented sector is the key to low
unemployment. For example, Ireland, where only 9% rent their homes, has an
unemployment rate of 8%. At the other extreme, Switzerland has a rental rate of 60%,
but only 3% are unemployed.
d) Global warming affects most people in the world, especially those living in low-lying
areas near the sea. It has been predicted that the melting of polar ice may cause the
sea to rise by as much as twelve metres by 2050. This would cause flooding in many
major coastal cities, such as Tokyo. It has been suggested that the best solution to this
problem may be for mankind to become amphibious, like frogs. It is argued that life
was originally found in the sea, and so it would merely be a return to our original
habitat.
e) There is shocking new evidence of the effects of heavy alcohol consumption by young
people. In Britain in 2000 nearly 800 people under 44 died from cirrhosis of the liver, a
condition which is mainly caused by excess drinking. This is over four times higher
than the number in 1970. As a result, the government is studying the possibility of
compulsory health warnings on alcohol advertising. The growing problem seems to be
due to ‘binge’ drinking among the young, when drinkers deliberately set out to get
drunk.

Having decided that a text is reliable, a student must read and understand as
much as necessary for the needs of the essay. Understanding a text is not just a
matter of vocabulary; the reader needs to find out the writer’s intentions. Is the
writer aiming to inform, persuade, describe or entertain? The answer to this
question may affect the way a student uses the material.
1. Compare the two extracts below:
a) Rebus College is seeking candidates for the position of Treasurer. As the Chief Financial
Officer of the College, the Treasurer is responsible for working with the senior
administration and Trustees to develop and implement a financial strategic vision for the
College.
b) Are you wondering what to do with that jumper you were given for Christmas that’s two
sizes too small – or worse, the personal stereo that simply doesn’t work? Well, don’t
worry. Chances are, you’ll be able to get your dud gifts swapped, fixed or get a refund.
And, armed with our guide to your rights, you’ll be able to get any defective products
sorted.
The first extract is written to inform the reader about a job vacancy and to
give information about the work. The second aims to persuade the reader
to buy the guide described. The language style, or register, of the extracts
is also very different. The first uses very formal vocabulary such as
seeking, position and implement. The second uses an informal tone, the
pronoun you, the question form and informal vocabulary such as dud and
swapped.
2. Read the following extracts and complete the table using one or two of the
following: inform/amuse/persuade/entertain.
Text Purpose
a
b
c
a) The lower you are in the office hierarchy, the more disgusting your sandwiches. You
can safely assume that a chicken and banana man is not a main board director. Some
people, generally those in accounts, have had the same sandwich for the past 30
years. People like to prove how busy they are by eating their sandwich at their desk.
But this is counter-productive, because every time you take a mouthful the phone rings,
and you’ll only get to finish that last mouthful just before you go home.
b) Writing for publication can be both profitable and enjoyable. It’s open to everyone,
because you don’t need any qualifications. In Britain there is a huge demand for new
materials, with thousands of newspapers and magazines published every week. In
addition there are TV and radio programmes, the theatre and films. Given this situation,
there are many openings for new writers. But the director of one of the UK’s main
writing colleges, the Writing Academy, advises: ‘to enter this market successfully you
must have good training’.
4. Understanding Purpose and Register

c) The Advertising Standards Authority makes sure that advertising is legal, decent,
honest and truthful. The Authority safeguards the public by ensuring that the rules
contained in the British Code of Advertising Practice are followed by everyone who
prepares and publishes advertisements in the UK, and that advice is freely available to
prevent problems arising. The Code lays down what is and is not acceptable in
advertisements, except for those on TV and radio.
3. Register.
Compare the tone, or register, of the following:
a) These apparent failures often result from inadequate planning and management,
especially the lack of integration of biophysical and socio-economic information into
the effort. The lack of integration of information is, in fact, a limitation that has been
emphasised by many authors working with agricultural and land use planning in recent
years (see, for instance, Vaughan et al., 1995; and Chidley and Brook, 1997).
b) It was routine – an ordinary minor operation – except for a single extraordinary point.
The patient was on an operating table in Milan. The doctors were in Washington, nearly
6,000 kilometres away. The news that, for the first time, a transatlantic operation had
been carried out with a robot doctor in one continent copying the real-time hand
movements of a live doctor in another, introduces a new medical age.
c) Legislation identifies the minimum space of 11 m3
that should be allocated to each
person and should be adhered to especially if much of the room is taken up with
essential furniture. Equally, the maximum height of a room is now accepted for such
calculations as three metres. For example, in a room 5 m ǂ 4 m ǂ 3 m (high) this
would provide initial space for five persons.
The first extract is an example of academic register, used, for instance, in
dissertations and academic journals. This typically uses cautious language
like apparent and often, as well as academic vocabulary (biophysical, socio-
economic), and will generally include references.
The second passage is journalistic. The first part attempts to interest the
reader by presenting the story in a simple but dramatic way (a single
extraordinary point). The importance of the news item is stressed by the
claim a new medical age. Journalism often uses current idioms like real
time.
The last extract uses a very formal tone, suitable for a semi-legal text.
Verbs such as identifies, adhered to and allocated, the use of passives (be
allocated), and special vocabulary (persons instead of the more normal
people) are typical of this register.
4. Although it can be acceptable to use articles from newspapers,
magazines and the internet, which are often more accessible and up to
date, in academic work students need to be aware that these sources
may have less credibility, and that material written for a wider
readership tends to be less detailed.
Students need to be especially careful of taking journalistic phrases and
using them in formal essays.
2.10 Style
3.6 Formality in Verbs
cross reference

5. Read the following texts and analyse the register in each case, by giving
examples of the language used.
a) Wherever possible complaints should be handled at a local level and without recourse
to unduly formal proceedings. It is therefore essential that all staff who have contact
with students are aware of the relevant procedures and are empowered to resolve
issues as they arise. Staff dealing with complaints are encouraged, whenever practical,
to meet with the complainant. Face-to-face discussions are often very helpful to
establish the precise cause of dissatisfaction, to explore the remedy sought by the
complainant and to foster a mutual understanding of the issues.
b) Studies of childhood imaginary companions have not yielded clear interactions with age
and creativity. It could be suggested that the common assumption of imaginary
companions being mainly a preschool phenomenon may have encouraged studies to
use very young children as participants. In their review of the literature, Pearson and
Mayer (1998) concluded that the experience of imaginary companions peaked in
children aged between 2.5 and 3.5 years.
c) Amazing recent research by David Storey of Warwick University shows that businesses
started by older people last longer than those started by younger entrepreneurs. He
discovered that 70% of firms started by 50–55-year-olds survived for over three years,
but only 30% for those of the 20–25 age group. As the numbers of old folk are
increasing rapidly, such ‘grey entrepreneurs’ are likely to become more common. But
what’s the secret of their remarkable success rate?
Text Register Examples
a
b
c

After selecting and understanding the most relevant texts, the next step is
usually to make notes on the sections of the texts that relate to your topic.
Units 5–8 practise this process, which involves a number of inter-linked skills.
1. The first stage of note-making is to identify the key points in the text for
your purpose.
Study the following example (key points in italic).
WHY WOMEN LIVE LONGER
Despite the overall increase in life expectancy in Britain over the past century, women still live
significantly longer than men. In fact, in 1900 men could expect to live to 49 and women to 52,
a difference of three years, while now the figures are 74 and 79, which shows that the gap has
increased to five years. Various reasons have been suggested for this situation, such as the
possibility that men may die earlier because they take more risks. But a team of British
scientists have recently found a likely answer in the immune system, which protects the body
from diseases. The thymus is the organ which produces the T cells which actually combat
illnesses. Although both sexes suffer from deterioration of the thymus as they age, women
appear to have more T cells in their bodies than men of the same age. It is this, the scientists
believe, that gives women better protection from potentially fatal diseases such as influenza
and pneumonia.
Having selected these sections of the text, you can then go on to make
notes from them:
British women live longer than men: 79/74
reasons? new research suggests immune system > thymus > T cells
women have more T cells than men = better protection
2. Read the following and then choose a suitable title that expresses the key
point.
TITLE: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dean Kamen is a 50-year-old American eccentric who is also a multi-millionaire. He always
wears blue denim shirts and jeans, even when visiting his friend, the president, in the White
House. He flies to work by helicopter, which he also uses for visiting his private island off the
coast of Connecticut. As an undergraduate Kamen developed the first pump that would give
regular doses of medicine to patients. The patent for this and other original medical inventions
has produced a huge income, allowing him to run his own research company which, among
many other projects, has produced the iBot, the world’s first wheelchair which can climb stairs.
3. In the following text, three key points are in italic. Decide on their order of
importance.
HOT RUBBISH
a) The majority of people in the small Derbyshire village of Poolsbrook have joined a
scheme to make power from rubbish. b)Methane gas will be collected from the local
rubbish tip and will be used to heat houses more cheaply and generate electricity. The
villagers, who have been affected by the closure of the local coal mines, suffer from
5. Selecting Key Points
1.6 Note-Making
cross reference

unemployment, so cheap heating is especially important for them. They have raised the £2
million cost from development agencies. c)The new system, which will be the first of its
kind in Europe, will lead to a healthier environment by cutting CO2 emissions, and should
also create three full-time jobs.
1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Underline four key points in the following text.
THE SIXTH WAVE?
Lord May, the president of the Royal Society, has claimed that the world is facing a wave of
extinctions similar to the five mass extinctions of past ages. He calculates that the current rate
of extinction is between 100 and 1,000 times faster than the historical average. The cause of
previous extinctions, such as the one which killed the dinosaurs, is uncertain, but was probably
an external event such as collision with a comet.
However the present situation is caused by human consumption of plants, which has resulted
in a steady increase in agriculture and a consequent reduction in habitat for animals. Although
many people are still hungry, food production has increased by 100% since 1965.
Lord May also pointed out that it was very difficult to make accurate estimates as nobody knew
how many species of animals lived on the planet. So far 1.5 million species had been named,
but the true figure might be as high as 100 million. Our ignorance of this made it almost
impossible to work out the actual rate of extinction. However, the use of intelligent guesses
suggests that losses over the past century were comparable with the extinctions of earlier
periods, evidence of which is found in the fossil record.
5. When preparing to write an essay you may be concerned with only one
aspect of a text, so your key points should relate only to the topic you are
examining.
a) You are preparing to write an essay on ‘Marketing – art or
science?’ Read the text below and underline the sections relevant
to your essay.
BOTTLED WATER UNDER ATTACK
The Water Companies Association (WCA) has claimed that bottled water costs 700 times more
than tap water, but is often of inferior quality. The chief executive of the WCA pointed out that
although bottled water advertising often associated the product with sport and health there was
no truth in this link. The reality, she said, was that the packaging of bottled water was
environmentally damaging, since millions of empty bottles had to be disposed of in rubbish
tips. 2% of samples of bottled water failed a purity test conducted by the Drinking Water
Inspectorate, while only 0.3% of tap water samples failed the same test. Labels on bottled water

often referred to ‘spring’ and ‘natural water’, which were meaningless phrases. In addition,
bottled water was imported from as far as Korea and Kenya, which was a waste of resources.
These criticisms, however, were rejected by the British Soft Drinks Association, which argued
that bottled water was a successful business founded on giving the customers choice, quality
and convenience.
b) You are preparing an essay on ‘The application of DNA research to
the development of vaccines’. Read the text and underline the
relevant sections.
NEW LIGHT ON THE PLAGUE
The plague, which first struck Europe in the sixth century, was one of the great disasters of
history. In the fourteenth century it became the Black Death, when it may have killed one third of
the entire population. The microbe that causes the disease lives on rats, and is passed on to
humans by the bite of a flea. It still survives today, though outbreaks are less deadly: the World
Health Organisation receives reports of 3,000 cases annually. Scientists believe that the microbe
was originally a stomach infection, but evolved into a more lethal disease about 1,500 years ago.
Now the genetic code of the plague bacterium has been ‘read’ by scientists; a total of 465
million ‘letters’ of DNA. They believe that this will help in the development of vaccines for the
plague, one of which has begun clinical trials. In parts of Africa drug-resistant strains of the
disease have evolved, which gives added importance to the work, as does the threat that the
plague might be used as an agent of bacteriological warfare.

Effective note-making is a key writing skill, with a number of practical uses.
Good note-making techniques lead to accurate essays. Although you are the
only person who will read your notes, clarity and organisation are still
important.
1. What are the main reasons for note-making?
Add to the ideas below.
a) to avoid plagiarism
b) …………
c) …………
d) …………
2. Effective note-making is part of a sequence.
What comes before and after?
3. You are writing an essay on ‘Conservation at sea’. You find the following
article in a magazine called Science South, volume 27 (2002). The author is
J. Doyle. Read the text (key points in italic) and make notes.
STUDYING SQUID
Before the British occupation of the Falkland Islands in 1833 most of the sailors who went
there were mainly interested in collecting oil and skins from the whales, seals and penguins
which flourished in the South Atlantic. The British introduced sheep farming, but since this
became less profitable after the 1960s the islanders have been forced to pay more attention
to the contents of the island waters.
These waters are rich in squid, and the sale of fishing licences for this harvest has funded
research to allow the stocks to be managed efficiently. There are two kinds of squid around
the Falklands; Illex is eaten in East Asia, while Loligo is popular in Spain. The latter was found
to breed at two periods in the year; one season is May to July and the other is October and
November. This second period, which is summer in the South Atlantic, coincides with the
local penguin breeding season and makes the baby squid more vulnerable. As a result, the
scientists suggested that the fishing season for Loligo should be postponed for a few
months to allow the stock to recover, and when this was done the fishermen found that they
had a better catch than before.
The other squid, Illex, was found to have a different pattern, swimming south from Brazil to
the Falklands in summer, and then back north again. To deal with a species that migrates
through the waters of several countries it has been necessary to set up an agreement
between the governments concerned to restrict the fishing season in order to allow squid
numbers to build up.
6. Note-Making
NOTE-MAKING

4. A set of notes for your essay might look like this:
Source: Doyle, J. (2002) Science South 27 pp. 24–28.
Falkland Islands – research programme found:
SQUID a) Illex (E. Asia) – N/S migration pattern from Brazil
b) Loligo (Spain) – breeds i) May – July
ii) Oct – Nov
suggested:
a) postpone Loligo fishing (improved catch)
b) restrict Illex fishing by int. agreement
Note the use of headings, listings, abbreviations (‘N/S’) and symbols. You
need to develop your own style for note-making, as you will have to read
them later. Do not abbreviate too much, or you may find the notes
impossible to understand in the future.
5. You have been told to write an essay on ‘Malaria – can it be controlled?’ You
decide to make notes on the following article from a magazine called
Medical Report (Volume 34 1998, pp. 78–86). The author’s name is Irene
Nemecova. Make notes on the whole text in the box below.
MALARIA FIGHTS BACK
Drug-resistant strains of malaria, already one of the world’s major killers, are steadily spreading
across the globe. The deadly strains have established themselves in South East Asia and South
America, and have recently begun to spread across India and Africa. Formerly under control in
many areas, the disease now threatens two billion people living in more than 100 countries.
2.9 References and Quotations
3.1 Abbreviations
cross reference

Estimates suggest that there are now more than 350 million cases of malaria a year – a total four
times the level of the early 1970s. In Africa alone the disease kills one million children each year.
Several factors are responsible for this disturbing development. Spreading world poverty has
deprived nations of funds for sanitation, so that many health projects have been stopped, while
increased movements of migrant workers and tourists have carried infections more rapidly from
one country to another. At the same time, the overuse of drugs, especially antibiotics, has led to
the establishment of resistant strains of diseases.
As well as this, hopes that genetic engineers might soon develop the world’s first malaria
vaccine, a long-sought goal, have been questioned recently by several scientists. ‘There are so
many strains of malaria parasite,’ said one scientist, ‘and each is able to alter its chemical
surface and trick its way past the body’s defences. We’d need a remarkable vaccine to cope
with that. However, a malaria vaccine is now undergoing human trials and may be available for
use if proved successful.’
6. You are preparing to write an essay on ‘The impact of climate on history’.
The text below is taken from page 221 of a book called Volcanic Disasters
by E.B. Pitnam, published in 1993. Underline the relevant points and make
notes.
One of the greatest explosions in modern history occurred in 1815, when an Indonesian
volcano called Mt. Tambora blew up. The eruption involved about 100 cubic kilometres of
material being blown into the sky, with huge loss of life both on land and sea. Large quantities
of volcanic dust were ejected into the atmosphere, and this dust gradually spread around the
world, causing alarming events on the other side of the world.
In New England in north eastern USA farmers were hit by bitterly cold weather in June and
July 1816. Much of the harvest was lost due to repeated waves of frost and snow in the
middle of summer. The same pattern was recorded in Europe, where agriculture was still
suffering the effects of the Napoleonic Wars. In France wheat prices reached their highest
point of the century in 1817.
As European demand for food rose, prices doubled in America. Although some profited from
the shortages, others were driven to emigrate into the unexplored lands to the west. Numbers
leaving Vermont, for example, increased by 100% between 1816–17.

Paraphrasing involves changing a text so that it is quite dissimilar to the source
yet retains all the meaning. This skill is useful in several areas of academic work,
but this unit focuses on using paraphrasing in note-making and summary writing.
Effective paraphrasing is vital in academic writing to avoid the risk of plagiarism.
1. Although paraphrasing techniques are used in summary writing,
paraphrasing does not aim to shorten the length of a text, merely to
restate the text.
For example,
Evidence of a lost civilisation has been found off the coast of China.
could be paraphrased:
Remains of an ancient society have been discovered in the sea near China.
2. A good paraphrase is significantly different from the wording of the
original, without altering the meaning at all.
Read the text below and then decide which is the best paraphrase, (a)
or (b).
Ancient Egypt collapsed in about 2180 BC. Studies conducted of the mud from the River Nile
showed that at this time the mountainous regions which feed the Nile suffered from a prolonged
drought. This would have had a devastating effect on the ability of Egyptian society to feed itself.
a) The sudden ending of Egyptian civilisation over 4,000 years ago was probably caused
by changes in the weather in the region to the south. Without the regular river flooding
there would not have been enough food.
b) Research into deposits of the Egyptian Nile indicate that a long dry period in the
mountains at the river’s source may have led to a lack of water for irrigation around
2180BC, which was when the collapse of Egyptian society began.
3. Techniques.
a) Changing vocabulary:
studies > research
society > civilisation
mud > deposits
b) Changing word class:
Egypt (n.) > Egyptian (adj.)
mountainous regions (adj. + n.) > in the mountains (n.)
c) Changing word order:
Ancient Egypt collapsed > the collapse of Egyptian society began
4. Find synonyms for the words in italic.
a) Sleep scientists have found that traditional remedies for insomnia, such as counting
sheep, are ineffective.
Example:
Sleep researchers have found that established cures for insomnia, for instance counting sheep,
do not work.
7. Paraphrasing
2.11 Synonyms
cross reference

b) Instead, they have found that imagining a pleasant scene is likely to send you to sleep
quickly.
c) The research team divided 50 insomnia sufferers into three groups.
d) One group was told to imagine a waterfall, while another group tried sheep counting.
5. Change the word class of the words in italic, and then re-write the sentences.
a) A third group was given no special instructions about going to sleep.
Example:
A third group was not specially instructed about going to sleep.
b) It was found that the group thinking of waterfalls fell asleep 20 minutes quicker.
c) Mechanical tasks like counting sheep are apparently too boring to make people sleepy.
6. Change the word order of the following sentences.
a) There are many practical applications to research into insomnia.
Example:
Research into insomnia has many practical applications.
b) About one in ten people are thought to suffer from severe insomnia.
c) It is calculated that the cost of insomnia for the American economy may be $35 billion a
year.
7. Combine all these techniques to paraphrase the paragraph as fully as possible.
Sleep scientists have found that traditional remedies for insomnia, such as counting sheep, are
ineffective. Instead, they have found that imagining a pleasant scene is likely to send you to
sleep quickly. The research team divided 50 insomnia sufferers into three groups. One group
imagined watching a waterfall, while another group tried sheep counting. A third group was
given no special instructions about going to sleep. It was found that the group thinking of
waterfalls fell asleep 20 minutes quicker. Mechanical tasks like counting sheep are apparently
too boring to make people sleepy. There are many practical applications for research into
insomnia. About one in ten people are thought to suffer from severe insomnia. It is calculated
that the cost of insomnia for the American economy may be $35 billion a year.
8. Use the same techniques to paraphrase the following text.
Before the last century no humans had visited Antarctica, and even today the vast continent has
a winter population of less than 200 people. However, a recent report from a New Zealand
government agency outlines the scale of the pollution problem in the ice and snow. Although
untouched compared with other regions in the world, the bitter cold of Antarctica means that
the normal process of decay is prevented. As a result some research stations are surrounded
by the rubbish of nearly 60 years’ operations.
Despite popular belief, the polar continent is really a desert, with less precipitation than the
Sahara. In the past, snowfall slowly covered the waste left behind, like beer cans or dead
ponies, but now, possibly due to global warming, the ice is thinning and these are being
exposed. Over 10 years ago the countries using Antarctica agreed a treaty on waste disposal,
under which everything is to be taken home, and this is slowly improving the situation.
However, the scientists do not want everything removed. The remains of very early expeditions
at the beginning of the twentieth century have acquired historical value and will be preserved.

Making summaries is a common activity in everyday life. If a friend asks us about
a book we are reading, we do not tell them about everything in the book. Instead,
we make a summary of the most interesting and important aspects. The same
principle applies to summarising in academic writing.
1. Choose four of the topics below and write summaries in no more than
twelve words each.
Example:
Birmingham is a large industrial city in the English West Midlands.
a) Your home town
b) Bill Gates
c) Your academic subject
d) The last book you read
e) A film you saw recently
f) Your mother/father
Look at the summaries you have written above. What are the features
of a successful summary?
2. Summary writing is an important skill in academic work.
Different kinds of summaries are needed in different situations.
List as many study uses for summary writing as you can think of.
making notes from lectures
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. In essay writing students often have to summarise part of a book or
journal article.
The summary may be just one or two sentences, to explain the main idea
of the article, and perhaps compare it with another summarised text, or it
might be necessary to include much more detail. In other words, a
summary can range from 1–2% of the original to more than 50%:
summarising is a flexible tool.
At first students need to follow a series of steps to summarise successfully.
With practice the number of steps may be reduced, as the process
becomes more automatic.
Complete the list of stages in a successful summary.
a) Read the text carefully and check key vocabulary.
b) Underline or highlight the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) Make notes of these, taking care to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) Write the summary using the notes, re-organising the. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e) Check the summary to make sure no . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . have been
omitted or distorted.
8. Summary Writing

4. Read the following text and compare the summaries. Decide which is best,
giving reasons.
Researchers in France and the United States have recently reported that baboons are able to
think abstractly. It has been known for some time that chimpanzees are capable of abstract
thought, but baboons are a more distant relation to mankind. In the experiment, scientists
trained two baboons to use a personal computer and a joystick. The animals had to match
computer designs which were basically the same but had superficial differences. The baboons
performed better than would be expected by chance. The researchers describe their study in an
article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology.
a) French and American scientists have shown that baboons have the ability to think in an
abstract way. The animals were taught to use a computer, and then had to select similar
patterns, which they did at a rate better than chance.
b) Baboons are a kind of monkey more distant from man than chimpanzees. Although it is
known that chimpanzees are able to think abstractly, until recently it was not clear if
baboons could do the same. But new research has shown that this is so.
c) According to a recent article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology, baboons are
able to think in an abstract way. The article describes how researchers trained two
baboons to use a personal computer and a joystick. The animals did better than would
be expected.
5. Read the following text and underline the key points.
Indian researchers are trying to find out if there is any truth in old sayings which claim to
predict the weather. In Gujarat farmers have the choice of planting either peanuts, which are
more profitable in wet years, or castor, which does better in drier conditions. The difference
depends on the timing of the monsoon rains, which can arrive at any time between the
beginning and the middle of June. Farmers, however, have to decide what seeds to sow in April
or May.
There is a local saying, at least a thousand years old, which claims that the monsoon starts 45
days after the flowering of a common tree, Cassia fistula. Dr Kanani, an agronomist from
Gujarat Agricultural University, has been studying the relationship since 1996, and has found
that the tree does successfully predict the approximate date of the monsoon’s arrival.
6. Complete the following notes of the key points.
a) Indian scientists checking ancient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) Old saying links monsoon to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) Used by farmers to select peanuts (for wet) or . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) Dr Kanani of Gujarat Agricultural University has found that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Selecting Key Points
cross reference

7. Link the notes together to make a complete summary using conjunctions
where necessary. Check the final text for factual accuracy.
Indian scientists are checking …………
8. The original text was about 150 words. The summary above is about 50, so
the original has been reduced by about 65%. However, it might be necessary
to summarise still further. Using the same techniques, summarise the
summary in about 20 words.
3.5 Conjunctions
cross reference

Most essays require the writer to read more than one book or article. The
differences between the ideas of different writers may be the focus of the essay.
This unit examines ways of presenting such contrasting views.
1. Read the example, from a study of women’s experience of prison.
According to Giallombardo (1966), women alleviated the pains of imprisonment by developing
kinship links with other inmates. Similarly Heffernan (1972) found that adaptation to prison was
facilitated by the creation of a pseudo-family. Owen (1998) also notes that the female sub-
culture is based on personal relationships with other women inmates. Others, however, believe
that the subculture in women’s prisons is undergoing a gradual shift that more closely
resembles that of male prisons. Fox (1982) states, for example, that the cooperative caring
prison community that has embodied characterizations of female prisons has evolved into a
more dangerous and competitive climate.
a) How many writers are mentioned?
b) What is the function of the words in italics?
c) What phrase is used to mark the point in the text where there is a shift
from one point of view to another?
2. Below are two sources used for an essay titled ‘Should genetically modified
(GM) foods have a role in future agriculture?’ Read the sources first, then
the essay extract.
SOURCE A
Genetic modification (GM) is the most recent application of biotechnology to food, which can
also be called genetic engineering or genetic manipulation. The phrase ‘Genetically Modified
Organisms’ or GMOs is used frequently in the scientific literature to describe plants and animals
which have had DNA introduced into them by means other than the ‘natural’ process of an egg
and a sperm.
New species have always evolved through natural selection by means of random genetic
variation. Early farmers used this natural variation to selectively breed wild animals, plants and
even micro-organisms such as yogurt cultures and yeasts. They produced domesticated
variants better suited to the needs of humans, long before the scientific basis for the process
was understood. Despite this long history of careful improvement, such procedures are now
labelled ‘interfering with nature’.
SOURCE B
Genetic modification (GM) is in fact far more than a mere development of selective breeding
techniques. Combining genetic material from species that cannot breed naturally is an
interference in areas which may be highly dangerous. The consequences of this kind of
manipulation cannot be foreseen.
It seems undeniable that these processes may lead to major benefits in food production and the
environment. There is no doubt, for example, that some medical advances may have saved
millions of lives. However, this level of technology can contain a strong element of risk.
Our ignorance of the long-term effects of releasing GM plants or even animals into the
environment means that this step should only be taken after very careful consideration.
9. Combining Sources
2.9 References and
Quotations
3.16 Referring Verbs
cross reference

ESSAY EXTRACT
It has been claimed that GM technology is no different from breeding techniques which have
been practised by man for thousands of years. Source A states that this process is similar to
natural selection and remarks: ‘such procedures are now labelled “interfering with nature”’. On
the other hand Source B considers that, although GM technology could bring considerable
benefits in medicine and agriculture, it is quite different to traditional processes of selection. He
believes that crossing the species barrier is a dangerous step and that there is insufficient
knowledge of the long-term results of such developments.
3. The essay writer uses a mixture of direct quotes and summaries of
arguments.
a) Find an example of each.
b) What phrase does the writer use to mark the point where he moves
from dealing with Source A to Source B?
c) List all the phrases used to introduce summaries.
It has been claimed that …………
4. You are preparing to write an essay titled ‘The social effects of tourism in
developing countries’. Read the sources and then complete the paragraph
comparing their views.
SOURCE C
When countries begin to provide facilities for mass tourism, such as hotels and leisure
complexes, there is an immediate demand for labour. Work is created for cleaners, waiters,
gardeners and drivers on a scale which may significantly boost the local economy. Such work
may provide opportunities to learn valuable new skills. For many, these semi-skilled jobs
provide an attractive alternative to subsistence agriculture or fishing, while at the same time the
tax revenues from their earnings increase the national income.

SOURCE D
One inevitable feature of tourism’s growth is the creation of badly-paid, seasonal jobs in holiday
resorts. Much of this work combines insecurity with long hours of work in poor conditions. In
Thailand, for example, there are cases of hotel maids working 15 hour days for less than $4.
Moreover, the combination of wealthy tourists being served by exploited waitresses is likely to
increase social tensions in these areas. Another risk is that natural or human disasters such as
wars and earthquakes may drive visitors away without warning, leaving tens of thousands
unemployed.
SOURCE E
It has been claimed that the development of tourism played a major part in helping to
modernise parts of Franco’s Spain in the 1960s. The presence of easy-going, affluent visitors
apparently encouraged the locals to learn new skills and open new businesses. Despite this
positive interpretation, many examples could be presented where the arrival of rich and idle
tourists has been an encouragement for crime, prostitution and other less desirable aspects of
the modern economy. Much seems to depend on the economic alternatives offered by the
society, and of course the scale of tourist arrivals.
It has been argued that tourism can have a very positive social
influence on a developing country.

Outline planning was examined in Unit 2. Planning gives essays a coherent
structure and, most importantly, helps to ensure that they answer the question
set. Although all essays need planning, they are written in two different
situations: as coursework, and in exams. Clearly, under the time pressure of an
exam, planning is more hurried, but also more critical. This unit looks at planning
first in exams and then for coursework.
1. In the case of essays written in exams, it is best to begin planning by
analysing the title and then writing down any ideas that seem relevant.
This process is called brainstorming, and at first ideas are collected in any
order.
Read the title below and add more ideas to the list.
Tourism is the world’s most important industry. Why is this, and will it continue to be so?
development of jet aircraft
mass tourism began in the 1960s
increased leisure time in rich countries
problems of overcrowding, pollution
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Having assembled your ideas, it is then necessary to find a suitable
framework for the essay.
A structure may be suggested by the title of the essay. There are a number
of common structures used in essay writing.
Which would be most suitable for the title above?
a) Time – usually from the past to the present or the future, as in a story.
b) Comparison – two or more topics are examined and compared, one
after another.
c) For and against – the advantages and disadvantages of two systems
are discussed.
3. Complete the plan for the title in (1) using ideas from (1).
a) Introduction: historical background/current problems, e.g.
overcrowding
b) Main body:
i) mass tourism began in 1960s with development of jet aircraft
ii)
iii)
iv)
c) Conclusion:
Writing stages 29
10. Planning a Text
1.2 Developing Plans from
Titles
cross reference
Body
2.5 Discussion
cross reference

4. Decide which of the three frameworks in (2) would be most suitable for the
following titles.
a) Prisons make criminals worse, and should be abolished – Discuss.
b) In the UK, radio is gaining audience while TV is losing viewers. Consider possible
reasons.
c) Trace the development of mass production and evaluate its main benefits.
d) ‘Examinations can never be fair.’ To what extent is this true?
e) The internet will make books redundant in twenty years – Discuss.
5. Study the title below and the ideas collected for the essay. Add to the list if
possible. Then choose a suitable framework and complete the plan below.
Compare the effects of advertising on TV with advertising in newspapers. What are the main
differences? Are there any similarities?
TV adverts more lively, dynamic
newspaper adverts can be targeted at a special market, e.g. local
TV advertising very expensive (to make and show)
many people video TV and fast-forward adverts
newspaper adverts can be prepared more quickly
TV adverts can reach a wider audience
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a) Introduction: role of newspapers and TV in society today
b) Main body:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
c) Conclusion:
6. Choose one of the titles below and note at least six ideas that might be used
in the essay. Then select a suitable framework and write a plan.
a) In twenty years’ time most learning will be online. The internet will
replace the classroom.
b) Describe the education system in your country and suggest how it
could be improved.
2.3 Comparisons
cross reference

7. In the case of longer essays, written as coursework, planning will
normally be a two-stage process:
a) before reading: using the title to develop an outline structure
b) after reading: modifying the outline and adding detail
Study the plan below. Suggest how it could be modified/improved.
Title: Analyse the role of the private sector in the modern English education system.
a) 550,000 children at private schools in England & Wales
b) Negative effects on state system – better pupils removed
c) 7% of all pupils in England & Wales attend private schools
d) Reasons for using private sector, e.g. smaller classes, better results in exams
e) 20% of university intake from private schools
f) Positive effects on state system – fewer pupils to teach/provides competition
Writing Stages 31
Ideas
Plan

Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of texts. Well-organised paragraphs not
only help readers understand the argument; they also help writers to structure
their ideas effectively.
1. Read the following paragraph.
The way we use banks is currently changing. This is partly because of the introduction of
new technology in the last ten years. The personal computer and the internet, for instance,
allow customers to view their accounts at home and perform operations such as moving
money between accounts. At the same time banks are being reorganised in ways that affect
both customers and staff. In the past five years over 3,000 bank branches have closed in
Britain. The banks have discovered that staffing call centres is cheaper than running a branch
network.
The structure of the paragraph is:
1. topic sentence The way we use banks …
2. reason This is partly because …
3. example The personal computer …
4. details At the same time banks …
5. further details In the past five …
6. reason The banks have discovered …
2. A paragraph is a collection of sentences that deal with one subject.
All paragraphs contain a topic sentence, which is often, but not always,
the first. Other components vary according to the nature of the topic.
Introductory paragraphs often contain definitions, and descriptive
paragraphs include a lot of detail. Other sentences give examples and
offer reasons and restatements.
3. Read and analyse the following paragraph.
In recent years all British universities have adopted the semester system. A semester is a period
of time which lasts for half the academic year. Semester 1, for example, starts in September
and finishes in January. Previously the academic year had been divided into three terms:
autumn, winter and spring. Most courses consist of modules that last for one semester, and
exams are held at the end of each. Britain began using semesters to make it easier for
international students to move from one country to another.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
11. Organising Paragraphs
2.4 Definitions
2.6 Examples
cross reference

4. The sentences below make up a paragraph, but have been mixed up. Use the
table to re-write the sentences in the correct order.
a) For many centuries it has been the centre of the country’s economic, cultural and social
life.
b) 500 years ago it had become a major river port for ships trading with Europe.
c) Its dominance is due to its strategic site near the lowest crossing point of the River
Thames.
d) London has been the English capital for over 1000 years.
1. topic
2. restatement
3. reason
4. detail
5. The sentences below form a paragraph, but they have been mixed up.
Rewrite them in the box overleaf in the correct order and analyse the
paragraph structure.
a) This was because of problems with the roof design.
b) Mark Roberts will watch a display of jazz dance and disco.
c) The opening has been delayed by almost three months.
d) The new Leisure Centre will be opened on May 15th by the Sports Minister.
e) The architects are currently being sued for £2 m. by the local council.
Writing Stages 33
2.2 Cohesion
cross reference

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. You are writing an essay on ‘Prisons make criminals worse, and should be
abolished’. Using the notes below, complete the introductory paragraph,
following the structure provided.
Introduction
Modern prison system developed in 19th century
Prisons intended to isolate, punish and reform
Steep rise in number of prisoners in last 20 years
Critics claim they are ‘university of crime’
Essay aims to consider how effective prisons are
1. detail The modern prison system
2. reason The system had three basic aims:
3. detail In the last 20 years
4. detail Prisons are commonly criticised
5. topic This essay attempts to evaluate
1.13 Introductions
cross reference

7. Using the second set of notes, write the next paragraph of the essay.
Advantages
prisons offer society three apparent benefits
provide punishment by deprivation of freedom
offenders are segregated so cannot re-offend
possibility of reform through training programmes
1. topic
2. detail
3. detail
4. detail
8. Using the next set of notes, write the third paragraph.
Drawbacks
Prisons appear to be failing in 21st century
Prison population steadily rising in many countries
Many prisoners are ‘repeat offenders’
Few prisons able to offer effective reform programmes
Prison conditions often brutal and degrading
1. topic
2.
3.
4.
5.
Writing Stages 35
2.5 Discussion
cross reference

This and the next two units deal with the organisation of the main body, the
introduction and the conclusion. In the case of longer assignments it is often
better to write the main body before the introduction. With shorter essays, for
example in exams, this is impractical, and the introduction has to be written
first.
1. The structure of the main body depends on the length of the essay and
the subject of study.
Longer essays may include the following sections:
Experimental set-up – a technical description of the organisation of an
experiment
Methods – how the research was carried out
Findings/results – what was discovered by the research/experiment
Case study – a description of an example of the topic being researched
Discussion – an examination of the issues and the writer’s verdict
2. The sections below comprise the main body of an essay titled ‘Studying
abroad: an analysis of costs and benefits’. Decide on the heading of each
section and the best order for them.
a) Comparisons of the advantages and disadvantages that students mentioned about
study abroad and an attempt to decide if most students benefited from the
experience.
b) Detailed description of the survey carried out by the researcher.
c) An extensive study of two students (from different cultures) studying in Britain who
were interviewed by the researcher.
d) A report of what the survey found, with statistical analysis.
3. Shorter essays (in exams, for example) tend to have simpler structures:
Description/development A B C D
For and against X Y or X Y
X1 Y1 X1 Y1
X2 Y2 X2 Y2
Comparison/evaluation J K L
J1 K1 L1
J2 K2 L2
Match the examples of plans for main bodies below to the structures
above.
a) Prisons make criminals worse, and should be abolished – Discuss.
i) benefit of prisons – deterrence
ii) benefit of prisons – removes dangerous people from society
12. Organising the Main Body
1.10 Planning a Text
cross reference

iii) drawback of prisons – prisoners lose contact with non-criminal society
iv) drawback of prisons – prisoners become bitter and learn criminal techniques
b) In the UK, radio is gaining audience while TV is losing viewers. Consider possible reasons.
i) radio can be listened to in many situations
ii) radio offers a wide variety of programme types
iii) radio does not demand full attention, e.g. background music
iv) TV lacks flexibility, needs full attention
v) economic factors: TV more expensive to buy/programmes more expensive to make
vi) high production costs may result in poor quality of programmes
4. Inside the main body, ideas need to be presented in the most logical
fashion, linked together to form a coherent argument.
Re-organise the notes below to achieve the best structure.
a) Trace the development of the factory system and evaluate its social impact.
workers forced to adopt a regular timetable to maintain production
first factories employed unskilled workers; often women and children
early employers enforced strict codes of discipline
factories originally sited to make use of water power (in 18th C.)
later some employers offered social benefits, e.g. housing/education
in nineteenth century factories built near canals/railways for access to markets
b) Lowering the minimum school leaving age to 14 would allow teachers to focus on
teaching the students who wanted to be in school – Discuss.
if they left at 14, students would be unlikely to find proper jobs
some students more suited to work that doesn’t require qualifications
problem students waste everybody’s time, including their own
effort should be made in primary schools to prevent pupils falling behind
many older students have lost interest in learning and disrupt classes
in future, almost all jobs will demand academic skills
5. It is useful to mark the beginning of new paragraphs or the introduction
of new subjects with special phrases.
To introduce a new paragraph/topic:
The main/chief factor/issue is ...
Turning to the subject of …
Moving on to the question of …
Another important area is ...
………… must also be examined
To add information inside a paragraph:
a) Firstly, ... The first point ... In the first place ...
b) Secondly, ... Next, .... Then, ... In addition …
Moreover …
c) Finally, ... Lastly,...
Writing Stages 37
3.5 Conjunctions
cross reference

6. Complete with suitable phrases the following extract from an essay on
‘British weather’.
The British are famous all over the world for their obsession with the weather, but in fact
the reality is more complex than people often believe. This essay sets out to examine
some of the principal influences on the weather of the British Isles.
............................................................................ is the geographical position of
Britain, situated on the extreme western edge of the European continent. This means
that a variety of weather types can dominate the country. ................................... the
Atlantic Ocean can produce warm wet winds, especially in winter. ..............................
the land mass of Europe can create anticyclonic weather, hot in summer and cold in
winter. .................. the polar region to the north can generate cold winds at most
seasons of the year.
...................................................................... variations within Britain, there are
significant differences between regions. ............................... the south of England can
be much warmer than the north of Scotland, especially in winter. ........................ the
west of Britain is usually much wetter than the east. ........................... even in the
same district, hilly areas will be cooler and wetter than the lowlands.
............................................ is seasonal change, which in Britain is less distinct than in
many countries. ....................... the Atlantic moderates extreme types of weather, and
....................... the weather pattern can change radically from year to year. As a result
warm days in winter and chilly summer winds frequently surprise visitors to this
country.

An introduction is crucial, not just for what it says about the topic, but for what
it tells the reader about the writer’s style and approach. Unless you can
introduce the subject clearly the reader may not wish to continue.
1. What is the purpose of the introduction to an essay?
Choose from the items below:
a) to define some of the terms in the title
b) to give your opinion of the subject
c) to show that you have read some research on the subject
d) to show that the subject is worth writing about
e) to explain which areas of the subject you will deal with
f) to get the reader’s attention with a provocative idea
g) to show how you intend to organise your essay
2. It may be necessary to clarify some of the words in the title.
This is to make it clear that you understand the title.
Discuss the impact of privatisation on the British economy.
Privatisation is the process of transferring certain industries from state control to the private
sector, which began in Britain in 1981 with British Telecom …
3. In longer assignments it is important to show that you are familiar with
current research.
This can be demonstrated using phrases such as:
A number of researchers have examined this issue, notably ...
Various investigations have explored the subject, especially ...
4. You must show the importance of the topic.
This can be either in the academic world or as a contemporary issue of
wider relevance.
As privatisation is increasingly seen as a remedy for economic ills in many other countries, it is
worth examining its impact in Britain, which was a pioneer in this process.
5. As you are writing only an essay, not a book, it is obviously not possible
to deal with all aspects of your subject.
Therefore you need to explain what limits you are setting on the
discussion, and possibly give reasons for this.
Only privatisations completed between 1981 and 1992 will be dealt with, as it is too soon to
assess the impact of later developments.
6. For your own benefit, as well as the reader’s, it is useful to outline how
the essay will be organised.
An assessment will first be made of the performance of the privatised industries themselves, on
an individual basis, and then the performance of the economy as a whole will be examined.
Writing Stages 39
13. Introductions
2.4 Definitions
cross reference

7. Study the following extracts from introductions below and decide which of
the functions in the box they fulfil.
i) explain starting point for research
ii) state aims/goals
iii) refer to recent research in same area
iv) give results of research
v) provide background information
vi) concede limitations
a) In many companies, the knowledge of most employees remains untapped for solving
problems and generating new ideas.
b) This paper positions Call Centres at the core of the mix of technologies public
administration can use to innovate e-commerce.
c) In fact, this is one of our main findings based on an extended sample period up to
1998.
d) Admittedly, the tenor of my argument is tentative and exploratory.
e) The purpose of this paper is to investigate changes in the incidence of extreme warm
and cold temperatures over the globe since 1870.
f) To what extent do increases in the food available per person at a national level
contribute to reductions in child malnutrition? This question has generated a wide range
of responses (Haddad et al., 1997).
8. There is no such thing as a standard introduction, and much depends on
the nature of the research and the length of the essay.
However, for a relatively short essay written under exam conditions the
following are worth including, in this order.
a) Definitions of any terms in the title that are unclear
b) Some background information
c) Reference to other writers who have discussed this topic
d) Your purpose in writing and the importance of the subject
e) The points you are going to make/areas you are going to cover
9. Prepare to write an introduction to an essay with the title ‘Higher
education should be available to everyone – Discuss’ by answering the
questions below.
a) Which terms in the title might need defining?
b) What background information could you give?
c) How can you show the relevance of this topic, in either Britain or
another country?
d) How are you going to limit your discussion, geographically, historically
or both?
e) How will you organise the main body of the essay?
2.5 Discussion
cross reference

As this is a short essay, it is not necessary to mention sources in the
introduction.
10. Write the introduction (about 100 words), using your answers from (9)
and the notes provided below.
definition higher education (HE) = university education
background increasing demand for HE worldwide puts pressure on national
budgets > many states seek to shift costs to students
relevance in most countries degree = key to better jobs & opportunities
discussion points if sts. have to pay more of cost, discriminates against poorer families;
how to keep HE open to able students from all backgrounds?
11. Write an introduction to an essay on one of the following subjects, or
choose a subject from your own discipline.
a) Compare the urbanisation process in the First and the Third Worlds.
b) Assess the importance of public transport in the modern city.
c) ‘Lawyers are inflating the cost of medicine’ – Discuss.
d) To what extent is a democratic system necessary for economic development?
Writing Stages 41

There is usually a link between the starting point, i.e. the title, and the
conclusion. If the title is asking a question, the conclusion should contain the
answer. The reader may look at the conclusion first to get a quick idea of the
main arguments or points.
1. Not every academic essay has a conclusion.
In some cases it may be linked to the discussion section, or it may be
called concluding remarks, or summary. However, in most cases it is helpful
for the reader to have a section that (quite briefly) looks back at what has
been said and makes some comments about the main part.
Read the following extracts from conclusions and match them with
the list of functions in the box.
a) In this review, attempts have been made to summarise and assess the
current research trends of transgenic rice dealing exclusively with
agronomically important genes.
b) As always, this investigation has a number of limitations to be
considered in evaluating its findings.
c) Obviously, business expatriates could benefit from being informed that
problem-focused coping strategies are more effective than symptom-
focused ones.
d) Another line of research worth pursuing further is to study the
importance of language for expatriate assignments.
e) Our review of 13 studies of strikes in public transport demonstrates
that the effect of a strike on public transport ridership varies and may
either be temporary or permanent.
f) These results of the Colombia study reported here are consistent with
other similar studies conducted in other countries (Baron & Norman,
1992).
g) To be more precise, there was a positive relation between tolerant and
patient problem solving and all four measures of adjustment: general,
interaction, work and subjective well-being.
h) To empirically test this conjecture, we need more cross-national
replication of this research.
i) comparisons with other studies
ii) summary of main body
iii) limitations of research
iv) suggestions for further research
v) practical implications and proposals
14. Conclusions

2. Compare the following conclusions to two essays on ‘Public transport in a
modern economy’. Complete the table to show the main differences between
them.
a) As has been shown, public transport is likely to play an important role in the future.
Despite possible changes in patterns of work and leisure, it seems possible that mass
transport systems will remain necessary for the efficient movement of people. What is
not clear is how such transport systems should be funded. Various schemes have been
discussed, but the most effective model will probably contain some element of public
funding. Market forces alone are unlikely to provide a satisfactory solution.
b) In such a brief study it is hard to draw definite conclusions about the future shape of
public transport. The main areas of debate have been outlined, but much more research
is needed before firm recommendations can be made. It can be seen that this is a
controversial area, with strong protagonists on either side. Whether public transport
flourishes or deteriorates in future is still unclear, though further studies may eventually
suggest an answer.
a
b
3. The following may be found in conclusions. Decide on the most suitable
order for them (A–E).
Implications of the findings
Proposals for further research
Limitations of the research
Reference to how these findings compare with other studies
Summary of main findings
4. Below are notes for the main body of an essay. Read the notes and complete
the conclusion, using your own ideas if necessary.
Cultural adaptation among overseas students at a British university.
a) The research programme
purpose: to study how students from different cultural backgrounds adapt to academic
life in the UK
Writing Stages 43

size and method: 250 questionnaires returned (30% Chinese, 25% SE Asian, 20%
Middle Eastern, 25% other)
b) Findings – culture was only one factor in determining successful adaptation.
Other important factors: age/previous experience of living abroad/language proficiency
c) Discussion – how accurate was research? How could it have been improved? What
can be done to help students adapt better?
summary The aim of the study was to explore differing degrees of adjustment to
life at a British university among overseas students from a variety of
cultural backgrounds. 250 valid questionnaires were completed,
representing about a third of the overseas student population, with
significant numbers of Chinese, SE Asian and Middle Eastern students.
The results suggest …………
implications
limitations
proposals for
further research
5. Study the notes for the essay below and write a conclusion in about 100 words.
A comparison of classroom learning with internet-based teaching.
a) Reasons for increasing use of online education:
cheaper if large numbers involved
allows students to study in their own time
students do not have to travel to university
b) Reasons why classroom-based education remains popular:
students can be part of group; receive support and advice; learn from colleagues
students have face-to-face contact with a teacher
is seen as traditional and effective
c) Discussion
can a solitary student in front of a computer enjoy the same learning experience as
a member of a class?
pressure of numbers in universities makes more online education likely
is internet learning really a new method of education? Distance learning has been
popular for many years (e.g. Open University)
4.4 Comparison Essay
cross reference

When you have finished the conclusion it may be tempting to hand in your work
immediately. However, it is almost certain that it can be improved by being
revised. With longer assignments, it may be worth asking a classmate to give an
opinion.
1. After finishing the first draft of an essay you should, if you have time,
wait for a while and then re-read the essay, asking the following
questions.
a) How well does this answer the question in the title?
b) Have I forgotten any points that would strengthen the development?
c) Is it clearly structured and well linked together?
2. Read this short essay written by a Japanese student to the title ‘Compare
the university system in your country with the British system’. Answer the
questions above by making notes below.
It is said that there are large differences in the teaching methods between British universities
and Japanese ones. Courses in British universities consist mainly of lectures, discussions,
presentations and tutorials and students study specifically their major subject. On the other
hand, Japanese universities normally have only lectures in the first two years and students
have to study a wide range of subjects in addition to their major. The aim of this essay is to
compare and analyse each system.
In British universities, students need a more active attitude in their study than Japanese
students. They need to prepare for presentations and discussions. This is useful for learning
because they take much time for study outside the classroom and as they become familiar with
their subjects they will become more interested in them.
In Japan, students’ attitude is amazingly passive and they study only just before exams.
The other difference between British universities and Japanese ones is, as mentioned above,
British students concentrate on their major subject and gain specific knowledge about it.
Japanese students, however, gain wider knowledge by studying a few other subjects in addition
to their major. This system gives students apparently much knowledge but they cannot study
their major deeply and their knowledge is wide-ranging but not useful.
In conclusion, British teaching methods give students more chance to know the subject
thoroughly compared to Japanese teaching methods, but Japanese methods are suitable for
students who are eager to gain a wide range of knowledge and like to study on their own. It is
hard to say which is better, it depends on students.
a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Writing Stages 45
15. Re-reading and Re-writing
2.3 Comparisons
cross reference

3. A careful re-reading of the essay would suggest the following points.
a) The essay only partly answers the title. It looks at university life from a
student’s position, but does not really deal with the system as a whole.
The last line of the conclusion discusses a question not asked in the
title.
b) To deal with the subject more fully the writer needs to examine topics
such as length of courses, funding of students, and admission
procedures. If there is not space to discuss these in detail they must be
at least mentioned, to show that the writer is aware that they are
central to the subject.
c) The introduction needs to be more general. It goes straight to a
comparison of teaching methods. This could be in the main body.
Otherwise the essay is well organised and quite logical.
4. Use the notes below to re-write the introductory paragraph.
university education important in both UK & Japan (over 30% 18-year-olds)
main points for comparison:
a) admissions
b) length of courses: 1st and higher degrees
c) teaching methods
d) assessment
e) financial support
essay will examine each point and analyse differences between countries
1.13 Introductions
cross reference

In both Britain and Japan, university education is undertaken by a
significant number (about 30%) of all young people after leaving school.
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Read this extract from the main body of an essay on ‘Education is the most
important factor in national development – Discuss’. Study the notes below
and then re-write the extract.
The need for education is crucial in any field. a) It is something that no one can deny. b) The
development in technology has provided us with many devices and machines that facilitate our
lives. Nowadays, factories produce more in less time and that helps the economies of
countries. The different scientific discoveries have improved the quality of life as well. The
development in the medical field is an example; vaccines and antibiotics have saved many
lives. Take Japan, a country with few natural riches, where most of the land is mountains, but it
is now one of the strongest countries economically. c) The natural poverty of Japan has, in fact,
been overcome by education and it has become one of the most important countries in a short
period of time.
a) This sentence repeats the idea in the first, but doesn’t add anything
new.
b) Not clear how this section relates to the subject. No clear link is
established between education and technology.
c) The case for linking Japanese development and education is not
established – the claim is too strong. Other factors need to be
considered.
Writing Stages 47
4.5 Discursive Essay
cross reference

The vital final part of the writing process, proof-reading can prevent confusion
and misunderstanding of your work. Although most word-processing programmes
check your spelling, they will not detect other common types of mistakes.
1. Before handing in any piece of written work for marking, it is important
to check it carefully for errors that may distort your meaning or even
make your work difficult to understand.
The following examples each contain one common type of error.
Underline the error and match it to the list of error types in the box.
i) factual; ii) word ending; iii) punctuation; iv) tense;
v) vocabulary; vi) spelling; vii) singular/plural; viii) style;
ix) missing word; x) unnecessary word
a) The natural poorness of Japan has been overcome …
b) In 1980 in the United States there are 140,000 people who …
c) Actually, hardly any of these has succeeded …
d) … to choose the most suitable area in which they can success.
e) Chinese history reflects in real social and cultural changes.
f) The highest rate of imprisonment was regestred in the USA …
g) Malaria is on the increase in countries such as Africa …
h) I am very interested in German economy …
i) … the french system is quite different.
j) You don’t always know which method is best.
2. When proof-reading, it is a good idea to exchange texts with another
student, since you may become over-familiar with your own work.
However, even in exam conditions, when this is not possible, it is vital to
spend a few minutes checking through your work, for this may reveal
careless errors that can be quickly corrected.
Underline and correct the errors in the extracts below (one or two in
each).
a) The graph shows changes in the number of prisoners over five years (1930–1980).
b) … the way the government prepares his citizens to contribute in the development ...
c) Secondly, education not only teach people many knowledge …
d) However, weather it is the most important factor is the issue …
e) There has been a sharp decrease between 1930 and 1950.
f) The quality of a society depends in the education level.
g) America had the biggest figure for crime.
3. Proof-reading a longer text is more difficult.
The following was written by a student who was asked to describe his
background and future plans.
16. Proof-Reading
2.10 Style
3.9 Nouns and Adjectives
3.15 Punctuation
3.18 Singular/Plural
3.19 Tenses
cross reference

Underline the errors and then write in suitable corrections.
NB. As the subject is personal, a relatively informal style is
acceptable here.
I come from China, which is a very traditional country. I think before give
my own situation and plan, I have to say something about my country,
because her cultures effect me very much. My country has 5,000 years
history, so in my brain there are a lot of thing which is from it.
When I first arrived UK I studied in Cambridge, which is the best
university all over the world. Although I just studied in a language school
in Cambridge, I felt so good. I learned a lot not only from the school but
also from the Cambridge society. That is why I choose Cambridge to learn
my foundation course. The foundation course just for oversea studies to
improve their English.
I would like to study buiness, because when China join in WTO, my
country will need a lot of people who know business very well. So I will
choose business foundation course, computer and mathematics, because
computer is very useful in modern society. In the future course I think the
big problem is vocabulary, so I am planning to remember as many as I
can. I will spend more time on mathematics, because I never learn it
before.
Another problem is to finish the homework in time. Sometimes I think the
homework is no useful for me, so I just leave it, which is a bad customer.
The last and the big is homesick, which always slow down my progress,
but studying broad is my own choice, I have to try my best.
Writing Stages 49

The Elements of Writing are the various skills that are needed for most
types of academic writing, whether a short report, a longer essay or a
dissertation. Many essays, for example, begin by defining a term in the
title (Unit 4), then make some generalisations about the subject (Unit 7),
before going on to provide examples of the main areas the writer wishes
to examine (Unit 6). Throughout the essay the writer needs to provide
references to sources used (Unit 9) and to employ an appropriate
academic style (Unit 10). Most academic subjects also require discussion of
numbers (Unit 8), and graphs and charts (Unit 12). The model essays in
Part 4 provide examples of how these various elements are employed in
one text (Part 4 Unit 4).
In the case of Units 3 and 5 (Comparisons and Discussion), students should
note that the comparison or discussion might apply to the overall pattern
of the essay or to just one section. It is common, for instance, for longer
essays to have a discussion section before the conclusion. In either case
similar structures can be used.
There is no fixed order for working on the units in Elements of Writing.
They are organised alphabetically for easy access, but most students will
have their own priorities. Business students, for example, might choose to
begin by working on Visual Information (Unit 12).
2. Elements of Writing

1. The relationship between two situations can be shown in a variety of
ways:
CAUSE: heavy rain EFFECT: flooding
Heavy rain causes flooding.
Heavy rain leads to flooding.
Heavy rain results in flooding.
Heavy rain produces flooding.
EFFECT: flooding CAUSE: heavy rain
Flooding is caused by heavy rain (note use of passive).
Flooding is produced by heavy rain.
Flooding results from heavy rain.
2. It is also possible to use conjunctions that demonstrate cause and effect.
Cause Effect
because (of) so
since therefore
as consequently
owing to which is why
due to
Because it rained heavily, the flooding was severe. (because + verb)
The flooding occurred because of days of heavy rain. (because + noun)
Owing to the heavy rain the flooding was severe.
It rained heavily for days, therefore the flooding was severe. (used in mid-
sentence)
NB It is more common to use conjunctions to illustrate particular situations.
3. Complete the following sentences with a suitable verb or conjunction.
a) Childhood vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reduced infant mortality.
b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the cold winter hospital admissions increased.
c) Printing money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . higher inflation.
d) The summer was extremely dry, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . many trees died.
e) Increased ownership of video recorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . falling cinema attendance.
Write three more sentences from your own subject area.
f)
g)
h)
Cause and Effect 53
1. Cause and Effect
3.11 Passives
cross reference
3.5 Conjunctions
cross reference

4. Use conjunctions to complete the following paragraph.
WHY WOMEN LIVE LONGER
Some British scientists now believe that women live longer than men a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T cells, a vital part of the immune system that protects the body from diseases. Previously,
various theories have attempted to explain longer female life expectancy. Biologists claimed that
women lived longer b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . they need to bring up children. Others argued that
men take more risks, c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . they die earlier. But a team from Imperial College
think that the difference may be d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . women having better immune systems.
Having studied a group of men and women they found that the body produces fewer T cells as
it gets older, e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the ageing process. However, they admit that this may not be
the only factor, and f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . another research project may be conducted.
5. Study the flowchart and complete the paragraph that describes it.
If a country is suffering from economic recession, the government can
reduce taxation.
6. Draw a flowchart similar to the one above, for your own subject, and write
a paragraph to describe it.
54 Part 2: Elements of Writing
government
lowers taxes
people have more
money to spend
higher spending
on goods and
services
government has
higher income,
spending less on
social security
lower
unemployment
increased
demand for goods
and services

1. Cohesion means linking phrases together so that the whole text is clear
and readable.
It is achieved by several methods, such as the use of conjunctions.
Another is the linking of phrases and sentences with words like he, they
and that which refer back to something mentioned before:
Jane Austen wrote six major novels in her short life. They deal with
domestic drama in middle-class families.
Examples of reference words and phrases
pronouns he/she/it/they
possessive pronouns his/her/hers/their/theirs
objective pronouns her/him/them
demonstrative pronouns this/that/these/those
other phrases the former/the latter/the first/the second
2. Read the following paragraph and complete the table.
Jenkins (1987) has researched the life cycle of new businesses. He found that they have an
average life of only 4.7 years. This is due to two main reasons; one economic and one social.
The former appears to be a lack of capital, the latter a failure to carry out sufficient market
research. Jenkins considers that together these account for approximately 70% of business
failures.
Reference Reference word/phrase
Jenkins he
new businesses
average life of only 4.7 years
one economic
one social
the former…, the latter…
3. Read the paragraph and complete the table below to show what the
reference words (in italic) refer to.
There is little prospect of improvement in the standard of living of the villagers from their
present low level without the support of electricity. Presently, the households can enjoy only a
limited number of hours of illumination based on kerosene or diesel. These are not cheap and
so are not affordable by a large majority of the rural masses. This restricts the range as well as
the intensity of their activities severely. But even if supply of power from these sources is
available more abundantly, there is the problem of adverse environmental effects of such use.
Cohesion 55
2. Cohesion
3.5 Conjunctions
cross reference

Reference Reference word
their
these
this
their
these sources
such use
4. In the following paragraph, insert suitable reference words from the box
below in the gaps.
Disposable razor blades were invented by Gillette at the beginning of the twentieth century.
a) . . . . . . . were a simple idea but at first b) . . . . . . . found it very hard to sell c) . . . . . . . . .
d) . . . . . . . was because nobody had marketed a throw-away product before. However, e) . . . . . . .
use of advertising to stimulate demand gradually increased sales and before long
f) . . . . . . . became a millionaire.
he/he/his/them/this/they
5. Complete these paragraphs with suitable reference words from the table in (1).
A) The Victoria and Albert Museum is in South Kensington in London. a) . . . . . . . is named after
Queen Victoria and b) . . . . . . . husband, Prince Albert. c) . . . . . . . was made Queen in 1837, and
married d) . . . . . . . three years later. e) . . . . . . . had a happy marriage which produced nine
children. f) . . . . . . . life together was quite simple, although g) . . . . . . . was the queen of the world’s
most powerful nation. Albert had a serious character, and perhaps h) . . . . . . . major achievement
was to organise the Great Exhibition of 1851, the profits from which helped to build the
Museum.
B) One group of commentators have little faith in the ability of food availability to improve child
nutrition. a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . arguments are supported by the fact that over two-thirds of
malnourished children live in countries with food supplies adequate for
b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . population’s needs. c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . point to problems of poverty and to non-
food factors, such as children’s health and the quality of d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . care.
e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . belief is that both, but especially f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (which is increasing in many
countries), play a more significant part in malnutrition than is often admitted.

1. The two basic comparative forms are:
The Pacific Ocean is larger than the Atlantic.
His work is more interesting than hers.
a) -er is added to one-syllable adjectives (slow/slower) and two-syllable
adjectives ending in –y (easy/easier).
b) more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is used with words of two or more syllables:
careful/more careful
quickly/more quickly.
However, there are some two-syllable words that can use either form:
simple/simpler/more simple.
2. Comparisons can be made more exact by using slightly, considerably or
significantly before the comparative:
Dickens’s novels are considerably longer than Austen’s.
The new Mercedes is slightly more economical than the old model.
3. Study the table and complete the exercise below.
Cost of sending a letter to a domestic destination (eurocent)
Germany 110
France 85
Japan 62
Britain 60
United States 48
Spain 45
a) Letters in France are. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in Japan.
b) Spanish letters are. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . German letters.
c) American letters are. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . letters in Britain.
d) Letters in Germany are. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in America.
4. The form as . . . . . . . . . . . . as can be used to stress similarity:
British letters are nearly as expensive as Japanese letters.
It can also be used for quantitative comparison:
German letters are twice as expensive as American letters
Also: half as/three times as/etc.
5. Note the variety of forms possible:
German letters are more expensive than French (ones/letters). (least formal)
Letters in Germany are more expensive than (those) in France.
Comparisons 57
3. Comparisons
2.8 Numbers
cross reference

The cost of sending a letter is higher in Germany than in France. (most formal)
NB. high and low are used for comparing abstract concepts such as rates.
Ones can replace the noun when used with an adjective:
German letters are more expensive than Japanese ones.
But not in combination with a noun:
Family cars are cheaper than sports cars. (not sports ones)
6. More/less, the most/the least (followed by adjective), the most/the fewest
(related to number)
Divorce is less common in Greece than in Britain.
The most crowded country in Europe is Holland.
The School of Education offers the most modules. (more than others)
7. Complete the following description of the table in (3) above (one word per
gap):
According to the table, Spain is the a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . expensive country for sending a domestic
letter. The USA is b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . more expensive, while the cost in Britain is c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
the same d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in Japan. France and Germany are the
e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . expensive countries; France being 20% cheaper f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Germany.
Overall, posting a letter costs g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . as much in Spain
h). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in Germany.
8. Study the table and complete the text below (one word per gap).
American spending on leisure activities, 1997, US$ billion
video, audio and computers 80
books and newspapers 51
casino gambling 24
lotteries 18
recorded music 15
theme parks 9
video games 8.5
spectator sports 6
cinema tickets 5.5
racecourse betting 2.5
The table shows that Americans spend the a) . . . . . . . . . . . money ($80 bn.) on video, audio and
computer equipment. They spend 40% b) . . . . . . . . . . . on books and newspapers, while casinos,
in third place, are c) . . . . . . . . . . . popular d) . . . . . . . . . . . lotteries or recorded music. Americans
spend e) . . . . . . . . . . . more on theme parks than f) . . . . . . . . . . . video games, and the cinema, in
ninth place, is nearly g) . . . . . . . . . . . popular as spectator sports. The
h) . . . . . . . . . . . amount of money is spent on racecourse betting.

9. Study the table below and complete the paragraph comparing life
expectancy in European countries (one word per gap).
Country Adult alcohol Cigarettes Life expectancy Life expectancy
intake per year, smoked per day in years – in years –
litres per adult male female
Austria 11.9 4.6 74.2 80.5
Belgium 11.7 4.3 73.8 80.5
Britain 9.4 4.2 74.3 79.5
Denmark 12.1 4.9 73.1 78.2
Finland 8.4 2.2 73.3 80.3
France 14.1 4.0 74.2 82.1
Germany 11.8 5.0 73.7 80.0
Greece 10.4 8.3 75.1 81.4
Italy 9.4 4.2 74.9 81.3
Norway 4.8 1.7 75.4 81.0
Portugal 13.6 4.6 71.4 78.7
Sweden 6.4 2.4 76.7 81.8
Switzerland 11.8 5.6 76.1 82.2
EU average 11.1 4.5 74.1 80.5
The table a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . that Swedish men have the b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . life expectancy in
Europe, while women live the c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in Switzerland. d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . average
women in Europe live six years longer e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . men. Men in Portugal have
f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lowest life expectancy (71.4 years), while the lowest for women is Denmark
(78.2 years), which is g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . less than in Portugal (78.7 years).
10. Complete the following paragraph comparing cigarette smoking in Europe.
The table shows considerable variations in cigarette smoking in
Europe. The highest rate is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Write another paragraph comparing alcohol intake in Europe.
Comparisons 59
3.8 Nationality Language
cross reference

1. In academic writing, definitions are normally needed in two situations:
a) In introductions, to clarify a word or phrase in the title.
b) More generally, to explain a word or phrase that may be either very
technical (and so not in normal dictionaries), or very recent, or with no
widely agreed meaning.
Word Category Detail Use
A lecture is a formal talk given to a large group, often used for teaching
An assignment is a task often given to students for teaching or assessment
2. Insert suitable category words in the following definitions.
a) A barometer is a scientific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . designed to measure atmospheric
pressure.
b) Kidneys are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . that separate waste fluid from the blood.
c) A multi-national company is a business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . that operates in many
countries.
d) Reinforced concrete is a building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . consisting of cement, sand
and steel rods.
e) Bullying is a pattern of anti-social . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . found in many schools.
f) Recycling is a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in which materials are used again.
g) A recession is a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of reduced economic activity.
h) Postcodes are a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . for making mail delivery more efficient.
3. More complete definitions may be written by adding examples or extra
information:
A mortgage is a type of loan (that is) used for buying property, in which the lender has the
security of the property.
Complete and extend the following definitions.
a) Distillation is a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . used to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) A psychiatrist is a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . who specialises in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) An MSc. is a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . awarded on completion of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) A trades union is a(n). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . that exists to protect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e) Malaria is a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . caused by. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
f) Wheat is a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . used for. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Study the following examples and underline the term being defined.
a) … the definition for a failed project … ranges from abandoned projects to projects that
simply do not meet their full potential or simply have schedule overrun problems.
b) Development is a socio-economic–technological process having the main objective of
raising the standards of living of the people.
4. Definitions
1.13 Introductions
cross reference

c) Electronic commerce is characterised by an absence of physical proximity between the
buyer and seller in conducting the search, assessment and transaction stages of a
transaction.
d) Bowlby (1982) suggested that attachment is an organised system whose goal is to
make individuals feel safe and secure.
e) … the non-linear effect called ‘self-brightening’ in which large-amplitude waves decay
more slowly than small-amplitude ones.
The examples above illustrate the variety of methods employed in
definitions:
(a) gives various examples that fall into the grouping the author wishes to
examine.
(b), (d) and (e) use category words: process, system, effect.
(c) defines the term in a negative way (an absence).
(d) quotes a definition from another writer.
5. When writing introductions, it is often helpful to define a term in the
title, even when it may be in common use, to demonstrate that you have
thought about it and that you have a clear idea what it means in your
essay.
Title: Higher education should be free and open to all – Discuss.
Higher education in Britain means university-level study for first or higher degrees, normally at
the age of 18 or above.
Study the following titles, decide which term needs defining in each,
and write a definition for two of them.
a) Compare the murder rate for countries with capital punishment with
that for those without it.
b) The department store is a nineteenth-century creation which has no
future in the twenty-first century – Discuss.
c) The incidence of post-natal depression appears to be rising. What are
the most effective methods of treating the condition?
6. Select several terms from your own subject area and write extensive
definitions for them.
Definitions 61

1. Many essay titles require the writer to examine both sides of a case and
to conclude by coming down in favour of one side.
These may be called discussion, for and against or argument essays. For
example:
a) School uniforms – a step forward or a step back? – Discuss.
b) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of state control of industry.
Discussion vocabulary
+ –
benefit drawback
advantage disadvantage
a positive aspect a negative feature
pro (informal) con (informal)
plus (informal) minus (informal)
one minor benefit of school uniforms is .. a serious drawback to state control is …
2. There are two basic outlines for a discussion essay:
i) School uniforms?
a) advantages: reduce social inequality/encourage group identity/avoid choice
b) disadvantages: loss of individuality/expense/unfashionable
c) discussion: overall, benefits more valuable in most cases
ii) School uniforms?
a) social: emphasises group values – diminishes individual choice
b) practical: expensive for poor families but easier to get dressed
c) discussion: overall, benefits more valuable in most cases
3. Choose one of the titles below and write down as many pros and cons in the
box as possible. Then prepare a plan using one of the outlines above.
a) Instead of going out to work, mothers should stay at home and look after their children
until they are at least five – Discuss.
b) Fast food, which is spreading round the world and destroying national cultures, should
be resisted. To what extent do you agree?
+ –
5. Discussion
4.5 Discursive Essay
cross reference
Body
cross reference

Title:
a)
b)
c)
d)
4. Presenting your case.
It is better to use impersonal phrases rather than I think:
It is widely believed that young children need to be with their mothers …
Most people consider that fast food is very convenient …
It is generally agreed that school uniforms develop a group identity …
It is probable/possible that fast food will become more acceptable …
This evidence suggests that most children benefit from nurseries …
However, if you want to defend a minority point of view, you can use the
following:
It can be argued that children benefit from a diet of hamburgers.
It has been suggested that school uniforms make children more rebellious.
Some people believe that nursery education damages children.
It is important to show that you are aware of counter-arguments, which
can be presented first.
Study the example and write similar sentences about working
mothers and fast food using ideas from (3).
Counter-argument Your position
Although it has been suggested that it is generally agreed that uniforms
school uniforms make children more develop a group identity.
rebellious,
5. Before giving your own opinion, it is necessary to show that you have
read the relevant sources and have studied the evidence.
Opinions without evidence have little value. The following paragraph
discusses the environmental effects of deforestation.
Lomborg (2001) claims that the danger of extinction of species has been exaggerated. He says
that the number of species had been expected to decline dramatically within the next half
century, but maintains that this is unlikely: ‘Species … seem more resilient than expected.’ He
points out that in the eastern USA, although 98% of the original forests have been cleared, only
one forest bird became extinct in the process. Against this, Brooks (2001) feels that Lomborg
Discussion 63
1.9 Combining Sources
cross reference

is ignoring the true rate of forest loss and the related extinction of species: ‘The ongoing wave
of extinctions, due primarily to deforestation in the moist tropics, has been widely documented.’
It seems that Lomborg, as a statistician, is too dependent on optimistic data, and is ignoring the
widespread concerns of wildlife experts.
The paragraph has the following structure:
Lomborg – paraphrase + quotation
Brooks – paraphrase + quotation
Writer’s comment on Lomborg + opinion
6. Complete the following paragraph, which discusses air pollution, to give an
opinion.
According to Lomborg (2001), air quality is improving in rich countries. He gives the example of
London, where he claims that the air is cleaner now than it has been since 1585, thanks to
decreases in smoke and sulphur dioxide. Brooks (2001), however, argues that Lomborg is ‘ignoring
the more recent global rise in toxic contaminants, now found at high concentrations … even in the
remote reaches of the Arctic.’ It appears that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. List in the box as many ideas as possible for and against the following
subject:
‘Civilisation began in the city, and the city remains the only place for civilised people to live’ –
Discuss.
+ –
8. Prepare a plan for this title, using one of the outlines in (2) above.
a)
b)
c)
d)
9. Write an essay on this title, making use of phrases from (4) above.

1. When writing essays it is often better to support statements by giving
examples.
Compare the following:
a) Many plants and animals are threatened by global warming.
b) Many plants and animals are threatened by global warming. In southern Britain, for
example, the beech tree may become extinct within 30 years.
The second sentence provides concrete details of a plant species, an area
and a time scale to support the main statement.
2. Phrases for introducing examples include:
Many departments, for instance/for example engineering, now offer foundation courses.
(note use of commas)
A few courses such as/e.g. MBA require work experience.
Many universities, particularly/especially UK ones, ask overseas students for IELTS scores.
(note the focus)
Some subjects are heavily oversubscribed. A case in point is medicine. (for single
examples)
Use suitable example phrases to complete the following sentences.
a) As the climate warms, wetland species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . frogs may find their
habitat reduced.
b) Some animals can migrate to cooler areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . are birds, which
can move easily.
c) Many plants, trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., will find it difficult to move to wetter
regions in the north.
d) Certain reptiles, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . snakes, may benefit from drier and
warmer summers.
e) Rising sea levels may bring some advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . expanding
wetland areas.
3. Find a suitable example for each sentence.
Example:
Various sectors in the economy are experiencing labour shortages.
Various sectors in the economy, for instance engineering, are experiencing
labour shortages.
a) A number of sports have become very profitable due to the sale of
television rights.
b) Some British universities offer special courses in English for overseas
students.
c) In recent years many women have made significant contributions to
the political world.
d) Three-year guarantees are now being offered by most car makers.
e) Certain diseases are proving much harder to combat than was
expected 20 years ago.
Examples 65
6. Examples
3.5 Conjunctions
cross reference

f) Many musical instruments use strings to make music.
g) Several mammals are currently in danger of extinction.
4. Provide examples in the following paragraph where they appear necessary.
Students who go to study abroad often experience a type of culture shock when they arrive in
the new country. Customs which they took for granted in their own society are not followed in
the host country. Even everyday patterns of life may be different. When these are added to the
inevitable differences which occur in every country students may at first feel confused. They
may experience rapid changes of mood, or even want to return home. However, most soon
make new friends and, in a relatively short period, are able to adjust to their new environment.
They may even find that they prefer some aspects of their new surroundings, and forget that
they are not at home for a while!
5. Another small group of phrases is used when there is only one example.
This is a kind of restatement:
The world’s biggest software company, i.e. Microsoft, is buying a share of the cable business.
in other words/namely/that is to say/i.e./viz. (in very formal English only)
In the following sentences, add a suitable phrase from the box below.
a) His mother’s sister was a small but very remarkable woman.
b) When the liquid reached boiling point the reaction began.
c) All the plants and animals at risk in the region must be protected.
d) At this stage, all the students should be rigorously evaluated.
e) It was cold, wet and windy.
namely 140 degrees
in other words, an English summer’s day
i.e. his aunt
viz., given an examination
that is to say, the endangered wildlife
namely, the Atlantic Ocean

1. Decide if you agree with the following:
a) When two Englishmen meet, their first talk is of the weather. (Samuel Johnson)
b) A bank is a place that will lend you money if you can prove that you don’t need it. (Bob
Hope)
The above are well-known quotations, which are remembered because
they are funny, though only partly true. This shows that generalisations
are easy to remember, if not always accurate.
2. In written work generalisations are very useful because they can be
used to present complex ideas or data in a simple form:
Large companies can offer better career opportunities.
Language is an important means of communication.
Study the table below and compare the statements.
UK smokers by gender
Men Women
43.8% 56.2%
a) 56.2 % of British smokers are women.
b) The majority of British smokers are women.
The first sentence is more accurate, but the second, which contains a
generalisation, is easier to understand. However, using generalisations
does involve a loss of precision, so the writer must judge when they can
be used safely, and when it is better to give the full data.
3. There are two ways of making a generalisation:
a) Using the plural: Computers are useful machines.
b) Using definite article and the singular: The computer is a useful machine.
(less common/more formal)
It is better to avoid absolute phrases such as cats are cleverer than dogs.
Instead use more cautious phrases such as cats tend to be cleverer than dogs
or most cats are more intelligent than dogs.
Write generalisations on the following topics.
a) child/noise Example: Children are often noisy.
b) flowers/presents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) city/pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) fresh fruit/health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e) television/important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
4. Read the following text and underline the generalisations.
Li Pang is a Chinese student studying architecture in Manchester. He enjoys the style of
teaching as well as the cosmopolitan lifestyle the city provides. Many international students
attend British universities. Most welcome the chance to meet classmates from all over the
Generalisations 67
7. Generalisations
3.4 Caution
cross reference

world, and all are pleased to have the chance to improve their English. When he goes home to
Shanghai, Li Pang will have a network of international contacts to support his future career.
5. Study the table.
Britain 1979 1989 1999
inflation rate 13.4% 7.8% 3.4%
interest rate 12% 13.7% 5.5%
unemployment 4.1% 6.1% 4.6%
average income £5,000 £11,700 £19,000
average house price £19,800 £61,500 £68,300
When making generalisations it is easy to over-generalise, using
inadequate data.
The following statements were written using the data in the table
above, but each contains an error. Find the error and re-write the
sentence.
Example:
People were much richer in 1999 than 20 years earlier.
This ignores inflation over the period. It is more accurate to say:
Average incomes in 1999 were nearly four times higher than in 1979.
a) Between 1979 and 1999, the worst period for unemployment was 1989.
b) Inflation fell steadily for 20 years after 1979.
c) There was a dramatic rise in house prices in these two decades.
d) Interest rates peaked in 1989.
6. Study the table below and complete the generalisations.
Regional population in 2000 and forecasts for 2100, with percentage over
60 years old (millions)
Region 2000 % over 60 2100 % over 60
N. America 314 16 454 40
W. Europe 456 20 392 45
S. Asia 1,367 7 1,958 35
S. America 515 8 934 33
N. Africa 173 6 333 32
2.3 Comparisons
2.8 Numbers
cross reference

a) By 2100, nearly half the population of W. Europe may. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) The population of N. Africa may. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) S. Asia and S. America both have. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) W. Europe is likely to experience a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e) By 2100, all these regions may. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Read this text about dreams and write five generalisations using the data.
A recent survey on dreams, completed by over 10,000 people, found that 68% of all dreams
came into the ‘anxiety’ category. Being chased was the most common dream, recorded by
72%. Dreams about falling (which signify insecurity) are also very common, being recorded by
70%.
55% have dreamed about relatives and friends who have died. Many people believe that dreams
can foretell the future, but only 42% have experienced this type. 28% of those surveyed have
dreams about food, which seem to occur during periods of weight watching, but 23% have
been pleased by dreams of finding money.
Example:
Anxiety seems to be the cause of most dreams.
a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Generalisations 69

1. Discussing statistical data is a necessary part of much academic writing:
Approximately 1800 children between the ages of 5 and 12 years were randomly
selected.
Already 3% of the US working population (1.55 million) are employed in 70,000
centres …
The earth’s atmosphere appears to be gaining 3.3 billion metric tons of carbon annually …
… but 5 winters in the 20th century were more than 2.4°C colder than average.
Figures and numbers are both used to talk about statistical data in a
general sense.
The figures in the report need to be read critically.
Digits are individual numbers. Both fractions (1
⁄2) and decimals (0.975)
may be used.
4,539 – a four digit number
£225,000 – a six figure salary (a number)
Figure (Fig) 3 – Infant mortality rates in twelfth-century France (a diagram)
no final -s on hundred/thousand/million:
Six million people live in the region.
but: Thousands died in the last outbreak of cholera.
2. When presenting data, the writer must attempt to be accurate without
confusing the reader with too much detail.
In some cases, where the actual number is unimportant, words or phrases
may replace numbers to simplify the text:
43 villages were cut off by the heavy snowstorm.
Dozens of villages were cut off by the heavy snowstorm.
The following words or phrases can be used to describe quantity.
Few students attended her lecture. (less than expected)
Several bodies have been discovered under the temple floor. (3–4)
Various attempts were made to reach the sunken ship. (3–6)
Dozens of politicians attended the opening ceremony. (30–60)
Scores of books are published every week. (50–100).
Re-write the following sentences using one of the words or phrases
above.
a) Only four people responded to the questionnaire.
b) They received nearly 100 applications for the post.
c) She made five or six proposals to improve the team’s performance.
d) He found over 50 factual errors in the article.
e) They made three or four drafts before writing the final report.
8. Numbers

3. Percentages are commonly used for expressing rates of change:
Overseas students in the university 1997–2000
1997 1998 1999 2000
200 300 600 1000
Between 1997 and 1998, the number of overseas students increased by 50%.
The number increased by 100% the following year.
There was a 400% increase between 1997 and 2000.
4. Study the following expressions, which are also used to simplify
statistics.
one in three a third/a quarter
twice/three times as many the majority/the minority
a tenfold increase fifty per cent, a percentage
to double/to halve on average/the average number
the most/the least a small/large proportion
Rewrite each sentence in a simpler way, using one of the expressions
above.
a) Of the 415 people interviewed, 308 said that they supported the
president.
b) Last year the number of students on the course was 28, the year before
it was 20 and this year it is 24.
c) In 1965 a litre of petrol cost 10p, while the price is now 80p.
d) Out of 18 students in the group, 12 were women.
e) The new type of train reduced the journey time to Madrid from seven
hours to three hours 20 minutes.
f) 15 of the students studied law, eight finance and three engineering.
g) The numbers applying to this department have risen from 350 last year
to 525 this year.
Numbers 71
2.12 Visual Information
cross reference

5. Re-write the following sentences to present the data in a simpler way.
a) The population of the European part of the former Soviet Union is
declining rapidly. It is forecast to fall by 18 m to 220 m in 2025, and to
drop to 140 m by 2100.
Example:
The population of the European part of the former Soviet Union is forecast to fall by nearly 10%
by 2025, and by nearly 40% by the end of the century.
b) The numbers of visitors to the temples show a remarkable pattern. In
1998 just 40,000 made the journey, 83,000 in 1999 and 171,000 in 2000.
c) More than 80% of British students complete their first degree course; in
Italy the figure is 35%.
d) Tap water costs 0.07p per litre while bottled water, on average, costs
50p per litre.
e) Only 8% of the women surveyed believed that they had the same
rights as men. A considerable 37% complained that they had far fewer
rights.
f) Life expectancy for men in the UK rose from 49 to 74 during the
twentieth century.
g) The same operation cost £1,850 at a hospital in Blackburn, £2,400 in
Birmingham and £2,535 in London.
h) In 1086 about 15% of England was forested, compared with only 4.8%
in 1870.

1. A reference is an acknowledgement that you are making use of another
writer’s ideas or data in your writing:
As Donner (1997) pointed out, low inflation does not always lead to low interest rates.
There are three main reasons for giving references:
a) To avoid the charge of plagiarism, which is using another person’s
ideas or research without acknowledgement.
b) The reference can give more authority to your writing, for it shows you
are familiar with other research on the topic.
c) The reader can find the original source by using the reference section,
which would list the full publishing details of Donner’s book:
Donner, F. (1997) Macroeconomics. Borchester: Borchester University Press
2. Decide which of the following need references.
a) A mention of facts or figures from another writer
b) An idea of your own
c) Some data you have found from your own research
d) A theory suggested by another researcher
e) A quotation from a work by any author
f) Something that is agreed to be common knowledge
3. In order to give references accurately it is important to follow the
following procedure:
a) When reading and note-making, keep a careful record of the details of
your sources. For a long piece of writing such as a dissertation a card
index is useful.
b) Find out which system of referencing is used in your subject area. You
can do this by studying current textbooks and journals and checking
departmental guidelines.
c) Follow one of the methods illustrated below to give the reference.
4. a) Summary of a writer’s ideas.
Orwell (1940) pointed out that although Charles Dickens described eating large meals in
many of his books, he never wrote about farming. He explains this contradiction in terms of
Dickens’ upbringing in London, remote from the countryside.
b) Quotation of a writer’s words.
Orwell clearly highlighted this inconsistency in Dickens: ‘It is not merely a coincidence that
Dickens never writes about agriculture and writes endlessly about food. He was a Cockney,
and London is the centre of the earth in rather the same sense that the belly is the centre of
the body.’ (Orwell, 1940: pp. 53-54)
c) Mixture of summary and quotation.
As Orwell (1940) noted, Dickens frequently described food but was uninterested in food
production. He considered that this was because of the writer’s background: ‘He was a
Cockney, and London is the centre of the earth.’(pp.53–54)
References and Quotations 73
9. References and Quotations
1.6 Note-Making
cross reference

5. Read the following extract from the same essay (‘Charles Dickens’ in
Inside the Whale, Orwell, G., 1940: pp.54–55)
What he does not noticeably write about, however, is work. In Dickens’ novels anything in the
nature of work happens off-stage. The only one of his heroes who has a plausible profession is
David Copperfield, who is first a shorthand writer and then a novelist, like Dickens himself. With
most of the others, the way they earn their living is very much in the background.
a) Write a summary of the author’s ideas, including a suitable
reference.
b) Introduce a quotation of the key part of the extract, again referring
to the source.
Combine (a) and (b), again acknowledging the source.
6. Referring verbs use both the present and the past tenses.
It is probably best to use the present tense for recent sources or when you
feel that the ideas or data are still valid:
Rathbone (1997) demonstrates the limitations of video-conferencing.
The past tense suggests that the source is older and the ideas perhaps out-
of-date:
Steinbeck (1965) explored a link between cancer and diet.
7. There are three main systems of reference in use in academic writing:
a) The system illustrated above (the Harvard) is the most common. Note
the following:
Hunter (1989) states … (date of publication in brackets when referring verb is used)
Women pose less security risk. (Burke and Pollock, 1993) (authors and date in
brackets after summary)
NB. For quotations page numbers should also be given after the date.
Details of the organisation of the reference section are given in (8) below.
b) Numbers in brackets are inserted in the text for each source, and at the
end of the chapter or article the references are listed in number order:
A survey of Fortune 500 companies found that over 70% have problems recruiting
skilled staff (1). Some analysts argue that this could be as high as 90% (2).
1. Cuervo, D. 1990, Whither Recruitment? HR Journal 13. pp. 23–39.
2. Segall, N. 1996, Cross-cultural studies, Harper & Row, New York pp. 173-4.
c) A third system uses footnotes:
More than 80% of families own or are buying their own homes.2
In this system the references are listed at the bottom of the page:
2. The Economist, 13 January 1996, pp. 27–8.
NB. A full reference section is required at the end of the article or book.
8. Organising the bibliography/references
Here is the reference section of an essay written by a business student.
Study the pattern of organisation and answer the following
questions.
cross reference

a) How are the entries ordered?
b) What is the difference between the information provided for:
i) a book by one author
ii) an edited book
iii) a source on the internet
iv) an article in a journal
c) When are italics used?
d) How are capital letters used in titles?
e) How is a source with no given author listed?
REFERENCES
1. Brzeski, W. (1999) The Polish Housing Market www.onenet.pl (Access date 15 Feb.
2000).
2. Hill, S. (1989) Managerial Economics, The Analysis of Business Decisions. London:
Macmillan Education Ltd. pp. 100–135.
3. Koutsoyiannis, A.P
. (1963) ‘Demand function for tobacco’ in Wagner, L. (ed) Readings
in Applied Microeconomics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
4. Mintel Database (2000), Retail Coffee Market in the UK (31 Jan. 2000) Available via
Warwick University Library (Access date 20 Feb. 2000).
5. Pass, C. and Lowes, B. (1997) Business and Microeconomics. London: Routledge pp.
16-40.
6. Peck, S. (2000) Managerial Economics Course Notes. Warwick Business School.
7. Russell, T. (1995) ‘A future for coffee?’ Journal of Applied Marketing 6 pp. 14–17.
Referencing is a complex subject and students are advised to seek
specialist advice, e.g. from a library, when referencing less usual
sources.
References and Quotations 75

1. Study the style of this paragraph and underline any examples of poor style.
A lot of people think that the weather is getting worse. They say that this has been going on for
quite a long time. I think that they are quite right. Research has shown that we now get storms
etc all the time.
2. Academic writing attempts to be precise, semi-formal, impersonal and
objective.
This does not mean that pronouns like I and we are never used, but in
general the focus is on presenting information as clearly and accurately as
possible. In this way such writing differs from normal speech and writing,
which is more personal and uses more lively idioms and phrases. Using
these guidelines, the paragraph above can be analysed:
A lot of people think… Imprecise – how many is a lot?
…the weather … Imprecise – weather is short-term
…getting worse … Informal
They say… Use of pronoun informal
…going on … Informal phrasal verb
... quite a long time. Imprecise – how long is this?
I think… Informal, personal phrase
Research… Vague – whose research?
…we now get … Informal
…storms etc … Vague
…all the time. Over-generalised
The paragraph can be rewritten:
It is widely believed that the climate is deteriorating. It is claimed that this process has been
continuing for nearly 100 years. This belief appears to be supported by McKinley (1997), who
shows a 55% increase in the frequency of severe winter gales since 1905.
3. It is difficult to give rules for academic style which apply to all subject
areas.
When reading books and journals in your area you should note what is
acceptable. You will probably meet exceptions to the points below as you
read, but if you follow these guidelines you should be able to develop a
suitable style of your own.
a) Do not use idiomatic or colloquial vocabulary: dad, guy. Use standard
English: father, man.
b) Use vocabulary accurately. There is a difference between rule and law,
or currency and money, which you are expected to know.
c) Be as precise as possible when dealing with facts or figures. Avoid
phrases such as about a hundred or hundreds of years ago. If it is necessary
to estimate numbers use approximately rather than about.
10. Style

d) Conclusions should use tentative language. Avoid absolute statements
such as education reduces crime. Instead use cautious phrases: may reduce
crime or tends to reduce crime.
e) Avoid adverbs that show your personal attitude: luckily, remarkably,
surprisingly.
f) Do not contract verb forms: don’t, can’t. Use the full form: do not, cannot.
g) Although academic English tends to use the passive more than
standard English, it should not be over-used. Both have their place.
Compare:
Manners (1995) claims that most companies perform worse when …
It is widely agreed that most companies perform worse when …
In the first case, the focus is on the source, in the second on what
companies do.
h) Avoid the following:
like for introducing examples. Use such as or for instance.
thing and combinations: nothing or something. Use factor, issue or topic.
lots of. Use a significant/considerable number.
little/big. Use small/large.
get phrases such as get better/worse. Use improve and deteriorate.
i) Do not use question forms such as What were the reasons for the decline in
wool exports? Instead use statements: There were four main reasons for the
decline…
j) Avoid numbering sections of your text, except in certain reports.
Use conjunctions and signposting expressions to introduce new
sections (Turning to the question of taxation …). Sub-headings are widely
used.
k) When writing lists, avoid using etc. or and so on. Insert and before the
last item:
The forests of the twelfth century consisted of oak, ash and lime.
l) Avoid using two-word verbs such as go on or bring up if there is a
suitable synonym. Use continue or raise.
4. In the following, first underline the examples of poor style and then re-write
them in a more suitable way:
a) Lots of people think that the railways are getting worse.
b) Sadly, serious crime like murder is going up.
c) You can’t always trust the numbers in that report.
d) The second thing is that most kids in that district will become
criminals.
Style 77
cross reference
3.2 Adverbs
cross reference
3.11 Passives
cross reference
3.4 Caution
cross reference

e) I think that there’s a big risk of more strikes, disorder etc.
f) A few years ago they allowed women to vote.
g) Regrettably, the inflation in Russia led to increased poverty, illness and
so on.
h) Sometime soon they will find a vaccine for malaria.
i) What were the main causes of the American Revolution?
5. Re-write the following paragraphs in better style.
a) These days a lot of kids are starting school early. Years ago, they began at five, but now
it’s normal to start at four or younger. Why is this? One thing is that mums need to get
back to work. Is it good for the kids? Jenkins has studied this and says that early
schooling causes social problems like stealing, drug-taking etc. I think he’s right and
we should pay mums to stay at home.
b) Why are there so many jams on the roads these days? One thing is that public
transport like trains, buses etc is so dear. A long time ago cars cost a lot but now,
unfortunately, they’ve got a lot cheaper. Another thing is that driving is a lot nicer than
waiting for a bus. The trouble is that if everyone buys a car the roads get packed.

1. When writing it is necessary to find synonyms in order to provide
variety and interest for the reader:
General Motors is the largest motor company in the world, with total revenues amounting to
15% of the global automotive market. The giant firm employs 360,000 people internationally.
largest company giant firm
motor automotive
in the world global/internationally
Synonyms are not always exactly the same in meaning, but it is
important not to change the register. Firm is a good synonym for
company, but boss is too informal to use for manager.
2. a) The accuracy of a synonym is often dependent on context. Both pupil
and student could be used to identify a 15-year-old schoolgirl, but when
she goes to university only student is normally used. Scholar might be a
possible synonym, but it is very formal. Similarly, at university a lecturer
could also be called a teacher, but in school the only possible synonym
for teacher is the old-fashioned master or mistress.
b) Many basic words, e.g. culture, economy, society or science, have no
effective synonyms.
3. Some common academic synonyms.
Nouns Verbs
goal target reduce decrease
study research achieve reach
results findings alter change
area field evaluate examine
authority source claim suggest
benefit advantage assist help
category type attach join
component part challenge question
concept idea clarify explain
behaviour conduct collapse fall down
controversy argument concentrate focus
feeling emotion confine limit
beliefs ethics show demonstrate
expansion increase eliminate remove
interpretation explanation found establish
Synonyms 79
11. Synonyms
▲
1.7 Paraphrasing
cross reference
3.14 Prepositions after Verbs
cross reference

issue topic develop evolve
method system maintain insist
option possibility predict forecast
statistics figures prohibit ban
framework structure retain keep
trend tendency strengthen reinforce
accelerate speed up
4. Find synonyms for the words and phrases in italic.
a) Professor Hicks questioned the findings of the research.
b) The statistics show a steady expansion in applications.
c) The institute’s prediction has caused a major controversy.
d) Cost seems to be the leading drawback to that system.
e) They will concentrate on the first option.
f) After the lecture she tried to clarify her concept.
g) Three issues need to be examined.
h) The framework can be retained but the goal needs to be altered.
i) OPEC, the oil producers’ cartel, is to cut production to raise global prices.
j) The trend to smaller families has speeded up in the last decade.
5. In the following text, replace all the words or phrases in italic with suitable
synonyms.
A leading French company has started a new programme to reduce costs. The company’s
programme aims to reduce costs by $100 million. All the staff have taken pay cuts, and senior
staff will have their pay cut by 20%. The company aims to increase profits by 35% next year,
and promises that pay will be increased if that happens.
6. Identify the synonyms in this text by underlining them and linking them to
the word they are substituting for.
Example: agency – organisation
The chairman of the UK’s food standards agency has said that a national advertising campaign
is necessary to raise low levels of personal hygiene. The organisation is planning a £3m
publicity programme to improve British eating habits. A survey has shown that half the
population do not wash before eating, and one in five fail to wash before preparing food. There
are over 6 million cases of food poisoning in this country every year, and the advertising blitz
aims to cut this by 20%. This reduction, the food body believes, could be achieved by regular
hand washing prior to meals.

1. Visual devices such as graphs and tables are convenient ways of
displaying large quantities of information in a form that is quick and
simple to understand.
Below are illustrations of some of the main types of visuals used in
academic texts. Match the uses (a–f) to the types (1–6) and the
examples (A–F) in the box below.
Uses a) location b) comparison c) proportion
d) function e) changes in time f) statistical display
Types Uses Example
1. diagram
2. table
3. map
4. pie chart
5. bar chart
6. line graph
Visual Information 81
12. Visual Information
Far East
N.America
Europe
Other
Africa
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Director
Manager
Deputy
Director
Technical
staff
Secretarial
staff
Teaching
staff
Business 205
Education 176
History 83
Law 15
Agriculture 7
A. % of students with part-time jobs
C. Origins of international students
E. Structure of the Language Centre F. Position of the main library
B. Part-time student enrolments
Sports centre
Library
Entrance
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Medicine
Law
Business
Education
Education
Business
Law
Medicine
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
D. Student admissions by subject/2002

2. The language of change
Verb Adverb Verb Adjective + noun
grew slightly dropped a slight drop
rose gradually fell a gradual fall
increased steadily decreased a sharp decrease
climbed sharply
Study the graph below and complete the description with phrases
from the table above.
Sports centre membership a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in 1992, and then
b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . until 1995, reaching a peak of 4900.
It c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in 1996, but d). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .the next
year. In 1998 there was a e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , then a peak of 6,700 in 1999,
followed by a f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .in 2000.
3. Although visuals do largely speak for themselves, it is usual to help the
reader interpret them by briefly commenting on their main features.
The graph shows the changes in the price of oil since 1990
The map illustrates the main squatter housing areas in Ankara
The diagram displays the experimental set-up of the laboratory study
2.8 Numbers
cross reference
Sports Centre membership 1991–2000
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9
1
9
2
9
3
9
4
9
5
9
6
9
7
9
8
9
9
2
0
0
0
membership

Read the following descriptions of the chart opposite. Which is better?
a) The chart shows the quantity of tea consumed by the world’s leading tea-consuming
nations. India and China together consume more than half the world’s tea production,
with India alone consuming about one-third. Other significant tea consumers are Turkey,
Russia and Britain. ‘Others’ includes the United States, Iran and Egypt.
b) The chart shows that 31% of the world’s tea is consumed by India, 23% by China,
and 8% by Turkey. The fourth largest consumers are Russia, Japan and Britain,
with 7% each, while Pakistan consumes 5%. Other countries account for the
remaining 12%.
4. Complete the following description of the chart below.
The chart shows population a) …………… in a variety of countries around the world.
It b) …………… the extreme contrast c) …………… crowded nations such as South Korea
(475 people per sq. km.) and much d) …………… countries such as Canada (3 people per
sq. km.). Clearly, climate plays a major e) …………… in determining population density,
f) …………… the least crowded nations g) …………… to have extreme climates (e.g. cold
in Russia or dry in Algeria).
Visual Information 83
Population density (people per square kilometre)
India
31%
China
23%
Turkey
8%
Russia
7%
Britain
7%
Japan
7%
Pakistan
5%
Others
12%
0 100 200 300 400 500
S.Korea
Japan
Britain
China
Brazil
Algeria
Russia
Canada
World tea consumption 1999

5. Complete the following description of the table below.
Marriage and divorce rates (per 1,000 population)
Country Marriage rate Divorce rate
Britain 10.7 3.4
United States 8.6 4.7
Turkey 8.0 0.5
Iran 7.8 0.5
Japan 6.2 1.8
Russia 5.2 3.2
Spain 5.2 0.8
South Africa 4.0 0.9
The a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . shows the wide variations in marriage and divorce rates in a
b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of countries. The c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rate varies from 10.7 per thousand in
d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to 4.0 in South Africa, while the divorce e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ranges from 4.7 in the
United States to 0.5 in Turkey and f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . It appears that in the United States more than
g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of all marriages end in divorce, while in Turkey the
h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is less than 10%. This suggests that in countries such as the United States and
Britain the high marriage rate may be a i). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of the high divorce rate.
6. When referring to visual information in the text, the word figure is used
for everything (such as maps, charts and graphs) except tables.
Figures and tables should be numbered and given a title. Titles of tables
are written above, whereas titles of figures are written below the data. As
with other data, sources must be given for all visual information.
Table 4: Gender balance in the School of Computing 1996–2000
Year Men Women
1996 109 34
1997 112 45
1998 125 41
1999 108 56
2000 118 72
Source: Author
If you are writing a lengthy work, such as a dissertation, you will need to
provide lists of tables and figures, showing numbers, titles and page
numbers, after the contents page.
7. Complete the description of the table above.
Table 4 shows …………

Accuracy is only one aspect of the total fabric of good writing. Few
teachers will be concerned by one minor mistake with a preposition or a
plural in a sentence. But if a student is making mistakes in every other
word there is likely to be serious loss of meaning, and their teacher may
be unable to mark the work fairly. Many of the most common errors are
highlighted in Part 1 Unit 16 (Proof-Reading).
Non-native speakers of English tend to have problems of accuracy which
relate to their mother tongue. Japanese speakers, for example, find it
difficult to use articles because these are not found in Japanese. It is
clearly unrealistic for such students to aim at 100% accuracy in their
written work, but equally it is important to aim to improve accuracy in
order to compete with native-speaker classmates.
The components of Accuracy in Writing have been chosen on the basis that
they regularly cause difficulties and confusion in students’ writing. These
units are not intended to replace a standard grammar reference book;
instead they assume a good basic knowledge of English grammar and
focus on those areas of concern to the writer, rather than the speaker, of
English.
As in Part 2, the units are arranged alphabetically. Students may already
be aware of their weaknesses and want to focus on the relevant units, or
they may seek specific assistance after getting feedback on an essay. There
are also two tests of accuracy in the Writing Tests which students can use
to pinpoint their weak areas.
3. Accuracy in Writing

1. Abbreviations are an important and expanding feature of contemporary
English.
They are used for convenience, and familiarity with abbreviations makes
both academic reading and writing easier. Three main types can be found:
a) shortened words – photo (photograph)
b) acronyms – UNESCO
c) others – NB
2. Shortened words are often used without the writer being aware of the
original form.
Bus comes from omnibus, which is never used in modern English, but
refrigerator is still better in written English than the informal fridge. Public
house is now very formal (pub is acceptable), but television should be used
instead of the idiomatic telly.
3. Acronyms are made up of the initial letters of a name or phrase.
For example, AIDS = acquired immune deficiency syndrome. They are read as
words. The more official acronyms are written in capitals (NATO), but
others use lower case (yuppie). NATO stands for North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation, which is a real body, whereas yuppie means young upwardly
mobile professional, which is a concept.
4. Other abbreviations are read as sets of individual letters.
They include names of countries, organisations and companies (USA /
BBC / IBM), and also abbreviations that are found only in written English
(PTO = please turn over / Rd = road).
5. All academic subjects employ abbreviations to save time.
Examples from business/economics include:
GDP = gross domestic product
PR = public relations
PLC = public limited company
CEO = chief executive officer
IMF = International Monetary Fund
WTO = World Trade Organisation
6. There are many standard abbreviations found in some types of writing
which have a full stop after them to indicate a shortened form.
For example, St. = Saint. Other examples are govt. (government), co.
(company) and Oct. (October). With type (b) and (c) abbreviations there is
no standard pattern for using full stops, so both BBC and B.B.C. are used.
There is, however, a trend to use full stops less. The important thing is to
employ a consistent style in your work.
Abbreviations 87
1. Abbreviations

7. Abbreviations can be confusing.
PC, for example, can mean Police Constable (in Britain), personal computer
and also politically correct. CD may stand for compact disc or corps
diplomatique. PM could be Prime Minister or post meridiem. It is useful to
be aware of these potential confusions.
8. Certain abbreviations are found in all types of academic writing.
They include:
cf. = compare
e.g. = for example
et al. = and others (used in giving names of multiple authors)
Fig. = figure (for labelling charts and graphs)
ibid. = in the same place (to refer to source mentioned immediately
before)
i.e. = that is
K = thousand
op. cit. = in the source mentioned previously
p.a. = yearly
pp. = pages
re = with reference to
9. Other abbreviations are very subject specific and may be special to one
article.
In that case they need explaining:
… the developing countries with the highest per-capita dietary energy supplies (DES)
… one delegate expressed surprise that Call Centres (CCs) should …
10. Explain the abbreviations in the following sentences.
a) The PM told MPs that the NHS needed reform.
b) The failure rate among IT projects reaches 70% (Smith et al., 1997).
c) The world’s most populous country i.e. China has joined the WTO.
d) NB. CVs must be no longer than 3 sides of A4.
e) See the OECD’s recent report on the UK.
f) The EU hopes to achieve a standard rate of VAT.
g) The CEO intends to raise spending on R&D by 40%.
h) Fig.4. Trade patterns on the w.w.w. (1997–2001).
i) The WHO is concerned about the spread of TB.
j) Director of PR required – salary approx. $45K.
k) GM technology is leading to advances in many fields, e.g. forestry.
l) Prof. Wren claimed that the quality of M.Phil. and Ph.D. research was falling.
88 Part 3: Accuracy in Writing

1. Adverbs are used in academic texts in a variety of ways.
Among the most important are:
a) to provide more detail, with verbs and adjectives:
Reasonably good data are available for only …
… decomposition eventually ceases in modern landfills …
b) individually, often at the beginning of sentences, to introduce new
points:
Currently, the Earth’s atmosphere appears to be …
Alternatively, the use of non-conventional renewable energies …
NB. These can be similar in function to conjunctions.
2. Adverbs linked to verbs and adjectives usually fall into three groups.
a) Time (when?)
previously published
retrospectively examined
b) Degree (how much?)
declined considerably
contribute substantially
c) Manner (in what way?)
medically complicated
remotely located
3. Adverbs used individually need to be employed with care.
It is dangerous to over-use them, for they may convey a sense of the
author’s voice commenting on the topic. As the academic writer aims to be
objective, adverbs like fortunately or remarkably may be unsuitable. However,
other, less subjective adverbs can be useful for opening paragraphs or
linking ideas. The following examples are often followed by a comma.
Time Relating ideas
recently clearly
increasingly obviously
originally (not) surprisingly
presently alternatively
currently similarly
traditionally (more) importantly
4. Insert a suitable adverb from the table into the gaps in the sentences.
a) Most houses do not have electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., then, there is little
chance of improving living standards.
Adverbs 89
2. Adverbs
2.10 Style
cross reference

b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., the internet was mainly used for academic purposes.
c) Some courses are assessed purely by exams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., coursework
may be employed.
d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., there has been growing concern about financing the health
service.
e) Many birds use bright colours to attract a mate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., flowers
advertise their position to fertilising insects.
f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., the development should be acceptable environmentally.
5. The following adverbs are used to describe changes in the rate of
something:
Small Medium Large
gradually substantially quickly
slightly significantly sharply
marginally steadily dramatically
slowly considerably rapidly
Note that certain adverbs are mainly used to describe changes in time:
Production in Russia rose slowly from 1920 to 1929.
Others are commonly used to show changes in amount:
The birth rate increased slightly after the revolution.
Label the adverbs in the table above either A (amount) or T (time).
6. Use a suitable adverb to complete the following sentences.
a) Last year inflation increased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . from 2% to 2.3%.
b) Life expectancy has fallen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in the last 20 years, by about 15%.
c) The price was reduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., so that a £12 book was offered for £6.
d) Sales rose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . while he was chairman, averaging 14% per year.
e) The numbers of people voting has declined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., from 80% to
65%.
f) The crime rate climbed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in the early1990s, by 20–25% a year.
g) In the last four years unemployment has fallen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., from 5% to
3.5%.
h) In the first two years of the war the suicide rate dropped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., by
over 30% each year.
2.8 Numbers
cross reference
2.12 Visual Information
cross reference

1. Unless they are uncountable, all nouns need an article when used in the
singular.
The article can be either a/an or the. Compare:
a) Research is an important activity in universities.
b) The research begun by Dr Mathews was continued by Professor Brankovic.
c) A survey was conducted among 200 patients in the clinic.
In (a) research, which is usually uncountable, is being used in a general
sense.
In (b) a specific piece of research is identified.
In (c) the survey is not specified and is being mentioned for the first time.
2. The rules for using the (the definite article) are quite complex.
Decide why it is used, or not used, in the following examples.
a) The most famous fictional detective is Sherlock Holmes.
b) The USA was founded in the eighteenth century.
c) The government changed its attitude in the 1980s.
d) In many companies, the knowledge of most employees is a wasted resource.
e) The moon orbits the earth every 28 days.
f) The south is characterised by poverty and emigration.
g) Charles Dickens, the English novelist, died in 1870.
h) The River Trent runs through the middle of England.
i) The World Health Organisation was founded in 1948.
3. In general, the is used with:
a) superlatives (most famous)
b) time periods (eighteenth century/1980s)
c) unique things (government/moon/earth)
d) specified things (knowledge of most employees)
e) regions and rivers (south/River Trent)
f) very well-known people and things (English novelist)
g) institutions and bodies (World Health Organisation)
h) positions (middle)
It is not used with:
i) names of countries, except for the UK, the USA and a few others
j) abstract nouns (poverty)
k) companies/bodies named after people/places (Sainsbury’s, Sheffield
University)
Articles 91
3. Articles
3.10 Nouns: Countable and
Uncountable
cross reference
3.8 Nationality Language
cross reference

4. In the following sentences, decide if the words in italic are specific or not.
Insert the if specific.
a) . . . . . . . . . . . engineering was the main industry in the region.
b) . . . . . . . . . . . global warming is partly caused by . . . . . . . . . . . fossil fuels.
c) . . . . . . . . . . . Russian revolution was partly a result of . . . . . . . . . . . First World War.
d) . . . . . . . . . . . fraud is costing . . . . . . . . . . . banking industry millions of pounds a
year.
e) . . . . . . . . . . . drought may have been a factor in . . . . . . . . . . . decline of the Maya
empire.
f) . . . . . . . . . . . forests of Scandinavia produce most of . . . . . . . . . . . world’s paper.
5. Complete the sentences with either the or nothing.
a) . . . . . . . . . . . Japanese emperor lives in . . . . . . . . . . . centre of Tokyo.
b) Already 3% of . . . . . . . . . . . US working population are employed
in . . . . . . . . . . . call centres.
c) . . . . . . . . . . . purpose of this paper is to evaluate . . . . . . . . . . . tests of . . . . . . . . . .
.intelligence.
d) Picasso, . . . . . . . . . . . Spanish painter, was born in . . . . . . . . . . . nineteenth
century.
e) . . . . . . . . . . . best definition is often . . . . . . . . . . . simplest.
6. Complete the following text by inserting a/an/the (or nothing) in each gap.
THE ORIGINS OF @
Giorio Stabile, a) . . . . . . . . . professor of b) . . . . . . . . . history at La Sapienza university in
Rome, has demonstrated that c) . . . . . . . . . @ sign, now used in email addresses, was
actually invented 500 years ago. Professor Stabile has shown that d) . . . . . . . . . @, now
e) . . . . . . . . . symbol of f) . . . . . . . . . internet, was first used by Italian merchants during
g) . . . . . . . . . sixteenth century.
He claims that it originally represented h) . . . . . . . . . unit of volume, based on i) . . . . . . . . .
large jars used to carry liquids in j) . . . . . . . . . ancient Mediterranean world. He has found
k) . . . . . . . . . first example of its use in l) . . . . . . . . . letter written in 1546 by m) . . . . . . . . .
merchant from Florence. n) . . . . . . . . . letter, which was sent to Rome, announces
o) . . . . . . . . . arrival in p) . . . . . . . . . Spain of ships carrying gold from South America.
q) . . . . . . . . . professor argues that r) . . . . . . . . . @ sign derives from s) . . . . . . . . . special
script used by these merchants, which was developed in t) . . . . . . . . . sixteenth century.
According to him, u) . . . . . . . . . loop around v) . . . . . . . . . ‘a’ is typical of that style. He found
w) . . . . . . . . . evidence while researching x) . . . . . . . . . visual history of y) . . . . . . . . .
twentieth century.

1. A cautious style is necessary in some areas of academic writing:
Primary products … usually have low supply and demand elasticities …
… multiple factors may lead to a psychiatric consultation
… some parameters might depend on the degree of water content in the sand
… women tend to value privacy more than men
… other studies suggest that some permanent modal shift will occur
Areas where caution is particularly important include:
a) outlining a hypothesis that needs to be tested, (e.g. in an introduction)
b) discussing the results of a study, which may not be conclusive
c) commenting on the work of other writers
2. Caution is needed to avoid making statements that are too simplistic:
Poor education leads to crime.
Such statements are rarely completely true. There is usually an exception
that needs to be considered. Caution can be shown in several ways:
(modal verb) Poor education can lead to crime.
(adverb) Poor education frequently leads to crime.
(verb/phrase) Poor education tends to lead to crime.
There is a tendency for poor education to lead to crime.
Complete the box below with more examples.
Modals Adverbs Verb/phrase
can frequently tends to
there is a tendency
3. Rewrite the following sentences in a more cautious way.
a) Private companies are more efficient than state-owned businesses.
b) Computer manuals are difficult to understand.
c) Older students perform better at university than younger ones.
d) Exploring space is a waste of valuable resources.
e) English pronunciation is confusing.
f) Global warming will cause the sea level to rise.
g) Science students work harder than those studying humanities.
h) Concrete is the best material for building bridges.
Caution 93
4. Caution
2.10 Style
cross reference
2.7 Generalisations
3.7 Modal Verbs
cross reference

4. Another way to express caution is to use quite, rather or fairly before an
adjective.
a fairly accurate summary
quite a significant correlation
a rather inconvenient location
NB. quite is often used before the article. It is often used positively,
whereas rather tends to be used negatively.
When referring to sources, the verb used indicates the degree of caution
appropriate. Compare:
Widmerpool (1999) states that junior doctors work longer than … (positive)
Le Bas (1983) suggests that more training would result in … (cautious)
Other verbs that imply tentative or cautious findings are:
think/consider/hypothesise/believe/claim/presume
5. Rewrite the following text in more cautious language.
A team of American scientists have found a way to reverse the ageing process. They fed diet
supplements, found in health food shops, to elderly rats, which were then tested for memory
and stamina. The animals displayed more active behaviour after taking the supplements, and
their memory improved. In addition, their appearance became more youthful and their appetite
increased.
The researchers say that this experiment is a clear indication of how the problems of old age
can be overcome. They state that in a few years’ time everyone will be able to look forward to a
long and active retirement.
cross reference

1. Conjunctions are words and phrases such as and or but which join parts
of a sentence together. There are six main types of conjunctions:
a) Addition: Furthermore, child mortality rates must be examined.
b) Result: Prices are rising worldwide, thus encouraging investment.
c) Reason: Owing to the strike today’s classes are cancelled.
d) Time: Thirdly, the role of the architect will be reviewed.
e) Example: Various writers have examined the issue, for instance Van
Exel (2000).
f) Opposition: Although this study concentrates mainly on peak-time
travellers …
2. Decide which type (a–f) the following sentences belong to.
a) Before the Roman invasion the economy was mainly
agricultural. (…)
b) The results were checked because they were so surprising. (…)
c) Estimates suggest that the effects will continue, but at a more
moderate rate. (…)
d) Some Asian economies, for example Indonesia, are growing
more slowly. (…)
e) Moreover, travel information is very important for route
planning. (...)
f) The findings were ambiguous, therefore the study was revised. (...)
g) The deadline is next week, so speed is vital. (...)
h) There is a serious problem in the district; namely unemployment. (...)
3. Complete the table to show as many examples of conjunctions as possible.
Addition Result Reason Time Example Opposition
furthermore thus owing to thirdly for instance although
Conjunctions 95
5. Conjunctions
Body
2.1 Cause and Effect
2.6 Examples
3.20 Time Words and Phrases
cross reference

4. Insert a suitable conjunction in each gap.
a) …………… the course was voluntary only seven students attended.
b) The longest day of the year, …………… June 21st, was a time of
festivity.
c) ……………. the equipment was checked the experiment was repeated.
d) …………… most people use the train, a minority walk or cycle.
e) Brick is a thermally efficient building material. It is, ……………, cheap.
f) Demand has increased for summer courses, …………… extra ones are
offered this year.
5. Complete the following biography by inserting suitable conjunctions.
THE BEATLES
The group which became the Beatles was formed in 1960 by John Lennon and Paul
McCartney, with George Harrison and Ringo Starr joining later. a) ………… playing in small
clubs for two years their first record, Love Me Do, was released. She Loves You, in 1963, broke
all previous sales records in Britain. b) ………… their simplicity, the early Beatles songs
c) ………… Yesterday and Paperback Writer are still seen as masterpieces of musical genius.
d) …………, the unusual haircuts and clothes worn by the Beatles fitted well with the style of
the mid-1960s. The popularity of the group soon spread to the USA and e) ………… around
the world, f) ………… the media invented the term ‘Beatlemania’ to describe the excitement
that was part of their tours. g) ………… their popularity the group were awarded the MBE by
the Queen in 1965, h) ………… this caused anger among some of the older holders of this
award.
In 1966 the Beatles stopped live performances, i) ………… their music was becoming too
complex to produce on stage. A year later Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band was
released, j) …………was immediately recognised as one of the most influential works in the
history of popular music. k) …………, the pressures of fame were beginning to affect all the
members of the band, l) ………… that they found it harder to work together. They played
together for the last time in 1969 and m) ………… split up in 1970.
6. Conjunctions of opposition
Note the position of the conjunctions in the following examples.
The economy is strong, but/yet there are frequent strikes.
Although there are frequent strikes, the economy is strong.
In spite of/despite the frequent strikes, the economy is strong.
There are frequent strikes. However/nevertheless, the economy is strong.

Write two sentences in each case.
Example: The equipment was expensive/unreliable.
The equipment was expensive but unreliable.
Although the equipment was expensive, it was unreliable.
a) The government claimed that inflation was falling. The opposition said it was rising.
ii)
ii)
b) This department must reduce expenditure. It needs to install new computers.
ii)
ii)
7. Finish the sentences in a suitable way.
a) In contrast to America, where gun ownership is common, . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) Despite leaving school at the age of 14, . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) The majority displayed a positive attitude to the proposal, but . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) The review has examined six studies of medical policy;
however . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e) Although the spring was cold and dry, . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conjunctions 97

1. A feature of most academic writing is a tendency to use rather formal
verbs to express the writer’s meaning accurately:
… supply of energy required to accelerate the growth …
… the development that is envisaged here needs to be not only sustainable …
In spoken English we would be more likely to use speed up and imagined.
2. Study the list below and find the meaning in each case.
NB. Some of these verbs, e.g. hold, are used in academic writing with a
special meaning.
Verb Example of use
to adapt the health system has been adapted from France
to arise a similar situation arises when we look at younger children
to carry out the largest study was carried out in Finland
to characterise developing countries are characterised by ….
to clarify the project was designed to clarify these contradictions
to concentrate on that study concentrated on older children
to be concerned with the programme is concerned primarily with …
to demonstrate further research has demonstrated that few factors …
to determine the water content was experimentally determined
to discriminate a failure to discriminate between the two species
to emphasise the 1987 report emphasised energy efficiency
to establish the northern boundary was established first
to exhibit half of the patients exhibited signs of improvement
to focus on her work focused on female managers
to generate a question that has generated a range of responses
to hold Newton’s second law, F = ma, holds everywhere …
to identify three main areas have been identified
to imply previous research implies that size is a good predictor
to indicate all the surveys indicate that employees prefer pay rises
to interact understand how the two systems interact
to interpret the conclusion can be interpreted as a limited success
to manifest as manifested in anti-social behaviour
to overcome both difficulties were overcome in the first week
to predict the study predicts that productivity will decline next year
to propose they propose that social class is the main factor
6. Formality in Verbs
2.11 Synonyms
cross reference
2.10 Style
cross reference

to prove the use of solar power is proving successful
to recognise he is now recognised as a leading expert
to relate to the pattern was related to both social and physical factors
to supplement the diet was supplemented with calcium and iodine
to undergo the system underwent major changes in the 1980s
to yield both surveys yielded mixed results
3. Select the better alternative in each case.
a) The survey proved/yielded a surprising amount of information on
student politics.
b) This question arose/manifested when older students were examined.
c) Both writers attempt to demonstrate/imply that older employees are
more reliable.
d) Darwin held/indicated very strong views on this issue.
e) It must be proved/emphasised that these results are only provisional.
f) One of the chimpanzees supplemented/exhibited signs of nervousness.
g) Freud was concerned/identified primarily with middle-class patients.
h) The study was generated/carried out to explore the issue of religious
tolerance.
4. Insert a suitable verb from the box below into each gap.
overcome predict demonstrate interpret
discriminate recognise clarify focus on
a) The results clearly …………… that younger children learn more
quickly.
b) This paper attempts to …………… the confusion surrounding studies
of infertility.
c) Social class must be ………….. as a leading factor in educational
success.
d) His study fails to ………….. between the various types of reinforced
concrete.
e) Most experts failed to …………… the collapse of Soviet power in 1989.
f) It seems profitable to …………… the record of smaller companies.
g) The noises made by whales have been …………… in several ways.
h) This problem was ………….. by reversing the direction of the gas flow.
Formality in Verbs 99

1. Modal verbs used in academic writing tend to have three main
meanings:
a) Ability
May and can are similar but can is more common:
The assessment … may be made in a variety of ways
… with smaller samples this method cannot be used …
... one faculty can have more than one academic programme …
b) Degrees of certainty
Will and should are used for predictions of near certainty (will is
stronger):
… in the knowledge that the parent will be there when needed
Improved facilities should lead to lower staff turnover
May and might both suggest possibility:
Landfill carbon sequestration might supplement fossil fuel combustion …
… multiple factors may lead to a psychiatric consultation …
Would and could are used in conditional situations (not always with if):
… or would we conclude that the observation is uninformative?
… estimates of the model’s parameters could conceivably be computed …
c) Degrees of obligation
Must suggests strong obligation; should is for recommendations:
To obtain a total estimate … several approximations must be used
A primary research emphasis … should then be on identifying …
2. Complete the following sentences with a suitable modal of ability.
a) The question is whether democracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . survive in such difficult
conditions.
b) Fifty years ago a new house. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be bought for £1500.
c) Students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be expected to write more than one long essay a
week.
d) The mistakes of past historians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . now be clearly seen.
e) Jenkins (1976) argued that aluminium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be used in place of
steel.
3. Complete the following with a suitable modal of certainty.
a) It. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not be surprising if the company were bought by a rival.
b) Various social situations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lead to a child’s loss of confidence.
c) Other studies confirm that a permanent shift in transport use . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
occur.
d) By 2020 most children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . have internet access by the age of five.
e) If the pressure is lowered, the reaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . take place more
quickly.
7. Modal Verbs
3.4 Caution
cross reference

f) In the long term, solar power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . make a significant
contribution.
4. Use a suitable modal of obligation to complete the following.
a) Students studying abroad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . take some of their favourite music
with them.
b) All books. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be returned to the main library by June 19th.
c) First-year undergraduates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . take at least three modules from
the list below.
d) The second part of the essay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . focus on the differences in the
results.
5. In the following sentences, the meaning changes according to the modal verb
used. Find two possibilities, giving the meanings in each case.
Example:
Using the internet means the company can sell its products worldwide. (ability)
Using the internet means the company might sell its products worldwide. (possibility)
a) The poorest people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be helped by improving the
supply of water (. . . . . .)
The poorest people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be helped by improving the
supply of water (. . . . . .)
b) Tribal leaders of the 1st century BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . have used writing. (. . . . . .)
Tribal leaders of the 1st century BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . have used writing. (. . . . . .)
c) Few people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . agree to take part in the experiment. (. . . . . .)
Few people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . agree to take part in the experiment. (. . . . . .)
d) Care. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . always be taken when interpreting 19th-century
data. (. . . . . .)
Care. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . always be taken when interpreting 19th-century
data. (. . . . . .)
e) By the mid-21st century poverty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be abolished. (. . . . . .)
By the mid-21st century poverty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be abolished. (. . . . . .)
f) Repeating the study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . confirm their findings. (. . . . . .)
Repeating the study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . confirm their findings. (. . . . . .)
Modal Verbs 101

1. Most nationalities have a regular pattern of nouns and adjectives.
Germany is a leading industrial economy. (country)
The German capital is Berlin. (adjective)
German is spoken by over 100 million. (language)
Germans/The Germans like wine. (people)
Most national adjectives end in -an/-ian/-ish/-ch/-ese/-i.
2. Some nationalities are less regular.
Holland/The Netherlands is located between Belgium and Germany.
The Dutch capital is The Hague.
Dutch is related to German.
Dutch people often speak English well.
Country People Country People Country People
Denmark Danes Iraq Iraqis Switzerland Swiss
Greece Greeks Pakistan Pakistanis Chile Chileans
Poland Poles Thailand Thais Portugal Portuguese
3. Write similar sentences to those above about two of the following:
France Japan Egypt India Ireland Mexico
i) i)
ii) ii)
iii) iii)
iv) iv)
4. The definite article is used with a few countries:
The United Arab Emirates
The United States
The United Kingdom
The Czech Republic
With national adjectives ending in –an/-ian it is possible to say, for
example:
Italians/The Italians/Italian people have enjoyed opera for over 200 years.
With other endings the first form is not possible:
The Japanese/Japanese people like watching sumo wrestling.
NB. England is not a political unit. Although it is possible to use English
people/English food, the nationality is British. The country’s name is Britain
or the United Kingdom.
8. Nationality Language
3.3 Articles
cross reference

Nationality Language 103
5. Complete the spaces in the following sentences with one word.
a) Beijing is the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . capital.
b) The rouble is the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . currency.
c) The largest city in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is Sydney.
d) Many . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . people enjoy going to bullfights.
e) Nelson Mandela was the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . president.
f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . are the only South Americans who speak Portuguese.
g) The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . capital is Baghdad.
h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . speak Spanish and make fine cigars.
6. Write sentences about some of the people in the box, giving their nationality.
Ronaldo Bill Clinton Pablo Picasso Bob Marley
Saddam Hussein Mao Tse-tung Akio Morita Beethoven
Margaret Thatcher Josef Stalin Mahatma Gandhi Yasser Arafat
Example:
Ronaldo is a Brazilian footballer/Ronaldo comes from Brazil.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

1. Compare these sentences:
The efficiency of the machine depends on the precision of its construction.
Precise construction results in an efficient machine.
The first sentence uses the nouns efficiency and precision. The second uses
adjectives: precise and efficient. Although the meaning is similar the first
sentence is more formal. Effective academic writing requires accurate use
of both forms, which can be easily confused.
2. Underline and correct the mistakes in the following:
a) Some areas of the capital are not safety.
b) Various culture patterns in French society need to be considered.
c) The deep of the lake is calculated at 550 metres.
d) A health diet includes fresh fruit and vegetables.
3. Complete the gaps in the table below.
Noun Adjective Noun Adjective Noun Adjective
height reliability heat
strong confident true
width probability necessity
long dangerous relevant
4. Insert a suitable noun or adjective from the table in each sentence.
a) These data appear not to be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and should not be trusted.
b) The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of the matter may never be known, since all the records
are lost.
c) There is a strong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . that coffee prices will fall next year.
d) In some places the River Zambesi is more than three
kilometres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e) The results are so surprising it will be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to repeat the
experiment.
f) It is not easy to see the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of art history to engineering.
g) Regularly backing-up computer files reduces the. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of losing
vital work.
h) Revising for exams is a tedious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i) The building’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is due to its massive steel frame.
j) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in the banking system was destroyed by years of inflation.
5. Underline the adjective(s) in each sentence for which it is possible to form a
related noun. Write the noun in brackets.
Example:
Few patients are likely to suffer side-effects from the drug. (likelihood)
9. Nouns and Adjectives

a) Various methods of dealing with the spread of malaria were
suggested. (. . . . . . . .)
b) Dr Lee adopted an analytical approach to the inquiry. (. . . . . . . .)
c) Antibiotics were not available in the first half of the
20th century. (. . . . . . . .)
d) Her major contribution to the research was her study of
folklore in Spain. (. . . . . . . .)
e) The precise number of people affected by the earthquake
is unknown. (. . . . . . . .) (. . . . . . . .)
f) Some progress was made in the theoretical area. (. . . . . . . .)
g) A frequent complaint is that too much work is expected
in the first semester. (. . . . . . . .)
h) We took a more critical approach to irrigation. (. . . . . . . .)
i) The Department of Social Policy is offering three
courses this year. (. . . . . . . .)
j) Finally, the practical implications of my findings will be
examined. (. . . . . . . .)
6. Complete the gaps in the table below.
Noun Adjective Noun Adjective
approximation approximate particular
superiority reason
strategic synthetic
politics economy
industrial cultural
exterior average
7. Complete the sentences with nouns or adjectives from the table above.
a) The. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . consequences of the war were inflation and
unemployment.
b) 365.25 days is an. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of the length of the solar year.
c) One. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of British weather is that it is very changeable.
d) All. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . doors are fitted with security systems.
e) They attempted to make a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of all the different proposals.
f) The. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . length of time patients have to wait is 34.6 weeks.
g) The traditional idea that the sun went round the earth
was. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , but wrong.
h) Ancient Japanese. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . was highly developed in areas such as
poetry and ceramics.
Nouns and Adjectives 105

1. Most nouns in English are countable, but the following are generally
uncountable, i.e. they are not usually used with numbers or the plural ‘s’.
accommodation information scenery
advice knowledge staff
behaviour money traffic
commerce news travel
data permission trouble
education progress vocabulary
equipment research weather
furniture rubbish work
2. Another group of uncountable nouns is used for materials:
wood/rubber/iron/coffee/paper/water/oil/stone
Little wood is used in the construction of motor vehicles.
Huge amounts of paper are used to produce magazines.
Many of these nouns can be used as countable nouns with a rather
different meaning:
Over twenty daily papers are published in Delhi.
Many woods in the county have a long recorded history.
3. The most difficult group can be used either as countable or uncountable
nouns, often with quite different meanings.
She developed an interest in bio-genetics.
The bank is paying 4% interest on six-month deposits.
Other nouns with a similar pattern are used for general concepts
(love/fear/hope).
Most people feel that life is too short. (in general)
Nearly twenty lives were lost in the mining accident. (in particular)
Complete the following sentences to show the differences in meaning.
a) Three years’ experience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) She had some exciting experiences while. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) Most small businesses have. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d) In many countries it is normal to discuss business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e) A number of capitals such as Washington and Canberra are. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
f) Huge amounts of capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g) Two world wars in thirty years caused. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
h) War is a feature of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . was the cause of six deaths.
j) Death is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
k) New medicines are developed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l) Studying medicine at university can be. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. Nouns: Countable and Uncountable
3.18 Singular/Plural
cross reference

4. Note the importance of the type of noun in the following structures:
Questions: How much accommodation (U) is available for rent?
How many rooms (C) are vacant next month?
Negatives: Not much/Little equipment (U) was needed for the experiment.
Not many/Few machines (C) were functioning in the IT room.
5. In the following sentences, choose the correct alternative.
a) Little/few news reached the prisoners in the castle.
b) He established three successful businesses/business in 1995.
c) Substantial experiences/experience of report writing are/is required.
d) It has often been claimed that travel broadens/travels broaden the mind.
e) Paper was/papers were very expensive in the Middle Ages.
f) How much advice/many advices were they given before coming to Britain?
g) She had little interest/few interests outside her work.
h) The insurance policy excludes the effects of civil war/wars.
i) Irons were/iron was first powered by electricity in the twentieth century.
j) They studied the behaviour/behaviours of three groups of lions over two years.
6. Complete the gaps in the following paragraph with much/many/little/few.
Very a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . data is available to students of housing of the 6th–9th centuries A.D. No
complete examples survive, and researchers are not certain how b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .information can
be taken from the literature. It is not clear how c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . people lived in each house, and in
the d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sites that have been investigated (only four in the whole country)
e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . progress has been made towards finding a standard floor plan.
Nouns: Countable and Uncountable 107

1. The passive is used when the writer wants to focus on the result, not on
the cause:
The book was written in 1926. (passive)
My father wrote the book. (active)
In the first sentence, the emphasis is on the date, in the second on the
writer. So the passive is used in written English when the cause (a person
or thing) is less important or unknown.
The treaty will be signed next year. (by someone)
The tower was destroyed a century ago. (by something)
It is quite common to show the cause of the action by adding by …
The army was helped by good weather in the autumn of 1296.
2. The passive is also used in written work to avoid using I or we:
The findings were evaluated.
An analysis will be made.
Change the following into the passive.
a) We collected the data and compared the two groups.
b) I interviewed 120 people in three social classes.
c) They checked the results and found several errors.
3. An adverb is often inserted in a passive form:
This process is commonly called ‘networking’.
Change the following sentences from active to passive and insert a
suitable adverb from the box below.
a) A storm damaged 40% of the houses in the port.
b) The Connors family ran the company until 1981.
c) They had built the house near the station.
d) Picasso painted the portrait of the old man.
e) They provided pencils for all students in the exam.
f) Doctors tested over 550 people for the disease over a three-year period.
g) The researchers calculated the percentages to three decimal places.
h) They called their business the Universal Trading Company.
conveniently optimistically helpfully brilliantly
regularly precisely efficiently badly
11. Passives
2.10 Style
cross reference
3.2 Adverbs
cross reference

4. In most texts the active and the passive are mixed.
Read the following article and underline the passives.
BOOTS THE CHEMISTS
When John Boot died at 45, he was worn out by the strain of establishing his herbal medicine
business. He had worked his way up from his early years as a farm labourer to be the owner of
a substantial business. He was born in 1815, became a member of a Methodist chapel in
Nottingham, and later moved to the city. Concerned by the situation of the poor, who were
unable to afford a doctor, in 1849 he opened a herbal medicine shop which was called the
British and American Botanic Establishment. In the early stages John was helped financially by
his father-in-law, while his mother provided herbal knowledge.
On his death in 1860 the business was taken over by his wife, and she was soon assisted by
their 10-year-old son, Jesse. He quickly showed the business ability which transformed his
father’s shop into a national business. He opened more shops in poor districts of the city and
pioneered advertising methods. Another innovation was to do all his business in cash, rather
than offering credit.
5. Could all the passives in the text be replaced by the active? What would be
the result if most of them were?
6. The passive is used more in written than in spoken English, but should
not be over-used, because it can give a very formal tone.
In the following text, which continues the history of Boots, the
passive is used throughout. Change some of them into the active.
In 1889 he was introduced to Florence Rowe, the daughter of a bookseller, while on holiday. Her
influence was felt by the business after they were married: the product range was enlarged to
include stationery and books. In addition she was responsible for the introduction of the Boots
subscription library and in-store cafes.
During World War 1 the factories were used to make a variety of products from sterilizers to gas
masks. But by 1920 Jesse was being attacked by arthritis and was worried by the economic
prospects. Boots was sold to an American rival for £2 m. This, however, was made bankrupt
during the Depression and Boots was then bought by a British group for £6 m, while Jesse’s
son, John, was made chairman. The famous No. 7 cosmetics range was launched in the
1930s. In the 1939–45 War the saccharin equivalent to 700,000 tons of sugar was produced in
the Nottingham factories.
Passives 109

1. Automatically and uncontrollable are examples of words containing
prefixes and suffixes. Words like these are much easier to understand if
you know how prefixes and suffixes affect word meaning.
Prefixes change or give the meaning.
Suffixes show the meaning or the word class.
Prefix Meaning Suffix Word class/meaning
auto- by itself -ally adverb
un- negative -able ability
The machine started automatically.
The class of young boys was uncontrollable.
2. Prefixes.
a) Negative prefixes. un-, in-, mis- and dis- often give adjectives and verbs
a negative meaning: unclear, insane, mishear, disagree.
b) A wide variety of prefixes define meaning, e.g. pre- usually means
before; hence prefer, prehistory and, of course, prefix.
3. Common prefixes.
Find the meaning(s) of each prefix.
NB. Some prefixes have more than one meaning.
auto autopilot The plane flew on autopilot for six hours
co co-ordinator The co-ordinator invited them to a meeting
ex ex-girlfriend He met his ex-girlfriend on the station
ex exclusive It is difficult to join such an exclusive club
micro microscope She studied the tiny animals with a microscope
multi multinational Ford is a multi-national motor company
over oversleep After oversleeping twice she got an alarm clock
post postpone The meeting is postponed to next Monday
re return Return the letter to the sender
sub subtitle Chinese films have subtitles in England
under undergraduate Most undergraduate courses last 3 years
under undercook Undercooked meat can be a health hazard
N.B. Some prefixes have more than one meaning
4. Suggest possible meanings for the words in italic.
a) Criminal activity seems to be very common among the underclass.
b) The passengers found the jet was overbooked and had to wait for the
next flight.
12. Prefixes and Suffixes

c) The microclimate in my garden means that I can grow oranges.
d) It is claimed that computers have created a post-industrial economy.
e) Most film stars have ex-directory phone numbers.
f) It is believed that dreams are produced by the subconscious.
5. Suffixes.
a) Some suffixes like -ion, -ive or -ly help the reader find the word class.
b) Other suffixes add to meaning, e.g. -ful or -less after an adjective have a
positive or negative effect (thoughtful/thoughtless).
6. Word class suffixes.
nouns -er often indicates a person: teacher, gardener
-ee shows the person who is the subject: trainer/trainee
-ism and -ist are used with belief systems and their supporters: capitalism/capitalist
-ness converts an adjective into a noun: sad/sadness
-ion changes a verb to a noun: convert/conversion
adjectives -ive: effective, constructive
-al: commercial, agricultural
-ous: precious, serious
verbs -ise/-ize to form verbs from adjectives: private/privatise
adverbs -ly; most (but not all) adverbs have this suffix: happily
7. Meaning suffixes.
A few suffixes contribute to the meaning of the word:
-able has the meaning of ability: a watchable film, changeable weather
-wards means in the direction of: the ship sailed northwards
-ful and -less: hopeful news, a leaderless army
8. Give the word class and suggest possible meanings for:
a) cancellation
b) unpredictable
c) coincidental
d) saleable
e) uncooperatively
f) interviewee
g) evolutionary
h) surrealism
i) protester
j) symbolically
Prefixes and Suffixes 111

9. Study each sentence and find the meaning of the words in italic.
a) The film is a French–Italian co-production made by a subsidiary company.
b) When the car crashed she screamed involuntarily but was unharmed.
c) Using rechargeable batteries has undoubted benefits for the environment.
d) The unavailability of the product is due to the exceptional weather.
e) There is a theoretical possibility of the cloth disintegrating.

1. Underline the prepositions in the following text.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the development of the textile industry in Britain over
the period 1750–1850. This clearly contributed to the nation’s industrialisation, and was
valuable for stimulating exports. In conclusion, the paper sets out to demonstrate the
relationship between the decline in agricultural employment and the supply of cheap labour in
the factory context.
The table lists the main ways of using prepositions.
Find one example of each in the text.
noun + preposition purpose of
verb + preposition
adjective + preposition
phrasal verb
preposition of place
preposition of time
phrase
NB. The difference between phrasal verbs and verbs with prepositions:
The cars are made in Korea. (verb + preposition = easy to understand)
The writer made up the story in a night. (phrasal verb = hard to understand)
2. Study these further examples of preposition use and decide on their type.
a) There are a number of limitations to be considered … (noun + )
b) The results would be applicable to all managers … (. . . . . . )
c) … the data was gathered from a questionnaire (. . . . . . .)
d) All the items were placed within their categories (. . . . . . .)
e) The results of the investigation are still pertinent … (. . . . . . .)
f) The respondents had spent on average 4.9 years … (. . . . . . .)
g) … most countries in sub-Saharan Africa … (. . . . . . .)
h) … within a short spell of four years (. . . . . . .)
3. Insert a suitable preposition before or after the nouns in the sentences below.
a) Evidence is presented in support. . . . . the value of women’s work.
b) A small change. . . . . demand can lead to large price rises.
c) Many examples were found. . . . . high levels of calcium.
d) We tried to assess the feasibility. . . . . allowing children to choose their
own subjects.
e) The second point is their impact. . . . . developing countries.
4. Complete the following phrases with the correct prepositions.
a) . . . . . the whole
b) point . . . . . view
Prepositions 113
13. Prepositions
cross reference

c) in respect . . . . .
d) . . . . . spite of
e) in support . . . . .
5. Complete the following sentences with suitable prepositions of place or
time.
a) . . . . . . . . . . . . the respondents, few had any experience of working abroad.
b) Industrial production declined gradually . . . . . . . . . . . . 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1985.
c) Most workers . . . . . . . . . . . . the European Union retire before the
age . . . . . . . . . . . . 60.
d) Albert Einstein was born . . . . . . . . . . . . Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . 1879.
e) Many flowers open their petals . . . . . . . . . . . . the morning and close
them . . . . . . . . . . . . night.
f) . . . . . . . . . . . . the surface, there is no difference . . . . . . . . . . . . male and female
responses.
6. Complete the text with suitable prepositions.
This study sets a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to answer the controversial question b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . whether
increased food supply c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a country makes a significant contribution
d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reducing malnutrition e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . children. It uses data collected
f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 countries g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1969 and 1987. The findings are that there was a
considerable improvement h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the majority i) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . countries, despite
population increases j) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the period. However, a clear distinction was found
k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the poorest countries (e.g. l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . South Asia), where the improvement
was greatest, and the wealthier states such as those m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . North Africa. Other
factors, notably the educational level n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . women, were also found to be critical
o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . improving childhood nutrition.

1. The following verbs are generally used with these prepositions:
Verb + prep. Example
add to The bad weather added to the General’s difficulties.
agree with Yu (1977) agrees with Martin and Jenks (1989).
associate with Monetarism is an economic policy associated with Mrs Thatcher.
believe in The survey showed that 65% believed in life after death.
blame for He blamed unfair questions for his poor exam results.
concentrate on* She dropped all her hobbies to concentrate on her work.
consist of Parliament consists of two Houses: the Commons and the Lords.
depend on* The company depends on IT for a rapid flow of sales data.
derive from All modern computers derive from wartime decoding machines.
divide into Trees are divided into two main types: conifers and deciduous.
invest in Far more money needs to be invested in primary education.
learn from All successful students learn from their mistakes.
pay for Goods delivered in April must be paid for by June 30th.
point out Goodson (2001) points out the dangers of over-specialisation.
specialise in This department specialises in French-Canadian poetry.
* focus on and rely on are similar.
2. Complete the following with suitable verbs and prepositions.
a) The enquiry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the cause of the accident, not the
consequences.
b) Dr Cracknell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . that there were only two weeks before the
deadline.
c) Fewer British students are. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foreign languages.
d) The theory of relativity will always be. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Albert Einstein.
e) A football pitch is. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . two halves.
f) A series of strikes were. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the decline in production during
May.
g) Millions of men died for the cause they. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
h) Every nation needs a public transport system it can. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prepositions after Verbs 115
14. Prepositions after Verbs
3.13 Prepositions
cross reference

3. With the following verbs more than one preposition is possible.
Note the change of meaning in some cases.
Verb + preposition Example
compare to/with The stock market has been compared with/to a casino.
look at/into The evidence needs to be looked at/into more carefully.
look for Most students use search engines to look for information.
apply to He applied to the committee for a grant.
apply for To apply for the job three forms must be completed.
4. Choose suitable verbs and prepositions from (1) and (3) to complete the
following text.
The new model of camera, the Alpha 616, a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the previous
model, the 615. The Alpha 616 b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a standard camera with
a small tape recorder c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . it. This allows the photographer to
talk to the camera. The marketing unit d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the camera
market carefully and discovered that many people forget where they take
pictures. These people can now e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the Alpha 616 to
remember for them.
The company has f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . over £2 million . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the
new product. g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . other projects this may seem a small
amount, but this is not a large business. It is hoped that customers will h) .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . over £100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the camera, which the company
will i) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . for significant profits next year.

1. Capitals.
It is difficult to give precise rules about the use of capital letters in modern
English. However, they should be used in the following cases:
a) The first word in a sentence In the beginning…
b) Names of organisations Sheffield Hallam University
c) Days and months Friday 21st July
d) Nationality words France and the French
e) Names of people/places Dr Martin Turner from Edinburgh
f) Titles (capitalise main words only) The Uses of Literacy/The Duke of Kent
2. Apostrophes (’).
These are one of the most misused features of English punctuation. They
are mainly used in two situations:
a) to show contractions It’s generally believed …
NB. Contractions are not common in academic English.
b) with possessives The professor’s secretary (singular)
Students’ marks (plural)
3. Semi-colons (;).
These are used to show the link between two connected phrases when a
comma would be too weak and a full stop too strong.
Twenty people were interviewed for the first study; thirty-three for the second.
Semi-colons are also used to divide up items in a list when they have a
complex structure:
Among the presents received by the president were three oil paintings of himself, all flattering; a
pair of green parrots, which were very noisy; a solid gold medal and three or four suits of
clothes.
NB. Semi-colons are quite rare in most types of writing.
4. Colons (:).
a) to introduce explanations The meeting was postponed: the Dean
was ill.
b) to start a list Two factors were discussed: cultural
and social.
c) to introduce a quotation As Orwell said: ‘all art is propaganda’.
5. Quotation marks/inverted commas (‘…’ / “…”).
a) single quotation marks are used to emphasise a word, to give
quotations from other writers and to show direct speech:
The word ‘quiz’ was first used in the nineteenth century.
Goodwin’s (1977) analysis of habit … indicates that, in general, ‘it will be more difficult
to reverse a trend than to accentuate it’.
‘Can anyone find the answer?’ asked the lecturer.
Punctuation 117
15. Punctuation
2.9 References and
Quotations
cross reference

NB. Longer quotations are usually indented (i.e. have a wider margin) or
are set in smaller type.
b) double quotation marks are used to show quotations inside quotations
(nested quotations):
As Murphy has observed: ‘Concepts of “typical” need careful examination.’
c) quotation marks are used for the names of articles and chapters, but
book and journal titles use italics.
6. Other punctuation marks.
Hyphens (-) are used with certain words and structures:
well-engineered/co-operative/three-year-old
Exclamation marks (!) and question marks (?):
’Well!’ he shouted. ‘Who would believe it?’
Brackets (…) are used to contain information of lesser importance:
There were only 31 marriages (out of 13,829) in which ‘baker’ was listed.
7. Punctuate the following sentences.
a) on tuesday june 6 1759 in the church at derby nicolas james married
mary dewey
b) professor rowans new book the triumph of capitalism is published in
new york
c) how many people would agree with john lennon when he said all you
need is love
d) the probability was calculated for each of the three faculties physics
biology and law
e) as cammack 1994 points out latin america is creating a new
phenomenon democracy without citizens
f) thousands of new words such as website enter the english language
each year
g) dr tanners latest study focuses on childrens reactions to stress in the
playground
h) she scored 56% on the main course the previous semester she had
achieved 67%
8. Punctuate the text.
the london school of business is offering three new courses this year economics with
psychology introduction to management and ecommerce the first is taught by dr jennifer hillary
and runs from october to january the second introduction to management for msc finance
students is offered in the second semester and is assessed by coursework only professor
wangs course in ecommerce runs in both the autumn and the spring and is for more
experienced students

1. Referring verbs are used to summarise another writer’s ideas.
Wilsher argued that the single play had been consigned to television history.
Heffernan (1972) found that adaptation to prison was facilitated by …
They may also be used to introduce a quotation from the writer.
… as Peter Huber has observed, ‘Coal itself is yesterday’s landfill …’
2. Most of these verbs are followed by a noun clause beginning with that.
a) The following mean that the writer is presenting a case:
argue claim consider hypothesise suggest believe think state
Martins (1975) claimed that many mergers led to lower profits.
b) A second group describes a reaction to another writer’s position:
accept admit agree deny doubt
Handlesmith doubts Martins’s claim that lower profits resulted from …
c) Others include:
assume conclude discover explain imply indicate maintain presume
reveal show
3. Write a sentence referring to what the following writers said (more than one
verb may be suitable).
Example:
Z: ‘My research shows that cats are cleverer than dogs.’
Z claimed/argued that cats were cleverer than dogs.
a) A: ‘You could be right. I may have made a mistake in my estimate.’
b) B: ‘I did not say that sheep were faster than horses.’
c) C: ‘Whales are very intelligent animals.’
d) D: ‘I support A’s position on cats and dogs.’
e) E: ‘I’m not sure, but cows probably get cold in winter.’
Referring Verbs 119
16. Referring Verbs
2.9 References and
Quotations
cross reference

f) F: ‘After much research, I’ve found that pigs can’t fly.’
g) G: ‘On my travels in the jungle I found a new type of frog.’
h) H: ‘I think it unlikely that cats can learn to talk.’
i) I: ‘Somebody should compare mouse behaviour with rat behaviour.’
j) J: ‘There may be a link between health and the seasons.’
4. A small group of verbs is followed by (somebody/something + for +
noun/gerund):
Lee (1998) blamed foreign investors for the panic.
blame censure commend condemn criticise
NB. All except commend have a negative meaning.
A final group is followed by (somebody/something + as + noun/gerund):
Terry interprets rising oil prices as a response to Asian recovery.
assess characterise classify define describe evaluate identify
interpret portray present
5. Re-write the following statements using verbs from the lists in (4).
a) K: ‘X’s work is responsible for a lot of our current economic problems.’
b) L: ‘She was very careless about her research methods.’
c) M: ‘There are three main species of bees.’
d) N: ‘The cat family are the kings of the animal world.’
e) O: ‘I’m sure that dogs bark because they are nervous.’
f) P: ‘Trying to estimate the number of animal species is like shooting in
the dark.’
g) Q: ‘Darwin was the greatest naturalist of the nineteenth century.’
h) R: ‘An insect is a six-legged arthropod.’
i) S: ‘Queen Victoria was a short, rather fat woman with dark eyes.’
j) T: ‘Gregor Mendel can be considered the founder of modern genetics.’

1. Relative pronouns (who/whose/where/which/that) introduce a relative
clause.
The journal, which was edited by my tutor, was missing from the library.
The college where he studied has been given £4 million.
The teacher who interviewed me was a specialist in ancient music.
Dr Yamada, whose lecture I attended, presented the prizes.
He wrote about the area that I was interested in.
Which relative pronouns are used for:
a) places?
b) people?
c) things?
d) possession?
2. Insert a suitable relative pronoun in these sentences.
a) The book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . he wanted had been borrowed by someone else.
b) Beijing,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . she studied for six months, used to be called
Peking.
c) Charlie Chaplin,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . was born in England, was a great film
comedian.
d) A hydrometer is an instrument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is used to measure density
in liquids.
e) Few people have heard of the man. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . invented television.
f) Mercury,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is a liquid element, is used in many industrial
processes.
3. As can be seen from the examples above, there are two kinds of relative
clauses:
a) Those which define the subject. In this case the relative clause must be
included:
The college where he studied has been given £4 million.
b) Those which give additional details:
The journal, which was edited by my tutor, was missing from the library.
Here the relative clause could be removed and the meaning would still be
clear.
In this second type the relative clause is surrounded by commas (,),
brackets or dashes ( – )
4. Decide if the following sentences contain defining (D) or additional detail
(A) clauses.
a) Akio Morita was the person who invented the Walkman.
b) The first thing that he did was to introduce a new system of assessment.
c) The medical school, which has a very good reputation, charges £20,000 per year.
Relative Pronouns 121
17. Relative Pronouns
2.4 Definitions
cross reference

d) The president (who enjoyed playing jazz) was elected for a second term.
e) A hurricane is a tropical storm that can do enormous damage.
5. In defining clauses both that and which can be used with things.
Toyota is a Japanese company that/which makes cars.
But for clauses that provide additional detail only which can be used:
Volkswagen, which is a German company, is a major car producer.
In defining clauses where the relative pronoun is the object its use is
optional:
She applied to the university (that/which) her tutor had recommended.
The course (that/which) I wanted to take was not offered this semester.
The tutor (who) she wanted to meet was away for two months.
When the relative pronoun is the subject it must be included:
The scientists who discovered DNA worked in Cambridge.
Decide if the relative pronouns in the following are necessary. If not,
cross them out.
a) It was not known who was responsible for the explosion.
b) The man who I read about was born in Scotland.
c) The book that the professor wrote was remarkably short.
d) Squirrels are mammals that live mainly in trees.
e) The article that she referred to was published last year.
6. Insert a suitable relative pronoun in the text below. Write X if the pronoun
is optional.
King Camp Gillette, a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . invention of the disposable razor blade made his
name world-famous, was an American b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . had spent 40 years looking for a
saleable invention. The idea c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . changed his fortunes occurred in 1895, but
he met considerable difficulties producing a thin, sharp blade d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . could be
made cheaply. He sold shares in the company to pay for the development work
e). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . his partner, William Dickerson, was doing. In 1903, f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . was their first year of business, they produced only 51 razors. But due to intensive
advertising, g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . potential Gillette quickly recognised, they rapidly increased
sales to 250,000 two years later. The modern razor, h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is usually double-
bladed, is directly related to the idea i) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gillette had over a hundred years
ago.

1. This can be a confusing area, but the following illustrate the main areas
of difficulty:
a) Nouns should agree with verbs, and pronouns with nouns:
Those problems are unique.
There are many arguments in favour.
b) Uncountable nouns and irregular plurals have no final -s:
Most students receive free tuition.
DNA is located in every part; hair, nails, teeth …
c) General statements normally use the plural:
State universities have lower fees.
d) Each and every are followed by singular nouns:
Every student gets financial support.
e) Two linked nouns should agree:
Both the similarities and differences are important.
Find the mistake in the following and decide what type (a–e above)
it is.
a) The proposal has both advantages and disadvantage. (. . . . .)
b) A majority of children in Thailand is vaccinated against measles. (. . . . .)
c) There are few young people in rural area. (. . . . .)
d) Many places are experiencing an increase in crimes. (. . . . .)
e) Each towns have their own councils. (. . . . .)
2. Study the following group phrases.
Singular + plural Plural + plural Plural + uncountable
half the universities two types of institutions three areas of enquiry
a range of businesses various kinds of courses several fields of research
one of the elements many species of ants rates of progress
Note that if a verb has more than one subject it must be plural, even if the
preceding noun is singular:
Scores of students, some teachers and the president are at the meeting.
Their valuable suggestions and hard work were vital.
Certain group nouns, e.g. team/army /government, can be followed by
either a singular or plural verb:
The team was defeated three times last month. (collectively)
The team were travelling by train or bus. (separately)
Singular/Plural 123
18. Singular/Plural
2.7 Generalisations
3.10 Nouns: Countable and
Uncountable
cross reference

3. Underline and correct the mistakes in the following (one per sentence).
a) More must be done to solve that problems of development.
b) There are two sorts of college in Japan.
c) The attitude towards this issue vary from person to person.
d) Many culture from around the world are found in the city.
e) In the country the people is more friendly.
f) It is common to move from the countryside to find job.
g) Huge number of cars use the motorway.
h) The city have disadvantages such as a high rate of crime.
i) Public transport lets us move to another places easily.
j) There are bad pollution due to traffic congestion.
k) People should not ignore important factors that affect their life.
4. Read the text and choose the correct alternative.
A large number of company/companies has/have developed website/websites in the last few
years. Trading using the internet is called e-commerce/e-commerces, and this/these is/are
divided into two main kinds: B2B and B2C. Many business/businesses want to use the internet
to sell directly to its/their customers (B2C), but large numbers have experienced
trouble/troubles with security/securities and other practical issues. In addition, the high start-up
costs and the expense/expenses of advertising means/mean that this/these
company/companies often struggle to make a profit.

1. Decide which tenses are used in the following examples (verbs in italic) and
complete the table to explain why.
a) According to Hoffman (1996), small firms respond more rapidly to changes …
b) Currently, inflation in the US is rising while imports are falling.
c) Since November there has been a significant increase in cases of influenza.
d) In the last three years more students have been working part-time.
e) After the war there was a sharp rise in divorce.
f) During 1998 they were developing a new system.
g) The study was published in June. It showed that in 1998 and 1999 profits had
increased by 55%.
h) The forecast concludes that interest rates will reach 7.5% next year.
Tense Reason for use
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
NB. In the last month/year/decade = present perfect (unfinished period).
Last month/year/decade = simple past (finished period).
2. Complete the following sentences by selecting the most suitable tenses.
a) Home ownership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (rise) steadily for fifty years.
b) GM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (stand for) genetically modified.
Tenses 125
19. Tenses

c) Last year the police. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (record) a record number of crimes.
d) When she died in 1986 she. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (write) over 50 books.
e) By 2050 average temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (be) at least 2 degrees
higher.
f) At the moment the bank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (consider) a merger proposal
from Barclays.
g) When the market crashed the company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (build) 3
hotels in Asia.
h) Lee (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (dispute) Sakamoto’s theory.
i) In the last six years inflation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (fall) sharply in Europe.
3. Simple or continuous?
a) In general, the continuous is used to focus on the activity itself or to
stress its temporary nature. Compare the following:
She has been writing that report for six days. (activity)
He is writing a travel article. (temporary)
She writes children’s books. (usually)
b) Also note that certain verbs are rarely used in the continuous. They are
state verbs like prefer, want and believe. Another similar group is known
as performative verbs (assume, deny, promise, refuse, suggest).
4. Select either simple or continuous in each case:
a) The team at Cambridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (work) on a rare type of brain
disease.
b) He. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(believe) he will finish the study early next year.
c) This magazine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(look for) a new writer on technology.
d) In the late 1990s she was working on rice plants but now she . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(research) potatoes.
e) The average age of marriage in Britain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (rise) by six years
since 1970.
f) The company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (own) factories in 12 countries.
g) Most people in the city. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (live) within two kilometres of their
work.
h) Dr McPherson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (attend) a conference in South America this
week.
5. When writing paragraphs, it is important to be clear about which time
phrases control the tenses of verbs:
For years, the condition of the family has produced some of the strongest debate heard in
America. The statistics of collapse have appeared simple and clear. The proportion of children
born outside marriage rose from 18% in 1980 to 33% in 1999. The share of households made
up of two parents and their children fell from 45% in 1960 to only 23% in 2000.
In this case, the time phrase For years controls the tense of the first two
sentences (present perfect). The following two sentences are in the simple
3.11 Passives
3.20 Time Words and Phrases
cross reference

past because of the dates 1980, 1999 and 1960, which show finished
periods.
6. Read the text below and select the most suitable tense for each verb in
brackets (time phrases in italic).
For a long time gardeners a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (suspect) that using green fingers is just as
effective as talking softly to plants to encourage growth. Scientists b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(develop) a robot that strokes young plants to make them grow stronger and faster. But after
research a year ago c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (confirm) that plants need the human touch,
scientists at Greenwich University d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (develop) the stroking machine they
call Dr Green.
Dr Green e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (be display) at the last Chelsea Flower Show, where it
f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (demonstrate) the technique of brushing the tips of young plants to produce
stronger specimens. David Carey, who is leading the research, g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (say) that the
machine could avoid the use of chemicals.
Currently, Dr Green h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (be test) on a large scale by a commercial grower.
Stroking plants once a day i) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (make) them 30% stronger, which is what you
need before you plant them out. When another kind of plant was stroked once a week, it
j) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (develop) increased insect resistance. The research team hope that a cheap
version of Dr Green k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (be available) to amateur gardeners by 2007.
Tenses 127

1. Study the use of the following:
She went on a training course for six weeks. (with numbers)
The report must be finished by June 12th. (on or before)
He has been president since 1998. (usually with present perfect)
They are studying in Bristol until March. (end of a period)
The library was opened two years ago. (usually with past)
The hotel is closed during the winter. (with noun)
Before writing he studied over 100 sources. (often followed by -ing form; also after)
2. Compare the use of the following phrases.
Recently, there has been a sharp rise in internet use. (present perfect)
Currently, there is a vigorous debate about human rights. (present)
Last year there was an election in Spain. (past)
In the last year there has been a sharp rise in inflation. (present perfect)
3. Study Rachel’s schedule for her last business trip and complete the sentences
below with a suitable word. It is now April 16.
March 12 Fly London – Milan
March 13–14 Conference Milan
March 15 Train Milan – Paris
March 16 Meeting in Paris office
March 17 Fly Paris – Hong Kong
March 18–19 Tour of new development
March 20 Fly Hong Kong – London
a) …………… month Rachel made a business trip.
b) ……………. her trip she visited three countries.
c) ……………. March 18th she had travelled 10,000 miles.
d) She was away from home …………… nine days altogether.
e) A month …………… she was in Paris.
f) She stayed in Hong Kong …………… March 20th.
g) …………….. she is writing a report on her trip.
4. Choose the best alternative in each case.
a) Currently/recently she has been researching the life cycle of a species of wasp.
b) She lived in France until/during the war broke out, and then she went home.
c) Professor Yung has worked here since/for sixteen years.
d) Last month/in the last month a new book was published on the subject.
e) Applications must be received by/on November 25th.
20. Time Words and Phrases
3.5 Conjunctions
3.19 Tenses
cross reference

f) Since/during her arrival last May she has re-organised the department.
g) During/for the winter most farmers in the region find work in the towns.
5. Complete the following text with a suitable word or phrase.
EATING OUT
a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . the last few decades there has been a significant change in eating habits in the
UK. b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . the early 1980s eating out in restaurants and cafes has increased steadily.
There are several reasons for this trend.
50 years c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . most women were housewives, and cooked for their families every day.
But d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . , with more women working outside the home, less time has been available
for food preparation. e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 71% of women aged 20–45 are at work, and
f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2015 it is estimated that this will rise to 84%.
Another factor is the growth in disposable income, which has risen significantly
g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . the late 1970s. With more money in their pockets people are more likely to save
the trouble of shopping and cooking by visiting their local restaurant.
6. Study the details of Napoleon’s life and complete the biography below.
1769 born in Corsica
1784 entered military school in Paris
1789 French revolution started
1793 promoted to brigadier general
1796 appointed to command army of Italy; married Josephine
1799 returned from Egypt and became First Consul of France
1807 France controlled most of continental Europe
1810 divorced Josephine and married Marie-Louise, daughter of
Austrian emperor
1812 forced to retreat from Russia
1814 exiled to Elba
1815 defeated at Waterloo and exiled to St Helena
1821 died in exile
Napoleon entered military school at the age of 15, five years a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . the start of the
French revolution. He rose quickly, becoming brigadier general at 24 and commander of the
Italian army three years b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . At 30 he was effectively the French dictator, and due to
his military genius France controlled most of Europe c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807. When he divorced his
first wife, Josephine, in 1810, they had been married d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 years. His campaigns
were successful e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1812, but in that year the disastrous retreat from Moscow
marked the start of his decline. However, f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . his years of absolute power he had
made significant changes to European law and government. Although he died nearly 200 years
g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . , Napoleon’s influence is still felt throughout the continent.
Time Words and Phrases 129

There are many possible formats for different types of essays, as well as
non-academic texts such as letters and CVs. If a selection of formal letters,
for example, is studied, it will be seen that different styles of heading and
layout are used by different organisations. However, the following
models are provided so that students may use the outlines confident that
they will be acceptable in almost all situations.
Comparison and argument are common components of essay titles, and
the models given here show one way of answering the questions.
However, it must be remembered that argument may be only one part of
the question, so that both comparison and discussion (plus other
elements) could well be needed in the same essay (as illustrated in 4.4
Comparison Essay).
Faculties and departments may well give new students guidance about
what is required in terms of style and layout. Above all, students need to
examine a variety of styles of letters, CVs and essays, and to develop a
suitable style of their own by synthesising the most appropriate features.
4. Writing Models

1. You have applied for a place on an MA course at a British university. This
is the letter you have received in reply:
a) Arts & Social Sciences Admissions Office
Wye House
Central Campus
University of Borchester
Borchester BR3 5HT
United Kingdom
b) Ms P Tan
54 Sydney Road
Rowborough RB1 6FD
c) Ref: MB/373
d) 3 May 2002
e) Dear Ms Tan
f) Application for MA International Studies
g) Further to your recent application, I would like to invite you to the
university for an informal interview on Tuesday 21st May at 11 am.
You will be able to meet the course supervisor, Dr Schmidt, and look
round the department.
h) A map of the campus and instructions for finding the university are
enclosed.
i) Please let me know if you will be able to attend on the date given.
j) Yours sincerely
k) M. Bramble
l) Mick Bramble
Administrative Assistant
Arts & Social Sciences
Enc.
Label the following features of formal letters with the letters (a–l)
from the left margin above.
(d) Date (…) Ending (…) Request for response
(…) Greeting (…) Address of recipient (…) Address of sender
(…) Further details (…) Reason for writing (…) Sender’s reference
(…) Subject headline (…) Signature (…) Writer’s name and title
Formal Letters 133
1. Formal Letters
3.1 Abbreviations
4.2 CVs
cross reference

Note the following points:
a) When writing to somebody whose name you do not know, e.g. The
Manager, use Dear Sir and Yours faithfully.
b) A formal letter generally uses the family name in the greeting (Dear Ms
Tan). Certain organisations may, however, use a first name with a
family name or even a first name alone (Dear Jane Tan/Dear Jane).
c) If the sender includes a reference it is helpful to quote it in your reply.
2. Write a reply to Mr Bramble making the following points:
a) You will attend the interview on the date given.
b) You would like to have the interview one hour later, owing to train times.
54 Sydney Road
Rowborough
RB1 6FD
3. Study the following newspaper advert. You have decided to apply for this
job. Make notes for your letter of application, then write the letter, paying
attention to layout as well as content.
STAFF REQUIRED FOR RECEPTION WORK AT CITY HOTEL
We are looking for enthusiastic and helpful receptionists (m/f) to join our team.
Candidates should be well-presented and able to speak at least two languages.
Hotel experience not necessary as training will be given. Ability to get on with
people and work in a team more important. Some evening and weekend work.
Good conditions and rates of pay. Apply in writing with CV and covering letter to:
The Manager, Hotel Nelson, Queens Road, Rowborough RB2 4RN quoting
Ref. EN2.
134 Part 4: Writing Models

1. CV stands for curriculum vitae (also known as a resumé).
A CV is a summary of your education and work experience, often
requested by prospective employers. Most professionals store their CVs
electronically so that they can be updated when necessary.
2. There is considerable debate about the format of CVs, and much
depends on your experience and the area you are working in.
The example given below is relatively short, as would be expected for a
recent graduate.
Sarah Ann Atkins
DOB 19.6.77
Email: saa@virgin.net
Career aim
To develop my experience in marketing in a senior managerial role,
using my knowledge of European languages.
Career history
2001–present Marketing Assistant, Eastern Foods, Derby
In my current post I am part of a team involved in
marketing our products throughout the UK. I have
helped organise several campaigns and given
presentations in connection with these.
1997–8 English Teacher, Montpellier, France
During my year abroad I taught English at a school in
Montpellier, which not only helped strengthen my
French but also gave me valuable lessons in self-reliance.
Academic qualifications
2001 MBA (Rowborough University Business School)
2000 BA (Hons) 2:1 in European Languages (University of
Leeds) with distinction in spoken French
Skills
Languages: knowledge of Spanish & French (advanced)/Italian
(good)
ICT: competence with the following applications:
Word
Excel
Groupwise
Personal
I would describe myself as outgoing, friendly and a good
communicator. I apply these qualities to establishing good customer
relations and working with colleagues as part of a team.
CVs 135
2. CVs

Note:
a) The above format is only one possibility and it is worth looking at other
CVs to compare layouts.
b) Your address and phone number should be in your covering letter, not
on the CV.
c) List qualifications and experience in reverse chronological order,
starting with the most recent. Prospective employers are mainly
interested in your latest achievements.
d) Do not clutter the CV with details of hobbies that are irrelevant to the
job you are applying for. Similarly, your early education is
unimportant.
e) Do not just give job titles but explain in detail what you did.
f) Give references only if asked to do so.
3. Prepare a CV for yourself. First make notes of all the important information
(with dates), using similar headings to those in the example above. Then
organise it as clearly as possible. Finally, type it on a computer and store it
so it can be updated in future.

1. Surveys, in which people are asked questions about their opinions or
behaviour, are a common feature of academic work, especially in fields
such as education, psychology and social sciences.
What are the reasons for carrying out surveys? List your ideas below.
a)
b)
c)
2. Study the report of a survey carried out on a university campus. Complete
the report by inserting suitable words from the box below into the gaps.
sample conducted slightly respondents random
questions majority questioned mentioned interviewees
common questionnaire generally minority
Introduction
A survey was a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to find out how part-time work affects student life and study.
The research was done by asking students selected at b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . on the campus to
complete a c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (see Appendix 1). 50 students were d) …………. on Saturday
April 23rd, with approximately equal numbers of male and female students.
Findings
Of the e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 30% currently had part-time jobs, 20% had had part-time jobs, but half
had never done any work during university semesters (see Table 1). f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . who were
working or who had worked were next asked about the reasons for taking the jobs. The most
common reason was lack of money (56%), but many students said that they found the work
useful experience (32%) and others g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . social benefits (12%).
Table 1. Do you have or have you had a part-time job?
Men Women Total %
have job now 8 7 15 30
had job before 4 6 10 20
never had job 14 11 25 50
The 25 students with work experience were next asked about the effects of the work on their
studies. A significant h) …………… (64%) claimed that there were no negative effects at all.
However, 24% said that their academic work suffered i) ……………, while a small
j) …………… (12%) reported serious adverse results, such as tiredness in lectures and falling
marks.
Further k) …………… examined the nature of the work that the students did. The variety of
jobs was surprising, from van driver to busker, but the most l) …………… areas were catering
and bar work (44%) and secretarial (32%). Most students worked between 10 and 15 hours per
week, though two (8%) worked over 25 hours. Rates of pay were m) …………… near the
national minimum wage, and averaged £5.20 per hour.
Designing and Reporting Surveys 137
3. Designing and Reporting Surveys

The final question invited students to comment on their experience of part-time work. Many
(44%) made the point that students should be given larger grants so that they could concentrate
on their studies full-time, but others felt that they gained something from the experience, such
as meeting new people and getting insights into various work environments. One student said
that she had met her current boyfriend while working in a city centre restaurant.
Conclusions
It is clear that part-time work is now a common aspect of student life. Many students find jobs
at some point in their studies, but an overwhelming majority (88%) of those deny that it has a
damaging effect on their studies. Most students work for only 2–3 hours per day on average,
and a significant number claim some positive results from their employment.
Obviously, our survey was limited to a relatively small n) …………… by time constraints, and
a fuller study might modify our findings in various ways.
3. Question 1 is given above Table 1. What were the other questions in this
survey? Using the results above, write possible questions below.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
4. What is the main tense in (a) Introduction and Findings and (b)
Conclusion? Explain the reason for the difference.
5. Questionnaire Design.
Which is the better question?
i) How old are you?
ii) Are you (a) under 20, (b) between 21 and 30, (c) over 30?
6. What is the main difference between the two questions?
i) What do you think of university students?
ii) Do you think university students are (a) lazy, (b) hardworking, (c) average
7. You are preparing a survey on one of the following subjects. Prepare a
questionnaire of no more than ten questions to collect the most useful data.
a) How overseas students learn vocabulary
b) Student attitudes to the cinema
c) A comparison of undergraduate and post-graduate leisure activities

A COMPARISON OF CLASSROOM LEARNING WITH INTERNET-BASED TEACHING
Introduction
Since the late 1990s internet-based teaching (also known as e-education) has emerged as a
potential rival to traditional classroom learning. The former normally involves having access to a
secure site on the internet where a graded series of lessons is available, which have
assignments sent and returned by email. Although online courses are now offered by many
institutions, it is by no means clear that they offer real advantages compared with classroom
education. Little research has been done so far on their effectiveness, but this essay sets out to
examine the arguments on both sides and attempts to draw conclusions from them.
The benefits of online study
Two main advantages of internet use in education are put forward. Firstly, it is seen as more
economical, in that once a course is prepared, it can be used by large numbers of students.
The savings made by not having to employ so many teachers should be reflected in cheaper
course fees. The second benefit is convenience; instead of having to attend classes at fixed
times and places, students are free to study when they choose and progress at their own pace.
Furthermore, in studying from home there is no need to travel to the college or university, which
saves both time and money. A student living in a small town in China, for example, can now
study a course at an American college without the worry of travelling, accommodation or
homesickness.
Comparison Essay 139
4. Comparison Essay

The continuing popularity of classroom education
Despite the considerations mentioned above, classroom learning shows no signs of being
replaced by e-learning. It seems that face-to-face contact with a teacher is still regarded as the
best way for students to make progress, despite the expense and inconvenience involved. Not
only the personal contact with a teacher but also the support and encouragement gained from
being part of a class may be reasons for this. Membership of a group may also create a useful
spirit of competition, which stimulates learning.
Discussion
Given the increasing pressure on university places in many countries, internet-based teaching is
widely seen as a convenient development. However, e-learning eliminates personal contact and
travel from education, which are possibly the aspects many students value. Sitting at home
working on a computer may be economical, but clearly cannot replace the social experience of
attending courses. However, there are many people who are unable, through either work or
family commitments, or owing to lack of funds, to go to classes, and who would clearly find
internet learning beneficial. Online courses can also be used to support taught courses, for
instance by providing access to extra materials. In many ways these kinds of courses are
similar to ‘universities of the air’, such as Britain’s Open University, which have developed
distance learning so successfully in the last forty years.
Conclusion
Faced by growing demand for university places, many institutions are likely to develop online
courses, but the apparent benefits of e-learning may be less than first appear. Students seem to
value the personal contact of the classroom highly, despite its cost and inconvenience. There
may be a role for internet-based courses to supplement teacher-taught ones, and certainly for
people with other commitments they will be the only practical option. There is an urgent need
for research on the effectiveness of this type of learning, which should help maximise its
advantages in the future.
(Approximately 550 words)
Read the essay carefully and find:
a) a definition
b) an example
c) a generalisation
d) a phrase expressing cause and effect
e) a passive
f) a phrase expressing caution
g) three synonyms for internet-based teaching
2.1 Cause and Effect
2.3 Comparisons
2.4 Definitions
2.6 Examples
2.7 Generalisations
2.11 Synonyms
cross reference

EDUCATION IS THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT –
DISCUSS
Introduction
‘National development’ is a rather vague term that could mean the growth of a sense of national
identity, or the development of a country’s economy. This essay will use the second definition,
since this is more commonly seen as a function of education provided by the state. Many
European countries, such as Germany, began providing primary education for all in the late
nineteenth century, in the phase of early industrialisation.
Education must be considered on several different levels, so that today most western countries
are concerned with provision from nursery to higher education, whereas developing countries
attempt to deliver basic education (e.g. reading and writing) to their people.
This paper attempts to evaluate the importance of these varying levels of educational provision
in encouraging economic growth, compared with other factors such as national culture, natural
resources and government. The role of education in fostering development will be examined
first, and then other factors that affect growth will be considered.
The impact of education
At its simplest, education sets out to teach literacy and numeracy. People who can read and
count are capable of being trained for many roles in the industrial or service sectors, as well as
learning by themselves. Even in the simplest economies, dependent on agriculture, the
education of women has been shown to lead to dramatic improvements in family welfare. In
more developed economies further skills are required, such as languages, engineering and
computing. Good education does not merely teach people how to function passively, but
provides them with the skills to ask questions and therefore make improvements. At university
level, education is closely involved in research that leads to technical and social advances.
The limits of education
Education does not operate in a vacuum: cultural, religious, legal and other factors all influence
the rate of economic growth. Soviet Russia, for example, had an advanced educational system,
Discursive Essay 141
5. Discursive Essay
1.11 Organising Paragraphs
1.15 Re-reading and Re-
writing
2.5 Discussion
cross reference

but many graduates were under-employed owing to the restrictions of the political system.
Similar situations exist in many countries today because of the failure of the economy to expand
fast enough to create sufficient jobs. Clearly, then, development requires efficient and honest
government to encourage a dynamic economy.
A strong work ethic, as found in the USA, Japan and Germany, also aids growth. In such
societies children are brought up to believe that both the individual and society will benefit from
hard work. Natural resources such as oil are another consideration. Brunei, for example,
previously a poor country reliant on fishing, today has one of the highest per capita GDPs in the
world.
Discussion and conclusion
Education alone may have little effect on a nation’s development. The world’s first industrial
revolution, for instance, occurred in eighteenth-century Britain, when the majority of people
were still illiterate (some pioneer industrialists themselves could not read or write). It seems that
the availability of capital and a secure political and legal environment were more crucial in this
case.
However, given the presence of some of the factors mentioned in the previous section,
education clearly has an important part to play in developing the skills and abilities of the
people. Ultimately, they are the most important resource a country possesses, and their
education is a priority for all successful states.
(Approximately 550 words)
Read the essay carefully and then analyse the introduction by
completing the table below using categories from the box.
Example Definition 2 Outline Topic Definition 1 Reason
Sentence Type
1 ‘National development’ is a rather …
2 This essay will use the second …
3 Many European countries, such as …
4 Education must be considered …
5 This paper attempts to evaluate …
6 The role of education in …

Writing Tests 143
Writing Tests
These tests can be used to assess different aspects of writing performance.
The first test assesses cohesion. The accuracy tests (2 and 3) check use of
particular word classes such as conjunctions or prepositions. Students having
difficulties with, for example, articles, should look at the relevant unit in Part 3.
Test 4 is a comparison. They can be used in the classroom or for self-
assessment.
WRITING TEST 1
(Cohesion)
The parts of sentences below make two paragraphs that compare
speaking with writing. Some parts are already numbered. Fill in the
remaining numbers. Use internal clues and punctuation to help you
find the correct order.
SPEAKING AND WRITING
1) When we speak, it is normally to one or
…) to study our listeners’ faces for expressions that tell
…) for example agreement, or amusement.
…) they often find the situation stressful.
3) As we speak, we are able
…) For most people, speaking feels like a natural activity,
…) a small number of people, who are often well known to us.
…) If their expressions show incomprehension
…) us their reaction to what we are saying;
…) though if they have to make a formal speech
…) we will probably restate what we are saying.
…) Writers cannot check if the readers understand, or are interested
…) to avoid the dangers of being misunderstood by readers,
…) who cannot look puzzled to
1) Writing, however, is much more like speaking to
…) Unless we are writing a letter to a friend
…) This is the reason why writing is more difficult than
…) make the writer explain what he means again.
…) in what they are writing.
…) we have no way of knowing who may read our words.
…) It also explains why writing must be as clear and simple as possible,
…) speaking, and often uses a more formal style.
…) an unknown audience.

WRITING TEST 2
(Accuracy)
Read the text for gist and then complete it by writing one word in
each gap.
Most overseas students who come to study (a) . . . . . . . . . . . English-speaking countries find that
their first (b) . . . . . . . . . . . is listening. Understanding (c) . . . . . . . . . . . many forms of spoken English
is more (d) . . . . . . . . . . . than they expected.
(e) . . . . . . . . . . . , after a month (f) . . . . . . . . . . . two, the majority find that their listening (g) . . . . . . . . . . . ,
and their next concern is speaking. This skill is more difficult to practise, so improvement
(h) . . . . . . . . . . . to be slower. But (i) . . . . . . . . . . . three or four months most students find that
(j) . . . . . . . . . . . can function quite (k) . . . . . . . . . . . in terms of shopping and travelling.
A (l) . . . . . . . . . . . area of difficulty is writing, which is possibly the (m) . . . . . . . . . . . difficult skill to
master, (n) . . . . . . . . . . . it is more impersonal than oral / aural skills and depends (o) . . . . . . . . . . . the
student learning a complex series of conventions. This explains (p) ………. many students find
it (q) . . . . . . . . . . . to attend (r) . . . . . . . . . . . intensive course in academic English (s) . . . . . . . . . . . they
begin (t) . . . . . . . . . . . university studies.
(WRITING TEST 3
(Accuracy)
Read the text for gist and then complete it by writing one word in
each gap.
All students need a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to live, so finding a suitable place is likely to be a priority
when they arrive to start a new course. Apart b ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the minority c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . live
with their parents, there are only two d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of accommodation which are generally
affordable.
e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all universities provide f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of residence, which can help new students
g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . friends and develop a social life. They can be a h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . choice, usually
being close to other university facilities, i) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . some may find that they are noisy,
expensive and have j) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . small rooms.
The alternative is to rent k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . house or flat from a private landlord with a group of
other students. l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kind of shared accommodation m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . offer greater
independence and privacy, and can n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be more economical. However, it does
144 Writing Tests

mean taking o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . more responsibility, p) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bills need paying and the
rooms have to q) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cleaned.
Wherever students choose to live, several things are r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A quiet place to work, a
sense of security and s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . environment that allows t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to sleep properly
all contribute to academic success.
WRITING TEST 4
(Comparison)
Study the information in the table comparing two cities, which both
have good universities. Use it to write a report on which would be the
more suitable location for an overseas student planning a one-year
course (about 200 words).
Borchester Rowborough
population 220,000 1,560,000
summer climate warm and wet cool and quite dry
winter climate cool and windy cold and wet
city type old cathedral city with 19th century industrial city
modern service industries with modern mixed industries
terrain flat, lots of parks hilly with several lakes
cost of accommodation quite high medium
public transport bus service not very good buses and trams, both good
main advantages relaxed atmosphere good range of shops and
sports facilities
main drawbacks university campus is 6 km high rates of crime in
from city centre some areas
distance from capital 230 km 125 km
Writing Tests 145

146 Answers
Providing answers for a writing course is less clear cut than for other language
areas. In some exercises there is only one possible answer, but in other cases
several possibilities exist. Teachers need to exercise common sense, and accept
any reasonable answer. In the case of exercises where students can choose their
own topic and it is therefore impossible to provide an answer, students still
appreciate having a model answer, and so some have been included.
Part 1: The Writing Process
1. Background to Writing
1
notes to record reading or lectures
report to describe something a student has 1000–2000
conducted, e.g. an experiment/a survey
project research conducted either individually or in 1000–3000
a group on subject chosen by student(s)
essay piece of writing used to assess coursework/ 1000–5000
subject chosen by teacher
thesis/dissertation long piece of writing on subject chosen by 30,000–70,000
student for final assessment in Master’s/
PhD course
article/paper writing published in academic journal 5000–10,000
2bi abstract
2bii acknowledgements
2biii appendix
2biv bibliography
2bv case study
2bvi preface
2bvii index
4a title
4b sub-heading
4c phrase
4d sentence
4e paragraph
Answers

Answers 147
5 Texts are divided into paragraphs to separate the main points and
make them easier to read. Paragraphs usually vary in length from
three to eight sentences.
para 2 begins: The first issue to …
para 3 begins: Diversification must also …
para 4 begins: A further consideration …
2. Developing Plans from Titles
1a Define give a definition
Outline describe the main features
1b Compare examine the similarities
Contrast look at the differences
1c Evaluate consider the value
1d Trace describe the main features
Illustrate give examples
2 Describe give a detailed account
Examine divide into sections and discuss each
critically
State give a clear and simple account
Suggest make a proposal and support it
Summarise deal with a complex subject by giving
the main points
4 Sample plan:
title Evaluate the effects of mergers in the motor industry in the last ten
years
introduction definition of merger
background to motor industry
outline of essay
main body case studies of two mergers
discussion of benefits of each merger
conclusion summary of findings: value of mergers depends on quality of
management in merged firm
5 The following sections are the most important:
5a An analysis of candidates for membership before 2010/An outline of
the enlargement of the EU between 1975 and the present.
5b A study of major privatisations in the UK/A discussion of the benefits
achieved by privatisation.

148 Answers
5c A report on the spread of TB worldwide/A case study showing how
TB relates to social class.
5d A report on the development of children who remain at home until
five/A discussion comparing speaking ability in both groups of
children.
5e The benefits of using books/The drawbacks of internet sources.
6a Identify means to select and explain. The writer must identify the
chief reasons for poverty in the Chinese countryside.
6b Calculate means to make a mathematical estimate. Here the writer
must look at patterns of coffee consumption and attempt to calculate
how much difference a price decrease would make.
6c Classify means to put into categories. Different types of desert need
to be described, and then methods of control should be proposed.
3. Evaluating a Text
2
a fact true
b fact false
c opinion
d fact true
e fact & opinion true
f fact false
g fact & opinion false
5a Factual until last sentence (In the future …), which is an opinion.
5b Most sentences mix facts and opinions. Most of the facts are
untrue, e.g. the population is not two million. Clearly an unreliable
source!
5c Mainly opinion, supported by some facts at the end. Evaluation
depends on judging how well the writer builds his/her case. Subject
knowledge clearly necessary.
5d Although this begins with a generally accepted fact, the second
sentence contains a totally untrue statement, and the speculation
built on this is absurd.
5e Mainly factual, except for an opinion in the first sentence (shocking).
The final sentence is speculation.
4. Understanding Purpose and Register
2a amuse/entertain
2b inform/persuade
2c inform

Answers 149
5
a formal without recourse/empowered/the complainant
b academic yielded clear interactions/review of the literature/Pearson and
Mayer (1998)
c journalistic Amazing recent research/old folk/‘grey entrepreneurs’
5. Selecting Key Points
2 Many possibilities, but should include the idea of financial success
and medical developments, e.g. Millionaire American medical inventor.
3 1) b 2) a 3) c
4.1 Lord May… has claimed that the world is facing a wave of
extinctions similar to the five mass extinctions of past ages.
4.2 He calculates that the current rate of extinction is between 100 and
1000 times faster than the historical average.
4.3 … the present situation is caused by human consumption of plants,
which has resulted in a steady increase in agriculture and a
consequent reduction in habitat for animals.
4.4 Lord May also pointed out that it was very difficult to make accurate
estimates as nobody knew how many species of animals lived on the
planet.
5a …bottled water costs 700 times more than tap water, but is often of
inferior quality.
… although bottled water advertising often associated the product
with sport and health there was no truth in this link.
Labels on bottled water often referred to ‘spring’ and ‘natural water’,
which were meaningless phrases.
5b Now the genetic code of the plague bacterium has been ‘read’
successfully by scientists; a total of 465 million ‘letters’ of DNA. They
believe that this will help in the development of vaccines for the
plague …
6. Note-Making
1 to keep a record of reading/lectures
to revise for exams
to help remember main points
to prepare for essays
2 Before: listening/reading/selecting
After: writing/speaking

5. Source: Nemecova, I. (1998) Medical Report 34, pp. 78–86
Malaria increasing esp. resistant strains
350m.+ cases p.a. (4 ǂ level 1970s)
Causes: a) increase in poverty > less money for sanitation
b) increased travel (migrants/tourists)
c) overuse of antibiotics
Vaccine? – difficult because of different strains but in trials
6. Source: Pitnam, E.B. (1993) Volcanic Disasters 221
1815 Mt Tambora (Indonesia) exploded
100 km3
debris atmosphere affected
weather around world
1816 NE USA & Europe cold summers destroyed harvests >
prices rose > more emigrants to west of USA
7. Paraphrasing
2 (b) is the better paraphrase (in (a) changes in the weather and the region
to the south are not as precise as a long dry period and the mountains at
the river’s source).
4 A number of possibilities are acceptable here. These are suggestions.
4b discovered/visualising an attractive view/encourage/rapidly
4c scientists/split
4d was asked to think of/attempted
5b The findings showed that the group thinking of waterfalls fell asleep
20 minutes quicker.
5c It appears that mechanical tasks like counting sheep are too boring to
make people sleepy.
6b It is thought that about one in ten people suffer from severe
insomnia.
6c The cost of insomnia for the American economy has been calculated
at approximately $35 billion a year.
7 Again, there is a range of possibilities, of which the following is an
example:
Findings by sleep researchers suggest that established cures for
insomnia, for instance counting sheep, do not work, though
visualising an attractive view may significantly encourage sleep. 50
insomniacs were split into three groups by Oxford university
scientists. The first thought of water falling, and the second
attempted to count sheep. A third group was not specially
instructed. The findings show that the group thinking of waterfalls
went to sleep faster. It appears that repetitive situations are not
150 Answers

Answers 151
effective, because they are too tedious. The research has multiple
uses, since 10% of the population are believed to have difficulty
sleeping, and the cost of insomnia for the American economy has
been calculated at around $35 billion annually.
8 Sample paraphrase:
Antarctica was unexplored until the 20th century, and still has a tiny
population in relation to its size. Yet it suffers from various pollution
problems which have been described in a report by a New Zealand
government agency. The low temperatures there impede the usual
pattern of decay, though compared with most parts of the world it
remains in pristine condition. Some long-established scientific bases
have large piles of garbage around them.
Few people realise that Antarctica has very little precipitation, so that
in the current context of global warming the ice tends to reveal the
rubbish that previously was slowly being buried under snow. For
more than a decade the nations involved in Antarctic research have
respected an agreement to repatriate their garbage, and this should
gradually solve the problem. But there are a few items that will not be
cleared up, since they belonged to the early period of exploration and
have now acquired historic interest.
8. Summary Writing
1 Features of good summaries should include: selection of main
features/accuracy (i.e. not distorting the original)/clear expression.
2 making detailed notes from sections of journal articles and books
making global summaries of writers’ ideas and theses
3 Possible answers:
3b key points/main ideas
3c use your own words/paraphrase
3d order of the ideas where necessary
3e important points/ideas
4 a) is the best summary
b) fails to describe the experiment
c) neither describes the experiment or its significance
6 Possible answers:
6a weather forecasting methods
6b blossoming of local tree
6c castor (for dry)
6d the monsoon can be quite accurately forecast by the time of the tree’s
flowering

152 Answers
7 Model answer:
Indian scientists are checking ancient weather forecasting
methods, such as the old saying that links the date of the monsoon
to the flowering time of a local tree. This has been used by farmers
to select either peanuts (for wet conditions) or castor (for dry). Dr
Kanani of Gujarat Agricultural University has found that the
monsoon can be quite accurately forecast using the time of the
tree’s flowering.
8 Model answer:
Recent Indian research confirms the accuracy of an ancient method of
forecasting the monsoon’s arrival used by farmers to choose crops.
9. Combining Sources
1a 4
1b to introduce summaries
1c Others, however,
3a direct quote: ‘such procedures are now labelled “interfering with
nature”’
summary: GM techniques are no different from breeding techniques
that have been practised by humans for thousands of years.
3b On the other hand
3c Source A states that
Source B considers that
He believes that
4 Model answer:
Source C claims that tourism creates a significant amount of
employment which provides a welcome alternative to traditional
work such as farming. However, Source D points out that many of
these jobs are insecure and poorly paid, being likely to contribute to
social tensions. This negative view is partly supported by Source E,
who insists that despite some positive examples the more common
experience of developing countries is for tourism to exacerbate
social ills such as crime and prostitution.
10. Planning a Text
1 Other possible ideas:
tourism helps poorer countries develop
tourist industry vulnerable to political/natural disasters
package holidays helped to popularise foreign travel
huge potential demand from developing countries

Answers 153
2 Most suitable structure would be based on time, since the title asks
for study of past and predictions for the future.
3 Sample plan:
Main body:
ii) package holidays helped to popularise foreign travel
iii) tourism helped poorer countries to develop
iv) constant demand for new destinations and new types of holiday
Conclusion: there is a huge potential demand for travel in
developing countries but tourist industry is vulnerable to
political/natural disasters
4a For and against
4b Comparison
4c Time
4d For and against
4e Comparison
5 Main body:
i) benefits of TV advertising: reach large audience, have strong
impact
ii) drawbacks: expensive and can be ignored
iii) benefits of newspaper advertising: flexible, cheap, focused
iv) drawbacks: static
Conclusion: TV more effective in reaching large numbers but
newspapers probably better for specialised markets
7 It would be better to include (a), (c) and (e) in the introduction as
background information. (b), (d) and (f) would contribute to the
main body. A discussion/conclusion section is needed to assess the
overall situation. A revised plan might look like this:
Introduction background
outline of essay
Main body reasons for using private sector
negative effects on state system
positive effects on state system
discussion
Conclusion summary of argument
11. Organising Paragraphs
3.1 Topic
3.2 Definition
3.3 Example

154 Answers
3.4 Detail
3.5 Detail
3.6 Reason
4 Topic: London has been …
Restatement: For many centuries …
Reason: Its dominance is due to
Detail: 500 years ago …
5.1 Topic: The new Leisure …
5.2 Detail: Mark Roberts …
5.3 Detail: The opening has …
5.4 Reason: This was because …
5.5 Detail: The architects …
6.1 … was developed in the 19th century.
6.2 … to isolate, punish and reform.
6.3 … there has been a steep rise in the number of prisoners.
6.4 … as being ‘universities of crime’.
6.5 … how effective prisons are today.
7.1 Prisons appear to offer society three benefits.
7.2 Firstly, they punish prisoners by depriving them of freedom.
7.3 In addition, offenders are segregated from society so they cannot
commit further crimes.
7.4 Finally, they offer the possibility of reform through training
programmes.
8.1 Topic: Prisons, however, appear to many observers to be failing in the
21st century.
8.2 Detail: In many countries the prison population is rising steadily.
8.3 Detail: Furthermore, many prisoners return to prison after their
release; they are repeat offenders.
8.4 Reason: This suggests that few prisons offer effective reform
programmes.
8.5 Detail: In addition, prison conditions can often be brutal and
degrading.
12. Organising the Main Body
2 Order & titles:
2.1 Methods (b)
2.2 Findings (d)
2.3 Case study (c)

Answers 155
2.4 Discussion (a)
3a For and against/type 1
3b Comparison
4 (Some variation possible.)
4a 1. factories originally sited to make use of water power (in 18th C.)
2. in nineteenth century factories built near canals/railways for
access to markets
3. first factories employed unskilled workers; often women and
children
4. early employers enforced strict codes of discipline
5. workers forced to adopt a regular timetable to maintain
production
6. later some employers offered social benefits, e.g.
housing/education
4b 1. many older students have lost interest in learning and disrupt
classes
2. problem students waste everybody’s time, including their own
3. some students more suited to work that doesn’t require
qualifications
4. in future, almost all jobs will require academic skills
5. if they left at 14, students would be unlikely to find proper jobs
6. effort should be made in primary schools to prevent pupils
falling behind
6 Possible answers:
Para 2 The main factor
In the first place
Then
Finally,
Para 3 Turning to the subject of
The first point is that
Secondly
Lastly,
Para 4 Another important area
Firstly
In addition
13. Introductions
1 optional: a/c
usual: d/e/g
7a v

156 Answers
7b i
7c iv
7d vi
7e ii
7f iii
9a Higher Education
9b depending on country chosen, recent developments/debate on HE
could be mentioned
9c reference could be made to rising student numbers/debate about
costs (who should pay)/value of research for economic development
9d essay could focus geographically on one or two countries, either
similar or different economically
historically the discussion could be limited to the past
ten/twenty/fifty years
9e plan will depend on decisions made in (c) above
10 Model answer:
The last two decades have seen a steady increase in demand for
higher (i.e. university-level) education worldwide. Rising costs in this
sector have put pressure on national budgets, causing many
countries to attempt to shift some of the cost to the students, often in
the form of loans. A degree generally remains the key to better jobs
and opportunities, yet if students have to pay a greater share of the
cost this will discriminate against poorer families. This essay
examines the question of access to university by comparing the
situation in a developed country, the United States, with a
developing country, Turkey.
14. Conclusions
1a ii
1b iii
1c v
1d iv
1e ii
1f i
1g ii
1h iv
2 Neither conclusion is complete – synthesis is required.
2a Summary of discussion
2b Limitations of study/proposals for future research
3 Suggested order (variations possible):
Summary of main findings

Answers 157
Reference to comparative studies or implications of findings
Limitations of research
Proposals for further research
4 Model answer:
Summary: The results suggest that culture was only one factor in
determining successful adaptation. Older students, those with
previous experience of living abroad, and those with better language
proficiency all seemed to adapt better.
Implications: The findings suggest that students should possibly
study abroad when they are more mature, and that they should aim
for a higher level of language ability before they leave home.
Limitations: Although this was quite a large survey only about 30%
of overseas students at the university were involved. Some national
groups were under-represented.
Proposals: As we are not aware of other previous research in this
field, it would be useful to replicate the study in another university,
possibly with a different cross-section of overseas students, to see if
similar results emerged.
15. Re-reading and Re-writing
4 Model answer:
Despite this, there are significant differences between the structure
and workings of the higher education system in the two countries.
This essay attempts to compare the admission procedures, length of
courses for first and higher degrees, teaching methods, assessment
procedures and systems of financial support for students. These
areas have been selected as being of central importance for a valid
comparison.
5 Model answer:
The need for education is crucial in any field. Technology has
become critical for economic development, and higher levels of
education are constantly demanded by the modern workplace, in
both manufacturing and the service sector. Scientific research is
clearly related to higher education. The possession of natural
resources is no longer so critical for development. Take Japan, a
country with few natural riches, where most of the land is
mountainous, but which now is one of the world’s strongest
economies. Effective education, linked with a powerful work ethic
and stable government, has allowed Japan to reach this position in a
short period of time.
16. Proof-Reading
1a v poverty
1b iv there were

158 Answers
1c vii have succeeded
1d ii succeed
1e x reflects real
1f vi registered
1g i continents
1h ix the German economy
1i iii French
1j viii It can be difficult to decide
2a fifty years
2b its citizens/contribute to
2c teaches people knowledge
2d whether it is
2e There was
2f depends on/educational level
2g the highest
3 Note that some flexibility is needed with this exercise. The corrected
text below is not perfect English, but is much clearer than the
original.
I come from China, which is a very traditional country. I think before
giving my own situation and plans, I have to say something about my
country, because its culture has affected me very much. My country has
5,000 years of history, so in my brain there are a lot of things which are
from it.
When I first arrived in the UK I studied in Cambridge, which is the
best university in the world. Although I just studied in a language
school in Cambridge, I felt very good. I learned a lot, not only from
the school, but also from Cambridge society. That is why I chose
Cambridge to study my foundation course. The foundation course
was just for overseas students to improve their English.
I would like to study business, because when China joins the WTO,
my country will need a lot of people who know business very well.
So I will choose a business foundation course, with computing and
mathematics, because computers are very useful in modern society. On
the future course I think the biggest problem will be vocabulary, so I
am planning to remember as much as I can. I will spend more time on
mathematics, because I have never studied it before.
Another problem is to finish homework in time. Sometimes I think
homework is not useful for me, so I just leave it, which is a bad
custom. The last and the greatest problem is homesickness, which always
slows down my progress, but studying abroad is my own choice, so I
have to try my best.

Answers 159
Part 2: Elements of Writing
1. Cause and Effect
3a leads to/results in
3b Because of/Owing to/Due to
3c leads to/causes/results in/produces
3d therefore/consequently/which is why
3e leads to/causes/results in
4a because of/due to/owing to
4b because/since
4c consequently/therefore
4d due to/owing to/because of
4e because of/due to/owing to
4f so/therefore/thus/consequently
5 Model answer:
This results in people having more money to spend, and so leads to
higher spending on goods and services. The increased demand for goods
and services results in lower unemployment, and consequently the
government has a higher income because it spends less on social security.
2. Cohesion
2 they
this
the former
the latter
these
3 villagers
kerosene and diesel
not being affordable
villagers’
kerosene and diesel
from kerosene and diesel
4a They
4b he
4c them
4d This
4e his
4f he
5a It

160 Answers
5Ab her
5Ac She
5Ad him
5Ae They/she
5Af Their
5Ag she
5Ah his
5Ba Their
5Bb their
5Bc They
5Bd their
5Be Their
5Bf the former
3. Comparisons
3a slightly more expensive than
3b considerably/significantly cheaper than
3c slightly cheaper than
3d considerably/significantly more expensive than
7a least
7b slightly
7c nearly/almost
7d as
7e most
7f than
7g half
7h as
8a most
8b less
8c more
8d than
8e slightly
8f on
8g as
8h smallest/least
9a shows
9b longest/highest
9c longest
9d On

Answers 161
9e than
9f the
9g slightly
10 Model answer:
The highest rate is found in Greece (8.3 per day), and the lowest is in
Norway (1.7). Although many countries are close to the EU average
of 4.5, the northern Scandinavian countries all have low rates of
smoking.
11. Model answer:
Alcohol consumption in Europe averages 11.1 litres per adult per
year, but within this there are wide variations. The highest
consumption is found in France (14.1), while the Norwegians only
consume one-third of this figure (4.8).
4. Definitions
2a instrument/device
2b organs
2c organisation/corporation
2d material
2e behaviour
2f system/process
2g period/time
2h system
3a process refine liquids
3b person/doctor mental problems
3c qualification/degree a dissertation/thesis
3d body/organisation its members’ interests
3e disease a mosquito-borne parasite
3f cereal/grain making flour
4a a failed project
4b development
4c electronic commerce
4d attachment
4e self-brightening
Model answers:
5a capital punishment execution carried out by state, often by
hanging
5b department store large shop that sells most types of goods
in different areas

162 Answers
5c post-natal depression feeling of sadness experienced by some
mothers after birth
5. Discussion
3 Model answer for title (a):
pros: more security for children with mother, mother is able to take
more care of home
cons: children have less chance to mix with others, mothers have
more limited role
Title: Instead of going out to work, mothers should stay at home and
look after their children until they are at least five – Discuss.
a) Introduction the growth in women’s participation in the
work force – increased use of nurseries
b) Advantages more social mixing for children
higher income for family
more varied roles for women
c) Disadvantages less security for children
women have to deal with career and home
d) Conclusion depends on individual situation
4 Model answers:
It has been argued that staying at home gives children security, but
the evidence suggests that there are more social advantages in
attending a nursery.
While fast food is often claimed to be unhealthy, there appears to be
little firm evidence to support this.
6 Model answer:
It appears that Lomborg’s definition of air quality is limited to
sulphur dioxide, and fails to take into account more recent threats.
7 Model answer:
pros: concentration of facilities = convenience/availability of high
quality employment, education, health and other services
cons: high costs, noise, pollution, levels of stress, lack of space
8 Model answer using pattern (2ii):
a) Introduction: definition of city, examples of cities to be used,
overview of essay
b) Economic aspects: historical role of industrial cities – relevance in
post-industrial society?
c) Social aspects: entertainment, cultural and shopping centres.
Linked to (b)

Answers 163
d) Discussion/conclusion: changing pattern of city life. Appeal to
different ages
6. Examples
2a e.g./such as
2b A case in point
2c particularly/especially (for example/for instance also possible)
2d for instance/for example
2e such as/e.g.
Model answers:
3a A number of sports such as football/motor racing …
3b Some British universities, for example the University of Leeds …
3c In recent years many women, e.g. Indira Gandhi …
3d … most car makers, for instance Toyota/Volkswagen …
3e Certain diseases, particularly malaria/AIDS …
3f Many musical instruments such as guitars/violins …
3g Several mammals, e.g. pandas/tigers …
4 Customs: holidays and festivals, ways of greeting people
everyday patterns: types of shop, shop opening times
inevitable differences: language, currency
rapid changes of mood: depression, elation
relatively short period: two/three months
some aspects of their new surroundings: freedom, independence
5a His mother’s sister, i.e. his aunt …
5b When the liquid reached boiling point, namely 140 degrees …
5c All the plants and animals at risk in the region, that is to say, the
endangered wildlife …
5d At this stage, all the students should be rigorously evaluated, viz.
given an examination.
5e It was cold, wet and windy, in other words, an English summer’s day.
7. Generalisations
Model answers:
3b Flowers are usually a suitable present.
3c Cities are often affected by pollution.
3d Fresh fruit can be good for health.
3e Television has become an important medium.
4. Many international students attend British universities. Most
welcome the chance to meet classmates from all over the world, and
all are pleased to have the chance to improve their English.

164 Answers
5a Unemployment in 1989 was higher than in 1979 or 1999.
5b Inflation was higher in 1979 than in 1989 or 1999.
5c House prices rose dramatically between 1979 and 1989.
5d Interest rates were slightly higher in 1989 than in 1979, and were
much lower in 1999.
6a be over 60.
6b double by 2100.
6c young populations/a small proportion of over 60s.
6d fall in its total population/a doubling of the population over 60.
6e have a significant population of older people/a larger proportion of
over 60s.
7a Two common dreams are being chased and falling.
7b A majority have dreamed about the dead.
7c Dreaming about the future is quite common.
7d Food dreams may be linked to dieting.
7e A minority dream of finding money.
8. Numbers
2a Few people …
2b They received scores of …
2c She made various …
2d He found dozens…
2e They made several …
Model answers:
4a Three-quarters of the people interviewed said that they supported
the president.
4b The average number of students on the course has been 24.
4c The price of petrol has increased eight times/-fold since 1965.
4d Two-thirds of the students in the group were women.
4e The new type of train halved the journey time to Madrid.
4f The majority of the students studied law.
4g There has been a 50% rise in the numbers applying to this
department this year.
5b The numbers doubled every year between 1998 and 2000.
5c More than twice as many students complete their first degree course
in Britain, compared with Italy.
5d Tap water is much cheaper than bottled water.
5e Only a small percentage/proportion of women believed that they
had the same rights as men. Over a third complained that they had
far fewer rights.

5f Life expectancy for men in the UK rose by 50% during the
twentieth century.
5g The cost of the same operation varies by 50% between hospitals in …
5h The area of forest in England fell by 2
⁄3 between 1086 and 1870.
9. References and Quotations
2 (a), (d) and (e) need references.
5 Model answers:
5a Orwell (1940) stated that Dickens rarely writes directly about work.
He claimed that most of Dickens’ characters, except David
Copperfield, have shadowy occupations, and that Copperfield
works in areas very similar to Dickens’ own experience.
5b Orwell pointed out that Dickens infrequently described his
characters’ jobs clearly: ‘In Dickens’ novels anything in the nature of
work happens off-stage. The only one of his heroes who has a
plausible profession is David Copperfield …’ (Orwell, 1940: pp. 54–55)
5c According to Orwell (1940), few of Dickens’ characters have a
convincing profession, with the exception of David Copperfield,
who follows Dickens’ own career. ‘With most of the others, the way
they earn their living is very much in the background.’ (pp. 54–55)
8a alphabetically
8bi author/date of publication/title/place of publication/publisher
8bii author/date of publication/title/editor/main title/place of
publication/publisher
8biii author/title/URL/access date
8biv author/article title/journal name/issue/page number
8c book and journal titles
8d for titles of books (but not articles)
8e under the title of the publication
10. Academic Style
Model answers:
4a It is widely believed that the railways are deteriorating.
4b Serious crime, such as murder, is increasing.
4c The figures in that report are not reliable.
4d The second factor is that the majority of children in that district may
become criminals.
4e There appears to be a significant risk of further strikes and disorder.
4f Women were enfranchised in 1994.
4g The Russian inflation led to poverty and disease.
4h A malaria vaccine may be discovered in the next ten years.
Answers 165

166 Answers
4i There were two main causes of the American Revolution.
5a Currently, significant numbers of children are starting school at the
age of four or less, whereas thirty years ago five was the normal age.
There appear to be various reasons for the change; mothers, for
example, need to rejoin the labour force. There are mixed views about
the effects of this change on the children concerned. Jenkins (1989)
claims that early school attendance causes social problems such as
theft and drug taking. There seems to be considerable evidence to
support his views and there may be an argument in favour of a state
subsidy for women to stay at home with their children.
5b There appear to be two principal reasons for the growing traffic
congestion. Firstly, public transport has become increasingly
expensive relative to the falling cost of motoring. In addition, car
ownership is much more convenient than using public transport.
Together, these factors result in higher vehicle density.
11. Synonyms
Model answers:
4a challenged/outcome/study
4b data or figures/demonstrate/increase
4c forecast/argument or debate
4d main disadvantage/method
4e focus/possibility
4f explain/idea or theory
4g topics/evaluated
4h structure/kept/targets/changed
4i reduce output/increase
4j tendency/accelerated
5 firm’s plan
cut expenditure or spending
leading executives or managers
salaries or earnings reduced
intends
salaries or earnings
raised
6 UK – British – this country
agency – organisation – body
advertising campaign – publicity programme – advertising blitz
to raise – to improve
British eating habits – regular hand washing
to cut – reduction

Answers 167
12. Visual Information
1.1 dE
1.2 fB
1.3 aF
1.4 cC
1.5 bD
1.6 eA
Model answers:
2a grew slightly
2b rose steadily
2c fell sharply
2d increased slightly
2e sharp rise
2f slight drop
3 (a) is better because it selects the most important details. (b) simply
repeats the data on the chart.
Model answers:
4a density
4b illustrates/shows
4c between
4d emptier/less-crowded
4e role/part
4f since/because
4g tend
5a table
5b range/variety
5c marriage
5d Britain
5e rate
5f Iran
5g half
5h proportion/figure
5i result/consequence
7 Model answer:
Table 4 shows the gender balance in the School of Computing from
1996 to 2000. Between 1996 and 1998 the ratio of men to women was
about 1:3, but in the next two years the proportion of women
increased, so that in 2000 women accounted for nearly 40% of the
total.

168 Answers
Part 3: Accuracy in Writing
1. Abbreviations
10a Prime Minister/Members of Parliament/National Health Service
10b Information Technology/and others
10c That is/World Trade Organisation
10d Take note/Curricula vitaea/A4 size paper
10e Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/United
Kingdom
10f European Union/Value Added Tax
10g Chief Executive Officer/Research and development
10h Figure 4/World wide web
10i World Health Organisation/tuberculosis
10j Public Relations/$45,000
10k Genetically modified/for example
10l Professor/Master of Philosophy/Doctor of Philosophy
2. Adverbs
4a Obviously/Clearly
4b Originally
4c Alternatively
4d Recently/Lately
4e Similarly
4f Clearly/Obviously
5 Time: gradually/slowly/steadily/rapidly/quickly
Amount: slightly/marginally/substantially/significantly/considerably/
sharply/dramatically
(Others may be acceptable.)
6a slightly
6b substantially/significantly
6c dramatically
6d steadily
6e considerably/substantially/significantly
6f rapidly/quickly
6g slowly/slightly
6h rapidly

Answers 169
3. Articles
4a –
4b –
4c The/the
4d –/the
4e –/the
4f The/the
5a The/the
5b the/–
5c The/–/–
5d the/the
5e The/the
6a a
6b –
6c the
6d the
6e the/a
6f the
6g the
6h a
6i the
6j the
6k the
6l a
6m a
6n The
6o the
6p –
6q The
6r the
6s the/a
6t the
6u the
6v the
6w the
6x a
6y the

170 Answers
4. Caution
2. These are suggestions. Others are possible.
Modals: might/may/could/should
Adverbs: often/usually/frequently/generally/
occasionally/rarely/mainly
Phrases: in general/by and large/it appears/it seems
3. Model answers:
3a Private companies tend to be …
3b Computer manuals can be …
3c Older students frequently perform better …
3d Exploring space could be …
3e English pronunciation is often …
3f Global warming may cause …
3g Science students tend to work harder …
3h Concrete is usually …
5 Model answer:
A team of American scientists may have found a way to reverse the
ageing process. They fed diet supplements, usually found in health
food shops, to elderly rats, which were then tested for memory and
stamina. The animals tended to display more active behaviour after
taking the supplements, and generally their memory improved. In
addition, their appearance became rather more youthful and their
appetite increased.
The researchers believe that this experiment is quite a clear indication
of how the problems of old age may be overcome. They claim that in a
few years’ time many people may be able to look forward to a fairly
long and active retirement.
5. Conjunctions
2a d
2b c
2c f
2d e
2e a
2f b
2g b
2h e
3 Some suggestions (others are possible):
Addition: moreover/as well as/in addition/and/also
Result: therefore/consequently/so/that is why
Reason: because/as a result of/as/since

Answers 171
Time: after/while/then/next/subsequently
Example: such as/e.g./in particular
Opposition: but/yet/while/however/nevertheless/whereas
(Other answers possible.)
4a Because/since
4b i.e./namely
4c After
4d Although/While
4e moreover/furthermore
4f so/therefore
5a After
5b Despite/In spite of
5c such as
5d In addition/Furthermore
5e then/later
5f while
5g Because of/Owing to
5h although/though
5i since/because/as
5j and
5k However
5l so
5m finally
6a While the government claimed that inflation was falling, the
opposition said it was rising.
Despite the fact that the government claimed (that) inflation was
falling, the opposition …
6b This department must reduce expenditure, but it needs to install new
computers.
Although this department must reduce expenditure, it needs …
Model answers:
7a In contrast to America, where gun ownership is common, guns are
rare in Japan.
7b Despite leaving school at the age of 14 he went on to own a chain of
shops.
7c The majority displayed a positive attitude to the proposal, but a
minority rejected it.
7d The review has examined six studies of medical policy; however,
none was found relevant to our needs.
7e Although the spring was cold and dry, the summer was warm and
wet.

172 Answers
6. Formality in Verbs
2 Possible synonyms:
adapt = modify
arise = occur
carry out = conduct
characterise = have features of
clarify = explain
concentrate on = look at closely
be concerned with = deal with
demonstrate = show
determine = find
discriminate = distinguish
emphasise = highlight
establish = lay down/found
exhibit = show
focus on = look at closely
generate = create
hold = be true
identify = pick out
imply = suggest
indicate = show
interact = work together
interpret = explain
manifest = show
overcome = get over
predict = forecast
propose = suggest
prove = turn out
recognise = accept
relate to = link to
supplement = add to
undergo = experience
yield = produce
3a yielded
3b arose
3c demonstrate
3d held
3e emphasised
3f exhibited

Answers 173
3g concerned
3h carried out
4a demonstrate
4b clarify
4c recognised
4d discriminate
4e predict
4f focus on
4g interpreted
4h overcome
7. Modal Verbs
(Others may be possible throughout this unit.)
2a can
2b could
2c cannot
2d may/can
2e could
3a would
3b might/may/could
3c could/might/may
3d should/will/might
3e will
3f should/will
4a should
4b must
4c must
4d should
5a would (conditional)
should (suggestion)
5b may (possibility)
could (ability)
5c will (prediction)
would (conditional)
5d must (obligation)
should (suggestion)
5e may (possibility)
could (ability)
5f should (strong possibility)
may (possibility)

174 Answers
8. Nationality Language
3 Model answer:
Mexico is in central America.
The Mexican capital is Mexico City.
Mexicans speak Spanish.
5a Chinese
5b Russian
5c Australia
5d Spanish
5e South African
5f Brazilians
5g Iraqi
5h Cubans
6 Model answers:
Bill Clinton is an American ex-president.
Pablo Picasso came from Spain.
Bob Marley was a Jamaican musician.
9. Nouns and Adjectives
2a safety – safe
2b culture – cultural
2c deep – depth
2d health – healthy
3 high/reliable/hot
strength/confidence/truth
wide/probable/necessary
length/danger/relevance
4a unreliable
4b truth
4c probability
4d wide
4e necessary
4f relevance
4g danger
4h necessity
4i strength
4j Confidence

Answers 175
5a various – variety
5b analytical – analysis
5c available – availability
5d major – majority
5e precise – precision/unknown – knowledge
5f theoretical – theory
5g frequent – frequency
5h critical – criticism or critic
5i Social – society
5j practical – practice
6 particularity
superior/reasonable
strategy/synthesis
political/economic + economical
industry/culture
external/average
7a economic
approximation
particularity
external
synthesis
average
reasonable
culture
10. Countable and Uncountable Nouns
3 Model answers:
3a … of teaching is required
3b … travelling in the desert
3c … insufficient capital
3d … during a meal
3e … mainly political centres
3f … are moved around the world daily
3g … huge loss of life
3h … many great films
3i Her carelessness …
3j … a great leveller

176 Answers
3k … in those laboratories
3l … very demanding
5a Little
5b businesses
5c experience/is
5d travel broadens
5e Paper was
5f much advice
5g few interests
5h war
5i Irons were
5j behaviour
6a little
6b much
6c many
6d few
6e little
11. Passives
2a The data was collected and the two groups (were) compared.
2b 120 people in three social classes were interviewed.
2c The results were checked and several errors (were) found.
3a 40% of the houses in the port were badly damaged by a storm.
3b The company was efficiently run by the Connors family until 1981.
3c The house was conveniently built near the station.
3d The portrait of the old man was brilliantly painted by Picasso.
3e Pencils for all the students in the exam were helpfully provided.
3f Over 550 people were regularly tested for the disease
(by doctors) over a three-year period.
3g The percentages were precisely calculated to three decimal places (by
researchers).
3h Their business was optimistically called the Universal Trading
Company.
4 Passives
was worn out
was born
was called
was helped

Answers 177
was taken over
was assisted
5 not all – was born must be passive
Compare some sentences changed into the active, e.g. ‘On his death
in 1860 his wife took over the business, and soon their 10 year-old
son Jesse assisted her.’ This reads rather clumsily compared with the
original.
6 Suggested changes (others possible):
they were married – they married
the factories were used to make – the factories made
Boots was sold – he sold Boots
Boots was bought by a British group – a British group bought Boots
sugar was produced – the factories produced
12. Prefixes and Suffixes
3
auto by itself
co together
ex (i) previous
(ii) outside
micro small
multi many
over too much
post later
re again
sub below
under (i) below
(ii) not enough
4a social class at bottom of society
4b more tickets sold than seats available
4c very local climate
4d economy based on information not production
4e not listed in the telephone book
4f part of the mind not fully conscious
8a noun – something that is no longer offered
8b adjective – not able to be forecast
8c adjective – two related events at the same time
8d adjective – able to be sold
8e adverb – without cooperation

178 Answers
8f noun – person being interviewed
8g adjective – related to evolution
8h noun – style of ultra-realistic painting
8i noun – person who protests
8j adverb – in a way that suggests a symbol
9a joint production/junior company
9b without choosing to/not hurt
9c able to be refilled/certain
9d cannot be provided/unusual
9e existing in theory/breaking into pieces
13. Prepositions
1. purpose of/development of/in Britain/over the period/contributed
to/valuable for/In conclusion/sets out/relationship between/decline
in/supply of/in the factory
Verb + = contributed to
Adj + = valuable for
Phrasal verb = sets out
Place = in Britain/factory
Time = over the period
Phrase = In conclusion
2b adjective +
2c verb +
2d prep. place
2e noun +
2f phrase
2g prep. place
2h prep. time
3a of
3b in
3c of
3d of
3e on
4a On
4b of
4c of
4d In
4e of

Answers 179
5a Among
5b from/to
5c in/of
5d in/in
5e in/at
5f On/between
6a out
6b of
6c in/to
6d to
6e among/in
6f from
6g between
6h in
6i of
6j over
6k between
6l in
6m in
6n of
6o in/to
14. Prepositions after Verbs
2a focused on/concentrated on
2b pointed out
2c specialising in
2d associated with
2e divided into
2f blamed for
2g believed in
2h rely on
4a derives from
4b consists of
4c added to
4d looked into
4e rely on/depend on
4f invested … in
4g Compared with

180 Answers
4h pay … for
4i rely on/depend on
15. Punctuation
7a On Tuesday June 6, 1759, in the church at Derby, Nicolas James
married Mary Dewey.
7b Professor Rowan’s new book, The Triumph of Capitalism, is published
in New York.
7c How many people would agree with John Lennon when he said: ‘All
you Need is Love’?
7d The probability was calculated for each of the three faculties: Physics,
Biology and Law.
7e As Cammack (1994) points out: ‘Latin America is creating a new
phenomenon: democracy without citizens.’
7f Thousands of new words such as ‘website’ enter the English
language each year.
7g Dr Tanner’s latest study focuses on children’s reactions to stress in
the playground.
7h She scored 56% on the main course; the previous semester she had
achieved 67%.
8 The London School of Business is offering three new courses this
year: Economics with Psychology; Introduction to Management; and
e-commerce. The first is taught by Dr Jennifer Hillary and runs from
October to January. The second, Introduction to Management, for
MSc. Finance students is offered in the second semester, and is
assessed by coursework only. Professor Wang’s course in e-commerce
runs in both the autumn and the spring, and is for more experienced
students.
16. Referring Verbs
(Others may be possible.)
3a A admitted/accepted/agreed that he might have made a mistake in
his estimate.
3b B denied saying that sheep were faster than horses.
3c C stated that whales were very intelligent animals.
3d D agreed with A’s position on cats and dogs.
3e E assumed that cows could get cold in winter.
3f F concluded that pigs could not fly.
3g G discovered a new type of frog in the jungle.
3h H doubted that cats could learn to talk.
3i I suggested that cat and mouse behaviour should be compared.
3j J hypothesised that there might be a link between health and the
seasons.

Answers 181
5a K blamed X’s work for a lot of our current problems.
5b L criticised her for being careless about her research methods.
5c M classified bees into three main species.
5d N characterised the cat family as the kings of the animal world.
5e O interpreted dogs’ barking as nervousness.
5f P described trying to estimate the number of animal species as being
like shooting in the dark.
5g Q evaluated Darwin as the greatest naturalist of the nineteenth
century.
5h R defined insects as six-legged arthropods.
5i S portrayed Queen Victoria as a short, rather fat, dark-eyed woman.
5j T identified/presented Gregor Mendel as the founder of modern
genetics.
17. Relative Pronouns
1a where
1b who
1c which/that
1d whose
2a which/that
2b where
2c who
2d which/that
2e who
2f which
4a D
4b D
4c A
4d A
4e D
5a necessary
5b not
5c not
5d necessary
5e not
6a whose
6b who
6c which/that
6d which/that

182 Answers
6e x
6f which
6g whose
6h which
6i x
18. Singular/Plural
1a disadvantages – e
1b are – a
1c areas – c
1d crime – b
1e town has its own council – d
3a those problems
3b colleges
3c varies
3d cultures
3e are
3f a job/jobs
3g A huge/huge numbers
3h has
3i other places
3j is
3k lives
4 companies have/websites/e-commerce/this is/businesses/their/
trouble/security/expense/mean/these companies
19. Tenses
1
Tense Reason for use
a present simple general rule
b present continuous current situation
c present perfect recent event
d present perfect continuous recent, with emphasis on action that
continues for a long time
e simple past finished, with time phrase
f past continuous finished, with emphasis on action that
continues for a long time
g past perfect refers to a previous past period
h will future prediction

Answers 183
(Others may be possible.)
2a has been rising
2b stands for
2c recorded
2d had written
2e will be
2f is considering
2g was building/had built
2h disputes/disputed
2i has fallen/has been falling
4a is working
4b believes
4c is looking for
4d is researching
4e has risen
4f owns
4g live
4h is attending
6a have suspected
6b have developed
6c confirmed
6d developed
6e was displayed
6f demonstrated
6g says/said
6h is being tested
6i makes
6j developed
6k will be available
20. Time Words and Phrases
3a Last
3b During
3c By
3d for
3e ago
3f until
3g Currently

184 Answers
4a recently
4b until
4c for
4d Last month
4e by
4f Since
4g During
5a During
5b Since
5c ago
5d recently
5e Currently
5f by
5g since
6a before
6b later
6c by
6d for
6e until
6f during
6g ago

Part 4: Writing Models
1. Formal Letters
1a Address of sender
1b Address of recipient
1c Sender’s reference
1d Date
1e Greeting
1f Subject headline
1g Reason for writing
1h Further details
1i Request for response
1j Ending
1k Signature
1l Writer’s name and title
2 Model answer:
54 Sydney Road
Rowborough
RB1 6FD
Mr M Bramble
Administrative Assistant
Arts & Social Sciences Admissions Office
Wye House
Central Campus
University of Borchester
Borchester BR3 5HT
Yr Ref.: MB/373
5 May 2002
Dear Mr Bramble
Informal Interview
Thank you for inviting me to interview on May 21st. I will be able to
attend on that date, but it would be much more convenient if I could
have the interview at 12, due to the train times from Rowborough.
Could you please let me know if this alteration is possible?
Yours sincerely
P. Tan
P
. Tan
Answers 185

186 Answers
3 Model answer:
54 Sydney Road
Rowborough
RB1 6FD
Tel: 0122-354-751
The Manager
Hotel Nelson
Queen’s Road
Rowborough RB2 4RN
Yr Ref.: EN2
16 October 2002
Dear Sir
Vacancy for Reception Staff
I am writing in response to your advert for reception staff (Evening
News 15/10).
I am currently studying at Rowborough University, but I am looking
for part-time work, and believe that I have the qualities you are
seeking. As you will see from my enclosed CV I have previous
experience of working in a team, and speak Mandarin and Japanese as
well as English. Having no family commitments I am quite prepared
to work evenings or weekends.
I believe that I could make a useful contribution to your business,
which I am considering as a future career, and hope to hear from you
soon.
Yours faithfully
P. Tan
P
. Tan
Enc. CV
3. Designing and Reporting Surveys
1 (Other suggestions possible/in any order.)
Get up-to-date data
Collect information about the behaviour of a specific group, e.g.
overseas students in London
Check/replicate other research
2a conducted
2b random
2c questionnaire

Answers 187
2d questioned
2e respondents
2f Interviewees
2g mentioned
2h majority
2i slightly
2j minority
2k questions
2l common
2m generally
2n sample
3 Model questions (Q3–Q6 could use present tense):
Q2 Why did you take a job?
Q3 What effect did the work have on your studies?
Q4 What kind of work did you do?
Q5 What hours did you work?
Q6 How much did you earn?
Q7 Do you have any comments on your work?
4a past tense
4b present tense
The survey is completed but the results are still valid.
5 (ii) is less embarrassing for most people to answer.
6 (i) is an open question and has many possible answers.
(ii) is a closed question with a limited range of responses.
4. Comparison Essay
(Other answers possible.)
a This normally involves having access to a secure site on the internet
where a graded series of lessons is available, which have assignments
sent and returned by email.
b A student living in a small town in China, for example, can now
study a course at an American college.
c Membership of a group may also create a useful spirit of competition
which stimulates learning.
d There may be many people who are unable, through either work or
family commitments, or owing to lack of funds, to go to classes …
e Although online courses are now offered by many institutions …
f … it is by no means clear that they offer real advantages compared
with classroom education.
g e-education/online courses/internet use in education/e-learning

188 Answers
5 Discursive Essay
1 Definition 1 (national development)
2 Reason
3 Example
4 Definition 2 (education)
5 Topic
6 Outline
Writing Tests
Writing Test 1
SPEAKING AND WRITING
1) When we speak, it is normally to one or
2) a small number of people, who are often well known to us.
3) As we speak, we are able
4) to study our listeners’ faces for expressions that tell
5) us their reaction to what we are saying;
6) for example agreement, or amusement.
7) If their expressions show incomprehension
8) we will probably restate what we are saying.
9) For most people speaking feels like a natural activity,
10) though if they have to make a formal speech
11) they often find the situation stressful.
1) Writing, however, is much more like speaking to
2) an unknown audience.
3) Unless we are writing a letter to a friend
4) we have no way of knowing who may read our words.
5) Writers cannot check if the readers understand, or are interested
6) in what they are writing.
7) This is the reason why writing is more difficult than
8) speaking, and often uses a more formal style.
9) It also explains why writing must be as clear and simple as possible,
10) to avoid the dangers of being misunderstood by readers,
11) who cannot look puzzled to
12) make the writer explain what he means again.
Writing Test 2
Note that in some cases, e.g. (1a), only one answer is acceptable; in
other cases, e.g. (1b), a number of synonyms are possible, not all of
which may be listed.

1a in
1b problem/difficulty/challenge/priority
1c the/so
1d difficult/problematic/challenging
1e However/Next/Then
1f or
1g improves
1h begins/tends/seems
1i in/after
1j they
1k easily/well/effectively
1l third/further
1m most
1n since/because/as
1o on
1p why
1q necessary/better/useful/helpful
1r an
1s before
1t their
Writing Test 3
Note comments in Writing Test 1 above.
3a somewhere
3b from
3c who
3d kinds/types/sorts/categories
3e Almost/Nearly/Virtually
3f halls
3g make/find
3h convenient/practical/sensible
3i but/although/though
3j rather
3k a
3l This
3m may/might/can/could/should
3n also
3o on
Answers 189

3p as/since/because
3q be
3r vital/important/essential/critical
3s an
3t them
Writing Test 4
Model answer:
A COMPARISON OF BORCHESTER AND ROWBOROUGH AS A STUDY LOCATION
Rowborough is a large industrial city with a population of one and a
half million, whereas Borchester is an old city with a much smaller
population. These basic differences determine their suitability as
centres for a university course.
Rowborough can offer a wider range of leisure facilities but
Borchester has a quieter character. Rowborough may have a worse
climate, being cool even in summer and wet in winter, while winters
in Borchester are less cold, though the summers tend to be wet.
Rowborough is hillier than Borchester, which might be a drawback
for cyclists. However, Rowborough does have a better public
transport system, which may compensate for the hills. Borchester
also has a rather remote campus, which might involve a lot of
travelling. It is also likely to be more expensive in terms of
accommodation, and is rather distant from the capital. On the other
hand, some areas in Rowborough suffer from high crime rates.
Clearly, each city has its advantages: Borchester is more likely to suit
a student looking for peace and quiet, who can tolerate some
inconvenience, while Rowborough would be suitable for someone
keen to economise and wanting a more lively atmosphere.
190 Answers

Sources 191
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energy in remote region – a case study in an island. Energy Policy 30 (1):
33–42
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memory in the television serial. Media, Culture & Society 23: 439–455
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Hong Kong. Scandinavian Journal of Management 17 (2): 167–185
Semple, J. 2000. Production of transgenic rice with agronomically useful
genes. Biotechnology Advances 18 (8): 653–683
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reducing child nutrition in developing countries? Agricultural Economics 26 (3):
191–204
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governability in Argentina. Bulletin of Latin American Research 19 (4): 527–545
Worthington, R. 2001. Between Hermes and Themis: an empirical study of the
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192 Sources

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