Accelerated Stress Testing

Fundamentals
of Accelerated
Stress Testing
A C C E L E R AT E D S T R E S S T E S T I N G
Fundamentals
of Accelerated
Stress Testing

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Definition of AST. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Defect Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Accelerated Stress Testing–
Simulation or Stimulation?. . . . . . . . . . 5
Implementation of AST . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Where Do We Implement AST? . . . . 11
Step-Stressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
HALT Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Types of Stresses
Used in AST. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Temperature Cycling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Vibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Comparison of Electrodynamic and
Repetitive Shock (RS) Vibration
System Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Thermal Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Humidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Electrical Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Combined Environments . . . . . . . . . . 19
Environmental Stresses, Effects and
Potential Reliability Improvement
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Failure Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Tools for Continuous
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Reliability Growth Monitoring. . . . . . 24
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Recommended Information
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2
Manufacturing techniques and procedures
have changed dramatically over the last
twenty years. Products have become
much more complex, customers’ product
expectations have grown, and competition
for customers has increased. Additionally
national and international quality and
reliability standards are continually being
published. Because of these changes, most
products must now undergo testing to
achieve acceptable levels of quality and
reliability improvements, and these testing
methods can vary greatly. On one hand,
there are pragmatic methods based upon
sound management and engineering, and
the wide use of statistical techniques.
On the other hand is a range of methods
based largely upon a systems approach in
quantification of factors such as yield and
failure rates1
.
The requirements for product reliability
and testing have undergone major changes
in the last few years. Customers are starting
to recognize the importance of building
reliability into their products. To build in
reliability, today’s manufacturers need to
know as much about “how things fail” as
they know “how things work”2
. The advent
of cost-effective computer technology
coupled with low testing and test personnel
budgets have caused a renewed interest in
Accelerated Stress Testing. The number of
tools and techniques used to test products
has also changed dramatically and will
continue to evolve as technology evolves.
AST is a product testing technique that
everyone from the management team,
to the marketing people, to the product
managers, to the product designers, to the
manufacturing personnel, to the quality
and reliability personnel need to know
about. AST can be used quite simply to
make better, more reliable product.
THE CHANGES
This handbook is written to show how
greater control can be gained over total
product reliability by the utilization of
Accelerated Stress Testing techniques
(AST). It will examine the concept of
AST; how Accelerated Stress Testing
compares to Accelerated Life Testing;
the technologies used in Accelerated Stress
Testing; and the issues involved in properly
implementing Accelerated Stress Testing.
General questions relating to the purpose
and intent of Accelerated Stress Testing
are also addressed in this booklet. However,
because Accelerated Stress Testing is
product specific, and each product has its
own set of variables, it is not possible to
cover individual product applications in
detail. Sources for assistance of this type
are referenced in the Bibliography Section.
NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
As it is true throughout various industries,
terms used to define or describe things in
a particular discipline can vary widely. In
understanding Accelerated Stress Testing,
there are a number of areas where these
variations cause confusion. In interest
of clarity, this book makes some needed
distinctions. It is recommended that
readers refer to the Definitions Section for
clarification of the terms used in this book.
INTRODUCTION

Accelerated Stress Testing can be simply
defined as: applying high levels of stress
for a short period of time to a device under
test assuming it will exhibit the same
failure mechanisms as it would in a longer
amount of time at lower stress levels. In
contrast to many types of testing – AST is
“testing to fail” versus that of “testing to
pass” a product. The key here is to under-
stand the failures and their relationship
to the applied stresses.
The main purpose of AST is to insure
product reliability and accelerate the
reliability growth for a given product.
The intent is to attain product reliability
maturity early in the design phase
(see Fig. 1 & 2).
DEFINITION OF ASTProductReliabilityGrowth
Time
TYPICAL RELIABILITY GROWTH
FOR A TYPICAL PRODUCT
➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟
➟➟➟➟➟
Fig. 1
ProductReliabilityGrowth
Time
RELIABILITY GROWTH FOR A TYPICAL
PRODUCT USING AST TECHNIQUES
➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟ ➟
➟➟➟➟➟
Fig. 2
3

It is very important to understand that
specific types of defects are precipitated
or caused to surface by certain stresses or
combinations of stresses. Remember, each
product is unique and there is no one
tool or machine that will precipitate all
relevant flaws for all products. This is not
only due to various product dimensions
and functions, but more importantly the
physics of the product response to various
stimuli. Mathematical models used in
predicting or counting failures has its place,
but when concerned with accelerating the
fatigue of products, we must first remember
what causes product failures. The main
causes of failure, whether in production
or in use are1
:
s Over-stress – In which the stress
(volts, torque, etc.) exceeds the strength
available to withstand it.
s Wear-out – Caused by fatigue wear,
corrosion, etc.
s Performance – Such as resistance value,
drift, dimensional change, etc.
s Variation – Variation of parameter
values (dimensions, environments, etc.)
can cause failure to meet specifications;
or can lead to failure due to over-stress or
wear-out. Variation in the product is the
result of manufacturing processes that are
not exactly repeatable.
By understanding the product, we can
focus on how to accelerate the life of the
product and identify potential weaknesses
or failures. To accomplish this we must
identify what stresses the product can
sustain and what stresses precipitate
defects. This has long been practiced
by skilled Environmental Engineers by
applying TAAF (Test, Analyze, And Fix)
Procedures.
DEFECT PRECIPITATION
“One test is worth
a thousand
expert opinions”
—Anonymous
4

A great deal of confusion in the area
of AST testing can be eliminated if the
simple question is asked: Am I trying to
simulate the product’s life or am I trying
to stimulate any failure that might occur
during the product’s life? Although this
may sound like the same thing, it is not.
In product life simulation tests, you are
trying to simulate a lifetime of actual
stresses the product will be exposed to.
In product stimulation you apply stresses
to the product that are typically more
substantial than what the product would
see in its use environment in an effort to
induce fatigue, which precipitates failures
and reveals product weakness. Both
techniques have uses in a well-planned
product development program, and when
used improperly, both techniques lead to
false conclusions and can have costly
implications.
It is worth noting that a test oriented
towards evaluating long term effects
(fatigue or durability) will almost always
take more time than a test oriented
towards evaluating short term (limit load
or step-stress) effects. This does not mean
that one is better than the other; finding
one type of problem often requires an
approach that is not suited to finding
another type of problem. More importantly,
it does not mean that substituting a shorter
type of test for a longer test will produce
equivalent results, regardless of what the
test is called. The cheaper test may not
always be the right test3
.
SIMULATION TESTING
The intent of product life simulation tests
is to identify relevant failure mechanisms
that would occur, and correlate these with the
point in the product’s life the failure would
occur. We want to understand the product’s
performance under the conditions that
customers would expect the product to
operate.12
This can be very simple for some
types of products and very complex for
other types of products.
For example, a keyboard could expect to
be used for 5 years. Assuming an operator
could type 80 WPM (350 characters per
minute), 7 hours a day, 280 days a year,
and the highest usage keys were vowels,
and the vowels were each used an average
of once every five letters typed, then
41.16 million strokes would occur on the
highest usage keys. So by striking a key
41.16 million times we would simulate
5 years of operation. This could be done
using an X-Y Cartesian robot (so you could
strike off center as well), with a set of
solenoids that could strike 900 strokes/
minute to simulate 5 years of life in
31.7 days. This is an example of time
compression using actual simulated life
conditions. This can also be done with
the dynamic and climactic conditions a
product would see. This type of accelerated
life testing is very easy to correlate to the
actual life of the product.
Unfortunately, not all product simulations
are quite this simple. The steps to a
product life simulation are as follows:
1. Determine what life your customer
expects from the product.
The most important thing to know for
any life test, or any test for that matter,
is what your customer expects from your
product. Each market segment has its own
ACCELERATED STRESS TESTING–
SIMULATION OR STIMULATION?
5

expectation level for what is acceptable.
The expectation level varies based on the
product’s type and price. If the product
does not meet the expectation level of its
market segment, it will most probably be
a failure.
An example of this is comparing a Rolex™
watch with a watch that that you get free
when you fill your gas tank. The market
segment that the Rolex™ was designed
for expects precision, and lifetime opera-
tion. If it does not last the customers’ life-
time, then it will not meet the customers
expectation level, and the customer will
be dissatisfied. On the other hand, if the
giveaway watch keeps reasonable time for
two years, the customer will most likely
be very satisfied. It is obvious that the
cost to manufacture a product such as the
Rolex™is much greater than the cost of
the giveaway watch. If we tried to make a
watch for the giveaway market with too
high a cost, it would also be a failure.
By first determining what the customer
expects from your product, you can
intelligently put together a life test that
helps you meet or exceed the customer
expectations.
2. Determine what operating and
non-operating environment(s) the product
will experience.
The first environments to consider are
those the product will experience
during transportation (all the modes of
transportation used as well the regions
the product will be shipped to). The next
consideration is storage environments.
The final set of environments are those
the product will encounter during its
primary use (all the situations where a
customer may use the product). After all
these conditions are identified, you will
have determined the standard and extreme
environments the product will see during
its life.
3. Determine the frequency and duration
of operation the product will experience.
Identifying how often the product will
be used and the duration of its uses
requires an understanding of statistics
and probability, as not all users will use
the product the same number of times
or for the same length of time.11
It is best
to assume worst case use of the product
for life test purposes.
Once the number of uses and the duration
is determined, we can look for ways to
compress the time. This is done by cycling
the product on and off the total number
times the product would see during its life.
As for duration of use, it is applicable for
some products but not others. For example,
for most electronic equipment duration
applies to the amount of time it takes to
bring the product to temperature. After
that point, the stress incurred is minimal.
However, for some mechanical devices,
the length of operation does apply and
must be taken into consideration.
4. Determine the frequency the product
will see particular use environments.
A. Determine the extreme stress levels
and how many times the product will
experience these.
6

We now need to consider the extremes
that were decided earlier to determine how
many times the product will see these in
its life, assuming the worst case (again,
this will vary from user to user). Once
the frequency of cycles is determined, we
can look at compressing the time period.
We do need to differentiate the number
of cycles and extremes the product will
see during transportation, storage, and
operation. It has been shown that once the
product reaches a temperature condition,
the majority of the fatigue has been incurred.
This means that typically once the product
reaches a targeted temperature a dwell
period is not required and we can continue
to the next target temperature condition.
Humidity extremes are affected by duration
due to breakdowns that can occur in coat-
ings and seals as well as corrosion growth.
In vibration testing, how often a product
experiences extreme vibration levels
directly relates to the total amount of
stress that the product is subjected to,
and needs to be addressed.
B. Determine transitions and how
many times the product will see these.
Chances are, there will be cases in a
product’s life where an extreme change
in temperature will occur. Even office
equipment that typically resides in
air-conditioned comfort will most
likely experience extreme changes in
temperature, humidity, and vibration
levels during transportation. We need
to identify the maximum transitions and
incorporate the worst case number into
our accelerated life test.11
5. Put together the life test.
Now that we know the stress conditions,
the frequency of use and exposure, and
the maximum transitions, we can create a
profile that represents a particular product’s
life. One of the easiest ways to formulate
this test is to break the product’s life down
into two sections.
The first section represents the product
transportation and storage environments,
and the second section represents the
product use environment. During the
transportation and storage section, because
the product experiences vibration extremes
before it experiences climactic extremes,
we apply the vibration conditions first.
That is, the greater stresses will be applied
first. A good reference for the transporta-
tion vibration profiles is MIL-STD-810 or
SAE J-1211. These specifications detail
environmental profiles for different modes
of transportation. After the vibration
extremes are tested, the climactic extremes
with transition rates are applied. Finally
the use environment tests are applied;
we have already determined the extremes
and frequency of variation.
While applying the environmental and
dynamic stress conditions, remember
to exercise and continually monitor the
product. It is extremely important to
document failures and at what condition
they occur. This information is critical
to identify the failure mechanisms so the
proper corrective action can be taken.
7

STIMULATION TESTING
The intent of environmental stimulation
is to induce product fatigue by applying
higher levels of stress than the product
would experience in normal use. This type
of testing is based on the concept that
higher stresses applied to a product
accelerate the rate at which relevant
failures would become evident in the
product’s life. The key is that the failures
caused during stimulation must be relevant
to failures that the product would experi-
ence sometime during its expected life.
Predicting the life of parts stressed above
the endurance limit is at best a rough
procedure4
. For many mechanical and
electronic parts subjected to randomly
varying stress cycle intensity, the prediction
of fatigue life is further complicated. The
procedure referenced here for addressing
this situation was proposed by Palmgren
of Sweden in 1924 and, independently,
by Miner of the United States in 1945.
The procedure is often called the linear
cumulative-damage rule. Palmgren and
Miner very logically proposed the simple
concept that if a part cyclically loaded at
a stress level causing failure in 105
cycles,
then each cycle of this loading consumes
one part in 105
of the life of the part.
If other stress cycles are interposed
corresponding to a life of 104
cycles, each
of these consumes one part in 104
the life,
and so on. When, on this basis, 100
percent of the life is consumed, fatigue
failure is predicted4
. Miner’s equation for
damage at failure is:
Where n1, n2...nk represent
the number of cycles at specific
overstress levels, and N1, N2...Nk
represent the life (in cycles) at
these overstress levels, as taken
from the appropriate S-N curve.
A point to be taken into consideration is
that once a product is fatigued, a portion
of its life is consumed, and this damage
is irreversible. We need to temper this
fatigue accumulation equation with the
fact that all products are unique. This
statement was proved very conclusively
by showing the order in which vibration
and temperature cycling is applied does
affect time to failure5
. To calculate a
particular material’s accumulated fatigue
damage in relationship to the stress cycles
at various stress levels, we find a form of
the Miner’s rule using idealized S-N curves
Crandell and Mark10
suggested. The
relationship can be stated as:
AFD = nσβ
AFD is the accumulated fatigue
damage; n is the number of stress
cycles; σ is the mechanical stress;
and β is the exponential drive from
the SN Diagram for the material
this is typically between 6 and 25.
This illustrates that by increasing the
amount of stress, you can reduce the
number of cycles. This principle applies
for a single type of material and does not
work blindly on products that contain
many different types of materials and the
interactions that occur when various
stresses are applied.
8
n1 n2 nk
——— + ——— + . . . + ——— = 1
Nf1 Nf2 Nfk

ACCELERATED SCREEN
TESTING IS NOT ENVIRONMENTAL
STRESS SCREENING (ESS)
There is sometimes confusion between
AST and ESS. This is because both tech-
nologies use stimulation as a means of pre-
cipitating latent defects. AST, however, is
a test applied to a sample of the produc-
tion, while ESS is a process applied to
every unit that is produced. AST is
typically used in the product develop-
ment phase to identify design weaknesses,
while ESS is used primarily to identify
weaknesses in materials and processes.
It has been proven that relevant latent
(hidden) defects can be precipitated by
exaggerated stress levels utilizing a smaller
number of cycles. The reasons for stimula-
tion testing are quite simple. First, it allows
you to quickly gauge the overall ruggedness
of a product early in the design phase by
identifying operation failure limits. Next,
it produces failures which can be judged as
relevant or irrelevant by the design team,
and the corresponding corrective measures
can be implemented quickly with minimal
rework. Finally, it provides invaluable
information regarding how the system
reacts to various stress environments and
operating conditions, and this information
can help close the design feedback loop.
ACCELERATED STRESS TESTING
(AST) VS. ACCELERATED LIFE
TESTING (ALT)
As discussed earlier there is quite a
difference between simulation testing and
stimulation testing. This is the difference
between AST and ALT. Even if you
are using accelerated models with higher
levels of stress for time compression,
the intent of life testing is to be able to
determine not only that a failure will
occur during the products expected life-
time but also when in the product’s life
the failure will occur. AST on the other
hand, is based on the assumption that
an item will exhibit the same failure
mechanisms in a short time under high
stress conditions that it will exhibit in a
longer time under low stress conditions2
.
With AST you must examine and review
all failures, determine relevance, and
decide what, if any, corrective action
is required.
9

The most important thing to recognize
when implementing AST is that your
product determines the test. The first
consideration when implementing AST
is the type of stresses to apply. This can
be determined by reviewing typical field
failure data on related products (if possible)
to gauge expected early failure mechanisms.
The concept is to apply stresses that
precipitate all the latent flaws that
would occur during a product’s lifetime.14
There are many sources to familiarize
yourself with the various screens and the
types of defects that they precipitate. See
Table 2 (on pages 20 and 21) for examples.
If you have no past related field data, a
Step Stress or a HALT test needs to be
performed to identify a product’s potential
weaknesses. Ideally, when considering
what types of stresses to apply to the
product, you should use as many relevant
stressing environments as possible.
By incorporating multiple stressing
environments, a synergistic stress
effect is produced.
The next consideration is the proper
levels of stress to apply. This can be
determined by applying a step stress
procedure to determine the destruct and
operational limits of a product. Stress level
determination is very product dependent.
While applying the stresses, it is important
to apply TAAF (Test, Analyze And Fix)
techniques to identify product weakness
and implement any required corrective
actions. To do this requires that the
product be exercised and monitored.
This cannot be overstated.
The final major consideration is stress
duration. This is determined by the nature
of the AST test and the time required to
be properly electrically or mechanically
operated and tested.
IMPLEMENTATION OF AST
10

MODES OF STRESS TESTING6
There are several modes of using AST:
design qualification, manufacturing
qualification, production sampling, and
ongoing AST. These are presented in
order; from the most effective in increasing
product reliability to the least.
Design Qualification AST: The product
is tested near the end of the design stage
to see if it is robust with respect to stress
levels in excess of those likely to be
encountered in the use environment.
If deficiencies are found, the root cause
is determined and corrective actions are
taken to fix the underlying causes of the
problem. This is the most productive mode
of doing AST because the benefits are
realized over the whole life of the product.
Manufacturing Qualification AST:
A representative sample of product is
subjected to AST during manufacturing
ramp-up to identify deficiencies in
component quality or manufacturing
processes. In addition, design margin
deficiencies that did not show up in
design qualification AST may be found.
The emphasis again is on Failure Mode
Analysis (FMA) and corrective action,
so that deficiencies in the product can
be quickly eliminated before production
volumes become large.
Production Sampling AST: For products
requiring high reliability, it is useful to
continue to perform AST on a sampling
basis to monitor the production process
for manufacturing or component quality
variations, even after satisfactory
qualification has been achieved. The
emphasis continues to be on determining
the root cause of any problems found and
taking corrective action to fix them.
Ongoing AST: It sometimes occurs
that AST is performed with the intention
of doing good FMA and correcting any
problems found, but because of a lack
of sufficient resources, quality problems
persist. In this case, it may still be
economically feasible to continue doing
AST on an ongoing basis, with some
degree of FMA and corrective action
to achieve a high reliability product.
However, this mode is certainly less
desirable than the approaches mentioned
above.
WHERE DO WE IMPLEMENT AST?
11

Step-stressing has been used since the early
days of the space program. It is basically a
process of starting at a known stress level,
then increasing the “stress” levels in
controlled “steps”. The stress applied can
be temperature, vibration, electrical, or
other stresses, and the stresses can be
applied separately or in various
combinations (see Fig. 3).
First, the product is tested to determine
the maximum operational limits of stress
the product can withstand. When the
product reaches the limits of operation
(destruct limits), and no longer works,
the failures are analyzed and categorized,
and the product is repaired, and it is
tested again. This process is repeated until
satisfactory results are achieved. To deter-
mine when to terminate the step stress
test, continue the step-stressing until the
following occurs5
:
s Stress levels well above those expected
in service are reached,
s All samples fail, or
s Irrelevant failures begin to appear
By understanding the main cause of
failure, we can then identify and address
these potential failures. To do this we
must first have an idea of what stresses
the product can survive. The product is
then ruggedized to the level which the
company has intended.
STEP-STRESSING
AppliedStress
Time
➟
➟
Fig. 3
OPERATIONAL LIMIT
12
TECHNOLOGY LIMIT

Another type of stress stimulation
testing is known as HALT testing. HALT
is an acronym for Highly Accelerated Life
Testing. It was coined by Dr. Greg Hobbs8
.
HALT is really a package of testing
techniques, such as aggressive temperature
and vibration step-stressing. In the strictest
definition, HALT testing also implements
repetitive multiple axis vibration, also
known as quasi-random, omni-axial, or
six-degree-of-freedom vibration. This was
developed in the 1970’s by Hughes aircraft
as a ruggedization tool.
HALT testing offers a convenient
step-by-step process which will by its
very nature precipitate defects. It induces
fatigue, which in turn causes failures
that can be analyzed to determine the
appropriate corrective action. However,
HALT testing does not correlate the
failures to the point in time in the
product’s life that the failure would actually
occur. Although HALT testing does stress
and fatigue products, the actual amount of
time compression is unknown. For this
reason, HALT testing should probably be
categorized as highly accelerated fatigue
testing instead of inferring that it actually
accelerates the lifetime of a product
by any measurable amount of time.
HALT TESTING
13

Accelerated Stress Testing consists of
exposing a group of products to one or
more stressing environments. These
environments can include Thermal
Cycling, Vibration, Electrical Stress,
Thermal Shock, Humidity, and others.
The actual detailed product profiles, such
as the rates of change, types of stress, stress
extremes, etc., must be tailored for each
product. In this section we will present
some of the commonly used stressing
environments, what effects these have on
potential failure mechanisms, and a listing
of failure mechanisms precipitated by
individual stresses.
It is important to remember that each
type of stress precipitates certain failure
mechanisms.
TYPES OF STRESSES
USED IN AST
AN EXAMPLE OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF
PRECIPITATIVE FAILURE POPULATIONS
AND STRESSES
Fig. 4
Dust
Vibration
Temperature
Cycling
Humidity
Thermal
Shock
Power
Cycling
Clock
Variation
Corrosive
Environments
Voltage Margining
14

Temperature Cycling consists of multiple
cycles of changing temperature between
predetermined extremes. Temperature
Cycling can be used in AST for both
simulation and stimulation testing. As all
the variables in AST screening are product
dependent, temperature extremes must be
far enough apart to allow for optimum
stressing caused by the temperature change
between the extremes. It is the constant
rate of change that provides the expansion
and contraction necessary to sufficiently
stress the product.
When we talk about temperature stressing
of a product, we are talking about product
change rates. Because products have
different amounts of surface area, different
specific heats, and different coefficients
of thermal expansion, we must treat every
product as unique. There are three main
variables to consider when planning
temperature stress tests. These are product
temperature change rates, difference
between temperature extremes and number
of cycles. Other considerations are:
Airflow: For each product, there is an air
velocity at which maximum heat transfer
is obtained. Exceeding this air velocity
can be counter-productive. The correct
air velocity and direction for a particular
product can be determined through
experimentation.
Dwell periods: Once the product has
reached the desired temperature, dwell
periods at temperature extremes typically
do not significantly contribute to stress.
Many manufacturers allow the product to
remain at temperature extremes only long
enough to allow for a functional test of
the product.
Thermal Cycling is the most commonly
used, and one of the most effective
precipitation stresses. Like any stress, it
must be properly implemented. Failure
rates must be analyzed to determine which
latent defects are causing failures; and
experimentation must be performed to
determine the stress profile best suited to
trigger those particular latent defects and
their failures.
TEMPERATURE CYCLING
15

Vibration involves stimulating a product
with a pre-determined force over a
frequency spectrum. There are several
types of machines used for vibration
testing, but in AST, typically two types of
vibration are used: Electrodynamic and
Repetitive Shock vibration.
The typical Electrodynamic vibration
system frequency range is 5-2000 Hertz.
The most common type of vibration stress
used is broadband random. This is created
through simultaneous excitation of all the
resident frequencies within a profile range.
Random vibration is transferred to the
product by fixturing attached to the
moving element of the Electrodynamic
shaker. The Electrodynamic shaker is
controlled by a closed loop vibration
control system which is repeatable and will
accurately reproduce real world vibration.
It can be used for simulation testing as
well as stimulation testing. Products may
be vibrated on a single axis or multiple
axis concurrently or consecutively.
Several categories of vibration can be
run on Electrodynamic vibration systems
such as sine, random, resonance search
and dwell, shock, sine on random, random
on random, and several others. These
stress environments may or may not be
applicable depending on the product
application.
Repetitive Shock Vibration (RS Vibration)
is generated using one or more pneumatic
impact hammer(s) that strike a plate on
which the product is attached. Commonly,
Repetitive Shock Machines provide
vibration in three distinct axes and three
rotational axes simultaneously. The
frequency in which most of the energy
is generated is in the 2 to 5000 hertz
bandwidth. Repetitive shock vibration
machines cannot simulate real world
vibration conditions, so their use is limited
to stimulation testing only.
Fixturing for either type of vibration
machine needs to be designed to ensure
that the stress is transmitted to the product
and that the process can be repeatable
with reasonable accuracy. Currently
there are varying opinions as to which
provides a more stressful environment
over a particular frequency range. Table 1
provides a comparison.
VIBRATION
16

COMPARISON OF ELECTRODYNAMIC AND REPETITIVE SHOCK
(RS) VIBRATION SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
FACTOR ELECTRODYNAMIC REPETITIVE SHOCK (RS)
1. Number of Axes per Shaker One Six
2. Simultaneous Multiple One or more shakers per axis (complex Yes
Axis Capability control algorithms) or diagonal (skewed)
force vector input
3. Typical Range of Thousands of pounds Possible: Low hundreds of lbs
Product Mass Practical: Less than 100 lbs
4. Energy Source Electrical Pneumatic
5. Typical Frequency Range < 5 to 2000 Hz 10 to >5,000 Hz
6. Controllable Spectrum Yes No
7. Force Limiting Factors Armature mass, field supply, Piston mass, impact velocity,
amplifier cooling capacity piston/fixture coupling, distance
from impact point, modal
characteristics of plate
8. Low Frequency Energy Yes, controllable Minimal
9. Can be used for Yes No
Simulation Testing
10. Can be used for Yes Yes
Stimulation Testing
11. Input Displacement Range Inches applied to entire fixture and product Microinches, applied locally to fixture
impact points
12. Spectral Characteristics Continuous control in each filter band; Uncontrolled (open loop) spectrum
sine, random, shock, sine-on-random, with periodic “holes” and spikes,
narrowband-on-broadband vibration “quasi-random” vibration only
13. Spectrum Limiting Factors Fixture resonances, number of filters, Open-loop control, piston repetition
ED armature/test mass resonance rate, fixture resonances and nodes,
(~2500 Hz) GRMs control only
14. Product Characterization Straight forward analysis Analysis complicated by untailorable
spectrum
15. Uniformity On Table Very uniform Not uniform
16. Mechanical Shock Pulses Classical waveform, shock spectrum, No control capability
pyrotechnic
17. Acoustic Noise Varies with spectrum, fixture and product Very loud (could affect performance
design, and input force level of noise-sensitive products)
18. Electromagnetic Fields Magnetic fields can affect some products; No effects
may require degauss coil
17
TABLE 1

Humidity testing is typically performed
in a chamber that can precisely control
wet and dry bulb temperatures. Exposing
products to humidity stress precipitates
corrosion and contamination defects in
products. Humidity can penetrate porous
materials, cause leakage between electrical
conductors, and is also an important stress
when evaluating coatings and seals.
Because oxygen is required for oxidation,
it limits the use of nitrogen-cooled
chambers, which create an inert environ-
ment that inhibits corrosion. Typically,
humidity tests are of long duration, and
certain types of corrosion require minimal
airflow, which is not typical of most
chambers.
Another type of humidity testing, known
as HAST (Highly Accelerated Stress
Testing), is done in a pressurized vessel.
This type of system is analogous to a
pressure cooker or autoclave. The HAST
system aggressively forces moisture into
potential failure sites.
HUMIDITY
Thermal shock testing involves exposing
products to severe temperature extremes in
a rapid fashion. For example, the product is
transferred either mechanically or manually
from an extremely hot environment to an
extremely cold environment. This process
is repeated several times. Thermal shock
is generally considered a cost-effective
way to screen defects at the component
level; particularly in integrated circuits
which require a high degree of stress to
experience the rates of change required
to force latent defects into failure.
There are two types of Thermal shock test
mediums: Air-to-Air and Liquid-to-Liquid.
Air-to-Air Thermal shock systems expose
the product to preconditioned hot and
cold air. Liquid-to-Liquid Thermal shocks
immerse a product in high and low
temperature inert fluids. These tests can
be performed on a variety of Thermal
shock machines.
When using Thermal shock for AST
testing, consider the following: If the
product is manually transferred, the risk
of accidental product damage increases.
Additionally, it is difficult, or sometimes
impractical, to apply product power and
monitor the product’s operation while the
Thermal shock stress environment is being
applied. This severely limits opportunities
for collecting data for product failure
analysis.
THERMAL SHOCK
18

Electrical Stress is used to test a product
near or at its electrical limits. Exercising
circuitry and/or simulating junction
temperatures on semi-conductors are both
good examples of electrical stress tests.
There are two basic types of electrical
stress tests: Power Cycling and Voltage
Margining.
Power Cycling consists of turning product
power on and off at specified levels.
Voltage Margining involves varying input
power above and below nominal product
power requirements. A subset of Voltage
Margining is frequency margining.
Typically, electrical stress by itself does not
expose the number of defects commonly
found through thermal cycling and vibra-
tion stress. However, because it is typically
necessary to supply power to products
in order to find the soft or intermittent
failures, it can be relatively inexpensive to
implement electrical stress with the other
stress environments to increase the overall
Accelerated Stress Test effectiveness.
ELECTRICAL STRESS
19
Depending on product complexity,
cost, and other reliability specifications,
multiple environmental screens may
be used simultaneously. For example,
Thermal Cycling and Vibration are often
combined in an Accelerated Stress Test
program. Many other combinations of
stresses can be combined to precipitate
latent defects. Keep in mind that each
specific stress precipitates specific failure
mechanisms, and when used in conjunc-
tion with each other, some synergistic
effects may be realized.
The primary consideration should be
whether the additional stress, applied
simultaneously or consecutively, would
expose a significant number of additional
defects. With all Accelerated Stress
Testing programs, the most effective
profile is product and application
dependent. In general, the proper
combination of stresses will produce
the greatest number of failures in the
shortest amount of time.
COMBINED ENVIRONMENTS

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES, EFFECTS AND POTENTIAL
RELIABILITY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS EFFECTS POTENTIAL RELIABILITY
IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
High Temperature Parameters such as resistance, inductance, Thermal Insulation, heat
capacitance, power, dielectric constant will vary; withstanding materials,
insulation may soften; moving parts may jam due cooling systems.
to expansion and finish may blister; thermal aging,
oxidation and other chemical reactions may be
enhanced; viscosity may be reduced and
evaporation of lubricants can arise and structural
overloads may occur due to physical expansions.
Low Temperature Plastics and rubbers lose flexibility and become Thermal Insulation, cold
brittle; electrical constants vary; ice formation withstanding materials,
occurs when moisture is present; lubricants and cooling systems.
gels increase viscosity; finishes may crack;
structures may be overloaded due to physical
contraction.
Thermal Cycling and Shock Materials may be instantaneously over stressed Combination of techniques
causing cracks and mechanical failures; electrical for high and low temperature
properties may be permanently altered. Crazing
delamination, ruptured seals can arise.
Shock Mechanical structures may be over stressed Strengthened structural members,
causing weakening or collapse; items may be reduced inertia and moment,
ripped from their mounts; mechanical functions shock absorbing mounts.
may be impaired.
Vibration Mechanical strength may deteriorate due to fatigue Stiffening control of resonance.
or over stress; electrical signals may be erroneously
modulated; materials and structure may be cracked,
displaced, or shaken loose from mounts;
mechanical functions may be impaired.
TABLE 2
CALCE Electronic Packaging Research Center, University of Maryland, May 15, 1995
20

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES, EFFECTS AND POTENTIAL
RELIABILITY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
CALCE Electronic Packaging Research Center, University of Maryland, May 15, 1995
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS EFFECTS POTENTIAL RELIABILITY
IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
Humidity Penetrates porous substances and causes leakage Moisture Resistant materials,
paths between electrical conductors; causes dehumidifiers, protective coatings,
oxidation which may lead to corrosion; moisture hermetic sealing
causes swelling in materials such as gaskets;
excessive loss of humidity can cause embrittlement
Contaminated Atmosphere Many contaminants combined with water provide Non-metal product covers, reduce
Spray good conductor which can lower insulation use of dissimilar metals in contact,
resistance; cause galvanic corrosion of metals of dissimilar metals in contact,
and accelerates chemical corrosion. heretic sealing, dehumidifiers
Electromagnetic Radiation Causes spurious and erroneous signals from Shielding, radiation hardening
electrical and electronic equipment and
components; may cause complete disruption of
normal electrical and electronic equipment such
as communication and measuring systems.
Nuclear/Cosmic Radiation Causes heating and thermal aging; can alter Shielding, radiation hardening
chemical, physical and electrical properties of
materials; can produce gases and secondary
radiation; can cause oxidation and discoloration
of surfaces; damages electrical and electronic
components, especially semi-conductors.
Sand and Dust Finely finished surfaces are scratched and abraded; Air-filtering, wear-proof materials,
friction between surfaces may be increased; sealing
lubricants can be contaminated; clogging of
orifices; materials may be worn, cracked, or
chipped; abrasion, contaminates insulation,
corona paths.
Low Pressure (High Altitude) Structures such as containers and tanks, are over Increased mechanical strength
stressed and can be exploded or fractured; seals of containers, pressurization,
may leak; air bubbles in materials may increase alternate liquids (low volatility),
due to lack of cooling medium; insulation may improved insulation, improved
suffer arcing breakdown; ozone may be formed; heat transfer methods.
outgassing is more likely.
TABLE 2 (CONTINUED)
21

There are two distinct areas in AST
that need to be understood: precipitating
defects (which we have just discussed), and
detecting failures. These topics are equally
important. Most people involved in testing
have a good idea of how to induce failures.
Failure detection, on the other hand,
usually causes confusion. The most
important thing to remember about AST
is that if you precipitate failures without
detecting them you have accomplished nothing.
Due to the cost and complexity involved,
many companies do not implement
operational Failure Detection Systems
(FDS) while testing their products.
This can be extremely dangerous and/or
counter productive. Remember, whenever
you apply any stress you start using up
the products fatigue life. A number of
published cases have shown that a high
percentage of the total failures are soft
failures. A soft failure means that a failure
occurs at some condition(s) and then
normal operation resumes as the condi-
tion(s) change. These are the most difficult
failures to catch, and they will not be
identified unless the product is continuous-
ly monitored. Failure detection must also
be correlated to the stress levels applied.
This also requires continuous monitoring
of the product under test.
After a failure is identified, Failure Mode
Analysis (FMA) is then performed. This
requires knowledge of what failed, why
it failed, when it failed, where it failed,
and how it failed. After a complete FMA
is done, you can apply what you have
learned to implement the corrective
action.
The corresponding corrective action is
the key to closing the loop for a properly
designed AST program. This is where
the product improvement is obtained. Product
improvement is gained by first precipitat-
ing the hidden flaw(s), identifying the
flaw(s), and correcting the flaw(s). None
of the three can stand without the others.
FAILURE IDENTIFICATION
22

Continuous monitoring requires several
considerations regarding the equipment
required to do the actual test. To get
signals to and from products under test
can require fixturing, interconnects, power
supplies, product loads, and product
stimulus and monitoring instrumentation.
Because typically there are a number of
interconnects to the product, care must be
taken to insure that the interconnect does
not fail, producing false failures. To insure
reliable interconnect and fixturing the
following items should be evaluated:
s Material
s Structural Integrity
s Product/Operator Interface
s Replaceability
s Reliability
s Serviceability
s Adjustability
Remember, everything that is in the
stressing environments is subjected to the
same stresses as the product under test.
A quality power supply is also essential,
especially when considering electrical
stress tests. A poor power supply could
fluctuate incorrectly and damage your test
product. A good power supply should be
accurate, programmable, flexible, and
reliable. Most commercially available
power supplies today have the features
that are required for basic AST testing.
There are also some supplies today that
allow specialized testing such as program-
mable voltage fluctuations, frequency
variations, harmonics, flicker and several
other unique functions.
Another very important feature is the
operator interface. The proper operator
interface makes very complex instrumen-
tation easy to use, as well as easy to
implement. Other concerns are the ease
of adding additional functions, simplified
programming, and interface with the
other AST equipment.
The final component required for
implementing AST product monitoring is
the stimulus and monitoring equipment.
Flexibility is the key issue when looking for
instrumentation for AST. This is because
AST tests are typically done during the
design phase over a variety of products
and functions.
TOOLS FOR CONTINUOUS MONITORING
23

One of the most overlooked areas of
product testing is the area of reliability
monitoring. Reliability monitoring means
keeping a record of successes and failures
and creating a database of lessons learned.17
Reliability monitoring allows you to build
on past experiences, which improves
overall reliability and helps companies
avoid costly mistakes time and time
again. This database becomes a reference
tool for design engineers to expedite
proper design and provides an excellent
knowledge-sharing tool.
RELIABILITY
GROWTH MONITORING
This booklet is just a quick overview of the
area of AST. We have covered what AST
is, how it compares to life testing, types of
AST, stress environments, and the types of
defects that are precipitated. We have also
looked at the importance of continuously
monitoring the product under test. These
are just a few topics a person looking to
implement AST should understand. There
are several articles listed in the additional
reference area that the reader should find
helpful.
SUMMARY
24

Accelerated Life Testing – A process,
through which a small percentage of
products are subjected to stresses at a
higher level than they would experience
during their use environments during their
product lives. This compresses test time.
By simulating the product’s life, using
either actual or accelerated stress, we
can determine actually where a particular
failure would occur and at exactly what
time in a product’s life.
Accelerated Stress Testing – Applying
high levels of stress to a product for short
periods of time assuming it will exhibit the
same failure mechanisms as it would in a
longer amount of time at lower stress
levels. Accelerated stress testing employs
various stresses to precipitate failures which
in turn need to be analyzed and the proper
corrective action implemented. AST is
stimulation testing.
AFDF (Accumulated Fatigue damage
Factor) – The AFDF uses Minor’s Rule
to sum fatigue damage. The well known
Minor’s Rule states that an S-N Curve
can be used to compute total fatigue
damage. It should be noted that S-N Data
is taken using Sign Loading. When
applying AFDF to a product, it must be
remembered that each product is unique
and complex, and that the product consists
of more than one type of material. It must
also be remembered that each particular
stressing machine, the way that the
product is placed on the machine, fixture
transmissibility, table response, and actual
rates of each individual material, all affect
any possible AFDF estimate. Therefore,
AFDF’s estimates are far from accurate.
Aging, Life-Aging or Product Maturing –
Simultaneously operating and/or stressing
a product in order to advance its maturity
through infancy and to uncover latent
defects.
Board Level – A level at which circuit
boards are tested or screened prior to sub
or final assembly. Components are in place
and the product can be operated with
proper interconnects. The only added
complexity is usually in packaging.
Burn-in or Steady-State Burn-in –
The process of continuously powering a
product; usually at a constant temperature,
in order to accelerate the aging process. In
burn-in, it is very common to elevate the
temperature well beyond normal operation
temperatures, to accelerate the process of
defect precipitation.
Chamber – A cabinet in which products
are placed to subject them to stress or
stresses. This usually consists of an insulated
unit equipped with air circulation and
conditioning equipment.
Component Level – A level at which
components are screened or tested before
being placed on circuit boards.
Components may be screened or tested by
the manufacturer or by the user upon
receipt.
CA (Corrective Action) – The action
taken, after understanding the root cause
of a failure, to eliminate the source of the
defect in future design and production
revisions.
DEFINITIONS
25

DDT (Device Defect Tracking) – A data
base which tracks a product’s defects from
their discoveries; examines root causes,
documents corrective actions, and details
methodologies to prevent reoccurrence
in the future. Companies can apply this
knowledge to products that are being
currently developed, so that the same
mistakes do not reoccur.
Defect Precipitation – Changing a latent
defect to a patent defect; or simply making
an undetected failure, detectable.
Design Limits – The operational limit of
a product beyond which point the product
will not operate correctly and is considered
defective.
Design Ruggedization – The process
of finding weak links in the design and
fixing them so that the design becomes
more robust. Stresses used in Design
Ruggedization are much greater than field
environments.
Destruct Limits (Refer to Design Limits)
DT (Destructive Test) – A test or
physical analysis which destroys the
product after analysis completion.
DUT – Device Under Test
EMI – Electro-magnetic Interference
Environmental Testing – A process in
which a sample of products is subjected to
environmental simulation or stimulation.
Testing is used in variety of ways. A
prototype can be tested using extreme
stresses to confirm the range in which it
was designed to operate. A randomly
selected product can be tested at an
extreme temperature range to confirm
continuing design and production process
compliance. A product can be tested to
determine MTBF (Mean Time Between
Failures). Testing can be used to simulate
the environments in which the products
will encounter in transportation and
operation. In AST, environmental testing
typically applies to the accelerated stresses
applied to the product to accelerate
potential failure mechanisms.
ESS (Environmental Stress Screening) –
Unlike Accelerated Stress Testing, ESS is
a process in which 100% of the products
are subjected to one or more stresses with
the intent of forcing latent defects to
precipitate failures. ESS may involve any
or all of the following:
s Thermal Cycling
s Vibration
s High Temperature Burn-In
s Electrical Stress
s Thermal Shock
s Humidity
s Low Temperature
s Altitude
26

Failures – The most common types
of failure are:
Critical Failure – A case where the
product is unable to operate under the
conditions it is expected to.
Non-Critical Failure – A failure that
occurs only outside of the normal
operating range of the product.
Hard Failure – A case where the prod-
uct stops and does not resume function-
ing. These are always designated as
Critical Failures.
Soft Failure – A case where the product
stops functioning under certain condi-
tions, but then resumes operating under
others. For example, when a product is
powered, various stresses are applied, a
particular stress or a combination of
stresses may be the cause of the product
to stop operating. When the stress is
removed, the product may start func-
tioning again. This type
of failure may either be Critical (if the
product fails under the condition in
which it must operate in the field) or
Non-Critical (if the product fails under
conditions which the product will never
be exposed to in the field).
Infancy Failure – Failures that occur in
the early stages of the product life.
Generally, most product failures occur at
this stage.
Electrical Failures – An electrical
malfunction caused by electrical
components, connections, switches, or
related devices.
Mechanical Failures – A mechanical
malfunction caused by cracking, dis-
placement, misalignment, loosening of
nuts
and bolts, etc.
Process Failures – Failures caused by
the manufacturing process. These fail-
ures result mainly from mis-loaded com-
ponents;
damage caused by improper handling; or
inadequate assembly procedures.
Failure Mode Analysis – A procedure
which is used to identify the cause of the
defect and understand the defect so that
it is not repeated.
Failure Mechanism – The mechanical,
physical, chemical or other process that
results in failure.
Failure Mode – The manifestation of a
failure mechanism at a failure site. The
effect by which a failure is observed.
Failure Site – The location of a failure.
Fatigue Life – The amount of time under
defined operation conditions that a
product is expected to survive.
Fixturing – A device or series of devices
used to secure a product within a chamber
or on a vibration system, in preparation to
running screens or tests.
27

Frequency Margining – The use of varying
frequencies on product input to determine
acceptable operational limits of the
product.
GRMS – This is acceleration due to gravity
in the root mean squared, or the average
intensity of the signal.
HALT – Highly Accelerated Life Test
HASS – Highly Accelerated Stress
Screens
Latent Defect – A flaw in the part and/or
workmanship that is not immediately
apparent, but that can result in failures.
A defect that is dormant and is not visible,
or is undetectable.
Life Cycle Testing – A process through
which a small percentage of products are
subjected to stresses similar to those that
they will experience during their product
lives. This process is usually used to
determine a product’s anticipated life
expectancy and its MTBF.
LN2 (Liquid Nitrogen) – Used as a
cooling media in some Thermal Cycling
Systems.
MTBF – Mean Time Between Failures
Product Monitoring – While applying
stress to the product, the product is operated
and is monitored to insure it is performing
its’ intended design functions. This is
required to identify many of the failures
found during Accelerated Stress Testing.
In most cases, it is the only way to catch
soft failures.
Power Cycling of Operational Cycling –
The process of continuously turning the
product on and off at predetermined
intervals. Product Cycling adds internal
heat and ages the product faster than
continuous power on and off.
Operational Limit – The upper and lower
limits where the product will not operate
with its’ intended design functionality.
Parametric Drift – The shift in a known
parameter versus time when stress is
applied.
Patent Defect – An open or evident
defect. Defect precipitation. Changing a
latent defect to a patent defect; or simply
making an undetected failure detectable.
Product Specification – The specifications
of the product manufacturer as communi-
cated to its’ customers.
Proof of Screen – This is a process that is
used when determining production (ESS)
screens for products. It is used to show that
the screen is effective in finding defects
present in the product, but yet does not
damage good hardware.
28

Random Vibration – A form of stress in
which broad band, multiple frequencies are
present simultaneously at predetermined
power levels. The product is attached to a
shaker and vibrated in one or more axis
during the stress cycle.
RGDT (Reliability Growth Development
Testing) – A test in which normal operat-
ing stresses are applied to products. When
defects are detected, corrective action is
taken.
Root Cause – Understanding what has
caused a particular failure. It is important
to determine the root cause when a latent
defect is precipitated.
RS (Repetitive Shock) Vibration –
Vibration which is typically generated
using pneumatic hammers striking a plate
upon which the product is attached.
Commonly, Repetitive Shock Machines
provide vibration in three (3) distinct axes
and three (3) rotational axis simultaneously.
Screening – The process of stressing
products so that defective units may be
identified and repaired or replaced.
Step Stressing – Incrementally increasing
stress levels in known increments.
Stress – Intensity at the failure site of
applied load.
SRS (Shock Response Spectrum) – SRS
is a time-domain function sensitive to
peaks of excitation. SRS can be a valuable
analysis tool when looking at the
excitation from RS Vibration Machines
(Repetitive Shock).
TAAF (Test/Analyze and Fix) – A test
where normal operating environments are
stimulated. The problems are identified,
analyzed, and corrected.
Thermal Cycling – A process through
which a product is subjected to predeter-
mined temperature change rates between
established temperature extremes. In
Accelerated Life Testing Thermal-Cycling,
the ability to develop fast rates of change
will determine how many cycles are
required to force the greatest number of
latent defects into failures.
Voltage Margining – Stress applied to
the product by varying voltage, which
determines the voltage at which normal
operation can be expected.
29

REFERENCES
1
O’Conner, P.D. (1993). Quality and Reliability:
Illusions and Realities. Quality and Reliability
Engineering International, 9:163-168.
2
Dasgupta, A. (April 1996). Cost-Effective Integrated
Product Development. CALCE Accelerated Test
Workshop.
3
Caruso, H. (1996). An Overview of Environmental
Reliability Testing. Proceedings, Reliability and
Maintainability Symposium, 107.
4
Juvinall, R.C., & Marshek, K.M. (1991).
Fundamentals of Machine Component Design,
(2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, 288-289.
5
Dasgupta, A. (April 1996). Physics-of-Failure (PoF)
Principles For Accelerated Stress Tests. CALCE
Accelerated Test Workshop.
6
Chan, H.A. (October 1997). Overview of Accelerated
Stress Testing Principle. 3rd IEEE Workshop on
Accelerated Stress Testing.
7
Diekema, J. (1987). The ESS Handbook. Thermotron
Industries.
8
Hobbs, G. (May 23-24, 1996). Advanced HALT/HASS
Seminar.
9
Tustin, W. (October 1997). Electrodynamic versus
Pneumatic Shakers for Stress Testing. 3rd IEEE
Workshop on Accelerated Stress Testing.
10
Crandell, S.H., & Mark, W.D. (1963). Random
Vibration in Mechanical Systems. NY: Academic Press.
11
Head, R. (February 15, 1997). Test Methodology
Interview. Chrysler-Huntsville Electronics.
12
Darby, B. (February 15, 1997). Test Methodology
Interview. Chrysler-Huntsville Electronics.
13
Kececioglu, D. (1993). Reliability and Life Testing
Handbook, (Vol I & II). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PTR
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
14
Upton, J. (May 3, 1997). AST Implementation.
MA/COM.
15
Barsom, J.M., & Rolfe, S.T. (1987). Fracture and
Fatigue Control in Structures, (2nd ed.). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
16
Caruso, H. (1997). Huntsville, AL: TTI Course.
17
Crowe, D., & Feinberr, A. (1998). Stage-Gating
Accelerated Reliability Growth in an Industrial
Environment. IEST Proceedings, 246-254.
30

RECOMMENDED INFORMATION SOURCES
– Anon. (1997). SAE Fatigue Design Handbook.
Soc. Auto Eng. Doc. AE-22 (3rd ed.).
– Barsom, J.M., & Rolfe S.T. (1987). Fracture and
Fatigue Control in Structures, (2nd ed.). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
– IEEE/CMPT TC7 Annual AST Workshops
Contact IEEE at (800) 677-IEEE.
www.cmpt.org/tc/tc7.html
– Institute of Environmental Sciences
940 E. Northwest Highway, Mt. Prospect, IL 60056;
or fax to (847) 255-1699.
– Kececioglu, D. (1993). Reliability and Life Testing
Handbook, (Vol I & II). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PTR
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
– Reliability And Maintainability Symposium
www.rams.org
– Wirsching, P.H., Paez, T.L., & Oritz, K. (1995).
Random Vibrations. NY: John Wiley & Sons.
31

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Thermotron Industries
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Thermotron Industries, U.K.
3 Heard Way
Eurolink Industrial Estate
Sittingbourne, Kent
ME 10 3 SA England
Phone: 01795 436333
Fax: 01795 436777
E-Mail: thermotron_uk@compuserve.com
Visit us on the Internet
http://www.thermotron.com
©1998 Thermotron Industries

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