ac_machinery_im.pdf

AC Machinery
An Instructional Module
2018
Maria Theresa V. Deliña
Central Philippines State University
A
C
Electrical
Machines

1
AC Machinery
Maria Theresa V. Deliña
College of Engineering

2
Preface
AC Machinery covers theory, principle of operation, engineering aspects and applications
of three-phase alternators, three-phase induction motors, synchronous motors and single-phase
motors.
This module serves as a guide for the students in a CMO-based topic of AC Machinery.
This will also provide outlined lessons for the students to help them manage their academic
schedule.
The text is easy to read and the lessons are presented in a logical sequence. The
exercises provided in the text will evaluate their knowledge of the lessons presented and how they
are going to apply the basic knowledge in mathematics for their solutions.
The objective of the AC Machinery instructional module is to:
a. To impart the theories and principles of alternating current and electrical machines that
includes alternators, induction machines, synchronous machines and single-phase motors.
b. To provide students the skills to explore recent technology and its application.
c. To develop the ability of the students to apply gained knowledge for the advancement of
mankind.

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 – Alternating Current (AC) Generators 1
Basic Principle of AC Generators 1
The Frequency of an Alternator 3
The Two Major Parts of an Alternator 4
The Generated Voltage of an Alternator 4
Coil Pitch and Pitch Factor 5
Distribution Factor 5
Corrected Voltage of an Alternator 6
Alternator Regulation 6
Characteristics of Alternator at Different Power Factor 7
Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous Impedance 8
Alternator Efficiency 9
Operation of Alternators in Parallel 9
Chapter 2 – Synchronous Motors 14
Characteristics Features, Advantages and Disadvantages 14
Applications 16
Principle of Operation 17
Equation of Electromotive Force (emf) 17
Power Losses and Efficiency 19
Starting a Synchronous Motor 20
Chapter 3 – Polyphase Induction Motors 27

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Constructional Features 27
Theory of Operation of an Induction Motor 27
Frequency of Rotor Current 30
Power Stages in an Induction Motor 31
Rotor EMF and Rotor Current 33
Torque 34
Effect of Change in Supply Voltage on Starting Torque 35
Effect of Change in Supply Voltage on Starting Torque & Slip 35
Full-load Torque and Maximum Torque 35
Crawling 36
Cogging 36
Starting of Induction Motors 36
Chapter 4 – Single Phase Motors 41
Types of Single Phase Motors 41
Single-phase Induction Motors 42
Split-phase Resistance-Start Induction Motor 43
Split-phase Capacitor-Start Induction Motor 45
Shaded-pole Induction Motor 46
Reluctance-start Induction Motor 47
Repulsion-start Induction Motor 47
Single-phase Commutator Motors 48
Repulsion Motor 49
Repulsion-induction Motor 50

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AC Series Motor 51
Universal Motor 52
Reluctance Motor 53
Hysteresis Motor 54
Sub-synchronous Motor 55
References 62

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Chapter 1 – Alternating Current (AC) Generators
Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Identify and explain the different parts and functions of an alternator.
2. Discuss how the voltage is generated in an alternator.
3. Calculate the coil pitch and pitch factor.
4. Calculate the alternator regulation.
5. Draw the phasor diagram of unity, lagging and leading power factor.
6. Compute the efficiency of an alternator.
7. Explain the parallel operation of alternators.
8. Identify the different application of alternator.
Introduction
AC generator(figure 1) is commonly known as alternators. It must be driven at a very definite
constant speed because the frequency of the generated electromotive force (emf) is determined by
that speed and it is brushless. The speed of the alternator is called synchronous speed.
Basic Principle of AC Generators
The source of electrical power for an AC generator through electromagnetic generation.
This method uses the principle of moving a magnetic field past an electrical conductor. This
induces a voltage in the conductor and creates a resultant current flow to an electrical load.
The alternator is constructed with a stationary armature and a moving field because of the
following:

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1. The armature winding is more complex than the field and can be constructed more easily on a
stationary structure.
2. The armature winding can be braced more securely in a rigid frame.
3. It is easier to insulate and protect the high-voltage armature windings common to alternators.
4. The stator core can be made large enough and with many air passages or cooling ducts for
forced air circulation so that the armature winding is cooled more readily.
5. The low-voltage field can be constructed for efficient high-speed operation.
Figure 1: Diagram of an AC Generator.
The three common types of prime movers:
- Water
- Steam
- Jet proportion
The Frequency of an Alternator
The frequency of an alternating-current generator is in cycles per second and will depend
directly upon the number of revolutions per second made by the field.
PN
f
120
= (1)
where:

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f = frequency
N = synchronous speed
P = number of poles
The Two Major Parts of an Alternator
1. The revolving field.
- It consists essentially of an even set of laminated pole cores around each of which is placed an
exciting winding.
2. The stator field.
- It consists of laminated steel core slotted to receive the armature winding.
-
#of slots
pole phase
=

integer so that the desire stator field is possible.
The Generated Voltage of an Alternator
The generated voltage in an alternator is govern by the fundamental law of generator
action that states an average of 1 volt is generated in one turn of wire if the flux passing through
that turn changes at the rate of 100,000,000( 8
10 ) maxwells per second.
8
(AVE)
Eg N 10
t
 −
=  volts (2)
where:
(AVE)
Eg = average generated voltage
N = number of turns in coil
 = flux per pole
t = time for flux to change by  (sec.)
8
(AVE)
Eg 4fN 10
 −
=  volts (3)

9
8
E 4.44fN 10
 −
=  volts (4)
(form factor =
RMS
AVG
=1.11)
where:
E = effective value of the voltage
The armature windings for alternators:
1. Whole-coiled winding
- Adjacent coil groups carry current in the opposite direction.
- There is a coil group under each pole
- 2 coil sides in each slot.
2. Half-coiled winding
- Have half as many coils, each with twice as many turns, as in the whole-coiled arrangement.
- P/2 groups of coil
- The coils are connected to carry all current in the same direction at the same instant.
- 1 coil side in each slot.
Coil Pitch and Pitch Factor
The coil pitch (YS) is the distance between the two sides of a coil. The formula is
S
s
Y
P
= (5)
where:
s = number of slots
P = number of poles

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A full pitch is when the coil pitch is exactly equal to the distance between the centers of
two adjacent poles, 180 electrical degrees apart and a fractional pitch is when the distance
between the two coil sides of a coil is less than 180 electrical degrees.
The pitch factor( P
k ) is the ratio of the voltage generated in the fractional pitch coil to the
voltage generated in the full-pitch coil.
0
P
p
k sin
2
= (6)
where:
S(ACTUAL)
0 0
S(FP)
Y coil span
p 180
Y slots / pole
= =  (7)
Distribution Factor
When several coils in a group are connected in series, the total voltage generated by that
group is not equal to the voltage per coil multiplied by the number of coils in the group. It is always
less than this because the coils are displaced from each other. The generated voltage E that must
be multiplied (because the coils are distributed in several slots under the poles instead of being
concentrated in single slots under the poles) to obtain the correct value is called the distribution
factor( d
k ).
( )
( )
0
d 0
sin nd / 2
k
n sin d / 2
=

(8)
where:
n = number of slots per phase per pole (slots/poles x phases)
0
d =number of electrical degrees between adjacent slots

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Corrected Voltage of an Alternator
8
p d
E 4.44k k fN 10
 −
=  volts (9)
Alternator Regulation
Before an AC generator is ready to function to deliver electrical load:
1. It must be brought up to synchronous speed by its prime mover.
2. It must be separately excited from the DC source.
3. It must have its terminal voltage adjusted to the correct values by proper manipulation of the
field rheostat.
The terminal voltage of an alternator is affected by three factors:
1. The armature resistance
2. The armature reactance
3. The effect of armature reaction
NL FL
FL
V V
% regulation 100
V
−
=  (10)
where:
NL
V = no-load voltage
FL
V = full-load voltage
Voltage Drops in Alternator Armatures
1. Armature-resistance voltage drop
- Current is in phase with the voltage ( pure resistive)
R A
E I R
= 
g R
E V E
=  , where V is the terminal voltage
2. Armature-reactance voltage drop

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- Current lags the voltage by 0
90 E(pure inductive)
X L
E I X
= 
g X
E V E
= 
3. Armature-reaction voltage drop
- Produced by the flux created by the armature current that develop a voltage called the
armature-reaction voltage
- Vectorially add to or subtract from the generated voltage
Characteristics of Alternator at Different Power Factor
Unity Power Factor
VA watts
I
V volts
= = at unity power factor
Lagging Power Factor

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Leading Power Factor
Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous Impedance
Synchronous reactance drop is equal to X AR
E E
+ resulting from the effect of armature
reaction and is divided by the full load current L
I .
Synchronous impedance( )
S
Z is equal to 2 2
A S
R X
+ .
Figure 2: The Synchronous Impedance of an Alternator
OC
S
SC
E
Z
I
= (11)
where:
S
Z = synchronous impedance
OC
E = open-circuit voltage
SC
I = short-circuit current
To obtain data for the calculation of the regulation of an alternator, it is necessary to
perform the three simple tests.

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1. The armature-resistance test
2. The open-circuit test
3. The short-circuit test
Alternator Efficiency
The losses in an alternator are the following:
1. Rotational losses
a. Friction and windage
b. Brush friction at the field collector rings
c. Ventilation to cool the machine (if necessary)
d. Hysteresis and eddy currents in the stator
2. Electrical losses
a. Field winding
b. Armature winding
c. Brush contacts
3. Losses in the exciter used for field excitation
4. Stray-load loss
The efficiency of an alternator is
( )
kW losses
% efficiency 1 100
kVA output pf kW losses
 
= − 
 
 +
 
(12)
Operation of Alternators in Parallel
1. The effective voltage of the incoming machine must be approximately equal to the bus bar
voltage.
2. The frequency of the incoming machine must be the same as that of the bus bars.

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3. The phase sequence of the three phases of the incoming machine must be the same as that of
the bus bars.
Examples:
1. A 36-pole alternator is operated at 200 rpm. What is the frequency is generated?
Solution:
( )( )
36 200
PN
f
120 120
= =
f 60
= cycles per second(cps) or hertz
2. Calculate the average voltage generated a six-turn full-pitch coil of 25-cycle alternator if the
flux per pole is 7.2 maxwells.
Solution:
(AVE)
Eg 8
4fN 10
 −
= 
5 8
4(25)(6)(7.2 10 )(1 10 )
−
=  
(AVE)
Eg 4.32
= volts
3. A 90-slot stator has a three-phase six-pole whole-coiled winding, each coil of which spans from
slot 1 to slot 14. Calculate: (a) the pitch factor; (b) the distribution factor.
Solution:
(a) p
k
0
p
sin
2
=
0
p 0
coil span
180
s / P
= 
0
13
180
90 / 6
= 
0
p 0
156
=

16
p
k
0
156
sin
2
=
p
k 0.978
=
(b) d
k
0
0
d
sin n
2
d
nsin
2
 
 
 
 
 
 
= ;
0
0 0
180
d 12
90 / 6
= = ;
90
n 5
6 3
= =

d
k
0
0
12
sin 5
2
12
5sin
2
 
 
 
 
 
 
=
 
 
 
d
k 0.956
=
4. The following information is given in connection with an alternator: slots = 144; poles = 8; rpm
= 900; turns per coil = 6; 6
1.8 10
 =  ; coil span = slots 1 to 16; winding = whole-coiled three-
phase; winding connections = star. Calculate: (a) the voltage per phase; (b) the voltage
between terminals.
Solution:
The corrected generated voltage is
8
p d
E 4.44k k fN 10
 −
=  volts
PN 8(900)
f 60
120 120
= = = cps or hertz
turns c T 144
N 6 48 6 288
c 3
 
= =  =  =  =
0 0 0 0
coil span 15
p 180 180 150
s / P 144 / 8
=  =  =

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0 0
p
p 150
k sin sin 0.966
2 2
= = =
0
0 0
180
d 10
144 / 8
= =
144
n 6
8 3
= =

0 0
d 0 0
d 10 1
sin n sin 6
2 2 2
k 0.9561
d 10 0.5229
nsin 6sin
2 2
   
   
   
   
   
   
= = = =
6 8
E 4.44(60)(288)(1.8 10 )(0.966)(0.9561)(1 10 )
−
=  
E 1275.498
= volts/
T
V 3E 3(1275.498)
= =
T
V 2209.227
= volts between terminals
5. The voltage of an alternator rises from 460 volts at full-load to 535 volts at no load. Calculate
the percent regulation.
Solution:
535 460
% reg. 100
460
−
= 
% reg. 16.30
=

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Exercise # 1:
Name: _________________________________
Course: ________________________________
Date: __________________________________
Instructor: _______________________________
Solve the following problems. Show your solution.
1. A three-phase 1,000-kVA 2,300-volts alternator is short-circuited and is operated at rated
speed to produce rated current. With the short-circuit removed and the same excitation, the
voltage between stator terminals is 1,300. The effective (corrected) resistance between stator
of terminals is 2 ohms. Determine the percent regulation.
2. Repeat Prob. #1 for a power factor of 0.8 leading.
3. A 500-kVA alternator operates at full-load kilovolt-ampere output at an efficiency of 93.5
percent. If the load power factor is 0.83, calculate the total loss.
4. A 72-slot stator has a half-coiled four-pole three-phase winding. How many coils are there (a)
per phase; (b) per group?
5. A 25-kVA alternator has a total loss of 2,000 watts when it delivers rated kilovolt-amperes to a
load at a power factor of 0.76. Calculate it’s percent efficiency.

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Chapter 2 – Synchronous Motors
Objectives:
After the chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Discuss the motor construction and principle of operation of a synchronous motor.
2. Calculate and analyze the use of synchronous motors as power factor corrector.
Introduction
The synchronous motor is the one type of three-phase AC motor which operates at a
constant speed from no-load to full-load. It is similar in construction to three-phase AC generator in
that it has a revolving field which must be separately excited from a DC source. By changing the
DC field excitation current, the power factor of this type of motor can be varied over a wide range of
lagging and leading values.
This motor is used in many individual applications because of its fixed speed from no-load
to full-load, its high efficiency and low initial cost. It is also used to improve the power factor of
three-phase AC industrial circuits.
Characteristics Features, Advantages and Disadvantages
Characteristics Features
The following characteristics features of a synchronous motor are worth noting:
1. It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all. The speed can be changed by changing the
frequency only (since NS = 120f/P).
2. It is not inherently self-starting. It has to be run up to synchronous or near synchronous speed
by some means before it can by synchronized to the supply.
3. It can operate under a wide range of power factors both lagging and leading.

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4. On no-load the motor draws very little current from the supply to meet the internal losses. With
fixed excitation the input current increases with the increase in load. After the input current
reaches maximum no further increase in load is possible. If the motor is further loaded, the
motor will stop.
Advantages
Synchronous motors entail the following advantages:
1. These motors can be used for power factor correction in addition to supply torque to drive
loads.
2. They are more efficient (when operated at unity power factor) than induction motors of
corresponding output (kW) and voltage ratings.
3. The field pole rotors if synchronous motors can permit the use of wider air-gaps than the
squirrel-cage designs used on induction motors, requiring less bearing tolerance and
permitting greater bearing wear.
4. They may be less costly for the same output, speed, and voltage ratings as compared to
induction motors.
5. They give constant speed from no-load to full-load.
6. Electro-magnetic power varies linearly with the voltage.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of synchronous motors are:
1. They require DC excitation which must be supplied from external source.
2. They have a tendency to hunt.
3. They cannot be used for variable speed jobs as speed adjustment cannot be done.
4. They require collector rings and brushes.
5. They cannot be started under load. Their starting torque is zero.

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6. They may fall out of synchronous and stop when overloaded.
Applications
The synchronous motors have the following fields of application:
1. Power houses and sub-stations.
- Used in power houses and sub-stations in parallel to the bus-bars to improve the power factor.
2. Factories.
- Used in factories having large number of induction motors or other power apparatus, operating
at lagging power factor, to improve the power factor.
3. Mills-industries etc.
- Used in textile mills, rubber mills, mining and other big industries, cement factories for power
applications.
4. Constant speed equipments..
- Used to drive continuously operating and constant speed equipment such as:
➢ Fans
➢ Blowers
➢ Centrifugal pumps
➢ Motor generator sets
➢ Ammonia and air compressors etc.
Construction
A three-phase synchronous motor consists of the following essential parts:
1. Laminated stator core with three-phase armature winding.
2. Revolving field complete with amortisseur winding and slip rings.

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3. Brushes and brush holders.
4. Two end shield to house the bearings that support the shaft.
Principle of Operation
When the stator windings of three-phase synchronous motors are supplied with rated
three-phase voltage, a rotating field traveling at synchronous speed is set up. The synchronous
speed is found from the relation S
120f
N
P
= ; where NS ( in rpm), f and P are synchronous speed,
frequency and number of poles respectively. This rotating magnetic field cuts across the squirrel-
cage winding of the rotor and induces voltages and currents in the bars of this winding. The
resultant magnetic field of squirrel-cage winding embedded on the rotation of the motor. The rotor
will increase its speed to appoint slightly below synchronous speed of the stator field. The rotor of
the typical synchronous accelerates to about 95 to 97% of synchronous speed when started as an
induction motor with squirrel-cage windings. The filed circuit is now excited from an outside source
of DC and magnetic poles of fixed polarity are set up in the rotor field cores. The fixed magnetic
poles of the rotor are attracted to unlike poles of the rotating magnetic field set up by the stator
windings.
Equation of Electromotive Force (emf)
a) Unity power factor
Generally, g T s
E V IZ
= − when the motor is operated at unity power factor.
From the figure above,

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( ) ( )
2
2
g T S
E V IR IX
= − + volts/phase (13)
b) Lagging power factor
When operated at lagging power factor, the figure is shown below
From the figure, the emf equation is
( ) ( )
2
2
g T T S
E V cos IR V sin IX
 
= − + − (14)
c) Leading power factor
When operated at leading power factor, the figure is shown below
From the figure, the emf equation is
( ) ( )
2
2
g T T S
E V cos IR V sin IX
 
= − + + (15)
From the preceding figures and equations it can be concluded that
1. The magnitude of the current varies with the excitation.

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2. For the same input, the armature current varies between a wide range and so causes the
power factor to vary accordingly.
3. When over-excited (Eg > VT) the motor runs on leading power factor.
4. When under-excited (Eg < VT) the motor runs on lagging power factor.
5. The minimum armature current corresponds to unity power factor current.
Power Losses and Efficiency
2
cu(3 ) p a
P 3I R
 = (16)
stator p p
P 3V I cos
= (17)
rotor f
P P
= (18)
in stator rotor
P P P
= + (19)
stray core fw
P P P
= + (20)
losses cu stray
P P P
= + (21)
out
out losses
P
P P
 =
+
(22)
where:
cu
P = stator copper losses
core
P = core losses
fw
P = friction and windage losses
f
P = field copper losses or exciter losses
stray
P = stray power or rotating losses
shaft
P = output power in the shaft

25
stator
P = input power of the stator
rotor
P = input power of the rotor (equal to field copper losses)
cos = operating power factor
 = efficiency
Starting a Synchronous Motor
The synchronous motor can develop synchronous torque only at synchronous speed. For
starting, it is therefore necessary to employ other methods of developing torque. Various methods
are
1. Pony induction motor – this is small direct connected induction motor, either a machine with
very low rotor resistance and the same number of poles as the synchronous machine, or a
motor with a pole pair fewer and a rotor rheostat; or with a solid unwound rotor. The method
involves running the machine up to a speed closed to synchronous speed and synchronizing
by hand. This method is used for large machines such as synchronous condensers.
2. Clutch and brake gear – applications requiring starting torques greater than full-load torque are
required, the motor may be run upon no-load and synchronized, the load being then taken up
by means of a suitable clutch.
In a modified method, the stator and rotor both are free to rotate. The rotor is coupled to
the load, and when the stator is energized, the load holds the rotor at rest while the stator runs
up to full speed. After synchronizing, a brake is applied to the stator so as to slow it down,
simultaneously accelerating the rotor and load. When the stator has been brought to rest, the
rotor with its coupled load is running normally, at synchronous speed. Considerable starting
torque can be developed in this way.

26
3. Starting an induction motor – in this method that stator is supplied with three-phase currents at
normal or subnormal voltage. The induction torque developed in pole shoes and damper
winding on the rotor is used for starting the motor. Thus the motor is designed as synchronous
induction motor with a three-phase rotor winding on a non-salient pole core resembling that of
a normal induction motor.
Examples:
Solve the following problems. Show your solution.
1. At what speed will a synchronous motor operate if it has 10 poles and is connected to a 50-
cycle source? A 60-cycle source? A 25-cycle source?
Solution:
a) 1
1
120f (120)(50)
s
P 10
= =
1
s 600
= rpm
b) 2
2
120f (120)(60)
s
P 10
= =
2
s 720
= rpm
c) 3
3
120f (120)(25)
s
P 10
= =
3
s 600
= rpm
2. A 50-hp synchronous motor has a full-load efficiency of 91 percent and operates at a power
factor of 0.8 leading. Calculate: (a) the power input of the motor; (b) the kilovolt-ampere input
to the motor.
Solution:

27
i. Power input to the motor(PIN)
out
in
P
100%
P
 = 
out
P 50 hp 746 watts / hp 37,300
=  = watts
in
37300
P 40,989
0.91
= = watts or 40.989 kW
ii. kVA input to the motor
kW
pf
kVA
= ;
kW
kVA
pf
=
40.989
kVA
0.8
=
kVA 51.24
= kVA
3. It is desired to correct the 2,400-kVA 0.65-lagging power factor load in a plant to unity by the
installation of a synchronous converter. Calculate the kilovolt-ampere rating of the latter.
Solution:
1
cos 0.65
 −
=
0
49.46
 =
Total kW load kVA pf.
= 
( )( )
2400 0.65
=
Total kW load 1560 kW
=

28
At unity power factor:
New kVA ( )( )
0
2400 sin49.46
=
New kVA 1824 kVA
=
4. What should be the rating of the synchronous motor in Prob. 3, if the over-all power factor is to
be 0.92?
Solution:
pf. 0.92
=
1
cos 0.92
 −
=
0
23.07
 =
kVAR 0
kW tan23.07
= 
( )( )
0
1560 tan23.07
=
kVAR 664.43k VAR
=

29
kVASM new kVA kVAR at pf. 0.92
= − =
1824 664.43
= −
kVASM 1159.57
= kVA

30
Exercise # 2:
Name: _________________________________
Course: ________________________________
Date: __________________________________
Instructor: _______________________________
Solve the following problems.
1. How many poles does synchronous motor have if it operates at 200 rpm when connected to a
60-cycle source?
2. A 10-pole 25-cycle alternator is directly coupled to, and is driven by, a 60-cycle synchronous
motor. How many poles are there in the latter?
3. An electrical system has a load of 5,000 kW at a lagging power factor of 0.67. If a 3,500 kVA
synchronous condenser is installed for power factor correction purposes, calculate: (a) the
over-all power factor; (b) the total kilovolt-amperes on the system.
4. An industrial plant has a load of 1,500 kVA at an average power factor of 0.6 lagging.
Neglecting all losses, calculate: (a) the kilovolt-ampere input to a synchronous condenser for
an over-all power factor of unity; (b) the total kilowatt load.

31
Chapter 3 – Polyphase Induction Motors
Objectives:
1. Identified and explained the working of a polyphase induction motor.
2. Discussed the DC resistance, no-load and blocked rotor test.
3. Acquired knowledge of the applications of a polyphase induction motor.
Introduction
An induction motor is simply an electric transformer whose magnetic circuit is separated by
an air gap into two relatively movable portions, one carrying the primary and the other secondary
winding.
The essential features which distinguish the induction machine from other type of electric
motors is that the secondary currents are created solely by induction, as in a transformer instead
of being supplied by a DC exciter or other external power source, as in synchronous and DC
machines.
Three-phase induction motor is the most commonly used motor in industrial applications
because of the advantages listed below:
1. Simple design
2. Rugged construction
3. Reliable operation
4. Low initial cost
5. Easy operation and simple maintenance
6. High efficiency
7. Simple control gear for starting and speed control.
Induction motors are available with torque characteristics suitable for a wide variety of loads:

32
i. The standard motor has a starting torque of about 120 to 150 percent of full-load torque. Such
motors are suitable for most applications.
ii. For starting loads such as small refrigerating machines or plunger pumps operating against full
pressure or belt conveyors, high torque motors with a starting torque of twice normal full-load
torque, or more, are used.
iii. For driving machines that use large flywheels to carry peak loads, such as punch pressers and
shears, a high-torque motor with a slip at full-load up to 10 percent available. The high slip
permits enough change in speed to make possible the proper functioning of the flywheel.
iv. By the use of a wound-rotor with suitable controller and external resistances connected in
series with the rotor winding, it is possible to obtain any value of starting torque up to maximum
breakdown torque. Such motors are well adapted as constant-speed drives for loads that have
large friction loads to overcome at starting.
Constructional Features
A polyphase induction motor comprises of
1. Stator
2. Rotor
i. Squirrel-cage slots are skewed to
a. To make the motor run quickly by reducing the magnetic hum.
b. To reduce the locking tendency of the rotor.
ii. Wound rotor. The wound rotor construction is employed for induction motors requiring
speed control or extremely high values of starting torque.
Theory of Operation of an Induction Motor
When a three-phase is given to the stator winding field is set-up. This field sweeps past the
rotor (conductors) and by virtue of relative motion, an emf is induced in the conductors which form

33
of closed circuit, a current flows, the direction of which is, by Lenz’s law, such as to oppose the
change causing it.
Now, the change is relative motion of the rotating field and the motor, so that, to oppose
this, the rotor runs in the same direction as the field and attempts to catch up with it. It is clear that
torque must be produced to cause rotation, and this torque is due to the fact that currents flows in
the rotor conductors which are situated in, and at right angles to, magnetic field.
▪ When the motor shaft is not loaded, the machine has only to rotate itself against the
mechanical losses and the rotor speed is very close to the synchronous speed because if
it does so, the emf induced in the rotor winding would become zero and there will be no
torque. Hence the speed remains slightly less than the synchronous speed. If the motor
shaft is loaded, the rotor will slow down and the relative speed of the rotor with respect to
the stator rotating field will increase. The emf induced in the rotor winding will increase and
will increase the electromagnetic torque produced by thre motor. Conditions of equilibrium
are attained when the rotor speed has adjusted to anew value so that the electromagnetic
torque is sufficient to balance the mechanical or load torque applied to the shaft. The
speed of the motor when running under full conditions is somewhat less than the no-load
speed.
▪ Slip – it is stated that the rotor speed must always remain less than the synchronous
speed. The difference between the synchronous speed and the rotor speed is known as
‘slip’. It is usually expressed as a fraction of the synchronous speed. Thus slip s is
s
s
N N
s
N
−
= or ( )
s
N N 1 s
= − (23)
where
s
N = synchronous speed (rpm)

34
N = rotor speed (rpm)
In the practice the value of slip is very small. At no-load, slip is around 1% or so and at full-
load it is around 3%. For long efficient machines the slip at full-load may be around 1% only. The
induction motor, is therefore, a motor with substantially constant speed and fills the same role as
DC shunt motor.
➢ When the rotor is stationary (standstill) its speed is zero and s = 1. The rotor cannot
run at synchronous speed because then there will be no rotor emf and no rotor current
and torque. If the rotor is to run at synchronous speed an external torque is necessary.
If the rotor is driven torque such that s
N N
 , the slip becomes negative, the rotor
torque is necessary. If the external driving torque and the machine acts as induction
generator.
➢ The induction motor derives its name from the fact that the current in the rotor circuit is
induced from the stator. There is no external connection tpo the rotor except for some
special purposes.
If the rotor reactance at standstill is 2
X its value at slip’s becomes 2
sX . This is very
desirable. For at no-load the reactance becomes almost negligible and the rotor impedance is now
all resistance. Further if the rotor resistance is small the rotor current is large, so that motor works
with a large torque which brings the speed near to synchronous speed, i.e., the slip is reduced.
Frequency of Rotor Current
At standstill (i.e., when the rotor is stationary), the frequency of the motor current is the
same as the supply frequency (f). But when the rotor starts revolving, then the frequency depends
upon the relative speed or slip-speed. If f’ is the frequency of the rotor current, then

35
2
s
120f
N N
P
− = (23)
Also
1
s
120f
N
P
= (24)
Dividing the above equations
s 2
s 1
N N f
N f
−
= or 2
1
f
s
f
= or 2 1
f sf
= (25)
Approximate equivalent circuit of an induction motor.
Figure 2: Equivalent circuit of an Induction motor.
where:
1
R = stator resistance per phase
1
X = stator reactance per phase
2
R = rotor resistance per phase
2
X = rotor reactance per phase
a = turns ratio, stator to rotor
Mechanical power developed per phase = 2
2
I R .

36
Power Stages in an Induction Motor
Figure 3: Power Flow Diagram
where:
SCL = stator power loss
CL = core loss or iron loss
RCL = rotor copper loss
Pm = mechanical power developed
F&W = friction and windage loss
From figure 1, the following formulas can be derived
RCL
s
RI
= (26)
m
P
1 s
RI
= − (27)
where:
( )
in
RI P SCL CL
= − + (28)
m
s
P N
RI N
= (29)
m
RLC s
P 1 s
=
−
(30)
Induction Motor Test
1. Blocked rotor test.

37
This is similar to the short circuit test of the transformer the purpose of which is to determine
the equivalent resistance, equivalent impedance, and equivalent reactance of the motor referred to
the stator.
During this test the rotor is blocked and the rotor windings are short circuited at slip rings if the
motor has a wound rotor. A reduced voltage is applied to the stator terminals and is so adjusted
that the full load current flows in the stator. The values of the current, voltage and power input are
measured.
Let
B
P = power input measured during the test
B
I = current measured
The equivalent resistance referred to the stator: B
e 2
B
P
R
3I
= (31)
2. No load test.
The motor is connected to a supply of rated voltage and frequency and then measuring
voltage, current, and power input. The no-load power input represents core losses, friction, and
windage and small amount of stator copper .
Let
NL
P = no load power input
=core loss + friction and windage losses and no load copper loss
NL
I = no load current
The actual purpose of this test is to be able to determine the constant losses. (core +
friction and windage losses).
Constant losses = 2
NL NL e
P 3I R
− . (32)

38
Rotor EMF and Rotor Current
Rotor emf:
When the rotor is stationary, an induction motor is equivalent to a 3-phase transformer with
secondary short-circuited. Therefore, the induced emf per phase 2
E in the rotor at the instant of
starting is given as:
2
2 1
1
N
E E
N
=  (33)
where
1
E = applied voltage per phase to primary, i.e., stator winding;
1
N = number of stator turns; and
2
N = number of rotor turns.
Rotor current:
Let
2
R = rotor resistance/phase
2
L = rotor inductance/phase
2
E = induced emf of rotor/phase at standstill.
At standstill:
2
E = induced emf of rotor/phase
2
R =rotor winding resistance/phase
2 2
X 2 fL

= = rotor winding reactance/phase
where f is the supply frequency.
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2
Z R X
= + (rotor impedance/phase)

39
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
E E
Z R X
=
+
(rotor current/phase)
At slip ‘s’:
2
sE = induced emf of rotor/phase
2
R =rotor winding resistance/phase
( )
2 2 2 2
2 fL 2 sfL s 2 fL sX
  
= = = = rotor winding reactance
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
R sX
+ =rotor winding reactance
Therefore,
Rotor current/phase =
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
sE sE
R s X
R sX
=
+
+
(34)
Power factor of rotor current, 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
R
cos
R s X
 =
+
(35)
Torque
2 2 2
T kE I cos
= (36)
where k is any constant,
2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
ksR E
T
R s X
=
+
(37)
• Starting Torque
At start slip ‘s’ = 1. Therefore, expression for starting torque may be obtained by putting
s 1
= in equation (37).
Starting torque,
2
2 2
st 2 2
2 2
kR E
T
R X
=
+
(38)
•
Maximum torque,

40
2
2
max 2
2
kE
T
2X
= (39)
Effect of Change in Supply Voltage on Starting Torque
The starting torque is,
2
2 2
st 2 2
2 2
kR E
T
R X
=
+
Since emf induced in the rotor (at standstill) is 2
E ∝ ∝V
Therefore, starting torque,
2
2 2
st 2 2
2 2
k'R V
T
R X
=
+
, where k’ is another constant or st
T ∝ 2
V ,
i.e., starting torque is proportional to the square of the applied voltage.
Effect of Change in Supply Voltage on Starting Torque & Slip
The torque on the rotor when the motor is running with slip ‘s’ is given by:
2
2 2
st 2 2
2 2
kR E
T
R X
=
+
Since emf induced in rotor (at standstill), 2
E ∝ ∝V
2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
k'R V
T
R s X
=
+
, where k is another constant
Since the slip ‘s’ at full-load is very low, therefore 2 2
2
s X can be neglected in comparison with 2
2
R .
Therefore,
2 2
2
2
2 2
k'sR V k'sV
T
R R
= =
or
T ∝ 2
sV .
Full-load Torque and Maximum Torque
Let,

41
s = full-load slip of the motor
a = ratio of rotor resistance to rotor standstill reactance
We know that, full-load torque is
2
2 2
f 2 2 2
2 2
ksR E
T
R s X
=
+
Maximum torque,
2
2
max 2
2
kE
T
2X
=
Then, f
2 2
max
T 2as
T a s
=
+
.
Crawling
It is observed that induction motor, particularly the squirrel-cage type, sometimes exhibit a
tendency to run stably at speeds as low as one-seventh of their synchronous speed s
N . This
phenomenon is known as crawling of an induction motor.
Cogging
When the number of rotor slots is equal to the number od stator slots, the speeds of all the
harmonics produced by the stator slotting coincide with the speed of corresponding rotor
harmonics. Thus, harmonics of every order would try to exert synchronous torques at their
synchronous speed and the machine would refuse to start. This is known as cogging (or magnetic
locking). Therefore, the number of stator slots should never be equal to the number of rotor slots.
Cogging of squirrel-cage motors can be easily overcome b y making the number of rotor
slots prime to the number of stator slots.
Starting of Induction Motors
Some of the starting devices for starting induction motors are:

42
A. Squirrel-cage Motors.
1. Stator rheostat starter. Suitable for small machines only.
2. Auto-transformers (auto-starters). Auto-transformers may be either manually or
magnetically operated.
3. Star-delta Starter.
i. This method reduces the starting line current to one-third; the starting torque is also
reduced by the same amount.
ii. This method is cheap but limited to applications where high starting torque is not
necessary e.g., machines tools, pumps, motor generator sets etc.
iii. This method is unsuitable for motors for voltage exceeding 3000 V because of the
excessive number of stator turns needed for delta connection.
B. Slip Ring Motors
Rotor rheostat. The introduction of additional external resistance in the rotor circuit enables slip
ring motor to develop a high starting torque with reasonably starting current. Hence, such
motors can be started under load. When the motor runs under normal conditions the rings are
shirt-circuited and brushes lifted from them.
Examples:
1. Calculate the synchronous speeds of an eight-pole induction motor when supplied with power
from: (a) a 60-cycle source; (b) a 50-cycle source; (c) a 25-cycle source.
Solution:
(a) s
120f
N
P
=
( )
120 60
8
= = 900 rpm
(b) s
120f
N
P
=
( )
120 50
8
= = 750 rpm

43
(c) s
120f
N
P
=
( )
120 25
8
= = 375 rpm
2. The rotor speed of a six-pole 50-cycle induction motor is 960 rpm. Calculate the percent slip.
Solution:
s
120f
N
P
=
( )
120 50
6
= = 1000 rpm
s
s
N N
s
N
−
=
1000 960
0.04
1000
−
= = ;
Percent slip =0.04 x 100 = 4%
3. A 3-phase induction motor running with 3% slip takes 100 kW from the source. If the stator
copper and core losses amount to 2 kW, determine the mechanical power development in
kilowatts.
Solution:
Stator input(SI) = 100 kW
Rotor input(RI) = 100 – 2 = 98 kW
m
P RI RCL
= −
RCL sRI 0.03(98) 2.94
= = = kW
m
P 98 2.94
= − = 95.06 kW
4. A 10-hp, 4-pole, 3-phase, 60-Hz. Motor draws 21 A and 7 kW while driving its normal load.
Under these conditions its slip is 2%. When running idle, this motor draws 6 amp. and 580
watts at normal voltage. With its rotor blocked, this motor draws 15 A and 500 W with 50 V
applied. What is the output torque of this motor when driving its normal load.
Solution:

44
e 2
500
R 0.74
3(15)
= = ohm/phase
 
120(6)
N 1 0.02 1764
4
= − = rpm
2
NL
P 3(6) (0.74) 80
= = W
C + F & W losses = 580 – 80 = 500 W
Full load Cu loss = 2
3(21) (0.74) = 980 W
Output = Input – losses = 7000 – (980 + 500) = 5520 W
0
7.04P 7.04(5520)
T
N 1764
= = = 22 lb-ft.
5. A 3-phase, 500 V 50-Hz induction motor with 6 poles develops 20 hp at 950 rpm at a power
factor of 0.86. the mechanical losses total 1.0 Hp. Calculate for this load the line current if the
total stator losses is 1500 W.
Solution:
s
120f 120(50)
N 1000
P 6
= = = rpm
s =
1000 950
0.05
1000
−
=
m
P 20 1 21
= + = hp
1 hp
746 watts
 
 
 
= 15666 W
m
s 0.05
RCL P 15666 824.5
1 s 1 0.05
   
= = =
   
− −
   
W
in
P 15666 824.5 1500 17990.5 18
= + + = = kW
18
I
3(0.50)(0.86)
= 24.2
= A

45
Exercise # 3:
Name: _________________________________
Course: ________________________________
Date: __________________________________
Instructor: _______________________________
Solve the following problems.
1. An induction motor is running at 50% of the synchronous speed with a net output of 55 hp and
the mechanical losses total 2 hp. What is the copper loss in the rotor circuit in kW?
2. A 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor runs at a speed of 1170 rpm when the shaft torque is 140 N-
m and the frequency is 60 Hz. If the friction and windage losses are 150 watts. Determine the
rotor copper loss.
3. A 3-phase, 6-pole, 60-Hz induction motor takes 60 A at full load of 1140 rpm and develops a
torque of 150 N-m. The starting current at rated voltage is 300 A. What is the starting torque? If
a wye-delta starter is used, what will be the starting torque? Express your answers in N-m.
4. The power input to the rotor of a 440-V, 60-Hz, 3-phase, 6-pole induction motor 60 kW. The
rotor emf makes 108 complete cycles per minute. Find the rotor resistance per phase if the
rotor current is 60 A.
5. A 500-V, 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor develops 20 hp output when running at 1194 rpm.
The p.f. And efficiency being 0.87 and 80%. The stator copper loss and core loss amount to
1500 W. what is the rotor copper loss?

46
Chapter 4 – Single Phase Motors
Objectives:
1. Discussed the motor construction and principle of operation for a single-phase motor.
2. Acquired the knowledge of the different applications of a single-phase motor.
Introduction
The number of machines operating from single-phase supplies is greater than all other
types taken in total. For the most part, however, they are only used in smaller sizes, less than 5 kW
and mostly in the fractional hp range. They operate at lower power factors and are relatively
inefficient when compared with polyphase motors. Though simplicity might be expected in view of
the two-line supply, the analysis is quite complicated.
Single phase motors perform a great variety of useful services in the home, the office, the
factory, in business establishments, on the farm, and many other places where electricity is
available. Since the requirements of the numerous applications differ so widely, the motor-
manufacturing industry has developed several types of such machines, each type having operating
characteristics that meet definite demands. For example, one type operates satisfactorily on direct
current or nay frequency up to 60 cycles; another rotates at absolutely constant speed, regardless
of load; another develops up to 60 cycles; another develops considerable starting torque and still
another, although not capable of developing much starting torque, is nevertheless extremely cheap
to make and very rugged.
Types of Single Phase Motors
The single-phase motor may be of the following types:
1. Single-phase induction motors
A. Split-phase motors

47
i. Resistance-start motor
ii. Capacitor-start motor
iii. Permanent-split(single-value) capacitor motor
iv. Two-value capacitor motor.
B. Shaded-pole induction motor
C. Reluctance-start induction motor
D. Repulsion-start induction motor
2. Commutator-type, single-phase motors
A. Repulsion motor
B. Repulsion-induction motor
C. AC series motor
D. Universal motor
3. Single-phase synchronous motors
A. Reluctance motor
B. Hysteresis motor
C. Sub-synchronous motor
Single-phase Induction Motors
Single-phase induction motors are in very wide use in industry, especially in fractional
horse-power field. They are extensively used for electric drive for low power constant speed
apparatus such as machines tools, domestic apparatus, and agricultural machinery in
circumstances where a three-phase supply is not readily available. There is a large demand for
single-phase induction motors in sizes ranging from a fraction of horsepower up to about 5 hp.
Though these machines are useful for small outputs, they are not used for large powers as they

48
suffer from many disadvantages and are never used in case where three-phase machines can be
adopted.
The main disadvantages of single-phase induction motors are:
1. Their output is only 50% of the three-phase motor, for given frame size and temperature rise.
2. They have lower power factor.
3. Lower-efficiency.
4. These motors do not have inherent starting torque.
5. More expensive than three-phase motors of the same output.
The magnetic field produce by the stator coils is pulsating, trough varying sinusoidally with
time. Ferrari pointed out that such a field can be resolved into two equal fields but rotating in
opposite directions with equal angular velocities. The maximum value of each component is equal
to half the maximum of the pulsating field.
Since the single-phase induction motor is not self-starting, means must be provided to create
an initial torque. But the initial torque is only possible if a rotating flux is created in the stator. It is
known that a rotating flux is produced when there is a difference of 900 between the currents of two
stationary coils. Or if the stator possesses two fluxes having a large phase difference the result is
rotating flux.
Split-phase Resistance-Start Induction Motor
In a split-phase induction motor the stator is provided with two parallel windings displaced
90 electrical degrees in space and somewhat less than 900 in time.
The starting winding has fewer turns and is wound of smaller diameter copper than the
running winding. The starting winding, therefore, has a high resistance and low reactance.

49
The running or main, winding (heavier wire of more turns) has a low resistance and high
reactance. Because of its lower impedance, the current in the running winding, Ir is higher than the
current in the starting winding, Is.
As the motor speeds up, the torque developed increases. Above 85 percent of
synchronous speed, the torque developed by the running winding (main winding) alone is actually
greater than that developed by both windings, and it might be advantageous to open the auxiliary
circuit at this across over point. To allow for individual variations among motors and switches,
however, the contacts are usually designed to open at 75 percent of synchronous speed. This does
not seriously affect the operation, because the running (or main) winding alone usually develops
approximately 200 percent of full-load torque at this speed.
The starting winding is not designed for continuous operation, and care should be
exercised that it does not remain connected to the supply after it should have been disconnected
by the switch. This series switch is usually centrifugally operated, and is rather inexpensive. In
case of a hermetically sealed motor, the switch is magnetically operated, and is opened in the de-
energized condition.
Split-phase induction motors may be reversed by reversing the line connections of either
the main or the auxiliary winding. If, however, reversal is attempted under normal running
condition, nothing will happen.
If it is necessary to reverse the motor while it is rotating, then some means must be
incorporated to slow the motor down to the speed where the starting-switch contacts close, placing
the starting winding across the supply lines. This may be done by incorporating a timing device
which first disconnects the motor entirely from the line and then reverses one field at the proper
line. A mechanism braking device which can be electrically operated may also be used.

50
Speed control of split-phase windings is relatively difficult matter since the synchronous
speed of the rotating stator flux is determined by the frequency and number of pole developed in
the running stator winding s
120f
N
P
 
=
 
 
. By adding stator windings to change the number of
poles, speed variation may be obtained. This, however, is a stepped speed change, as in
polyphase induction motor, rather than a continuous variation. It must be pointed out, however, that
all speed changes must be accomplished in a range above that at which the centrifugal switch
operates.
The major objections to the motor are (1) its low starting torque; and (2) that, when heavily
loaded, the slip exceeds 5 percent, reducing the emf and producing an elliptical or pulsating torque
which makes the motor somewhat annoyingly noisy: oil burners, machine tools, grinders, dish
washers washing machines, air blowers and air compressors.
Split-phase Capacitor-Start Induction Motor
Another method of splitting the single-phase supply into two phases to be applied to the
stator windings is placing a capacitor in series with the starting auxiliary winding. In this manner,
the current in the starting winding may be made to lead the line voltage. Since the running winding
current lags the line voltage, the phase displacement between the two currents can be made to
approximately 900 on starting. One of the factors upon which the starting torque depends is the
sine of the angle between the currents in the two windings. The value of series capacitor may be
reduced, while maintaining a phase-shift angle of about 900.
The increase in phase angle between sarting and running winding currents is not the only
difference between the slipt-phase and capacitor start-motors. The split phase motor must keep the
number of starting-winding turns low, so that the current may be nearly in phase with the line
voltage. This, however, is unnecessary in a capacitor-start motor, since the capacitor can

51
overcome the inductance of the winding while still providing the proper phase shift. There are more
auxiliary starting turns in the capacitor-start motor than in the comparable split-phase motor. This
provides a greater number of ampere-turns, hence a larger rotating flux, and therefore further
increases in the starting torque.
Also it is seen that for the same magnitudes of field currents, the current Ir is less in
capacitor-start motor, because of the greater angle between the two field currents. In addition, the
starting power factor is also better. For a given line current, the starting torque is much higher for a
capacitor-start motor than for a split-phase induction motor. The starting torque of capacitor-start
motor is from 3 to 4.5 times the full-load torque, while that of split-phase resistance start induction
motor rarely exceeds twice the full-load torque.
The capacitor-start motor may be reversed by changing the connections of one of the
windings, but it is subject to the same limitations as the resistance-start motor.
By virtue of their higher starting torque, capacitor-start split-phase motors are used for
pumps, compressors, refrigeration units, air-conditioners, and large washing machines, where a
split-phase motor is required that will develop high starting torque under load.
Shaded-pole Induction Motor
A shaded-pole motor is one of the simplest and cheapest of manufactured motors. It is
essentially an induction machine, since its squirrel-cage rotor receives power in much the same
way as does the rotor of the polyphase induction motor. There is, however, one extremely
important difference between the two. Whereas the polyphase induction motor creates a true
revolving field, in the sense that it is constant in magnitude and rotates at synchronous speed
completely round the entire core, the field of the shaded-pole motor is not constant in magnitude
but merely shifts from one side of the pole to the other. Because the shaded-pole motor does not
create a true revolving field, the torque is not uniform but varies from instant to instant.

52
Each of the laminated poles of the stator has a slot cut across the laminations about one-
third the distance from one edge. Around the smaller of the two areas formed by this slot is placed
a heavy copper short-circuited coil, called a shading coil; the iron around which the shading coil is
placed is called the shaded part of the pole, while the free portion of the pole is the unshaded part.
The exciting coil surrounds the entire coil.
When the exciting winding is connected to an AC source of supply, the magnetic axis will
shift from the unshaded part of the pole to the shaded part of the pole. This shift in the magnetic
axis is, in effect equivalent to an actual physical motion of the pole; the result is that the squirrel-
cage rotor will rotate in the direction from the unshaded part to the shaded part.
Reluctance-start Induction Motor
Its characteristics are similar to that of shaded pole motor. In this motor too the magnetic
field shifts across the pole, but the effect is obtained by the non-uniform air gap of salient poles.
Where there is greater air gap, the flux in that portion is more nearly in phase with the current.
There is a greater lag between flux and current where there is lower reluctance or where the air-
gap is smaller. Since both fluxes are produced by the same current the flux across the larger air-
gap leads and flux across the smaller one. The two fluxes are obviously displaced in time, and so
the magnetic field shifts across the poles from larger air-gap to the shorter gap. Thus the direction
of rotation is firmly fixed by the construction, and the motor cannot be reversed at all.
For most small power applications, the shaded pole motor is preferred, and the reluctance-
start motor has limited use, usually only where starting torque requirements are low.
Note: This motor is an induction motor and should not be confused with reluctance motor which is
usually a non-excited synchronous motor.
Repulsion-start Induction Motor

53
As the name implies the repulsion-start induction motor starts as a repulsion motor with its
brushes set to the maximum torque position. When the load has been accelerated to about 75
percent of synchronous speed, a built in centrifugal device places a sorting ring in contact with the
commutating bars, converting the armature to squirrel-cage rotor.
Although at one time, this type of motor was used almost exclusively where high starting
torque was required, it has been replaced in nearly all cases by the capacitor motors because of
the following reasons:
i. Require more maintenance.
ii. More expensive.
iii. Make quite a bit of noise on starting.
iv. Cause radio interference when starting.
v. Cannot be reversed easily.
Repulsion-start motors, despite these advantages, are still used in integral-horsepower sizes
because of the following reasons:
i. High starting torque.
ii. Low starting current.
iii. Ability to accelerate a heavy load more rapidly than high capacitance dual-capacitor
motors.
Single-phase Commutator Motors
The commutator motors are so called because the wound rotor of this kind of motor is
equipped with a commutator and brushes. This group consists of the following two classes:
1. Those operating on ‘repulsion principle’ (repulsion motors) in which energy is inductively
transferred from the single phase stator field winding to the rotor.

54
2. Those operating on the principle of the series motor in which the energy is conductively
carried both to the rotor armature and its series-connected single phase stator field.
Repulsion Motor
A repulsion motor in its simplest form consists of the field comprising a distributed winding,
housed in slots, in smooth-cored stator and an armature carrying a distributed winding connected
to a commutator. The stator winding, which produces the man infield, is connected to the main
supply. The armature or rotor winding is not connected electrically to the main circuit, but the
brushes, which are set at an angle to the direction of the main flux, are short-circuited.
If the brush axis BB is set at right angles to the direction of the stator flux, the emf induced
in the other half, so that resultant emf is zero; no current flows in the rotor winding and no torque is
developed.
If the brush axis is placed in line with the direction of the stator flux, the emf is one half
assists that in the other, so that maximum current flows. Here again no torque is developed, since
the torque of one half of the rotor conductors is exactly balanced by that due to the other half.
If the brush axis makes an angle with the stator flux as shown, a resultant torque is
produced. The torque is a maximum theoretically, if this angle is 450, but in practice the angle of
inclination is about half this value.
It is clear above from that the speed of repulsion motor depends upon the brush position.
Speed control of such a machine can be provided by mounting the brushes on a rocker which can
be rotated by a lever handle mounted on the motor end-shield. If remote control is required; the
lower handle may be manipulated by a simple system of rods and cranks. Alternatively, if the motor
is to be totally enclosed, or remote control from a considerable distance is required, speed control
may be obtained by the use of an external series resistance with fixed brush gear.

55
Atkinson Repulsion Motor. A modification of the simplest repulsion motor is the Atkinson repulsion
motor, which the stator winding comprises two windings at right-angles to each other.
Repulsion-induction Motor
A single-phase repulsion-induction motor combines the constant-speed characteristics of
the single-phase induction motor with the good starting characteristics of the repulsion motor.
The stator of this machine has a simple single-phase winding like that of single-phase
induction motor. The rotor, however, is built up of laminations. Each of which has two concentric
sets of slots. These slots contain two distinct windings; in the outer slots is wound a commutator
winding similar to that of a DC armature, while in the inner slots is a cast aluminum squirrel-cage
winding which clamps the laminations.
At starting and during the acceleration period, the magnetic flux produced by the stator
embraces only the commutator winding in the outer slots owing to the high reactance of the
squirrel-cage. The motor starts up virtually as a repulsion motor and develops a high starting
torque. As the motor speeds up the reactance of the squirrel-cage decreased, so that this winding
assists the commutator winding to supply the running torque.
Merits. The reputation-induction motor has the following merits:
i. High starting torque.
ii. Fairly good speed regulation.
iii. Major virtue is the ability to continue to develop torque under sudden, heavy applied load
without breaking down.
Uses. Such motors are suitable for all single-phase power applications which require a high
starting torque and constants speed when running; they also operate at a very high power factor.
They are particularly well adapted to drive machine tools, lists hoists, mixing machines, centrifugal
pumps fans and blowers.

56
AC Series Motor
The series motor due to its desirable speed-torque characteristics is almost exclusively
use in railway service. While the DC motor is entirely satisfactory for thus class of work service and
it generally used on street railway cars and trolley coaches, the fact that it is more convenient and
more economical to transmit power and to transform voltages in AC systems than with direct
currents has lead to the development of the AC series motor for use on some of the important
stream-road electrification.
Working Principle. The working principle of an AC series motor is the same as that of the DC series
motor. The armature and field are wound and interconnected in the same manner as the DC series
motor.
When an alternating emf is applied to the terminals, since field and armature windings are
connected in series, the field flux and armature current reverse simultaneously every half cycle, but
the direction of the torque remains unchanged. The torque is pulsating, but its average value is
equal to that which a DC motor will develop if it had the same rms value of flux and current.
Although, it is theoretically possible to operate a DC series motor from an AC circuit, the
following structural changes must be made in the motor to make it a practical and reasonable
efficient machine:
- The entire magnetic circuit must be laminated, and materials with low iron-loss coefficient
should be used as in transformers.
- The field circuit must be designed for a much lower reactance than the corresponding DC
motor field in order to reduce the reactance voltage drop of the field to a minimum and to
improve the power factor of the motor.

57
- A distributed compensation winding is required to reduce the reactance of the armature
winding by reducing the leakage flux and to neutralize the cross-magnetizing effect of the
armature ampere turns.
Universal Motor
Fractional horsepower series motors that are adapted for use on either DC or AC circuits
of a given voltage are called universal motors.
The universal motor is designated for commercial frequencies from 60 cycles down to DC
(zero frequency), and for voltage from 250 V to 1.5 V. A commercial universal motor may have a
somewhat weaker series field and more armature conductors than a DC series motor of equivalent
horsepower. It is manufactured in ratings up to ¾ hp, particularly for vacuum cleaners and
industrial sewing machines. In smaller of ¼ hp or less, it is in electric hand drills.
Like all series motors, the no-load speed of the universal motor is universally high. Quite
frequently, gears trains are built into the motor housing of some universal motors to provide
exceedingly high torque at low speeds.
When these motors are used in commercial appliances such as electric shavers, sewing
machines, office machines, and small hand hair dryers or vacuum cleaners, they are always
directly loaded with a little danger of motor run away.
Advantages of universal motor:
1. High speed from above 3600 rpm to 25000 rpm.
2. High power output in small physical sizes for use in portable tools.
3. High torque at low and intermediate speeds to carry a particularly severe load.
4. Variable speed by adjustable governor, by line voltage or especially by modern pulse
techniques.
Disadvantages:

58
1. Increased service requirements due to use of brushes and commutators. The life of these parts
is limited in severe service.
2. Relatively high noise level at high speed.
3. Moderate to severe radio and television interference due to brush sparking.
4. Requirement for careful balancing to avoid vibration.
5. Requirement for reducing gearing in most portable tools.
Universal motors are manufactured in two types:
1. Concentrated-pole, non-compensated type (high hp rating)
2. Distilled field compensated type ( high hp rating)
Operation of a Universal motor.
The motor works on the same principle as a DC motor, i.e., the force between the main
pole flux and the current carrying armature conductors. This is true regardless of whether current is
alternating or direct.
The speed of a universal motor may be controlled by the following methods:
a) Reactance method
b) Tapped-field method
c) Centrifugal mechanism
Reluctance Motor
Single-phase salient-pole synchronous-induction motors are generally called reluctance
motors. If the rotor of any uniform distributed single-phase induction motor is altered so that the
laminations tend to produce salient rotor poles, the reluctance of the air-gap flux path will be
greater where there are no conductors embedded in slots. Such a motor, coming up to speed as
an induction motor, will be pulled into synchronism with the pulsating AC single-phase by the
reluctance torque developed at the salient iron poles which have lower-reluctance air gaps.

59
Working of a reluctance motor, in order to understand the working of such a motor the
basic fact which must be kept in mind is that when a piece of magnetic material is located in a
magnetic field, a force acts on the material, tending to bring it into the densest portion of the field.
The force tends to align the specimen of material in such a way that the reluctance of the magnetic
path that passes through the material will be minimum.
When supply is given to the stator winding, the revolving magnetic field will exert
reluctance torque on the symmetrical rotor tending to align the salient pole axis of the rotor with the
axis of the revolving magnetic field (because in this position, the reluctance of the magnetic path
would be minimum). If the reluctance torque is sufficient to start the motor and its load, the rotor will
pull into step with the revolving field and continue to run at the speed of the revolving field.
(Actually the motor starts as an induction motor and after it has reached its maximum speed as an
induction motor, the reluctance torque pulls its rotor into step with the revolving field so that the
motor now runs at synchronous motor by virtue of its saliency).
Reluctance motors have approximately one-third the horsepower rating they would have
as an induction motors with cylindrical rotors, although the ratio may be increased to one-half by
proper design of the field windings. Power factor and efficiency are poorer than for the equivalent
induction motor. Reluctance motors are subject to ‘cogging’, since, the locked-rotor torque varies
with the rotor position, but the effect may be minimized by skewing the rotor bars and by not having
the number of rotor slots exactly equal to an exact multiple of the number of poles.
Uses. Despite its short-comings, the reluctance motor is widely used for many constant speed
applications such as recording instruments, time devices, control apparatus, regulators, and
phonograph turnables.
- Reversing is obtained as in any single-phase induction motor.
Hysteresis Motor

60
Single-phase cylindrical (non-salient pole) synchronous-induction motor or shaded pole
motors are classed as hysteresis motors. A hysteresis motor has neither a salient pole rotor nor
direct excitation, but nevertheless it rotates at synchronous speed. This type of motor runs into
synchronous and runs on hysteresis torque.
Hysteresis-type lamination, are usually made of hardened, high retentivity steel rather than
commercial, low-retentivity dynamo steel.
As a result of a rotating magnetic field produced by phase splitting or a shaded-pole stator,
eddy currents are induced in the steel of the rotor which travel across the two bar paths of the
rotor. A high-retentivity steel produces a high hysteresis loss, and an appreciable amount of energy
is consumed from the rotating field in reversing the current direction of the rotor. At the same time
the rotor magnetic field set up by the eddy current causes the rotor to rotate. A high starting torque
is produced as a result of the high resistance (proportional to hysteresis). As the rotor approaches
synchronous speed, frequency of current reversal in the cross-bars decreases, and the rotor
becomes permanently magnetized in one direction as a result of the high retentivity of the steel
rotor. Consequently, the motor continues to rotate at synchronous speed.
An extremely important use of this type of motor is for the rotation of gyroscope rotors in
inertial navigation and control systems. Here the requirement is for as near absolute accuracy as
can be achieved. One major component of the instrument accuracy that contains the gyroscope is
that the gyroscopic moment be absolutely constant. This constancy requires a synchronous motor
that is driven by a regulated constant-frequency source.
Sub-synchronous Motor
When the motor has a rotor that has an overall cylindrical outline and yet is toothed as a
many pole salient-pole rotor it is a sub-synchronous motor. A typical rotor may have 16 teeth or
poles, and in conjunction with a 16-pole stator will normally rotate at synchronous 450 rpm when

61
operated on 60 Hz. If this motor were temporarily overloaded, it would drop out of synchronism.
Then the speed drops down toward the maximum torque point, and the motor will again lock into
synchronism at a sub-multiple speed of 225 rpm hence the name of sub-synchronous motor.
This type of motor in any given size will develop a higher starting torque but a lesser
synchronous speed torque than a reluctance motor.
Examples:
Objective Type questions:
1. In a split phase motor, the running winding should have
A. High resistance and low inductance
B. Low resistance and high inductance
C. High resistance as well as high inductance
D. Low resistance as well as low inductance
Ans: B
2. If the capacitor of a single-phase motor is short-circuited
A. The motor will not start
B. The motor will burn
C. The motor will run in reverse direction
D. The motor will run in the same direction at reduced rpm.
Ans: A
3. In a capacitor start and run motors the function of the running capacitor in series with the
auxiliary winding is to
A. Improve power factor
B. Increase overload capacity
C. Reduce fluctuations in torque

62
D. To improve torque
Ans: A
4. Which of the following motor will give relatively high starting torque?
A. Capacitor start motor
B. Capacitor run motor
C. Split-phase motor
D. Shaded-pole motor
Ans: A
5. Which of the following motor will have relatively higher power factor?
A. Capacitor run motor
B. Shaded-pole motor
C. Capacitor start motor
D. Capacitor start and run motor
Ans: A
6. In a shaded-pole single-phase motor, the revolving field is produced by the use of
A. Inductor
B. Capacitor
C. Resistor
D. Shading coils
Ans: D
7. If a particular application needs high speed and high starting torque, then which of the
following motor will be preferred?
A. Universal motor
B. Shaded-pole type motor

63
C. Capacitor start motor
D. Capacitor start and run motor
Ans: A
8. The running winding of a single-phase motor on testing with megger is found to be grounded.
Most probable location of the ground will be
A. At the end connections
B. At the end terminals
C. Anywhere on the winding inside a slot
D. At the slot edge where coil enters or comes out of the slot
Ans: D
9. A capacitor-start single-phase induction motor is switched on to supply with its capacitor
replaced by an inductor of equivalent reactance value. It will
A. Start and then stop
B. Start band run slowly
C. Start and run at rated speed
D. Not start at all
Ans: D
10. In a capacitor-start single-phase motor, when capacitor is replaced by a resistance
A. Torque will increase
B. The motor will consume less power
C. Motor will run in reverse direction
D. Motor will continue to run in same direction
Ans: D

64
Exercise # 4:
Name: _________________________________
Course: ________________________________
Date: __________________________________
Instructor: _______________________________
Answer the following objective type questions.
1. In repulsion motors
A. Speed remains constant
B. Speed variation is within 5%
C. Speed varies with load
D. Speed varies only with change in applied voltage
2. A single phase induction motor is
A. Inherently self starting with high torque
B. Inherently self starting with low torque
C. Inherently non-self starting with low torque
D. Inherently non-self starting with high torque
3. A single-phase motor is started by connecting both the running winding and starting winding
across the line in
A. Parallel
B. Series
C. Series-parallel
D. An inductive coupling
4. A hysteresis motor works on the principle of
A. Hysteresis loss

65
B. Magnetization of rotor
C. Eddy current loss
D. Electromagnetic induction
5. For the same rating which of the following motors has the highest starting torque?
A. Synchronous motor
B. Universal motor
C. Split-phase motor
D. All have identical starring torque
6. The speed of a universal motor is usually reduced by using
A. Gearing
B. Brakes
C. Belts
D. Chains
7. The starting winding of a single-phase motor is placed in
A. Armature
B. Rotor
C. Field
D. Stator
8. For ceiling fans, generally the single phase motor used is
A. Capacitor-start type
B. Split-phase type
C. Permanent capacitor type
D. Capacitor start and run type
9. In a universal motor, the most common cause of brush sparking is

66
A. Open armature winding
B. High commutator mica
C. Shorted field winding
D. All of the above
10. The motor used for the compressors is
A. DC series motor
B. Shaded-pole motor
C. Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor

67
References
Siskind, Charles S., Electrical Machines. Second Edition. Tokyo: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company,
1966.
Rojas, Romeo A. Jr., 1001 Solved Problems in Electrical Engineering. Philippines: Benchmark
Publisher, INC., 2001.
Valenzona, Marcialito M., Textbook-Reviewer in Electrical Engineering. Second Edition.
Philippines: Cebu electrical Engineering Review Specialist – CEERS.

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