Active Learning In Secondary And College Science Classrooms A Working Model For Helping The Learner To Learn 1st Edition Joel A Michael
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- 6. Active Learning in Secondary and College Science Classrooms A WorkingModel for Helping the Learner to Learn
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- 8. Active Learning in Secondary and College Science Classrooms A Working Model for Helping the Learner to Learn Joel A. Michael Rush Medical College Harold I. Modell Physiology Educational Research Consortium 2003 LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS Mahwah, New Jersey London
- 9. Copyright © 2003 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other means, without prior written permission of the publisher. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 IndustrialAvenue Mahwah, NJ 07430 Cover design by Kathryn Houghtaling Lacey Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Michael, Joel A., 1940- Active learning in secondary and college science classrooms: aworking model forhelping the learnerto learn / Joel A. Michael,Harold I. Modell. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8058-3947-X (acid-free paper) ISBN 0-8058-3948-8 (pbk. : acid-free paper) 1. Science—Study and teaching (Secondary) 2. Science—Study and teaching (Higher) I. Modell, Harold I. II. Title. Q181.M46 2003 507' .1—dc21 2003040769 CIP Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid-free paper, and their bindings are chosen for strength and durability. Printed in the United States of America 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
- 10. This book is dedicated to our students, past, present, and future. They have provided us, and we expect, will continue to provide us, with the challenges and rewards that make our careers exciting and fulfilling.
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- 12. CONTENTS Preface ix Part I: Building the Foundation for an Approach to Active Learning 1 What Is Learning and How Does It Occur? 3 2 Meaningful Learning and Problem Solving in Science 19 3 A Model for the Learning Environment 27 Part II: Roles for the Teacher in Creating an Active Learning Environment 4 Defining the Output State 37 5 Assessing the Input State: The Teacher as Diagnostician 43 6 Moving From the Input to the Output State: 53 The Learning Experience Part III: Creating Active Learning Environments 7 Preparing Students to Participate in an Active 63 Learning Environment 8 Creating an Active Learning Environment in the Science 77 Lecture Hall 9 Promoting Active Learning in the "Conference Room" 89 10 Helping the Learner to Learn in the Student Laboratory 97 vii
- 13. Viii Contents 11 New Approaches to Science Learning: Cooperative and 105 Collaborative Learning Part IV: Assessment in an Active Learning Environment 12 Assessment of Student Performance 117 13 How Do I Know It's Working? 127 14 The Teacher as a Reflective Practitioner 137 Part V: Summing Up 15 The Challenges of Helping the Learner to Learn 143 16 Building a Community of Active Learning Practitioners 153 17 The Bottom Line 157 References 159 Author Index 165 Subject Index 169
- 14. PREFACE This book is about "helping the learner to learn."While thisphrase seems to merely describe whatall good teachers striveto do, it really describes some- thing more than that. This phrase should be understood as a short-hand de- scription of a mindset that directs all aspects of the teacher's behavior. Our purpose is to help you, the reader, to reflect on the implications of what it means to help the learner to learn and to thinkabout whatthis mightmean in very concrete ways in a variety of educational settings. The working model we present in this book is relevant to any teaching context. However, our focus here is on teaching in secondary and college science classrooms. Within this context, our specific goals are: • To help science faculty examine and redefine their roles in the class- room; • Todefine for secondary and college science teachers in all disciplines a framework for thinking about active learning and the creation of an ac- tive learning environment;and • Toprovide science faculty withthe assistance they need to begin build- ing successful active learning environments in their classrooms. Our assumption is that you are reading this book because you have al- ready decided to look for ways to change how you teach, or that you are, at the very least, prepared to think about doing this. For those of you who are still preparing toteach, our aim is to help you thinkabouthow you willteach when you finally find yourself in the classroom. ix
- 15. X Preface To reach our goal of helping you adopt a new approach to teaching, we will take you on ajourney on which you will find exposition, opportunities for exploration, and chances for reflection. We have organized this book into five sections. In Part I (Building the Foundation for an Approach to Active Learning), we will first consider what we know about learning (chap. 1) and then dis- cuss what is meant by "meaningful learning" (chap. 2). We then propose a simple model for the educational process (chap. 3) that we will use to struc- ture the remainder of our journey. In Part II (Roles for the Teacher in Creating an Active Learning Environ- ment), we consider the roles of the teacher as described by our model: defin- ing the students' expected output state (chap. 4), determining the students' input state (chap. 5), and creating the learning experiences that make up a course (chap. 6). We then turn from the general to the specific, and, in Part III (Creating Active Learning Environments), we describe what one must do to create an active learning environment in the classroom. Chapter 7deals with the issue of preparing students to participate in an active learning environment. Chapters 8, 9, and 10discuss ideas associated with promoting active learn- ing in lecture, discussion, and laboratory settings. Chapter 11discusses co- operative and collaborative learning, newer approaches to science learning. In Part IV (Assessment in an Active Learning Environment), we deal with questions aboutwhatis really happeninginthe active learning environ- ment you create: Chapter 12 discusses evaluating student performance. Chapter 13raises the issue of how you can know if your efforts to promote active learning are working, and Chapter 14 discusses the idea that the teacher must be a reflective practitioner. Finally, we bring ourjourney to aclose in Part V (SummingUp). Chapter 15 presents a frank discussion of the challenges that you may encounter in attemptingto change the way you teach. Chapter 16describes the process of building an academic communityof active learning practitioners. Weend in Chapter 17 with a review of our "take home" messages. We have brought a perspective to the task of writing this book that, if not unique,isrelatively uncommon. Both authors were trained asphysiologistsin graduate programs at major research universities. Webegan our academic ca- reers at institutions that, nevertheless, expected us to teach as well as do re- search. Both ofus became heavily involved with educational issues asaresult of our individual work in computer-based education in physiology. We ap- proached our roles in the classroom in much the same way as we functioned in the laboratory, asking questions, observing outcomes, and trying new ap-
- 16. Preface xi proaches to reach our goal of enabling student learning. At different times and for different reasons, we both abandoned our physiology research programs to devote full time to research and faculty development activities in science education. Thus, we bring our experiences as scientists (in both physiology and education), as classroom teachers (at a variety of post-secondary levels), and as experienced faculty development practitioners to this book. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The ideas in this book are the product of more than 10years of research and a nearly non-stop dialogue about learning and teaching. Weare indebted to our colleagues in the Physiology Educational Research Consortium, and espe- cially Allen Rovick and Mary Pat Wenderoth, for their vigorous participation in this dialogue and for their many insights. We would also like to thank the National Institutes of Health, the Office of Naval Research, and the National Science Foundation for their support of our research efforts in this area. (This project was supported, in part, by NSF grant number REC-9909411.) Joel Michael would like to express his appreciation for the support that he has received over the years from his wife, Greta. She has been an impor- tant sounding board for ideas and a marvelous proofreader when that has been needed. He also wishes to acknowledge his daughters, Jennifer and Erica. He learned a great deal about teaching and learning from watching their progress through many years of school. Harold Modell appreciates the role that his wife, Jane, plays as a life part- ner and best friend. She always offers encouragement and support when it is needed most. He also offers thanks to his daughter, Tamara, who has partici- pated as a colleague in the development process that has led to recognizing the power of the "helping the learner to learn mindset." —Joel Michael —Harold Modell
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- 18. PartI Building the Foundation for an Approach to Active Learning
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- 20. C h a p t e r 1 What Is Learning and How Does It Occur? CHAPTER OVERVIEW Learning is a change in behavior that resultsfrom the learner's interaction with the environment (experience). Recent advances in cognitive science are beginning to provide us with some general principles, applicable in educa- tion, that shouldfacilitate learning. (1)All learning occurs on the foundation of already learned knowledge and skills. (2) Tothe extent that the old knowl- edge isfaulty, the learning of new knowledge will be compromised. (3) De- clarative (what) and procedural (how) knowledge are different, and the processes of learning them are different. (4) Learning declarative knowledge involves building mental representations or models. (5) Practice with timely and appropriate feedback is requiredfor all procedural learning. (6) Reten- tion and the ability to utilize knowledge (meaningful learning) is facilitated by building connections (links) between old knowledge structures and the new knowledge being learned. (7) The ability to construct multiple represen- tations of the new knowledge is an important component of meaningful learn- ing. (8) Some knowledge and skills, when acquired, are context-specific while other knowledge and skills may be more readily transferred to a new domain. (9) Collaborative or cooperative effort can yield more individual learning than individual effort alone. (10)Articulating explanations, whether to peers, teachers, or one's self, facilitates learning. Examples of learning are all around us. The neighbors' newbaby is learning to speak Hindi from its grandmother. Your brother's baby is learning to walk. Yourdaughter has learned toride atwo-wheeled bicycle. Your sonhas learned all the presidents in chronological order. Your sister has gone back to school and is learning to be a lawyer. Your spouse has learned to use a 3
- 21. 4 Chapter I spreadsheet atwork, and you havelearned to use a database program to keep track of your collection of CDs. Grandma has learned to use e-mail to keep in touch with all her grandchildren. What, if anything, do all of these examples of "learning" have in com- mon? In each instance, some observable, more or less permanent change in the learner's behavior has occurred as aresult of his orher interaction with a particular environment. Learning is the result of experience. This is nothing more than a re-statement of the usual dictionary definition of learning. Nev- ertheless, such a definition has significant implications for teaching and what happens, or should happen, in the classroom. Thisbook focuses onhow to create a learning environment that willfacil- itate students' mastery of science. The starting point for such an effort must be an understanding of the processes involved in learning. The next step, and it is an essential one, is for teachers to redefine their roles in the class- room. This will be a recurring theme throughout this book. WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT LEARNING? Psychology has studied learning and the related phenomenon of memory since the late 19th century. The development of cognitive science and its multi- ple-disciplinary approach to suchquestionshas hastened thepace of thesestud- ies enormously over the past 40 years. Cognitive Science,one of the premier journals of this discipline, bills itself as "AMultidisciplinary Journal of Artifi- cial Intelligence, Linguistics, Neuroscience, Philosophy, Psychology." Contro- versies abound in learning research about issues of experimental methodology, interpretation of data, and evenwhatquestions can be asked and potentially an- swered. Nevertheless, it is possible to summarize what we have learned about learning. The setof assertions thatfollow can serveto guideyou asyou planand implement the learning environment in which your students will function. One of the dominant schools of thought about learning, one that is partic- ularly prevalent in all discussions of science learning, is constructivism. BEFORE PROCEEDING! Think about something that you recently learned to do (NOT some fact that you recently acquired). How did you learn whatever you learned? What steps did you have to go through? How did you know when you had succeeded?
- 22. What Is Learning and How Does It Occur? 5 The constructivist approach to learning had one point of origin in the work of Piaget and his followers and another in the information processing para- digm that came to be prominent in cognitive science. There are now many different forms of constructivism, but each of them embraces several basic tenets. First, knowledge cannot be transmitted from one individual to an- other individual in any mode. Knowledge is built by the learner using inter- nal cognitive processes acting on stimuli from the environment. The result is a mental representation, or model, of the "real world" that can be used to solve problems. These representations or models may be well defined or they may be ill defined. In any event, as the learner continues to learn, they will be modified and refined. Of course, this means that it is the learner who is responsible for the learn- ing that occurs. It also means that all we, as teachers, can do is to help the learner to learn. Second, the learner's process of building new knowledge starts with a foundation of everything that is already known by the learner. The learner is not simply a blank slate (tabula rasa) on which experience writes the newlessons being learned (Bransford, Brown,&Cocking, 1999). It is clear, however, that at least some of what the learner already "knows" is wrong in whole or in part. This "wrong" knowledge has been labeled by investigators as misconceptions, alternative conceptions, and naive theories (Wandersee, Mintzes, & Novak, 1994). Whatever labels are used, they de- scribe some kind of conceptual difficulty that the student is having (Michael et al., 2002). We will use the term misconceptions to refer to such "incor- rect" knowledge. The significance of misconceptions is that their presence inevitably interferes with the learner's attempt to incorporate new, correct knowledge that is to be learned into that which is already known. Learning requires "repair" of existing mental representations (models) to correct mis- conceptions while simultaneously extending the model to include new con- cepts. Thus, learning is often talked about as representing a process of "conceptual change" (Smith, 1991). In thinking about learning, it is important to recognize that there are at least three different kinds of "things" that can be learned: (1) declarative knowledge, (2) procedural knowledge, and (3) psychomotor skills. As we will see, all three have been extensively studied by the learning sciences. Declarative knowledge is the "what"of aparticular topic. It can be a setof facts that defines aspects of the subject matter. The facts can be as simple as the definition of terms ("amino acids are ... ," "the resting potential is ... ," "igneous rock is ... ") or a collection of data ("normal mean arterial pressure is ... ," "the equilibrium constant for this reaction is ... ," "the value of the gravitational constant is ..."). Declarative knowledge can also be more com-
- 23. 6 Chapter 1 plex and consist of concepts (osmotic pressure, host defense,plate tectonics), general principles (conservation of mass), or defined relationships between entities (cardiac output equals stroke volume times heart rate, an increase in thepopulation ofpredators willlead to adecrease in thepopulation ofprey). Declarative knowledge is stored as mental representations or mental models. Although there are a number of competing theories describing these mental "entities," the idea that new declarative knowledge must be re- lated to (connected to, linked to) the knowledge already present is univer- sally accepted. The richer the links, the better the new knowledge will be retained, and the more readily the knowledge can be retrieved for use in problem solving (see chap. 2). In other words, learning involves the process of building mental models from existing and new information and testing these models. Wewill define learning in the contextof helping the learner to learn as the iterative process of building, testing, and refining mental models (see Figure 1.1). We define an active learning environmentas one in which students are engaged in the process of building, testing, and refining their mental models. Rote learning ("memorizing") of declarative knowledge is a common component of all school-based learning. Learning the elements in the peri- odic table by repeated recitation and correction is a clear example of rote learning. Experimental psychology has studiedmemorization tasks likethis for many years, and we have a good understanding of the factors that deter- mine the success or failure of memorizing. However, it is generally agreed that rote learning is a low-level cognitive process that can only provide in- formation ("facts") that may or may not be used later for higher levels of learning. Our interest, one that is shared by most teachers, is in helping stu- dents accomplish meaningful learning in which facts are accumulated and organized into a conceptual framework, or mental model, that allows these "facts" to be used to accomplish tasks in the real world (see chap. 2). FIG. 1.1. One definition of learning.
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