Duncan Henry's Publication of Modules of Business CommunicationAcu graduate school publication-module 1, ii

NAME OF INSTITUTION: ABILENE CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY (ACU) GRADUATE SCHOOL
NAME OF STUDENT: DUNCAN HENRY SISYA
MODULE NAME: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION SKILLS 1
PUBLISHED BY: DUNCAN HENRY SISYA,
CHURCH OF CHRIST TANZANIA MISSIONS,
P.O. BOX 25632,
SEGEREA, DAR-ES-SALAAM,
TANZANIA.
E-MAIL:duncanhensisya@yahoo.co.uk; duncanhensisya@gmail.com; hensisya@gmail.com;
duncanhensisya878@gmail.com; Hensisya2014@twitter.com
WEBSITE:http://www.linkedIn.com
PHONE: +255-762-532217/+255-715-532217.
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MODULE NAME: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION SKILLS I:
THE SENTENCES:
DEFINITION OF A SENTENCE:
A Sentence is a group of words which makes a complete sense or thought.
EXAMPLES:
1. He has bought the book.
2. Leave this place at once.
3. How precious is the Lord!
4. Has he finished the work?
5. May you live long!
TYPES OF SENTENCES:
Sentence types are categories used to classify sentences according to function. Sentences structures are formulae
used to build sentences.
Many people think of language use in speech and in writing as a purely creative process. What they do not realize
is that language is highly regular, almost formulaic. Any grammatically complete thought will fit one of the seven
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basic sentence structures and one of five types. The structures and types are flexible and allow room for creativity,
but they still indicate a common, underlying form given to us by grammar. Subjects and predicates are the base of
both structures and types. We will now build upon that base.
Every sentence falls into one of five categories, depending on the intentions of the speaker or writer and the
manner of expression. A sentence can be Assertive or Declarative; Imperative; Exclamatory; Interrogative; or
Optative. We can often distinguish among the different types by looking at the punctuation of the sentences.
I. ASSERTIVE/DECLARATIVE SENTENCE:
An Assertive Sentence is a sentence which expresses a statement or fact or possibility. It can be
affirmative or negative.
Declarative Sentences end with periods or full-stops.
Examples:
1. This house is vacant. (Affirmative/Positive)
2. She does not study hard. (Negative)
II. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE:
An Imperative Sentence is a sentence which expresses a request, an advice, an order/command, a
suggestion and an entreaty (plea).
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Examples:
1. Could you bring me a piece of paper please? (Request)
2. Take off your shoes. [Command/Order]
3. I suggest that the Government of Tanzania should create more employment opportunities for the
youth. (Suggestion)
III. EXPLANATORY SENTENCE:
An Explanatory Sentence is a sentence which expresses a feeling of pleasure, disgust, pity, or sorrow,
surprise, etc.
Examples:
1. What a fine idea!
2. Alas! She has died.
3. Waugh! That is magnificent.
4. Hey! Come over here.
5. Oh! She has already departed.
6. Ah! That is not good.
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7. Hurrah! We have won the game.
IV. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE:
Interrogative Sentence is a sentence which expresses a question or asks a question.
Examples:
1. Who gave you that information?
2. What happened at that club?
3. Where did the detective go?
4. Do you like fruits?
5. Is she going to the beach?
6. Does he behave well?
V. OPTATIVE SENTENCE:
An Optative Sentence is a sentence which expresses a wish.
Examples:
1. May you live long!
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2. May God bless you!
3. I wish you all the best.
4. May God grant you long life!
OTHER TYPES OF SENTENCES:
VI. SIMPLE SENTENCE:
A Simple Sentence is a sentence which comprises of the Subject and the Predicate.
SUBJECT PREDICATE
1. James studied hard and so, he passed.
2. She prepared a delicious meal.
3. John explained the fact very well.
4. The Manager hired a hundred employees.
5. We need to work effectively.
VII. COMPOUND SENTENCE:
A Compound Sentence is a sentence with a double main (independent) clause.
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Examples:
1. Peter likes pork but he hates the soup.
2. Jimmy will come home; and Jane will go back to town.
3. She prepares good meals; also she is hospitable to strangers.
4. The Lecturer told the students to do the assignment or else they will lose marks.
5. The Pilot flew the plane so high that the passengers got afraid of the situation since it was terrible.
VIII. COMPLEX SENTENCE:
A Complex Sentence is a sentence which consists of a main clause and a subordinate clause or can
have more than one subordinate clause.
Examples:
1. She never attended the class because she was sick and so she went to the hospital for medication.
2. The Lecturer taught us very well even though he felt sick.
3. The boys played very well however they lost the game.
4. She teaches as long as she feels comfortable with the working conditions and services.
5. We should rely on God since He is the provider of everything in order for us to live long on the earth.
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IX. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE:
A Compound-Complex Sentence is a sentence which comprises of more than one main clause and more
than one subordinate clause.
Examples:
1. Jimmy traveled to Canada; and so, his wife remained at home with the children since he would not
live there for so long time, therefore, the family was advised to be patient.
2. The Philosopher taught by Question-Answer Method; however, the students could not understand
him very well because of his American accent.
3. The Doctor of Medicine treated the patients with high care even though they did not get cured as
they expected due to the fact that the medicines were expired.
4. The Forty-Fourth President of U.S.A., President Barrack Obama is a very unique President because
of his administration which is democratic; and so, many Americans have liked him.
5. The Taifa Stars should emulate the way European Teams play soccer in order to be at a better
position in the World Cup Qualifiers; as a result, Tanzania will be featured on a World Map of
Soccer.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH:
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Words are divided into different kinds or classes, called “Parts of Speech”, according to their use; that is,
according to the work they do in a sentence.
The Parts of Speech are eight (8) in number and viz (these are):
1. Noun; 2. Adjective; 3. Pronoun; 4. Verb; 5. Adverb; 6. Preposition; 7. Conjunction and 8. Interjection.
I. A Noun is a word which comes from a Latin word “nomen”, meaning “name”. Nouns are names of
people, places, things, and ideas. Anything we can imagine has a name. If someone discovers a person,
place, thing, or idea without a name, you can be sure that steps will be taken to remedy that situation.
Any nutritious sentence is chock full of nouns. In the examples below, each of the bold words is a noun.
1. Akbar was a great King.
2. The rose smells sweet.
3. The sun shines bright.
4. His courage won him honor.
5. My friend, Buddy, has a Ph.D. in Physics.
6. My dog watches television in the evenings.
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7. The purpose of this exam is to scare the life out of you.
8. The weight of gold is measured in karats.
NOTE: The word “thing” includes:
(i) All objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch, or smell; and (ii) something that we can think of, but
cannot perceive by the senses.
II. ADJECTIVE:
An Adjective is a word used to add something to the meaning of a noun or an Adjective is a word that
modifies or qualifies a noun or a pronoun in a sentence; as,
1. He is a very brave boy.
2. There are twenty boys in this class.
3. The hot pan burnt my fingers.
4. I will have a tall glass of lemonade.
5. I am thirty.
III. A PRONOUN:
A Pronoun is a word is a word used instead of a noun; as,
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1. John is absent, because he is ill.
2. The books are where you left them.
3. Mary has gone to school, so she will be back in the afternoon.
4. Peter will pass the exams; therefore, he will be rewarded.
5. Jack himself will do the work.
IV. A VERB:
A Verb is a word used to express an action or state or a Verb is an action word or a verb is a doing
word in a sentence; as,
1. The girl wrote a letter to her cousin.
2. Kolkata is a big city.
3. Iron and Copper are useful metals.
4. She has passed her exams.
5. Jane had gone to Cairo.
6. James will travel to Mombasa in Kenya for a conference.
V. AN ADVERB:
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An Adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a Verb, an Adjective or another Adverb,
as,
1. He worked the sum quickly.
2. This flower is very beautiful.
3. She pronounced the word quite correctly.
4. He dressed handsomely.
5. We shall possibly play the game with Manchester United Football Club.
VI. A PREPOSITION:
A Preposition is a word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or thing denoted by the
noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else; as,
1. There is a cow in the garden.
2. The girl is fond of music.
3. A fair little girl sat under a tree.
4. The thief jumped over the fence.
5. The plane flew high above the sky.
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VII. A CONJUNCTION:
A Conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences or phrases; as,
1. Rama and Henry are cousins.
2. James or Jane will attend the meeting.
3. I like pork but I hate the soup.
4. She never participated in the seminar because she was sick.
5. Either Jane or Mary is to blame.
VIII. AN INTERJECTION:
An Interjection is a word that expresses strong feeling or grab attention; as,
1. Ah! That is not good.
2. Alas! She has died.
3. Hey! Come over here.
4. Hello! How are you?
5. Oops! It has stopped functioning.
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6. Waugh! You look marvelous.
7. Gosh! The car has been damaged.
8. Eh! Let us discuss the matter.
Some modern grammars include determiners among the Parts of Speech. Determiners are words like an, a, the,
this, that, these, those, every, each, some, any, my, his, one, two, etc. which determine or limit the meaning of
nouns that follow. In this Module, as in many traditional grammars, all determiners except a, an, and the; are
classified among Adjectives called “Articles”.
As words are divided into different classes according to the work they do in sentences, it is clear that we cannot
say to which Part of Speech a word belongs unless we see it used in a sentence.
Examples:
1. They arrived soon after. (adverb)
2. They arrived after us. (Preposition)
3. They arrived after we had left. [Conjunction]
EXERCISE I:
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Name the Part of Speech of each bolded word in the following sentences, giving in each case your reason for the
classification:
1. Still waters run deep.__________________________
2. He still lives in that house.__________________________
3. After the storm comes the calm.___________________________
4. The after effects of the drug are bad. ____________________________
5. The up train is malicious.__________________________________
6. It weighs about a kilo.___________________________
7. He told us all about the battle. ______________________________________
8. He was only a meter off me.
9. Suddenly one of the wheels came off.________________________________
10. Mohammedans fast in the month of Ramadan._____________________________
11.He kept the fast for a week. ____________________________
12.He is on the committee._________________________
13. Let us move on. ____________________________________
14.Sit down and rest a while. _______________________________
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15.I will watch while you sleep._________________________________
16.They while away their evenings with books and games._______________________________
17.The snake moves swiftly in the grass.________________________________
18.She cooks delicious food.____________________________________________
19.Mary is a good cook.________________________________________
20.Jane prepared a delicious meal.________________________________
STUDY OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN DETAIL:
THE NOUN-KINDS OF NOUNS:
I. PROPER NOUN:
A Proper Noun is a name of a particular person, town, city, country, continent or thing and it begins with
a capital letter; as,
1. Blantyre is a commercial city of Malawi.
2. Washington D.C. is the capital city of U.S.A.
3. John is a brave boy.
4. Kilimanjaro Mountain is the highest mountain in Africa.
II. COMMON NOUN:
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A Common Noun is a general name of a thing; as,
1. She is a good girl.
2. King Solomon was a wise king.
3. He met a beautiful woman.
4. He is a mighty man of valor.
5. John is a very good boy.
III. COLLECTIVE NOUN:
A Collective Noun is the name of a number (or collection) of persons or things taken together spoken of
as one whole; as,
1. A fleet – a collection of ships or vessels.
2. An army- a collection of soldiers.
3. A crowd- a collection of people.
4. A jury- a collection of judges.
5. A herd- a collection of cattle/buffaloes/elephants.
6. A shoal- a collection of fish.
7. A bunch- a collection of flowers or bananas.
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8. A heap- a collection of sand or stones.
9. A centurion- a collection of one hundred soldiers.
10.A committee- a collection of people.
11. An audience- a collection of listeners.
12. A congregation- a collection of believers.
13. A team- a collection of workers or footballers or people.
14. A company- a collection of board of trustees or people working together or just mere people joined
together.
15. A class- a collection of students or pupils.
16.A clergy- a collection of ministers or servants of God.
17.A flock- a collection of sheep or birds.
18.A faculty- a collection of different departments in a University.
19. A multitude- a collection of people.
20. A mob- a collection of evil people.
21. A family- a collection of father, mother and children.
22. A gang- a collection of thieves or robbers.
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IV. ABSTRACT NOUN:
An Abstract Noun is usually the name of a quality, action, or state considered from the object to which it
belongs; as,
Quality- Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness, brightness, honesty, wisdom, bravery.
Action- Laughter, theft, movement, judgment, hatred.
State- Childhood, boyhood, youth, slavery, sleep, sickness, death, poverty.
The names of the Arts and Sciences (e.g. grammar, music, chemistry, etc.) are also Abstract Nouns.
[We can speak of a brave soldier, a strong man, a beautiful flower. But we can also think of these
qualities apart from any particular person or thing, and speak of bravery, strength, beauty by
themselves. So also we can speak of what persons themselves, and give it a name. The word “ Abstract”
means “ drawn off”.
Abstract Nouns are formed from:
1. Adjectives; as,
Kindness from kind; honesty from honest.
2. Verbs; as,
Obedience from obey; growth from grow.
3. Common Nouns; as,
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Childhood from child; slavery from slave.
V. COUNTABLE NOUNS:
Countable Nouns (or Countable) are the names of objects, people, etc. that we can count. E.g. book, pen,
apple, boy, sister, doctor, horse.
VI. UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS:
Uncountable Nouns (or Uncountable) are the names of things which we cannot count. E.g. milk, oil,
sugar, gold, honesty, water. They mainly denote substances and abstract things.
EXERCISE IV:
Point out the Nouns in the following sentences, and say whether they are Common, Proper, Collective or
Abstract:
1. The crowd was very big.
2. Always speak the truth.
3. We all love honesty.
4. The elephant has great strength.
5. Solomon was famous for his wisdom.
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6. Our class consists of twenty students.
7. Cleanliness is next to godliness.
8. We saw a fleet of ships in the harbor.
9. The class is studying grammar.
10.The Godavan overflows its banks every year.
11. A committee of five people was appointed.
12.Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India.
13.The soldiers were rewarded for their bravery.
14.Without health there is no happiness.
15.He gave me a bunch of grapes.
16. I recognized your voice at once.
17. Our team is better than theirs.
18. Never tell a lie.
19. Wisdom is better than strength.
20.I believe in his innocence.
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EXERCISE V:
Write the Collective Nouns used to describe a number of:
1. Cattle 2. Soldiers 3. Sailors.
II. Write the qualities that belong to boys who are:
1. Lazy. 2. Cruel. 3. Brave. 4. Foolish.
EXERCISE VI:
Form Abstract Nouns from the following Adjectives:
Adjective Abstract Noun
1. Long
2. Strong
3. Wide
4. Broad
5. High
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6. Young
7. True
8. Wise
9. Free
10.Poor
11.Humble
12.Short
13.Good
14.Proud
15.Just
16.Decent
17.Prudent
18.Vacant
19.Brave
20.Vain
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21.Cruel
22.Dark
23.Sweet
24.Novel
25.Sane
26.Bitter
27.Deep
28.Human
29.Quick
30.Ignorant
Form Abstract Nouns from the following Verbs:
VERB ABSTRACT NOUN
1. Laugh
2. Believe
3. Choose
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4. Defend
5. Free
6. Obey
7. Serve
8. Move
9. Think
10. See
11.Live
12.Hate
13.Conceal
14.Protect
15.Judge
16.Expect
17.Please
18.Seize
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19.Advise
20.Pursue
21.Excel
22.Act
23.Flatter
24.Punish
25.Relieve
26.Know
27.Starve
28.Depart
29.Die
30.Converse
31.Steal
32.Occupy
33.Persevere
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34Succeed
35. Discover
Form Abstract Nouns from the Common Nouns:
COMMON NOUN ABSTRACT NOUN
1. King
2. Infant
3. Mother
4. Priest
5. Friend
6. Man
7. Owner
8. Agent
9. Boy
10.Captain
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11.Thief
12.Rogue
13.Hero
14.Bond
15.Rascal
16.Woman
17.Regent
18.Beggar
19.Pirate
20.Patriot
21.Bankrupt
22.Author
23.Coward
24.Pilgrim
25.Glutton
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THE NOUN-GENDER:
Boy Lion Hero Cock-sparrow
Girl Lioness Heroine Hen-sparrow
What do you notice?
The first word of each pair is the name of a female animal. A noun that denotes a male animal is said to be of the
Masculine Gender. [Gender comes from Latin word “genus”, kind or sort]. A noun that denotes a female animal
is said to be of the Feminine Gender. A noun that denotes either a male or a female is said to be of the Common
Gender; e.g. parent, child, friend, pupil, servant, thief, relation, enemy, cousin, person, orphan, student, baby,
monarch, neighbor, infant.
A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female (i.e. thing without life) is said to be of the Neuter
Gender; as, book, pen, room, and tree. [Neuter means neither, that is male or female].
It will be thus seen that in Modern English the Gender of a noun is entirely a matter of sex or the absence of sex. It
has nothing to do with the form of a noun, which determines its gender in many other languages, e.g. in Urdu
where “bagiche” is masculine and “lakri” is feminine. Objects without life are often personified, that is spoken of
as if they were living beings. We then regard them as males or females.
The Masculine Gender is often applied to objects remarkable for strength and violence; as, the sun, summer,
winter, time, death.
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E.g. The Sun sheds its beams on the rich and the poor alike.
The Feminine Gender is sometimes applied to objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness, and gracefulness; as, the
moon, the earth, spring, autumn, nature, liberty, justice, mercy, peace, hope, charity.
E.g. 1. The moon has hidden its face behind a cloud.
2. Spring has spread its mantle of green over the earth.
3. Peace has its victories no less renowned than war.
This use is most common in Poetry but certain nouns are personified in prose too. A ship is spoken of as she; as,
The ship lost all her boats in the storm.
WAYS OF FORMING THE FEMININE OF NOUNS:
There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns:
(i) By using an entirely different word; as,
Masculine Feminine
Bachelor Spinster/Maid
Hart Roe
Cock Hen
Colt Filly
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Dog Bitch
Drake Duck
Earl Countless
Father Mother
Gander Goose
Gentleman Lady
Papa Mamma
Ram Ewe
Sir Madam
Son Daughter
Stag Hind
Uncle Aunt
Wizard Witch
(ii) By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, -trix, -a, etc.); as,
Masculine Feminine
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Author Authoress
Baron Baroness
Count Countless
Giant Giantess
Heir Heiress
Host Hostess
Jew Jewess
Lion Lioness
Manager Manageress
Mayor Mayoress
Patron Patroness/Matron
Peer Peeress
Poet Poetess
Priest Priestess
Prophet Prophetess
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Shepherd Shepherdess
Steward Stewardess
Viscount Viscountess
[Note that in the following –ess is added after dropping the vowel of the Masculine ending].
Masculine Feminine
Actor Actress
Benefactor Benefactress
Conductor Conductress
Enchanter Enchantress
Founder Founderess
Hunter Huntress
Instructor Instructress
Negro Negress
Abbot Abbess
Duke Duchess
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Emperor Empress
Preceptor Preceptress
Prince Princess
Songster Songstress
Tiger Tigress
Traitor Traitress
Waiter Waitress
Tempter Temptress
Seamster Seamstress
Master Mistress
Murderer Murderess
Sorcerer Sorceress
Note: The suffix-ess is the commonest suffix used to form feminine nouns, from the Masculine, and is the only
one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.
Masculine Feminine
Hero Heroine
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Testator Testatrix
Czar Czarina
Sultan Sultana
Signor Signora
Fox Vixen
(iii)By placing a word before or after; as,
Masculine Feminine
Grandfather Grandmother
Great-uncle Great-aunt
Milkman Milk woman
Mailman Mail woman
THE NOUN-NUMBER:
Notice the change of form in the second word of each pair:
Tree Box Ox Man
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Trees Boxes Oxen Men
The first word of each pair denotes one thing; the second word of each pair denotes more than one thing.
A Noun that denotes one person or thing, is said to be in the Singular Number; as, boy, girl, cow, bird, tree, book,
pen. A Noun that denotes more than one person or thing, is said to be in the Plural Number; as, boys, girls, cows,
birds, trees, books, pens. Thus, there are two Numbers in English-the Singular and the Plural.
HOW PLURALS ARE FORMED:
1. The Plural of Nouns is generally formed by adding –s to the Singular; as,
Boy-Boys; Girl-Girls; Book-Books; Pen-Pens; Desk-Desks; Cow-Cows.
2. But Nouns ending in –s,-sh,-ch,(soft), or –x form the Plural by adding –es to the Singular; as,
Class-Classes; Kiss-Kisses; Dish-Dishes; Brush-Brushes; Match-Matches; Watch-Watches; Branch-Branches;
Tax-Taxes; Box-Boxes.
3. Most Nouns ending in –o also form the Plural by adding –es to the Singular; as,
Buffalo- Buffaloes; Mango- Mangoes; Hero- Heroes; Potato- Potatoes; Cargo- Cargoes; Echo-Echoes;
Negro- Negroes; Volcano-Volcanoes.
4. A few Nouns ending in –o merely add –s; as,
Dynamo-Dynamos; Logo-Logos; Ratio-Ratios; Canto-Cantos; Solo-Solos; Quarto-Quartos; Piano-Pianos;
Memento-Mementos; Stereo-Stereos; Kilo-Kilos; Photo-Photos; Commando-Commandos.
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5. Nouns ending in –y, preceded by a consonant, form their plural by changing –y into –I and adding –es; as,
Baby-Babies; Lady-Ladies; City-Cities; Army-Armies; Story-Stories; Pony-Ponies; Supply-Supplies; Fly-Flies;
Study-Studies.
6. The following Nouns ending in –f or –fe form their Plural by changing –f or –fe into –v and adding –es; as,
Thief- Thieves; Wife- Wives; Wolf-Wolves; Life-Lives; Calf-Calves; Leaf-Leaves.
7. The following Nouns ending in –th, -ie, -x, -y, form their Plural by adding –s and –es also by changing –y
and adding –ies; as,
Cloth-Cloths, kinds or pieces of cloth; Cloth-Clothes, garments.
Die-Dies, stamps for coining; Die-Dice, small cubes used in games.
Index-Indexes, tables of contents to books; Index- Indices, signs used in Algebra.
Penny-Pennies, number of coins; Penny-Pence, amount in value.
8. Some Nouns have two meanings in the Singular but only one in Plural.
Singular Plural
Light: (i) Radiance : Lights
(ii)A Lamp : Lamps
People: (i) Nation : Peoples: Nations
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(ii)Men and Women
Powder: (i) Dust : Powders: Doses of medicine.
(ii)A dozen of medicine in fine grains like dust.
Practice: (i) Habit : Practices: Habits
(ii)Exercise of a profession
Brothers : Brethren
9. Some Nouns have one meaning in the Singular, two in the Plural:
Singular Plural
Color: Hue Colors: (i) hues (ii) the flag of a regiment.
Custom: Habit Customs :( i) Habits (ii) Duties levied on imports.
Effect: Result Effects: (i) Results (ii) Property
Manner: Method Manners: (i) Methods (ii) Correct behavior.
Moral: A moral lesson Morals: (i) Moral lessons (ii) Conduct
Number: A quantity Numbers: (i) Quantities (ii) Verses
Pain: Suffering Pains: (i) Sufferings (ii) Care, exertion.
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Premise: Proposition Premises: (i) Propositions (ii) Buildings.
Quarter: Fourth part Quarters: (i) Fourth parts (ii) Lodgings.
Spectacle: A sight Spectacles: (i) Sights (ii) Eye-glasses.
Letter: (i) Letter of the Alphabet Letters: (i) Letters of the Alphabet
(ii)Epistle (ii) Epistles
Ground: (i) Earth Grounds: (i) Enclosed land attached to houses.
(ii)Reason (ii) Reasons (iii) Dregs.
Good: Benefit, well-being Goods: Merchandize.
Compass: Extent, range Compasses: Instruments used for drawing circles.
Respect: Regard Respects: Compliments.
Physic: Medicine Physics: Natural Science.
Iron: A kind of metal Irons: Fetters.
Force: Strength Forces: Troops.
10.Letters, figures and other symbols are made Plural by adding an apostrophe and s; as,
(i) There are more e’s than a’s in this page.
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(ii) Dot your i’s and cross your t’s.
(iii) Add two 5’s and four 2’s.
11.It is usual to say-
The Miss Smiths. (Singular, Miss Smith.)
12.Abstract Nouns have no Plural. They are Uncountable; as,
Hope, charity, love, kindness. When such words do appear in the Plural, they are used as Countable; as,
Provocations- instances or cases of provocation.
Kindness- acts of kindness.
Names of substances are also Uncountable and are not therefore used in the Plural; as, Copper, iron, tin,
wood. When such words are used in the Plural, they become Countable with changed meanings; as,
Coppers-copper coins; Irons-fetters; Tins-cans made of tin; Woods-forests.
THE NOUN-CASE:
Examine these sentences:
(i) John threw a stone.
(ii) The horse kicked the boy.
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In Sentence (i), the noun “John” is the Subject. It is the answer to the question, “Who threw a stone?” The
group of words “threw a stone” is the Predicate. The Predicate contains the Verb “threw”. What did John
throw?-A stone. Stone is the object which John threw. The Noun “stone” is therefore called the “Object”.
In sentence (ii), the noun “horse” is the Subject. It is the answer to the question, “Who kicked the boy?” The
noun “boy” is the Object. It is the answer to the question, “Whom did the horse kick?” When a noun (or
pronoun) is used as the subject of a Verb, it is said to be in the “Nominative Case”.
A Noun which comes after a preposition is said to be in the “Accusative Case.” E.g. The book is on the desk.
The noun “desk” is in the Accusative Case, governed by the preposition “on”.
Read the following sentences:
(i) Henry broke the window. (Object)
(ii) The window was broken (Subject).
It will be seen that Nouns in English have the same form for the Nominative generally comes before the Verb
and the Accusative after the Verb. Hence they are distinguished by the order of words, or by the sense.
Compare:-
1. Rama gave a ball.
2. Rama gave Henry a ball.
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In each of these sentences the noun “ball” is the object of “gave”. In the second sentence, we are told that
Henry was the person to whom Rama gave a ball. The noun “Henry” is called the Indirect Object of the Verb
“gave”. The noun “ball”, the ordinary object, is called the “Direct Object.”
It will be noticed that the position of the Indirect Object is immediately after the Verb and before the Direct
Object.
Note:- Rama gave Henry a ball; which means Rama gave a ball to Henry.
Will you do me a favor? Which means “Will you do a favor to me?”
I bought Rama a ball which means I bought a ball for Rama.
Fetch the boy a book which means “Fetch a book for the boy”.
She made Ruth a new dress which means “She made a new dress for Ruth”.
Get me a taxi which means “Get a taxi for me.”
We see that the Indirect Object of a Verb denotes the person to whom something is given, or for whom
something is done.
Examine the following sentence:
This is Rama’s umbrella which means “the umbrella belongs to Rama.” The form of the noun “Rama” is
changed to Rama’s to show ownership or possession. The noun “Rama’s” is therefore said to be in the
Possessive (or Genitive) Case. The Possessive answers the question, “Whose?” Whose umbrella? Rama’s.
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The Possessive Case does not always denote possession. It is used to denote authorship, origin, kind, etc. as,
Shakespeare’s plays which means the plays written by Shakespeare.
A mother’s love which means the love felt by a mother.
The President’s speech which means the speech delivered by the President.
Mr. Joseph’s house which means the house where Mr. Joseph lives.
FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE:
1. (i) When the noun is singular, the Possessive Case is formed by adding ‘s to the noun; as,
The boy’s book; the King’s crown.
Note:- The letter s is omitted in a few words where too many hissing sounds would come together; as,
For conscience’ sake; for Jesus’ sake; for goodness’ sake; for Moses’ sake; for justice’ sake; Moses’ Laws.
2. (i) When the noun is plural, and ends in s, the Possessive Case is formed by adding only an apostrophe; as,
Boys’ school; girls’ school; horses’ tails; lakes’ waves.
(ii)When the noun is plural but does not end in s, the Possessive sign is formed by adding‘s as,
Men’s club; children’s books.
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3. When a noun or a title consists of several words, the Possessive sign is attached only to the last word; as,
The King of Bhutan’s visit.
The Prime Minister of Mauritius’s speech.
4. When two nouns are in apposition, the Possessive sign is put to the latter only; as,
That is Tagore the poet’s house.
5. Also when two nouns are closely connected, the Possessive is put to the latter; as,
Karim and Salim’s bakery.
William and Mary’s reign.
6. Each of two or more connected nouns implying separate possession must take the possessive sign; as,
Raja Rao’s and R.K. Narayan’s novels.
Goldsmith’s and Cowper’s poems.
USES OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE:
1. The Possessive Case is now used chiefly with the names of living things; as,
The Governor’s bodyguard; the Lion’s mane. So we say:
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The leg of the table [Not, the table’s leg].
The cover of the book. [Not, the book’s cover].
The roof of the house. [Not, the house’s roof.]
2. But the Possessive is used with the names of personified objects; as,
Indian’s heroes; Nature’s laws; Fortune’s favorites; at death’s door.
3. The Possessive is also used with nouns denoting time, space or weight; as,
A day’s match; a week’s holiday; in a year’s time; a stone’s throw; a foot’s length; a pound’s weight.
4. The following phrases are also in common use:
At his finger’s ends; for mercy’s sake; to his heart’s content; at his wit’s end; a boat’s crew.
5. The Possessive of a Proper name or of a noun denoting a trade, profession, or relationship may be used to
denote a building or a place of business (Church, house, school); as,
I attend the Town High School but my cousin attends St. John’s.
He was educated at St. Joseph’s.
6. When you are in doubt whether to use a noun in the Possessive Case or with the “preposition of,”
remember that, as a general rule, the Possessive Case is used to denote possession or ownership.
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Thus, it is better to say “the defeat of the enemy” than the enemy’s defeat” even though no doubt as to the
meaning would arise.
Sometimes, however, a noun in the Possessive Case has a different meaning from a noun used with the
“preposition of”; as,
“The Prime Minister’s reception in Delhi” means a reception held by the Prime Minister in Delhi.
“The reception of the Prime Minister in Delhi” means the manner in which the people welcomed him when
he entered Delhi.
The phrase “love of a father” may mean either “a father’s love of his child” or a child’s love of his father”.
NOUN IN APPOSITION:
1. Read the following sentence:
Rama, our captain, made fifty runs.
We see that Rama and our captain is one and the same person. The noun captain allows the noun
“Rama” simply to explain which Rama is referred to. When one noun follows another to describe it, the
noun which follows is said to be in apposition to the noun which comes before it. [Apposition means
placing near.] A noun in apposition to the noun “Rama’, and is in the Nominative Case (because Rama is
in the Nominative Case).
Further examples:
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1. Kabir, the great reformer, was a weaver.
2. Yesterday I met your uncle, the doctor.
3. Have you seen Ganglion, the artist’s drawings?
In sentence 1, the noun in apposition is in the Nominative Case.
In sentence 2, the noun in apposition is in the Accusative Case. (Why?)
In sentence 3, the noun in apposition is in the Genitive Case. (Why?)
THE ADJECTIVE:
1. Read the following sentences:
(i) Grace is a clever girl.(Girl of what kind?)
(ii) I don’t like that boy. (Which girl?)
(iii) He gave me five mangoes.(How many mangoes?)
(iv) There is little time for preparation. (How much time?)
In sentence 1, “clever” shows what kind of girl Grace is; or, in other words, “clever” describes the girl
Grace.
In sentence 2, “that” points out which boy is meant.
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In sentence 3, “five” indicates the number of mangoes he gave to me.
In sentence 4, “little” shows how much time is there for preparation.
So we may define an Adjective as a word used with a noun to add something for its meaning.
[Adjective means added to.]
Look at the following sentences:
1. The lazy boy was punished.
2. The boy is lazy.
In sentence 1, the Adjective “lazy” is used along with the noun “boy” as an epithet or attribute. It is
therefore, said to be used Attributively.
In sentence 2, the Adjective “lazy” is used along with the Verb “is”, and forms part of the Predicate. It
is, therefore, said to be used Predicatively.
Some Adjectives can be used only Predicatively; as,
She is afraid of ghosts.
I am quite well.
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES:
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Adjectives may be divided into the following classes:
1. Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive Adjective) show the kind or quality of a person or thing; as,
(i) Kolkata is a large city.
(ii) He is an honest man.
(iii) The foolish old crow tried to sing.
(iv) This is a Grammar of the English Language.
[Adjectives formed from Proper Nouns (e.g. French wines, Turkish tobacco, Indian tea, etc.) are Proper
Adjectives. They are generally classed with Adjectives of Quality.]
Adjectives of Quality answer the question: Of what kind?
2. Adjectives of Quantity show how much of a thing is meant; as,
(i) I ate some rice.
(ii) He showed much patience.
(iii) He has little intelligence.
(iv) We have had enough exercise.
(v) He has lost all his wealth.
(vi) You have no sense.
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(vii) He did not eat any rice.
(viii) Take great care of your health.
(ix) He claimed his half share of the booty.
(x) There has not been sufficient rain this year.
(xi) The whole sum was expected.
Adjectives of Quantity answer the question: How much?
3. Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) show how many persons or things are meant, or in what
order a person or thing stands; as,
(i) The hand has five fingers.
(ii) Few cats like cold water.
(iii) I have taught you many things.
Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) are of three kinds:
A. Definite Numeral Adjectives, which denote an exact number; as,
(i) One, two, three, etc. These are called Cardinals.
(ii) First, second, third, etc. These are called Ordinals.
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A Cardinal denotes how many, and an Ordinal the order of things in a series. It will be seen that Ordinals
really do the work of Demonstrative Adjectives.
B. Indefinite Numeral Adjectives, which do not denote an exact number; as,
All, no, many, few, some, any, certain, several, sundry.
C. Distributive Numeral Adjectives, which refer to each one of a number; as,
(i) Each boy must take his turn.
(ii) India expects every man to do his duty.
(iii)Every word of it is false.
(iv) Either pen will do.
(v) On either side is a narrow lane.
(vi) Neither accusation is true.
The same Adjective may be classed as of Quantity or Number, according to its use.
Adjectives of Quantity Adjectives of Number
(i) I ate some rice. Some boys are clever.
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(ii) He has lost all his wealth. All men must die.
(iii) You have no sense. There are no pictures in this book.
(iv) He did not eat any rice. Are there any mango-trees in this garden?
(v) I have enough sugar. There not enough spoons.
D. Demonstrative Adjectives point out which person or thing is meant; as,
(i) This boy is stronger than Hart.
(ii) That boy is industrious.
(iii)These mangoes are sour.
(iv)Those rascals must be punished.
(v)Yonder fort once belonged to Shivaji.
(vi) Don’t be in such a hurry.
(vii)I hate such things.
Demonstrative Adjectives answer the question: Which?
[It will be noticed that this and that are used with Singular nouns while these and those are used with
Plural nouns.]
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E. What, which, and whose, when they are used with nouns to ask questions, are called “Interrogative
Adjectives”; as,
(i) What manner of man is he?
(ii) Which way shall we go?
(iii) Whose book is this?
[It will be seen that what is used in a general sense and which in a selective sense.]
EXERCISE IN GRAMMAR 6:
Pick out all the Adjectives in the following sentences, and say to which class each of them belongs:
1. The ship sustained heavy damage.
2. He is a man of few words.
3. There should not be much talk and little work.
4. Abdul won the second prize.
5. The child fell down from the great height.
6. He was absent last week.
7. He died a glorious death.
8. A small leak may sink a great ship.
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9. Good wine needs no bush.
10.I like the little peddler who has a crooked nose.
11.King Francis was a hearty King, and loved a royal sport.
12.In the furrowed land the toilsome and patient oxen stand.
13. My uncle lives in the next house.
14.Some dreams are like reality.
15.A cross child is not liked.
16.It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good.
In the following sentences the words “own” and “very” are used as Emphasizing Adjectives:
1. I saw it with my own eyes.
2. He was beaten at his own game.
3. Mind your own business.
4. He is his own master.
5. That is the very thing we want.
6. “When all else left my cause, my very adversary took my part.”
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The word “what” is sometimes used as an Exclamatory Adjective; as,
1. What genius!
2. What folly!
3. What an idea!
4. What a blessing!
5. What a piece of work is man!
As already pointed out regarding “Demonstrative Adjectives” “this” and “that” are the only Adjectives which
are inflected or changed in form to show number.
1. This girl sings. These girls sing.
2. That boy plays. Those boys play.
This, these indicate something near to the speaker.
That, those indicate more distant objects.
FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES:
I. (i) Many Adjectives are formed from Nouns.
Noun Adjective Noun Adjective
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Boy Boyish Dirt Dirty
Fool Foolish Storm Stormy
Care Careful Pardon Pardonable
Play Playful Laugh Laughable
Hope Hopeful Outrage Outrageous
Venture Venturesome Courage Courageous
Trouble Troublesome Glory Glorious
Shame Shameless Envy Envious
Sense Senseless Man Manly
Silk Silken King Kingly
Gold Golden Gift Gifted
All the Adjectives of quality can be further classified on the basis of the number of nouns they modify. This
classification is called “Degree of Comparison”.
1. Positive Degree: When only one noun is being referred to, we use the positive degree. For
example, tall, sweet, flexible.
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2. Comparative Degree: When two nouns are being compared, we use the Comparative Degree. For
example, taller, sweeter, more flexible.
3. Superlative Degree: When two or more nouns are being compared, we use the Superlative
Degree. For example, tallest, sweetest, most flexible.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Sweet sweeter sweetest
Small smaller smallest
Tall taller tallest
Bold bolder boldest
Clever cleverer cleverest
Kind kinder kindest
Young younger youngest
Great greater greatest
When the Positive ends in e, only r and st are added.
Brave braver bravest
Fine finer finest
White whiter whitest
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Large larger largest
Able abler ablest
Noble nobler noblest
Wise wiser wisest
When the Positive ends in y, preceded by a consonant, the y is changed into I before adding er and est.
Happy happier happiest
Easy easier easiest
Heavy heavier heaviest
Merry merrier merriest
Wealthy wealthier wealthiest
When the Positive is a word of one syllable and ends in a single consonant, preceded by a short vowel, this consonant is doubled
before adding er and est.
Red redder reddest
Big bigger biggest
Hot hotter hottest
Thin thinner thinnest
Sad sadder saddest
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Fat fatter fattest
Adjectives of more than two syllables form the Comparative and Superlative by putting more and most before the Positive.
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Difficult more difficult most difficult
Industrious more industrious most industrious
Courageous more courageous most courageous
Two-syllable adjectives ending in ful (e.g. useful), less (e.g. hopeless), -ing (e.g. boring) and ed (e.g. surprised) and many others (e.g.
modern, recent, foolish, famous, certain) take more and most.
The following take either er and est. or more and most:
Polite, simple, feeble, gentle, narrow, cruel, common, handsome, pleasant, stupid.
E.g. She is more polite than her sister.
IRREGULAR COMPARISON:
The following Adjectives are compared irregularly, that is, their Comparative and Superlative are not formed from the Positive.
Good, well better best
Bad, evil, ill worse worst
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Little less, lesser least
Much more most (quantity)
Many more most (number)
Late later, latter latest, last
Old older, elder oldest, eldest
Far farther farthest
(Nigh) (nigher) nighest, next
(Fore) (former) foremost, first
(Fore) further furthest
(In) inner inmost, innermost
(Up) upper upmost, uppermost
(Out) outer, (utter) utmost, uttermost
Note: The forms nigh, nigher, nighest, fore, and utter are outdated.
Compare the following Adjectives:
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Black, excellent, ill, gloomy, mad, safe, bad, unjust, gay, able, dry, timid, ugly, true, severe, exact, agreeable, difficult, little, few,
numerous, merry.
The double forms of the Comparative and Superlative of the Adjectives given above, are used in different ways.
Later, latter; latest, last –Later and latest refer to time; latter and last refer to position.
Examples:
1. He is later than I expected.
2. I have not heard the latest news.
3. The latter chapters are lacking in interest.
4. The last chapter is carelessly written.
5. Ours is the last house in the street.
Elder, older; eldest, oldest-Elder and eldest are used only of persons, not of animals or things; and are now confined to
members of the same family. Elder is not used with than following. Older and oldest are used of both persons and things.
E.g.1. John is elder brother.
2. Tom is my eldest son.
Nearest, next- Nearest means shortest distance away. Next refers to one of sequence of things coming one after the other.
E.g.1. Mumbai is the seaport nearest to Europe.
2. Where is the nearest phone box?
3. Karim’s shop is next to the Post Office.
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4. My uncle lives in the next house.
EXERCISE IN COMPOSITION 8:
(a) Fill the blank spaces with “later” or “latter”:
1. The majority accepted the _______________proposal.
2. The _________________part of the book shows signs of hurry.
3. At a____________ date, he was placed in charge of the whole company.
4. I prefer the ____________________proposition to the former.
5. Is there no_____________________news than last week’s?
(b)Fill the black spaces with “older” or “elder”:
1. I have an ______________sister.
2. Henry is _______________than Nicholas by two years.
3. His__________________brother is in the Indian Police Service.
4. She is the ___________________of the two sisters.
5. The nephew is _________________than his uncle.
(c) Fill the blank spaces with “oldest” and “eldest”:
1. Rustam is the ________________of my uncle’s five sons.
2. He is the _________________ member of the School Committee.
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3. That is Antonio, the duke’s ______________son.
4. The ___________________ mosque in the town is near the railway station.
5. Mr. Smith is the __________________teacher in the school.
(d) Fill in the blank spaces with “farther” or “further”:
1. I can’t walk any _________________________.
2. No ______________________reasons were given.
3. He walked off without _________________ceremony.
4. Until _____________________orders Mr. K.S.Dave will act as Headmaster of Nira High School.
5. To let, a bungalow at Ridge Road. For _____________________particulars apply to Box No. 65.
(e) Fill the blank spaces with “latest” or “last”:
1. The __________________news from China s very disquieting.
2. The ___________________time I saw him, he was in high spirits.
3. To-day is the __________________day for receiving tenders.
4. We expect to get the ____________________news in a few hours.
5. The ______________________Mogul Emperor came to an ignominious end.
(f) Fill the blank spaces with “nearest” or “next”:
1. This is the __________________Post Office to my house.
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2. The pillar-box is ___________________to my house.
3. The burglar was taken to the ____________________Police Station.
4. His house is ___________________to mine.
5. The _________________railway station is two kilometers from here.
Certain English Comparatives have lost their comparative meaning and are used as Positive. They cannot be followed by
than. These are:
1. My elder brother is an engineer.
2. The man is an utter fool.
Certain Comparatives borrowed from Latin have no Positive or Superlative degree. They all end in or, not er. They are
twelve in all. Five of them have lost their Comparative meaning, and are used as Positive Adjectives. These are:
Interior, exterior, major, minor.
The exterior wall of the house is made of stone; the interior walls are of wood.
His age is a matter of minor importance.
I have no ulterior motive in offering you help.
The other seven are used as Comparative Adjectives but are followed by to instead of than.
The Comparative Degree is generally followed by than; but Comparative Adjectives ending in-or are followed by the
preposition to; as:
Inferior, superior, prior, anterior, posterior, senior, junior.
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John is inferior to Matthew in intelligence.
Matthew’s intelligence is superior to John’s.
His marriage was prior to his father’s death.
He is junior to all his colleagues.
All his colleagues are senior to him.
Adjectives expressing qualities that do not admit of different degrees cannot, strictly speaking, be compared; as,
Square, round, perfect, eternal, universal, unique.
Strictly speaking, a thing cannot be more square, more round, more perfect. But we say, for instance,
This is the most perfect specimen I have seen.
Point out the Adjectives and name the Degree of Comparison of each:
1. The poor woman had seen happier days.
2. Do not talk such nonsense.
3. Make less noise.
4. That child has a slight cold.
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5. A live ass is stronger than a dead lion.
6. Say the same thing twice over.
7. Solomon was one of the wisest men.
8. Hunger is the best sauce.
9. His simple word is as good as an oath.
10. There was not the slightest excuse for it.
11. My knife is sharper than yours.
12. Small people love to talk of great men.
13. Of two evils choose the less.
14. I hope the matter will be cleared up some day.
15. Your son makes no progress in his studies.
16. Open rebuke is better than secret love.
17. We never had such sport.
18. I have other things to attend to.
19. Happy is the idlest boy in the class.
20. I promise you a fair hearing.
21. There is much to be said on both sides.
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22. He gave the boys much wholesome advice.
23. He thinks he is wiser than his father.
24. No news is good news.
25. Bangladesh has the largest tea garden in the world.
26. Lead is heavier than any other metal.
27. I congratulated him on his good fortune.
28. He has many powerful friends.
29. The longest lane has a turning.
30. The largest mountain in the world is Mount Everest.
EXERCISE IN COMPARISON 10:
Supply the proper form [Comparative or Superlative] of the Adjective:
[Note-The Comparative and not the Superlative] should be used to compare two things:
1. Good- How is your brother to-day? Is he ___________________?
2. Hot- May is ______________here than any other month.
3. Pretty- Her doll is __________________than yours.
4. Idle- Matthew is the __________________boy in the class.
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5. Sharp- Your knife is sharp, but mine is __________________.
6. Dear-Honour is ___________________to him than life.
7. Rich- He is the ___________________man in our town.
8. Old- Mary is two years_______________than Ruth.
9. Large- Name the _________________city in the word.
10. Good- He is the _________________friend I have.
11. Bad- Raman’s work is bad, Harry’s is __________________, but Godwin’s is the________________.
12. Ferocious- There is no animal ______________________than the Tiger.
13. Bad- He is _________________boy of the two.
14. Bad- The trade is in a ___________________condition today than it was a year ago.
15. Tall- He is the _______________of the two.
16. Dry- Sind is the_______________part of Pakistan.
17. Useful- Iron is _______________________than any other metal.
18. Useful- Iron is the _________________________of all metals.
19. Great- Who is the_________________________living poet?
20. Nutritious- I think he requires a __________________diet.
21. Proud- It was the ______________________moment of his life.
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22. Good- The public is the______________________judge.
23. Little- That is the_______________________price I can take.
24. Light- Silver is ______________________than gold.
25. Valuable- Gold is the __________________________mineral in the world.
SUPPLY APPROPRIATE COMPARATIVES OR SUPERLATIVES TO EACH OF THE FOLLOWING:
1. Prevention is _________________________than cure.
2. Akbar had__________________region than Babar
3. Joseph is the ________________________batsman in the world.
4. The pen is ________________________than the sword.
5. The ______________________________buildings are found in America.
6. The Pacific is ______________________than any other ocean.
7. Which of the two girls has the ______________________dress?
8. Honor is _____________________to him than life.
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9. This pencil is ___________________________than the other.
10. Who is the ________________________________boy in the class?
11. The Eiffel Tower is ___________________________than Qutab Minar.
12. My uncle is _______________________________than my father.
13. The multi-millionaire Mr. John is the _________________________in the town.
14. Wordsworth is a _________________________poet than Cowper.
15. Jean is the ________________________________bowler in the eleven.
16. The streets of Mumbai are __________________________than those of Ahmedabad.
17. Jack is _____________________________than Jackrine.
18. The piano was knocked down to the ____________________bidder.
19. Mount Everest is the ________________________peak of the Himalayas.
20. He writes a ______________________hand than his brother.
21. He writes the ______________________hand in his class.
22. He is one of the____________________speakers in Punjab.
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23. Who was the _________________________________general, Alexander or Caesar?
24. The Arabian Nights is perhaps the ______________________story-book.
25. Shakespeare is ______________________________than any other English poet.
26. Of all countries, China has the________________________population in the world.
27. Clouds float in the sky because they are__________________________than the air.
28. There are two ways of doing the sum, but this one is the_________________________.
29. It is good to be clever, but it is _________________________to be industrious.
30. This is the_______________________of my two sons.
INTERCHANGE OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON:
As the following examples show, it is possible to change the Degree of Comparison of an Adjective in a
sentence, without changing the meaning of the sentence:
Superlative -Lead is the heaviest of all metals.
Comparative -Lead is heavier than all other metals.
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Comparative -Johannesburg is cooler than Mpumalanga in South Africa.
Positive -Mpumalanga is not as cool as Johannesburg in South Africa.
Positive -He is as wise as Solomon.
Comparative -Solomon was not wiser than he is.
Superlative -Shakuntala is better than any other drama in Shakuntala.
Comparative -Shakuntala is better than any other drama in Sanskrit.
Positive -No other drama in Sanskrit is as good as Shakuntala.
Superlative - Chennai is one of the biggest of the Indian cities.
Positive -Chennai is bigger than most other Indian cities.
Positive -Very few Indian cities are as big as Chennai.
Positive -Some poets are at least as great as Tennyson.
Comparative -Tennyson is not greater than some other poets.
-Some poets are not less great than Tennyson.
Superlative -Tennyson is not the greatest of all poets.
Change the Degree of Comparison, without changing the meaning:
1. Malacca is the oldest town in Malaysia.
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2. Soya beans are at least as nutritious as meat.
3. No other planet is as big as Jupiter.
4. Very few boys are as industrious as Latif.
5. He would sooner die than tell a lie.
6. Samudra Gupta was one of the greatest of Indian Kings.
7. Shakespeare is greater than any other English poet.
8. India is the largest democracy in the world.
9. The tiger is the most ferocious of all animals.
10. Australia is the largest island in the world.
11. Lead is heavier than any other metal.
12. Some people have more money than brains.
13. A wise enemy is better than a foolish friend.
14. The Marwaries are not less enterprising than any other community in India.
15. I know him quite as well as you do.
16. You do not know him better than I do.
17. No other man was as strong as Samson of the Judges of Israel.
18. Some boys are at least as industrious as Suresh.
19. Mount Everest is the highest peak of the Himalayas.
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20. Very few animals are as useful as the cow.
21. America is the richest country in the world.
22. It is easier to preach than to practice.
23. Iron is more useful than all other metals.
24. Open rebuke is better than secret love.
25. The Sears Tower is the tallest building in the world.
26. Sir Surendranath was at least as great an orator as any other Indian.
27. White Sands is as healthy as any resort in Tanzania.
28. The pen is mightier than the sword.
MODULE II: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION II:
ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS:
Adjectives are often used as Nouns:
1. SOME ADJECTIVES ACTUALLY BECOME NOUNS, AND ARE HENCE USED IN BOTH NUMBERS:
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(a) THOSE DERIVED FROM PROPER NOUNS; AUSTRALIANS, CANADIANS, ITALIANS.
(b) SOME DENOTING PERSONS; AS, JUNIORS, SENIORS, MORTALS, INFERIORS, SUPERIORS, NOBLES,
CRIMINALS, SAVAGES, ELDERS, MINORS.
(c) A few denoting things generally; as, secrets, totals, liquids, solids, valuables. [Some
Adjectives are used as Nouns only in the plural; as, valuables, eatables.]
2. In certain phrases; as,
In general; in future; in short; in secret; before long; at present; for good; at best; through thick and thin; for
better or for worse; in black and white; right or wrong; from bad to worse; the long and short.
Examples: (a) In future I shall charge you for medical advice.
(b) In short, we know nothing.
(c) The negotiations were carried on in secret.
(d) I shall see you before long.
(e) Before long, he will be appointed to a higher post.
(f) At present, he is in pecuniary difficulties.
(g) I do not want any more at present.
(h) He has left India for good.
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(i) We can’t arrive before Saturday at best.
(j) It must be said to his credit that he stood by his friend through thick and thin.
(k) I must have your terms down in black and white.
(l) Right or wrong, my country is facing.
(m) I am afraid the young man is going from bad to worse.
(n) The long and short of it is that I distrust you.
NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES:
The use of Nouns as Adjectives is very common in English; as,
I met a little cottage girl.
He is always playing computer games.
POSITION OF ADJECTIVES:
An Adjective used attributively is generally placed IMMEDIATELY BEFORE THE NOUN; AS,
King Francis was a healthy king, and loved a royal sport.
Where are you going, my pretty maid, with your rosy cheeks and golden hair?
O Captain! My Captain! Our fearful trip is done.
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Observe the difference in meaning between:
A great nobleman’s son, and
A nobleman’s great son.
In poetry, however, the Adjective is frequently placed after the Noun; as,
Children dear, was it yesterday?
We heard the sweet bells over the bay.
O man with sisters dear!
When several Adjectives are attached to one Noun, they are sometimes placed after Adjective is placed after iTS
NOUN; AS,
He was a man fertile in resource.
A Sikh, taller than any of his comrades, rushed forward.
In certain phrases the Adjective always comes after the Noun; as,
Heir apparent, time immemorial, lord paramount, viceroy elect, letters patent, knights temporal, notary public,
body politic, God Almighty.
THE CORRECT USE OF SOME ADJECTIVES:
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Some, any-To express quantity or degree, “some” is used normally in affirmative sentences; “any” is used in
negative or interrogative sentences.
E.g. (i) I will buy some mangoes.
(ii) I will not buy any mangoes.
(iii)HAVE YOU BOUGHT ANY MANGOES?
BUT “ANY” CAN BE USED AFTER “IF” IN AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES.
E.G. IF YOU NEED ANY MONEY I WILL HELP YOU.
“SOME” IS USED IN QUESTIONS WHICH ARE REALLY OFFERS/REQUESTS OR WHICH EXPECT THE ANSWER “YES”.
E.g. (i) Will you have some ice-cream? (Offer)
(ii) Could you lend me some money? (Request)
(iv) Did you buy some clothes? (I expect you did.)
Each, every-“Each” and “every” are similar in meaning, but every is a stronger word than each; it means, ”each
without exception”. “Each” is used in speaking of two or more things; “every” is used only in speaking of more
than two. “Each” directs attention to the individuals forming any group, “every” TO THE TOTAL GROUP. “EACH” IS
USED ONLY WHEN THE NUMBER IN THE GROUP IS LIMITED AND DEFINITE; “EVERY” WHEN THE NUMBER IS INDEFINITE.
E.g. (i) Every seat was taken.
(ii) Five boys were seated on each bench.
(iii) Each one of these chairs is broken.
(iv) Leap year falls in every fourth year.
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(v) He came to see us every three days [i.e. once in every period of three days]
(vi) It rained every day during my holidays.
(vii) I was away ten days and it rained each day.
Little, a little, the little- Note carefully the use of-
little, (2) a little, (3) the little.
Little means not much (i.e. hardly any). Thus, the Adjective “little has a negative meaning.
E.g. (i) There is little hope of his recovery, i.e. he is not likely to recover.
(II) HE SHOWED LITTLE CONCERN FOR HIS NEPHEW.
(iv) HE HAS LITTLE INFLUENCE WITH HIS OLD FOLLOWERS.
(v) HE SHOWED LITTLE MERCY TO THE VANQUISHED.
(vi) He has little appreciation of good poetry.
A little means some though not much. “A little” has a positive meaning.
E.g. (i) There is a little hope of his recovery, i.e. he may possibly recover.
(ii) A little fact would have saved the situation.
Insert “a little, or “the little” whichever is suitable:
1. _______________________GRAIN THEY HAD WAS DAMAGED BY SEA WATER.
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2. ______________________PRECAUTION IS NECESSARY IN HANDLING THAT MACHINE.
3. _____________________CARE COULD HAVE PREVENTED THE CATASTROPHE.
4. _______________________INFLUENCE THAT HE HAS, HE USES TO THE BEST ADVANTAGE.
5. ____________________KNOWLEDGE OF FRENCH THAT HE HAS IS LIKELY TO BE VERY USEFUL TO HIM ON THE
CONTINENT.
Few, a few, the few-Note carefully the use of the following:
(1) Few (2) a few (3) the few
Few means not many, hardly any, “Few” has a negative meaning.
E.g. (i) Few persons can keep a secret.
(ii) Few people are as hopeless as drunkards.
(iii) Few towns in India have public libraries.
(iv) Few works of reference are as valuable AS THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA.
(v) Few men are free from faults.
(vi) Few men reach the age of one hundred years.
(vii) Few Parsees write Gujarati correctly.
A few means some. “A few” has a positive meaning, and is opposed to “none”.
E.g. (i) A few words spoken in earnest will convince him.
(ii) A few Parsees write Gujarati correctly.
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THE FEW MEANS NOT MANY, BUT ALL THERE ARE.
The few remarks that he made were very suggestive. (THE SENTENCE MEANS-THE REMARKS THAT HE MADE WERE
NOT MANY; BUT ALL THOSE REMARKS WERE VERY SUGGESTIVE.]
E.g. (i) The few friends he has are all very poor.
(ii) The few clothes they had were all tattered and torn.
EXERCISE IN COMPOSITION II:
Insert “a few” or “the few” whichever is suitable:
1._________________public libraries that we have are not well equipped.
2.________________days that are left to him he spends in solitude and meditation.
3. Many Hindus study Sanskrit, but only __________Parsees study Avesta.
4. ________________days’ rest is all that is needed.
5. Have you got ____________potatoes left?
6. It is a question of spending _____________rupees.
7. ________________hints on essay-writing are quite to the point.
8. _______________months that he spent in Dakar did him a lot of good.
9. When I met him _________________years after, he looked old and haggard.
10. ___________________short poems in the volume show signs of genius.
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11. In _________________words he expressed his gratitude to his friends.
12. _________________Americans have their offices in Kolkata.
13. _________________trinkets she has are not worth much.
14. ___________________poems he has written are all of great excellence.
ARTICLES:
“A”, “AN” AND “THE” ARE CALLED “ARTICLES”. THEY ARE ADJECTIVES. IT WILL NOT BE WRONG TO CALL THEM
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES.
“A” AND “AN” ARE CALLED “INDEFINITE ARTICLES” WHEREAS “THE” IS CALLED “DEFINITE ARTICLE”. AS IT HAS BEEN
STATED A OR AN ARE CALLED “INDEFINITE ARTICLES” BECAUSE EITHER OF THEM DOES NOT POINT OR INDICATE ANY
PARTICULAR OR DEFINITE PERSON, PLACE OR THING AND “THE” IS CALLED THE “DEFINITE ARTICLE” BECAUSE IT POINTS TO
SOME DEFINITE PERSON OR THING.
USES OF “A”:
(1)“A” is used with Common Noun in singular number. It should have at the beginning, the sound of a
consonant even if the word is begun with a vowel; as, a rat, a bell, a dog, a house, a car, a school, etc.
(2) “A” is used before a noun in singular number beginning with “u” which gives the sound of a
University, a European, a uniform, a utensil, a useful object.
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(3) “A” is also used with nouns which are singular in number beginning with “O” WHEN “O” GIVES THE
SOUND. E.G. HE WAS A ONE-EYED MAN.
USES OF “AN”:
(1.) “An” is used before a Singular Noun beginning with a vowel sound, an orange, an
elephant, an engine, an umbrella, an inkpot, e.t.c.
(2) “An” is also used before abbreviation if spoken with the sound of vowel as,
(i) His father is an M.P.
(ii) She is an M.A.
To make matter crystal clear if the abbreviation is started with one of the following letters, “AN” WILL BE U
ARTS.
(3) “An” is also used before a word beginning with “h” and the accent is not on the first
syllable and is pronounced with a vowel sound. E.g. An hour, an historical place, an honest
man, an heir, an honorable person, but a house, a horse, e.t.c.
USES OF “THE”:
The Definite Article “The” is used before the following:
1. Before the names of holy books; as, The Bible; the Quran.
2. Before the names of rivers. E.g. the Nile; the Zambezi; the Mississippi Missouri; the Shire; e.t.c.
3. Before the names of group of islands; as, The Seychelles; the West Indies; (NOTE: FOR A SINGLE
ISLAND, THE IS NOT USED BEFORE IT AS WE WILL NOT SAY THE SRI LANKA).
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4. Before the names of mountain ranges; as, The Himalayas; the Alps. (Remember “The” is not used
before individual mountains as the Mount Kilimanjaro.
5. Before the newspapers, e.t.c.; such as: The Guardian; the Nation; the Daily Times; the Citizen; tHE
NEW VISION; E.T.C.
6. BEFORE THE NAMES OF BAYS/GULFS; AS, THE BAY OF BENGAL; THE PERSIAN GULF.
7. BEFORE THE NAMES OF CANALS; AS, THE PANAMA CANAL; THE SUEZ CANAL.
8. BEFORE THE NAMES OF OCEANS; SUCH AS: THE PACIFIC OCEAN; THE INDIAN OCEAN; THE ATLANTIC
OCEAN.
9. BEFORE THE DIRECTIONS; AS, THE SOUTH; THE NORTH; THE EAST; THE WEST.
10. Before the heavenly bodies as; the sun; the moon; the Milky Way; the galaxy.
11. Before the names of historical buildings; as, The Tower of London; the Tower of Babel.
12. Before the followers of religion; such as, The Hindu; the Sikhs; the Jews; the Christians.
13. Before names places in abbreviations; as, The U.S.A.; the U.N.O.; the UK; e.t.c.
14. Before important ranks; such as, The President; the Prime Minister; the King; the Queen; e.t.c.
15. Before Adjectives to show nationality; as, The English (means the people of England); the
Sudanese; e.t.c.
16. Before the shreds of time; as, the morning; the evening; the afternoon.
17. Before a Singular NOUN TO DENOTE THE WHOLE CLASS AS: THE DOG IS A FAITHFUL ANIMAL; THE LION IS
A WILD BEAST.
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18. In a continued context; aS: THERE WAS A SAILOR. THE SAILOR WAS VERY ACTIVE.
19. To mark emphasis; as: He is the boy who has stolen my pen.
20. Before Adjectives used as Nouns; such as: I love the poor. Extend full cooperation to the blind.
21. Before ordinal; such as: the first, the second, the third; He is the first man to reach the moon.
22. To make Common Noun as an Abstract Noun; such as: The judge in him was aroused and he
unhesitatingly punished his own son.
BeforE THE ADVERBS IN COMPARISON; AS: THE HIGHER YOU GO, THE COOLER YOU FIND. THE SOONER YOU GO, THE BETTER
IT IS.
23. Before musical instruments; as: I do know how to play the flute.
24. Before the superlatives; as: He is the most handsome boy in the village. Mount Kilimanjaro is the
highest mountain in Africa.
25. Before the specific places which are already in existence; such as: The Hague (Headquarter of
International Court of Justice); The Netherlands; The North Cape; The motherland; The Sudan
(Name of a country)
26. Before some Collective Nouns; as: The jury; the bar; the police; the army; the committee; the
branch of flowers; the swarm of bees; the centurion; e.t.c.
27. Before the word “same” and after the words “all” and “both”; as: This is the same thing which I
wanted. All the boys were prepared to go to the picnic.
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28. We also say: Cloth is sold by the meter. Milk is sold by the liter. I caught him by the neck. My
watch is correct to the second.
WHEN “THE” IS NOT USED:
1. “The” is not used before God. But we use “THE” WHEN WE NAME THE GOD OF THE PEOPLE OF
SOMEONE. E.G. THE GOD OF ABRAHAM; THE GOD OF MOSES; THE GOD OF ISAAC; THE GOD OF DANIEL;
THE GOD OF ISRAEL; E.T.C.
2. “THE” IS NOT USED BEFORE “MAN” WHEN IT IS USED IN THE WISE SENSE. BUT WHEN “MAN” IS
PARTICULARIZED “THE” IS USED, AS: THE MAN IS MORTAL. (IT IS AN INCORRECT SENTENCE). THIS IS THE
MAN WHO SAVED THE LIFE OF MY SON.
3. “The” is not used before an Abstract Noun, as: The honesty is the best policy. (It is an incorrect
sentence). But it will be correct to say: The honest shown by Dolly was highly praiseworthy.
4. “The” is not used before Proper Nouns; as: Dar is the most populous city of Tanzania.
Albert Einstein was a great scientist.
5. “The” is not used before names of metals/materials; as: Gold is a precious metal.
Cotton is produced in Egypt. But when metal/material is particularized, “the” is used; as:
The gold of South Africa is exported to many countries.
6. “The” is not used before lunch, breakfast, dinner, supper, HEAVEN, HELL, PARLIAMENT; AS:
I have taken my lunch. I had my dinner with her yesterday. But when any of these is
particularized, “the” is used; as: The lunch taken in Serena Hotel was very delicious.
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7. “The” is not used before the times of the year, seasons, days of the week, but it will be correct to
Say, “I cannot forget the day of the 20th
JUNE WHEN I GOT MARRIED”.
8.“THE” IS NOT USED BEFORE THE NAMES OF LANGUAGES; AS: ENGLISH IS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE. IT IS VERY
DIFFICULT TO LEARN FRENCH.
9. “THE” IS NOT USED BEFORE THE NAMES OF DISEASES (IF THE NAMES ARE SPELT IN SINGULAR FORM),
BRANCHES OF
SCIENCE, SPORTS; AS: I LIKE PLAYING HOCKEY. CRICKET IS THE NATIONAL GAME OF AUSTRALIA. SHE
PREFERS
studying Biology to Chemistry.
10. “The” is not used before names OF RELATIONS AS FATHER, MOTHER, UNCLE, E.T.C.; AS: I LOVE MY
FATHER.
But it will correct to say: The Minister of the Church has preached very well today.
11. “The” is not used before school, hospital, college, church, market, bed, prison, e.t.c. when they are
used for their primary purposes; as: There are 26 LETTERS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE OUT OF THEM FIVE
(a, e, i, o, u) are called “Vowels” and the rest are called “Consonants”:
To make it MORE CLEAR, WHEN WE VISIT SCHOOL FOR STUDYING, CHURCH FOR PRAYING, HOSPITAL TO SEE
DOCTOR, COLLEGE FOR LEARNING, MARKET FOR PURCHASING OR SELLING GOODS, PRISON FOR SOME OFFENCE
AND AS A PUNISHMENT, THE ARTICLE “THE” IS NOT USED; AS:
• He went to school yesterday.
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• I went to hospital to get my daughter examined.
It will also be correct to say-
• I went to the hospital to see one of my relatives.
• I went to the college to meet the Principal. (Here hospital and college are not used for
their primary purposes hence “the” can be used).
12. “The” is not used before “home”. He has returned home.
13. “The” is not used before certain phrases consisting of Transitive Verb with its Object and
Prepositions with its object; as, to set sail; take to heart; at day break; to bring word; to catch fire;
through fire and water; by air; by sea; by name; in debt; by fair or foul means; on horse back; to
leave home; to set foot; TO TAKE ROOT; ON FOOT; IN JEST; BY DINT OF; BY WORD OF MOUTH; TO SHAKE;
HANDS TO LEAVE SCHOOL; TO TAKE OATH; TO FOLLOW SUIT; CALL TO MEND; TO LIVE FROM HAND TO
MOUTH; OUT OF PLACE; UNDERGROUND; AT INTEREST; ON EARTH; AT NOON; AT NIGHT.
EXERCISE NO. 1:
Fill in the blanks with the proper Articles in the following sentences:
1. I have __________________headache.
2. ______________Nile is ______________very famous river.
3. He has come ________________hour before his appointment.
4. He is _________________union leader.
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5. _________________doctor advised him to eat _______apple everyday.
6. ____________Bible is _____________holy book of ___________Christians.
7. He has ________________automatic washing machine.
8. It is difficult to climb __________________Himalayas.
9. ___________________trekkers have climbed Mount Kilimanjaro.
10. _________________fool and his money are soon parted.
11. _____________________Europeans are not as fatalistic as ________________Africans.
12. She is ___________________best cook in town.
13. No man is ______________________island.
14. _____________cow is _____________domestic animal, but ___________lion is _________wild
animal.
15. ___________________Congo is __________big river of Central Africa.
16. _________________honest man always succeeds in life.
17. She is paid fifty thousand shillings _____________month.
18. His father resigned as _______________Judge of _________High Court and started practice as
___________private lawyer.
19. ______________hen laid _____________egg.
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EXERCISE NO. II:
Rewrite the sentences below and insert proper Articles wherever necessary:
1. He has big farm which is hour’s drive from
village.____________________________________________________________________________.
2. I have headache.________________________________________________________.
3. Always speak truth and act as honest
man._____________________________________________________________________________.
4. Draw map of Tanzania.______________________________________________________.
5. Rice is grown in South.______________________________________________________.
6. African elephant has big ears.__________________________________________________________.
7. Will you like to become rich man?__________________________________________________________.
8. Hour or two after breakfast we shall go to
office.___________________________________________________________________________.
9. He gave account of his visit to
hills._____________________________________________________________________.
10. United States of America is developed
country._________________________________________________________________________.
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EXERCISE NO. III:
Correct the following sentences. i.e. Insert Articles where needed and delete Articles
where are not needed:
1. Are you in hurry?__________________________________________________________________.
2. A apple an day keeps doctors
away.______________________________________________________________________________.
3. Tony Blair is ex-Prime Minister of United
Kingdom._________________________________________________________________________.
4. You have a too high opinion about
yourself._____________________________________________________________________________.
5. She is a cleverest girl in class._____________________________________________________________.
6. The English is a easy language, but French is
not.____________________________________________________________________________________
.
7. East Germans and West Germans were separated by Berlin Wall.
_______________________________________________________________________________________.
8. He is friend of a poor.___________________________________________________________________.
9. Who is a tallest class?___________________________________________________________________?
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10. Sun sets in West._______________________________________________________________________.
11. Whole of country rejoiced when CGOGM was held in Tanzania.
_________________________________________________________________________________.
12. He has sister who goes to University.
________________________________________________________________________________.
13. A uncle of mine gave me
watch._______________________________________________________________________________.
14. Weather report forecasts rain in
evening.______________________________________________________________________________.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS:
We may say-
Jack is absent, because Jack is ill. But is better to avoid repetition of the Noun Jack, and say-
Jack is absent, because he is ill. A word that is thus used instead of a Noun is called a PRONOUN. [PRONOUN MEANS
FOR A NOUN].
DEF.- A PRONOUN IS A WORD USED INSTEAD OF A NOUN.
READ THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:
I am young. We are young.
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You are young. You are young.
He (she, it ) is young. They are young.
[I, We, You, He, She, It, They] are called Personal Pronouns BECAUSE THEY STAND FOR THE THREE PERSONS:
(I) THE PERSON SPEAKING;
(II) THE PERSON SPOKEN TO, AND
(III)THE PERSON SPOKEN OF.
THE PRONOUNS “I” AND “WE”, WHICH DENOTE THE PERSON OR PERSONS SPEAKING, ARE SAID TO BE PERSONAL PRONOUNS
OF THE FIRST PERSON. THE PRONOUN “YOU,” WHICH DENOTES THE PERSON OR PERSONS SPOKEN TO, IS SAID TO BE A
PERSONAL PRONOUN OF THE SECOND PERSON. “YOU” IS USED BOTH IN THE SINGULAR AND PLURAL. THE PRONOUNS “HE,
SHE, IT AND THEY”, WHICH DENOTE THE PERSON OR PERSONS SPOKEN OF, ARE SAID TO BE PERSONAL PRONOUNS OF THE
THIRD PERSON. “IT,” ALTHOUGH IT DENOTES THE THING SPOKEN OF, IS CALLED A PERSONAL PRONOUN OF THE THIRD
PERSON. [THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON ARE, STRICTLY SPEAKING, DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.]
FORMS OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS:
The following are the different forms of the PERSONAL PRONOUNS:-
FIRST PERSON (MASCULINE OR FEMININE)
SINGULAR PLURAL
Nominative I We
Possessive my, mine our, ours
Accusative me us
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SECOND PERSON (Masculine or Feminine)
SINGULAR/PLURAL
Nominative You
Possessive your, yours
Accusative you
THIRD PERSON
SINGULAR PLURAL
Nominative he, him them
Possessive he, she, it, [HIS, HER, ITS] THEIRS
Note 1- It will be seen that Possessive Cases of most of the Personal Pronouns have two forms. Of these, the
forms my, our, your, and her, they are called Possessive Adjectives BECAUSE THEY ARE USED WITH NOUNS AND DO THE
WORK OF ADJECTIVES; AS:
THIS IS MY BOOK. THOSE ARE MY BOOKS.
THAT IS HER BOOK.
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES ARE SOMETIMES CALLED PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, AS THEY ARE FORMED FROM PRONOUNS.
Note 2- The word “his” is used as an Adjective and as a Pronoun; as:
This is his BOOK. (POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE)
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THIS BOOK IS HIS. (POSSESSIVE PRONOUN)
In the following sentences, the words in bold are Possessive Pronouns:
This book is MINE.
Those books are YOURS.
That book is HERS.
That idea of yours IS EXCELLENT.
THE PRONOUN OF THE THIRD PERSON HAS THREE GENDERS:
MASCULINE : HE
FEMININE : SHE
NEUTER : IT
It- The Pronoun “it” IS USED-
(1) FOR THINGS WITHOUT LIFE; AS,
HERE IS YOUR BOOK; TAKE IT AWAY.
(2) For animals, unless we clearly wish to speak of them as male and female; as,
He loves his dog and cannot do without it.
The horse fell and broke its leg.
(3) For a young child, unless we clearly wish to refer to the sex; as,
When I saw the child it was crying.
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The baby was has torn its clothes.
(4) To refer to some statement going before; as,
He is telling what is not true; as he knows it.
He deserved his punishment; as he knew it.
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