Adherents to the process approach have altered and elaborated on fayol

Adherents to the process approach have altered and elaborated on Fayol's original functions, usually
in an attempt to incorporate behaviorist philosophies. Management theorists commonly recognize
five management functions: planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling. The five process
management functions are linked together by communication and decision-making activities
common to all of them.

PLANNING.

Planning is the development of specific strategies designed to achieve organizational goals. Forward-
looking managers use planning to develop strategies, policies, and methods for achieving company
objectives. Moreover, managers who rely on planning can anticipate problems before they even
arise and therefore can implement solutions quickly. In addition, planning serves as the foundation
for the other management functions—organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling—by providing
direction for a company; and increases a company's potential for success in accomplishing its goals.

Planning occurs at all three management levels: top, middle, and line. As indicated earlier, top
managers are charged with making long-term plans that define the mission and policies of the
organization while lower level managers implement them. In the planning process, top-level
managers concentrate on the questions of what and how much. Middle managers implement
mission and policy objectives, usually by focusing on the where and when. Finally, line managers
effect the specific plans of the middle managers by addressing the pressing questions of who and
how.

For example, top executives at a nail factory may decide that the company should become the most
productive, highest-quality, largest-volume producer in the world. Middle managers in the
production division may decide that accomplishment of this goal requires that over the next 12
months they cut costs by 20 percent, decrease flaws to. 01 percent, and increase capacity 40
percent. Likewise, managers in the marketing department may decide that they need to increase
sales by 80 percent during the next year. Finally, line managers would have to figure out how to
achieve those goals and who would do the actual work. They might increase bonuses for salespeople
who boosted volume, for instance, or lower profit margins (and prices) to increase sales. Or,
production line managers might implement a new quality management program and increase
investments in cost-saving automation.

Another way of viewing the planning process in an organization is by categorizing planning activities
as strategic (top management), tactical (middle), or operational (bottom). The overall process
usually entails at least six steps: setting goals, analyzing the external and internal environment to
identify problems and opportunities, identifying and evaluating alternatives, choosing a plan,

implementing the program, and controlling and judging the results of the implementation. Different
stages of the process should ideally overlap management hierarchies, thus fostering organizational
unity and informed planning.

In addition to the stages of the planning process and hierarchical responsibilities, most planning
activities and responsibilities can be categorized, according to Corporate Planning: An Executive
Viewpoint, into one of four planning roles: (1) resource allocation, (2) environmental adaptation, (3)
internal coordination, (4) and organizational strategic awareness. Resource allocation entails
decisions related to the distribution of funds, expertise, labor, and equipment. For instance, a chief
executive officer (CEO) might decide to not pay shareholder dividends as a way to increase funds for
new product development. Or, a production line manager may elect to shift laborers from one
product line to another to better match fluctuating output requirements.

Environmental adaptation planning activities are those that serve to improve the company's
relationship to its external environment, including such influences as governments, suppliers,
customers, and public opinion. These activities address problems and opportunities that arise from
such external factors. For example, gas station company managers that choose to attach point-of-
sale (credit card) machines to their pumps are reacting to a public demand for convenience.
Similarly, a CEO of a coal mining company might have to plan to reduce toxic emissions in an effort
to satisfy government regulators or to appease public sentiment.

Internal coordination planning activities are those that respond to internal influences. They
coordinate internal strengths and weaknesses in an effort to maximize profitability (in the case of
for-profit companies). Finally, planning activities categorized as organizational strategic awareness
strategies create systematic management development systems that allow an organization to
evaluate the effects of past plans.

In order to be effective, plans and goals developed and executed at any level will generally exhibit
basic characteristics. The plans should be specific and measurable, for example, meaning that they
will have definite goals that can be measured against definite results. Plans should also be time-
oriented, or should be devised with deadlines for accomplishing parts of the entire goal and a final
deadline for completion. Plans should also be attainable. Insufficient resources or impossible goals
can thwart motivation and result in underperformance. Finally, plans should be mutually supportive,
meaning that plans made in or for one part of an organization should complement other plans and
objectives.

ORGANIZING.

Organizing is the second major managerial function. It is the process of structuring a company's
resources—its personnel and materials—in a way that will allow it to achieve its objectives.
Specifically, organizing entails a fundamental three-step process: developing tasks, labor units, and
positions. First of all, managers must determine the exact actions that have to be taken to
implement plans and achieve objectives. Second, they must divide personnel into teams with areas
of responsibility. Third, managers must delegate authority and responsibility to individuals and
establish decision-making relationships. Once management accomplishes the first step, it can take a
number of different routes to organize teams and delegate authority. Most organizations are
arranged by either function or division.

The most common approach to organizing teams and delegating authority in organizations is by
function. Under the functional approach, activities are broken down into primary business functions,
such as finance, operations, and marketing. Within each major functional group are numerous
subfunctions. In the marketing division, for example, might be the sales and promotions
departments. The functional approach results in a comparatively efficient division of labor and an
authority hierarchy that is easy for workers to understand. It may lead, however, to internal rivalries
between departments or myopia because different divisions are not aware of the goals and actions
of other parts of the company.

In addition to functions, many companies are organized by division. There are several different
divisional approaches to structuring teams and delegating power to managers. For example, some
companies take a product line approach, whereby the company is broken down into different
product or service groups. For instance, an appliance producer may break its organization down into
dishwashers, clothes washers and dryers, and vacuum cleaners. Other companies might use a
customer approach—industrial products, consumer products, government products, etc. The
advantage of both approaches is that they allow managers and the entire company to be focused on
the product or customer rather than on support functions, such as marketing. This organizational
approach may result, however, in an inefficient division of labor (i.e., overlap) because each group is
forced to supply their own support functions.

Another common means of organizing a company by divisions is the geographic approach, whereby
activities or groups are divided by region. For instance, a multinational bank may have three major
divisions: North America, Asia, and Europe. Those divisions, then, might be divided into sub-regions,
such as northeast, south, and west. The geographic approach is often used by companies that
specialize in marketing, finance, or some other major business function and operate in a number of
different geographic areas. It allows flexibility in relation to different laws, exchange rates, and
cultures, and fosters a responsiveness to local markets not attainable under other divisional
approaches. The chief drawback of geographic organizations is that they can be relatively expensive
to maintain.

A less conventional and increasingly popular approach to structuring organizations is known as the
matrix system. In essence, a matrix system creates both functional and divisional groups to form
multidisciplinary, integrated teams that combine staff and line authority. The main advantage of the
matrix is that it reduces myopia in an organization, fosters cooperation, and promotes a free flow of
information. But the matrix approach may also create an ambiguous power structure and may have
limitations for many types of companies.

In addition to the basic structure, management authority and responsibility will also be dictated by
the level of centralization in a company. In general, companies with more centralized management
will be figuratively tall, meaning that power flows down through a chain of command. Decisions are
made by a few people and handed down to the masses. In contrast, decentralized, or flat,
organizations push management authority down. In flat organizations, many managers (and
subordinates) are empowered to independently make decisions within their area of expertise in the
company. Because of the trend toward flatter organizations during the 1980s and 1990s, traditional
middle levels of management have become obsolete in many companies. Effectively, all workers
become managers to some degree in the flattest organizations.

STAFFING.

Staffing, the third major organizational function, encompasses activities related to finding and
sustaining a labor force that is adequate to meet the organization's objectives. First, managers have
to determine exactly what their labor needs are and then go into the labor force to try and recruit
those skills and characteristics. Second, managers must train workers. Third, they have to devise a
method of compensating and evaluating performance that complements objectives. This includes
designing pay and benefits packages, conducting performance appraisals , and promoting
employees. Finally, managers usually must devise a system of firing ineffective employees or
reducing the workforce . In addition, management duties related to staffing often entail working
with organized labor unions and meeting federal and state regulations.

LEADING.

Leading, or motivating, is the fourth basic managerial function identified by the process approach to
management. It is defined as the act of guiding and influencing other people to achieve goals.
Leading involves leadership, communication, and motivation skills. In addition, the leadership role
for most managers entails four primary duties: educating, evaluating, counseling, and representing.
Educating includes teaching skills and showing workers how to function within the company and
how to perform their assigned tasks. They do so through both formal and informal means. Examples

of informal education are attitudes, work habits, and other behavior that sets an example for
subordinates to follow.

Evaluating activities that are part of a manager's leadership responsibilities include settling disputes,
creating and enforcing standards and policies, evaluating output, and dispensing rewards. In fact,
much of the respect and esteem that a manager gets from subordinates is contingent upon the
ability to evaluate effectively.

A manager's ability to counsel will also impact his or her effectiveness. Counseling involves giving
advice, helping workers solve problems, soliciting feedback from subordinates, and listening to
voluntary input or employee problems. Finally, managers lead through representation by voicing the
concerns and suggestions of their subordinates to higher authorities. In other words, managers must
show a willingness to back their workers and represent their needs and goals.

Numerous theories have been posited to explain the leadership function and to describe the traits of
successful leaders. For example, John P. Kotter, author of The Leadership Factor, identified six traits
considered necessary for managers in large organizations to be effective leaders: (1) motivation, (2)
personal values, (3) ability, (4) reputation and track record, (5) relationships in the firm and industry,
and (6) industry and organizational knowledge. Contrary to traditional beliefs about leadership,
which hold that leadership ability is innate, these trait groups are acquired through combinations of
early childhood experiences, education, and career experiences.

In addition to developing leadership traits, effective managers must adopt a style of leadership that
complements their position, personality, and environment. In general, managers practice some
combination of four recognized leadership styles: directive, political, participative, and charismatic.
The directive leadership style emphasizes the use of facts, sound strategy, and assertiveness. This
type of manager focuses on gathering information, establishing objectives through a careful
assessment of data, devising strategies to accomplish goals, and then directing subordinates and
coworkers to achieve those ends. Managers who subscribe to a directive leadership style are less
concerned about building a consensus for their vision than they are about motivating others to
achieve it. They are more likely to confront resistance to their goals and to have less patience in
pursuing objectives than other types of leaders.

In contrast, managers who embrace a political leadership style believe that their ability to lead
requires the power to manipulate forces within the entity toward common objectives. Importantly,
they assume that the company is a political arena fraught with deception, in-fighting, and selfish
goals. Therefore, they often must push, bargain, and manipulate to advance the interests of their
departments and themselves. Although such leaders may be well-intentioned, honest, and acting in

the best interests of the company, they may be willing to deceive others and act selfishly in order to
achieve a desired result. Common tactics include keeping goals flexible or vague, advancing their
agendas patiently, and manipulating channels of influence and authority.

The participative, or values-driven, style of leadership emphasizes joint decision making,
decentralization, the sharing of power, and democratic management. Managers who are
participative leaders assume that their subordinates are highly motivated by work that challenges
them, builds skills, and is accomplished with teams of people that they respect. Thus, unlike directive
leadership, the participative style focuses on building a consensus during the decision-making
process. It also stresses bottom-up management—information and expertise is gleaned from
workers in lower levels of the organization and used to direct decisions and goals—and the
empowerment of subordinates to make decisions.

The fourth basic managerial style of leadership, charismatic leadership, differs from the other three
styles in that it is more suited to realizing radical visions or handling crises. It is less concerned with
influencing behavior toward the attainment of long-term goals or day-to-day management activities.
Charismatic leadership in business organizations is a style often used by entrepreneurs who are
starting new companies, or by transformational managers seeking to revitalize established
organizations.

CONTROLLING.

The fifth major managerial function, controlling, is comprised of activities that measure and evaluate
the outcome of planning, organizing, staffing, and leading efforts. Controlling is an essential part of
management because it helps managers determine the fruitfulness of the other functions (planning,
organizing, etc.); helps guides employee efforts towards company goals; and helps a company
distribute its resources efficiently and effectively. Controlling is typically viewed as an ongoing
management process that ensures that the organization is moving toward its goals. The process
includes establishing performance standards, evaluating ongoing activities, and correcting
performance that deviates from the standards.

Managers begin by establishing specific criteria outlining how they want a company's tasks
performed. Based on company objectives, managers determine the performance standards in order
for the company to attain its goals. Performance standards may take the form of qualitative and
quantitative criteria. Examples of performance standards are budgets, projections, pro forma
statements, and production, sales, or quality initiatives. Successful managers usually rely on a
feedback system to see how employees are responding to performance standards; this allows
managers to identify problems before they develop into crises.

During the second stage of the control process, evaluation, managers determine how closely their
subordinates' or department's performance matched up with preset standards. Of import is the
manager's acceptable range of deviation, or the degree to which actual performance can vary from
the standard before corrective action is necessary. In addition, managers must factor into the
performance comparison influences outside of the control of their unit. They must also devise a
means of communicating results to subordinates in a constructive manner.

If measured results deviate outside of an acceptable range, the manager must take corrective action.
Corrective action may mean simply readjusting the preset standards to reflect more realistic goals.
Or, the manager may have to analyze the process that lead to the deviation and then act to make
changes. For instance, if a production line fails to meet quality goals the manager may choose to
rearrange work teams or change the financial incentive system to emphasize quality. The manager
may also determine that the departmental budget needs to be revised to increase spending on
quality control.

To be effective, managers must design control systems that are based on meaningful and accepted
standards. If standards are too high, subordinates are likely to lose motivation or become frustrated.
Standards should also be based on the overall goals of the organization rather than on the narrow
objectives of one department or division. The control process should emphasize two-way
communication so that controls are understood by subordinates and managers are able to
effectively set standards and evaluate performance, taking into account the workers' perspective. In
addition, standards and controls should be flexible enough to accommodate emerging problems and
opportunities. Most importantly, controls should be used only when necessary so that they don't
unnecessarily obstruct creativity and drive.

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Adherents to the process approach have altered and elaborated on fayol