Algorithm analysis

CENG 213 Data Structures 1
Algorithm Analysis

Algorithm
• An algorithm is a set of instructions to be followed to
solve a problem.
– There can be more than one solution (more than one
algorithm) to solve a given problem.
– An algorithm can be implemented using different
programming languages on different platforms.
• An algorithm must be correct. It should correctly solve
the problem.
– e.g. For sorting, this means even if (1) the input is already
sorted, or (2) it contains repeated elements.
• Once we have a correct algorithm for a problem, we
have to determine the efficiency of that algorithm.

Algorithmic Performance
There are two aspects of algorithmic performance:
• Time
• Instructions take time.
• How fast does the algorithm perform?
• What affects its runtime?
• Space
• Data structures take space
• What kind of data structures can be used?
• How does choice of data structure affect the runtime?
 We will focus on time:
– How to estimate the time required for an algorithm
– How to reduce the time required

Analysis of Algorithms
• Analysis of Algorithms is the area of computer science that
provides tools to analyze the efficiency of different methods of
solutions.
• How do we compare the time efficiency of two algorithms that
solve the same problem?
Naïve Approach: implement these algorithms in a programming
language (C++), and run them to compare their time
requirements. Comparing the programs (instead of algorithms)
has difficulties.
– How are the algorithms coded?
• Comparing running times means comparing the implementations.
• We should not compare implementations, because they are sensitive to programming
style that may cloud the issue of which algorithm is inherently more efficient.
– What computer should we use?
• We should compare the efficiency of the algorithms independently of a particular
computer.
– What data should the program use?
• Any analysis must be independent of specific data.

Analysis of Algorithms
• When we analyze algorithms, we should employ
mathematical techniques that analyze algorithms
independently of specific implementations,
computers, or data.
• To analyze algorithms:
– First, we start to count the number of significant
operations in a particular solution to assess its
efficiency.
– Then, we will express the efficiency of algorithms
using growth functions.

The Execution Time of Algorithms
• Each operation in an algorithm (or a program) has a cost.
 Each operation takes a certain of time.
count = count + 1;  take a certain amount of time, but it is constant
A sequence of operations:
count = count + 1; Cost: c1
sum = sum + count; Cost: c2
 Total Cost = c1 + c2

The Execution Time of Algorithms (cont.)
Example: Simple If-Statement
Cost Times
if (n < 0) c1 1
absval = -n c2 1
else
absval = n; c3 1
Total Cost <= c1 + max(c2,c3)

Example: Simple Loop
Cost Times
i = 1; c1 1
sum = 0; c2 1
while (i <= n) { c3 n+1
i = i + 1; c4
n
sum = sum + i; c5 n
}
Total Cost = c1 + c2 + (n+1)*c3 + n*c4 + n*c5
 The time required for this algorithm is proportional to n

Example: Nested Loop
Cost Times
i=1; c1 1
sum = 0; c2 1
while (i <= n) { c3 n+1
j=1; c4 n
while (j <= n) { c5 n*(n+1)
sum = sum + i; c6 n*n
j = j + 1; c7 n*n
}
i = i +1; c8 n
}
Total Cost = c1 + c2 + (n+1)*c3 + n*c4 + n*(n+1)*c5+n*n*c6+n*n*c7+n*c8
 The time required for this algorithm is proportional to n2

General Rules for Estimation
• Loops: The running time of a loop is at most the running time
of the statements inside of that loop times the number of
iterations.
• Nested Loops: Running time of a nested loop containing a
statement in the inner most loop is the running time of
statement multiplied by the product of the sized of all loops.
• Consecutive Statements: Just add the running times of those
consecutive statements.
• If/Else: Never more than the running time of the test plus the
larger of running times of S1 and S2.

Algorithm Growth Rates
• We measure an algorithm’s time requirement as a function of the
problem size.
– Problem size depends on the application: e.g. number of elements in a list for a
sorting algorithm, the number disks for towers of hanoi.
• So, for instance, we say that (if the problem size is n)
– Algorithm A requires 5*n2
time units to solve a problem of size n.
– Algorithm B requires 7*n time units to solve a problem of size n.
• The most important thing to learn is how quickly the algorithm’s
time requirement grows as a function of the problem size.
– Algorithm A requires time proportional to n2
.
– Algorithm B requires time proportional to n.
• An algorithm’s proportional time requirement is known as
growth rate.
• We can compare the efficiency of two algorithms by comparing
their growth rates.

Algorithm Growth Rates (cont.)
Time requirements as a function
of the problem size n

Common Growth Rates
Function Growth Rate Name
c Constant
log N Logarithmic
log2
N Log-squared
N Linear
N log N
N2
Quadratic
N3
Cubic
2N
Exponential

Figure 6.1
Running times for small inputs

Figure 6.2
Running times for moderate inputs

Order-of-Magnitude Analysis and Big O
Notation
• If Algorithm A requires time proportional to f(n), Algorithm A is
said to be order f(n), and it is denoted as O(f(n)).
• The function f(n) is called the algorithm’s growth-rate function.
• Since the capital O is used in the notation, this notation is called
the Big O notation.
• If Algorithm A requires time proportional to n2
, it is O(n2
).
• If Algorithm A requires time proportional to n, it is O(n).

Definition of the Order of an Algorithm
Definition:
Algorithm A is order f(n) – denoted as O(f(n)) –
if constants k and n0 exist such that A requires
no more than k*f(n) time units to solve a problem
of size n ≥ n0.
• The requirement of n ≥ n0 in the definition of O(f(n)) formalizes
the notion of sufficiently large problems.
– In general, many values of k and n can satisfy this definition.

Order of an Algorithm
• If an algorithm requires n2
–3*n+10 seconds to solve a problem
size n. If constants k and n0 exist such that
k*n2
> n2
–3*n+10 for all n ≥ n0 .
the algorithm is order n2
(In fact, k is 3 and n0 is 2)
3*n2
> n2
–3*n+10 for all n ≥ 2 .
Thus, the algorithm requires no more than k*n2
time units for n ≥
n0 ,
So it is O(n2
)

Order of an Algorithm (cont.)

A Comparison of Growth-Rate Functions

A Comparison of Growth-Rate Functions (cont.)

Growth-Rate Functions
O(1) Time requirement is constant, and it is independent of the problem’s size.
O(log2n) Time requirement for a logarithmic algorithm increases increases slowly
as the problem size increases.
O(n) Time requirement for a linear algorithm increases directly with the size
of the problem.
O(n*log2n) Time requirement for a n*log2n algorithm increases more rapidly than
a linear algorithm.
O(n2
) Time requirement for a quadratic algorithm increases rapidly with the
size of the problem.
O(n3
) Time requirement for a cubic algorithm increases more rapidly with the
size of the problem than the time requirement for a quadratic algorithm.
O(2n
) As the size of the problem increases, the time requirement for an
exponential algorithm increases too rapidly to be practical.

Growth-Rate Functions
• If an algorithm takes 1 second to run with the problem size 8,
what is the time requirement (approximately) for that algorithm
with the problem size 16?
• If its order is:
O(1)  T(n) = 1 second
O(log2n)  T(n) = (1*log216) / log28 = 4/3 seconds
O(n)  T(n) = (1*16) / 8 = 2 seconds
O(n*log2n)  T(n) = (1*16*log216) / 8*log28 = 8/3 seconds
O(n2
)  T(n) = (1*162
) / 82
= 4 seconds
O(n3
)  T(n) = (1*163
) / 83
= 8 seconds
O(2n
)  T(n) = (1*216
) / 28
= 28
seconds = 256 seconds

Properties of Growth-Rate Functions
1. We can ignore low-order terms in an algorithm’s growth-rate
function.
– If an algorithm is O(n3
+4n2
+3n), it is also O(n3
).
– We only use the higher-order term as algorithm’s growth-rate function.
2. We can ignore a multiplicative constant in the higher-order term
of an algorithm’s growth-rate function.
– If an algorithm is O(5n3
), it is also O(n3
).
3. O(f(n)) + O(g(n)) = O(f(n)+g(n))
– We can combine growth-rate functions.
– If an algorithm is O(n3
) + O(4n), it is also O(n3
+4n2
)  So, it is O(n3
).
– Similar rules hold for multiplication.

Some Mathematical Facts
• Some mathematical equalities are:
22
)1(*
...21
2
1
nnn
ni
n
i
≈
+
=+++=∑=
36
)12(*)1(*
...41
3
1
22 nnnn
ni
n
i
≈
++
=+++=∑=
122...2102
1
0
1
−=++++=∑
−
=
−
n
i
nni

Growth-Rate Functions – Example1
Cost Times
i = 1; c1 1
sum = 0; c2 1
while (i <= n) { c3 n+1
i = i + 1; c4
n
sum = sum + i; c5 n
}
T(n) = c1 + c2 + (n+1)*c3 + n*c4 + n*c5
= (c3+c4+c5)*n + (c1+c2+c3)
= a*n + b
 So, the growth-rate function for this algorithm is O(n)

Cost Times
i=1; c1 1
sum = 0; c2 1
while (i <= n) { c3 n+1
j=1; c4 n
while (j <= n) { c5 n*(n+1)
sum = sum + i; c6 n*n
j = j + 1; c7 n*n
}
i = i +1; c8 n
}
T(n) = c1 + c2 + (n+1)*c3 + n*c4 + n*(n+1)*c5+n*n*c6+n*n*c7+n*c8
= (c5+c6+c7)*n2
+ (c3+c4+c5+c8)*n + (c1+c2+c3)
= a*n2
+ b*n + c
 So, the growth-rate function for this algorithm is O(n2
)

Cost Times
for (i=1; i<=n; i++) c1 n+1
for (j=1; j<=i; j++) c2
for (k=1; k<=j; k++) c3
x=x+1; c4
T(n) = c1*(n+1) + c2*( ) + c3* ( ) + c4*( )
= a*n3
+ b*n2
+ c*n + d
 So, the growth-rate function for this algorithm is O(n3
)
∑=
+
n
j
j
1
)1(
∑∑= =
+
n
j
j
k
k
1 1
)1(
∑∑= =
n
j
j
k
k
1 1
∑=
+
n
j
j
1
)1( ∑∑= =
+
n
j
j
k
k
1 1
)1( ∑∑= =
n
j
j
k
k
1 1

Growth-Rate Functions – Recursive Algorithms
void hanoi(int n, char source, char dest, char spare)
{ Cost
if (n > 0) { c1
hanoi(n-1, source, spare, dest); c2
cout << "Move top disk from pole " << source c3
<< " to pole " << dest << endl;
hanoi(n-1, spare, dest, source); c4
} }
• The time-complexity function T(n) of a recursive algorithm is
defined in terms of itself, and this is known as recurrence equation
for T(n).
• To find the growth-rate function for a recursive algorithm, we have
to solve its recurrence relation.

Growth-Rate Functions – Hanoi Towers
• What is the cost of hanoi(n,’A’,’B’,’C’)?
when n=0
T(0) = c1
when n>0
T(n) = c1 + c2 + T(n-1) + c3 + c4 + T(n-1)
= 2*T(n-1) + (c1+c2+c3+c4)
= 2*T(n-1) + c  recurrence equation for the growth-rate
function of hanoi-towers algorithm
• Now, we have to solve this recurrence equation to find the growth-rate
function of hanoi-towers algorithm

Growth-Rate Functions – Hanoi Towers (cont.)
• There are many methods to solve recurrence equations, but we will use a simple
method known as repeated substitutions.
T(n) = 2*T(n-1) + c
= 2 * (2*T(n-2)+c) + c
= 2 * (2* (2*T(n-3)+c) + c) + c
= 23
* T(n-3) + (22
+21
+20
)*c (assuming n>2)
when substitution repeated i-1th
times
= 2i
* T(n-i) + (2i-1
+ ... +21
+20
)*c
when i=n
= 2n
* T(0) + (2n-1
+ ... +21
+20
)*c
= 2n
* c1 + ( )*c
= 2n
* c1 + ( 2n
-1 )*c = 2n
*(c1+c) – c  So, the growth rate function is O(2n
)
∑
−
=
1
0
2
n
i
i

What to Analyze
• An algorithm can require different times to solve different
problems of the same size.
– Eg. Searching an item in a list of n elements using sequential search.  Cost:
1,2,...,n
• Worst-Case Analysis –The maximum amount of time that an
algorithm require to solve a problem of size n.
– This gives an upper bound for the time complexity of an algorithm.
– Normally, we try to find worst-case behavior of an algorithm.
• Best-Case Analysis –The minimum amount of time that an
– The best case behavior of an algorithm is NOT so useful.
• Average-Case Analysis –The average amount of time that an
– Sometimes, it is difficult to find the average-case behavior of an algorithm.
– We have to look at all possible data organizations of a given size n, and their
distribution probabilities of these organizations.
– Worst-case analysis is more common than average-case analysis.

What is Important?
• An array-based list retrieve operation is O(1), a linked-list-
based list retrieve operation is O(n).
• But insert and delete operations are much easier on a linked-list-
based list implementation.
 When selecting the implementation of an Abstract Data Type
(ADT), we have to consider how frequently particular ADT
operations occur in a given application.
• If the problem size is always small, we can probably ignore the
algorithm’s efficiency.
– In this case, we should choose the simplest algorithm.

What is Important? (cont.)
• We have to weigh the trade-offs between an algorithm’s time
requirement and its memory requirements.
• We have to compare algorithms for both style and efficiency.
– The analysis should focus on gross differences in efficiency and not reward coding
tricks that save small amount of time.
– That is, there is no need for coding tricks if the gain is not too much.
– Easily understandable program is also important.
• Order-of-magnitude analysis focuses on large problems.

Sequential Search
int sequentialSearch(const int a[], int item, int n){
for (int i = 0; i < n && a[i]!= item; i++);
if (i == n)
return –1;
return i;
}
Unsuccessful Search:  O(n)
Successful Search:
Best-Case: item is in the first location of the array O(1)
Worst-Case: item is in the last location of the array O(n)
Average-Case: The number of key comparisons 1, 2, ..., n
 O(n)
n
nn
n
i
n
i 2/)( 2
1 +
=
∑=

Binary Search
int binarySearch(int a[], int size, int x) {
int low =0;
int high = size –1;
int mid; // mid will be the index of
// target when it’s found.
while (low <= high) {
mid = (low + high)/2;
if (a[mid] < x)
low = mid + 1;
else if (a[mid] > x)
high = mid – 1;
else
return mid;
}
return –1;
}

Binary Search – Analysis
• For an unsuccessful search:
– The number of iterations in the loop is log2n + 1
 O(log2n)
• For a successful search:
– Best-Case: The number of iterations is 1.  O(1)
– Worst-Case: The number of iterations is log2n +1  O(log2n)
– Average-Case: The avg. # of iterations < log2n  O(log2n)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7  an array with size 8
3 2 3 1 3 2 3 4  # of iterations
The average # of iterations = 21/8 < log28

How much better is O(log2n)?
n O(log2n)
16 4
64 6
256 8
1024 (1KB) 10
16,384 14
131,072 17
262,144 18
524,288 19
1,048,576 (1MB) 20
1,073,741,824 (1GB) 30

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