An E-Learning Theoretical Framework

Aparicio, M., Bacao, F., & Oliveira, T. (2016). An e-Learning Theoretical Framework. Educational Technology & Society, 19 (1),
292–307.
292
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An e-Learning Theoretical Framework
Manuela Aparicio1, 2, 3*, Fernando Bacao2 and Tiago Oliveira2
1
Instituto Universitario de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL) ISTAR-IUL // 2
NOVA IMS, Universidade Nova de Lisboa //
3
Unidcom/IADE // manuela.aparicio@acm.org // bacao@novaims.unl.pt // toliveira@novaims.unl.pt
*
Corresponding author
(Submitted November 23, 2014; Revised April 18, 2015; Accepted June 2, 2015)
ABSTRACT
E-learning systems have witnessed a usage and research increase in the past decade. This article presents the e-
learning concepts ecosystem. It summarizes the various scopes on e-learning studies. Here we propose an e-
learning theoretical framework. This theory framework is based upon three principal dimensions: users,
technology, and services related to e-learning. This article presents an in-depth literature review on those
dimensions. The article first presents the related concepts of computer use in learning across time, revealing the
emergence of new trends on e-learning. The theoretical framework is a contribution for guiding e-learning
studies. The article classifies the stakeholder groups and their relationship with e-learning systems. The
framework shows a typology of e-learning systems’ services. This theoretical approach integrates learning
strategies, technologies and stakeholders.
Keywords
E-learning, e-Learning concept evolution, e-Learning systems dimensions, MOOC, e-Learning literature review, e-
Learning framework
Introduction
E-learning unites two main areas, learning and technology. Learning is a cognitive process for achieving knowledge,
and technology is an enabler of the learning process, meaning that technology is used like any other tool in the
education praxis, as is a pencil or a notebook, for example. Although this seems quite simplistic and logical, a pencil
is more technologically transparent tool, and its use may therefore seem more natural to many. Furthermore,
technology underpins other problematic situations because it includes various dimensions. E-learning systems
aggregate various tools, such as writing technologies, communication technologies, visualization, and storage. For
these reasons, researchers and scientists have sought to transform e-learning systems into technically transparent
tool, like a pencil or notebook. The e-learning literature is vast and continues to grow steadily (Aparicio, Bacao, &
Oliveira, 2014b). Investigating e-learning systems’ adoption and usage reveals that continuous growth everywhere in
the world, as well (OECD, 2012). The growth rate of on-line courses stands at 65% (Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia,
& Jones, 2009), and some researchers suggest that at a governmental level, policies should be advocated enabling the
e-learning usage (Kong et al., 2014).
As Hart (2009, p. 28) says “reviewing the work of others you will be able to identify the methodological assumptions
and the research strategies.” For these reasons, a holistic literature review is a valuable guide for researchers.
However, no such overall view exists in the current literature. Consequently, the contribution of this article is
threefold. First, we identify e-learning concepts ecosystem. Second, e-learning is examined from different angles;
some studies are focused on how platforms operate to deliver information; others focus on the classes’ pedagogical
content development, others focus on the user interaction. This article presents a broad literature review. Finally,
based on the literature review we present a theoretical framework on e-learning systems.
The paper is structured in six sections: the first presents a discussion of the e-learning concept; the second presents a
literature review on e-learning related concepts; the third presents the trends of the concepts, based on a bibliometric
study; the fourth summarizes various e-learning studies. Several dimensions of e-learning systems, such as
stakeholders, pedagogical models, instructional strategies and learning technologies, make up the fifth section. In the
last section, we present the main result of this literature review, a theoretical framework for e-learning.

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E-Learning systems related concepts
E-Learning systems are an evolving concept, rooted in the concept of Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) (Zinn,
2000). The concept of CAI first appeared in 1955 as a means of teaching problem-solving (Zinn, 2000). Table 1
presents concepts related to e-learning. Computer assisted learning definitions have been studied in various ways.
Some studies stress the technology while others have focused on communication (Mason & Rennie, 2006), as shown
in Table 2. Our research reveals 23 concepts that belong to the use of computers in learning activities, used especially
for learning purposes. The following table is arranged in ascending order according to the number of appearances of
concepts in scholarly publications from 1960 to 2014.
Table 1. E-learning related concepts based on Aparicio & Bacao (2013)
Acronym Description Concept Focus Authors
CAI Computer-
Assisted
Instruction
Computer usage focused on programming
teaching used in various fields: mathematics,
engineering, psychology, physics, business
administration, statistics.
(Bernhardt, 1960)
(Kemeny & Kurtz, 1967)
(Anderson, 2008)
CBE Computer-
Based
Education
Concept that focuses on the variety of computer
uses in education.
(Barson, Levine, Smith, Scholl,
& Scholl, 1963)
(Zinn, 2000)
CAL Computer-
Assisted
Learning
Focused on individuals rather than tasks. The use
of computers to assist problem-solving.
(Lanier, 1966)
(Hart, 1981)
(Levy, 1997)
(Zinn, 2000)
LMS Learning
Management
Systems
Supports registering services, tracks and
delivering content to learners. It also reports
learner progress and assessing results. LMS
focuses on contents and teacher/student
interaction.
(Becker, 1968)
(Ismail, 2001)
(Lee & Lee, 2008)
CMI Computer-
Managed
Instruction
CMI stresses the teacher´s tasks. (Molnar & Sherman, 1969)
(Zinn, 2000)
CAE Computer-
Assisted
Education
CAE concept refers to the use of computer for
materials’ production and focuses on the
students’ use of the computer in learning.
(Bitzer & Others, 1970)
(Zinn, 2000)
e-Learning Electronic
Learning
E-Learning concept refers to learning via
electronic sources, providing interactive distance
learning. Use of a Web System as a way to
access information available, disregarding time
and space.
(White, 1983)
(Morri, 1997)
(Dorai, Kermani, & Stewart,
2001)
(M. Rosenberg, 2000)
(Piccoli, Ahmad, & Ives, 2001)
ALE Artificial
Learning
Environments
Artifacts’ usage as a mediator in learning within a
specific environment.
(Fiol & Lyles, 1985)
m-Learning Mobile
Learning
The first way to fight illiteracy. Pessanelli (1993)
gives a futuristic approach to how learning could
be in the 21st century, focusing the concept as
modular plug-in school. Drumm & Groom used
the concept to conceptualize a cyber mobile
library. m-Learning is the focus of flexibilization
in the learning class environment and the use of
various learning sources.
(Darazsdi & May, 1989)
(Pesanelli, 1993)
(Drumm & Groom, 1997)
(Rushby, 1998)
SRE Self-
Regulatory
Efficacy
Concept focused on learner’s independent
assessment of self-regulatory learning ability.
(Bandura, 1994)
(Joo, Bong, & Choi, 2000)
CSCL Computer
Support for
Concept that focuses on computers as a way to
facilitate, augment, and redefine support
(Koschmann, 1994)
(Sthal, Koschmann, & Suthers,

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Collaborative
Learning
learning in groups. 2006)
(Ludvigsen & Morch, 2010)
(Morch, 2013)
REAL Rich
Environments
for Active
Learning
Use of computer focused on student responsibility
and initiative. Generative learning activities
within authentic learning contexts. Providing
assessment strategies and co-operative support.
(Grabinger & Dunlap, 1995)
Mega-
University
Mega-
University
Concept that combines distance learning, higher
education, size and use of technology
(Daniel, 1996)
CFL Computer-
Facilitated
Learning
Concept focused on the emulation of teacher-
driven learning episodes contrasting with the
constructivist approach. CFL groups the
applications into functional categories and
highlights the learning processes outcomes.
(Bain, McNaught, Mills, &
Lueckenhausen, 1998)
LCMS Learning
Content
Management
Systems
Content Management launch pads for third party
content that the organization would purchase or
outsource
(Ismail, 2001)
B-Learning Blended
Learning
Blended learning combines multimedia for
learning purposes. This form of learning mixes
different learning environments (face-to-face
and distance). The aim is to complement
distance learning with face-to-face classes.
(Singh, 2003)
c-MOOC Connective
MOOC
Massive open online courses based on the
philosophy of connectivism and networking,
autonomy, diversity, and openness.
Content made by motivated and autonomous
learners.
(Siemens, 2005)
(Downes, 2008)
(Downes, 2006)
(Rodriguez, 2013)
(Rodriguez, 2012)
SDL Self-Directed
Learning
Focus on the teaching–learning method. SDL
refers to the use of individual ways of learning,
using self-strategies of learning. These strategies
may occur using a computer, although SDL may
occur without a computer.
(Rovai, 2004)
(Lee & Lee, 2008)
ILM Internet-based
Learning
Medium
ILM is focused in supporting and improving
student learning.
(Lee et al., 2005)
MOOC Massive
Open Online
Course
Free diffusion of content courses to a global
audience through the Web. Integrates the
connectivity of social networking, the
Facilitation of an acknowledged expert in the
field of study, and a collection of freely
accessible online resources.
(Fini, 2009)
(McAuley, Stewart, Siemens, &
Cormie, 2010)
(Godwin-Jones, 2012)
(Peter & Deimann, 2013)
x-MOOC MITx & EDX
MOOC
Based on behaviorist pedagogy, relies on content
diffusion, assignments, and peer assessment.
Learning management systems with high-quality
content.
(Rodriguez, 2012)
(Rodriguez, 2013)
(Bates, 2012)
LOOC Little Open
Online
Course.
Focus on the directed instructions from the teacher
to the students.
(Kolowich, 2012)
SPOC Small Private
Online
Course
MOOC usage as a supplement to classroom
learning, not as a substitute to the traditional
way of teaching.
(Fox, 2013)
From Table 1 we see that e-learning concept was not the first term to be used in conceptualizing the use of
computerized systems to enable or facilitate the learning process. In the 1960s, this concept focused on task
accomplishment and thereafter focused more on the students. Mary Alice White coined the term “e-learning” in

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1983, in a journal article entitled “Synthesis of Research on Electronic Learning.” E-learning was defined as
“learning via electronic sources, such as television, computer, videodisk, teletext, videotext.” (White, 1983, p. 13). In
1997, e-learning meant an abbreviation of electronic learning, in turn meaning “an interactive distance learning”
environment (Morri, 1997). Despite the use of the e-learning term, another author referred to the capacity of
technologies combined with distance learning and with universities, which was named “mega-university” (Daniel,
1996). Online learning is another concept related to e-learning. Online learning can be defined as learning that takes
place partially or entirely over the internet making information or knowledge available to users disregarding time
restrictions or geographic proximity (Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen, & Yeh, 2008). E-learning systems’ concepts include a
technological and a functional focus, regarding the Internet possibilities in overcoming time and space issues. Figure
1 shows a timeline of the main e-learning concepts. Concepts are shown according to the first publication date.
Figure 1. Timeline of E-learning related concepts (Aparicio, Bacao, & Oliveira, 2014b)
E-Learning concept trends
Today the e-learning concept, apart from technology, includes learning strategies, learning methods, and lately is
very much directed to the vast possibilities of content diffusion and connection. The concept trend no longer means
simply the use of a computer as an artifact in the learning process. Figure 2 illustrates the evolution and frequency of
each concept, according to searches made with the Google Scholar search engine. Each search was performed at
five-year intervals, from 1960 to 2014, for each exact term, using double quotation operator (Figure 2). The chart
gives a clear visualization of the evolution and trends since 1960 of the most used concepts, in terms of publication
in scholarly conference papers and journal articles. In order to visualize these variables we construct a circle using an
information aesthetic software (Krzywinski et al., 2009). The figure can be read as follows: if we divide the circle
into semicircles we have the left hand part, with the concepts and the related publications per each concept and the
right hand part with the time intervals (from 1960 to 2014). To connect these two sides of the circle we have colored
ribbons, which relate each concept publication amount with the correspondent time interval. From this figure we gain
the overall picture of the publication history on e-learning related concepts over time. The colored ribbons have
different widths – wider indicating a greater number of publications in each concept per each time period.
Figure 2 was constructed with the bibliometric study of the publications, indexed in Google Scholar, for the most
frequent e-learning-related concepts (on the left-hand side of the semicircle): CAI, CAL, SDL, e-learning, LMS,
CSCL, among others (Aparicio et al., 2014b). CAI concept is the most used, because it appeared first and is still
widely used today. From Figure 2 we can also see that CAI is the most mentioned concept; we can see the yellow
relationship between the concept and all time intervals. CAI ribbons (yellow colored) are balanced across time,
except in the 1960s and ’70s, when the concept was introduced. The other four concepts, SDL (red ribbon), CAL
(pink ribbon), e-learning (blue ribbon), and LMS (orange ribbon), are of equal importance, although some of them
appeared later. SDL, in red, is predominantly connected from 2005 until 2014 (Y05-09 and Y10-14). The most
important CAL connections were formed from 2000 to 2014, even though the concept was used earlier. The e-
learning concept, in blue, is mainly connected from 2000 until 2014. Other concepts show a relationship with the
time intervals but these connections are not as strong as the others. Regarding the right-hand semicircle, it clearly

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shows that the earliest years, from 1960 to 1999, account for only one-third of the publications, with approximately
two-thirds of all publications produced thereafter. This leads to the idea that the computers’ presence in the learning
process has been explored and studied more in the last 14 years than it had been in the previous 40.
Figure 2. E-learning concepts related to the time reference
The most often returned terms were: CAI, CAL, computer-based education (CBE), e-learning, learning management
systems (LMS), self-directed learning (SDL), and massive open online courses (MOOC). All these concepts have
two aspects in common: learning and computers; except the SDL concept, which derives from psychology (Bandura,
1994) and does not necessarily apply to computer usage. We found three concepts: small private online course
(SPOC); little open online course (LOOC), and distributed open collaborative courses (DOCC). These concepts are
yet to be studied in scientific research, and stand in contrast to MOOCs. SPOC focuses on a private audience, and is
defined as a supplementary way of learning apart from regular face-to-face classes. LOOC differentiates itself from
MOOC as it is based on a different pedagogical model; it provides direct instructions to students. DOCC also
differentiates from MOOC in its focus on the pedagogic engagement of all actors, underlining on one hand the
invisible work of teachers, and on the other the collective intelligence of scholars. The graphic that illustrates the
evolution concept indicates a tendency from the individual learning to a global learning. Nowadays, e-learning can
also mean massive distribution of content and global classes for all the Internet users.
E-Learning studies
E-learning studies focus on several areas. Table 2 summarizes various examples of e-learning according to three
main groups, people, technology, and services. As Leidner & Jarvenpaa (1995) say, IT impact on learning does not

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solve all problems, we have to take into account people and models of learning. Some studies seek to understand the
adoption of e-learning systems; others assess the success of course contents; others evaluate the perceived student
satisfaction of specific e-learning course environments.
Table 2. e-Learning studies
e-Learning studies People Technology Services Authors
Studies on course contents and
activities
√ √ (Brox, Painho, Bação, & Kuhn, 2004;
Piccoli et al., 2001; Rosenberg, 2005;
Zinn, 2000)
Studies on augmented reality in e-
learning
√ (Bacca, Baldiris, Fabregat, Graf, &
Kinshuk, 2014; Lee, Choi, & Park, 2009)
Studies about students’ interaction in
collaborative learning environments
√ √ (Bain et al., 1998; Ludvigsen & Morch,
2010)
Study on cultural differences in
learning
√ √ (McLoughlin & Oliver, 1999; Yang,
Kinshuk, Yu, Chen, & Huang, 2014)
Studies on the success of e-learning
systems courses and modules
√ √ (Aggelidis & Chatzoglou, 2012; Kassim,
Jailani, Hairuddin, & Zamzuri, 2012; M.
K. O. Lee et al., 2005; S. H. Lee et al.,
2009; Wang, Wang, & Shee, 2007)
Study on the Internet-based learning
medium in a motivational
perspective
√
(D. Lee, Chung, & Kim, 2013; J. Lee,
Bharosa, Yang, Janssen, & Rao, 2011)
Studies on e-learning systems
adoption
√ √
(Chen & Liu, 2013; J. Lee et al., 2011)
Studies on the satisfaction level of e-
learning systems usage.
√ √ (Aggelidis & Chatzoglou, 2012; Sun,
Tsai, Finger, Chen, & Yeh, 2008)
Studies on e-learning and digital
divide
√ √ (Chen & Liu, 2013; Cruz-Jesus, Oliveira,
& Bacao, 2012)
Studies about trust level, satisfaction,
and adoption of e-learning.
√ √ (Kassim et al., 2012; Thoms, Garrett,
Herrera, & Ryan, 2008)
Studies on e-learning evaluation
processes
√ √ (Oliver & Herrington, 2003; Vavpotič,
Žvanut, & Trobec, 2013)
Studies on MOOCs’ business models √ √ (Aparicio, Bacao, & Oliveira, 2014a;
Belleflamme & Jacqmin, 2014;
Dellarocas & Van Alstyne, 2013)
From Table 2 we see that even if the study addresses students’ adoption or satisfaction, the contents, or even the way
courses are designed and distributed, we can group those studies and find overlaps among them. This leads to the
idea that when studying e-learning, researchers have to include variables other than technology. According to the
studies examined, the way contents are delivered and the underlying learning strategies also play important roles in
e-learning studies.
Apart from these dimensions, recent disruptive conditions have brought a massive diffusion of online learning
through various formats, from closed to open learning, and the massification of open online courses (MOOCs) has
been verified. McAuley et al. (2010, p. 4) define massive online open courses as “An online phenomenon gathering
momentum over the past few years; an MOOC integrates the connectivity of social networking, the facilitation of an
acknowledged expert in the field of study, and a collection of freely accessible online resources.” Allison et al.
(2012) stated that MOOCs are disrupting the learning environment due to the global free adoption and use of these
open courses. Although according to a study done by Jordan (2013), students or simply public users are enrolling in
different courses by the thousands, for example, one of the largest (measured by the number of enrolled students) has
180,000 and one of the smallest has 20,000. These figures demonstrate a massive quantity of students enrolled,
comparing to a face-to-face university course that never reaches such numbers of students; nor does a teacher reach
such a high number of students in her/his entire career.
From the above-mentioned studies one could believe that adoption is no longer a problem in e-learning, but a study
by Jordan (2013) of the disruptive potential of MOOCs compares the enrolment rates with the completion rates per

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each course and for all of them, finding that completion rates are very low. Motivation studies can also enlighten us
with the disruptive potential of MOOCs, such as, “the individuals the MOOC revolution is supposed to help the most
– those without access to higher education in developing countries – are conspicuously underrepresented among the
early adopters” (Christensen et al., 2013, p. 8). MOOCs allow for a massive distribution of expressed knowledge,
especially for those who cannot reach universities courses, due to economic, geographic, or political reasons. As a
matter of fact, according to an empirical study (Christensen et al., 2013) MOOC attracts mainly young, well-
educated and employed people from developed countries.
This summary of e-learning studies maps the various areas when studying e-learning and exposes the idea that e-
learning should be studied using a combination of various dimensions.
E-learning systems dimensions
Information systems are composed of various dimensions. From a conceptual point of view the system is an artifact
(Beckman, 2002), and this author considers the use of computers in education an “artificialization.” Artifacts are not
only technology, but also and mostly “a complex and changing combination of people and technology” (Dahlbom,
1996, p. 43). Technology implements artifacts and information technology serves human purposes, providing support
to several tasks (March & Smith, 1995). Within this context, we present in this section the e-learning systems
dimensions, in order to prepare our e-learning theory framework.
E-learning systems stakeholders
Stakeholder analysis entails the identification of internal and external groups or individuals that can directly and
indirectly affect an organization (Freeman, 2010; Stoner, Freeman, & Gilbert, 1995). Stakeholder theory can be
applied to other fields beyond management (Phillips, Freeman, & Wicks, 2003). Stakeholders analysis has been used
in information studies to identify the systems’ users and their direct or indirect interaction (Papazafeiropoulou,
Pouloudi, & Currie, 2001; Wagner, Hassanein, & Head, 2008). We summarize the stakeholders of e-learning systems
in Table 3.
Table 3. e-Learning systems stakeholders
Stakeholders Group Direct Action Internal External
Students Customers √ √
Employers Customers √ √
Educational Institutions Suppliers √ √ √
Accreditation Bodies Suppliers √ √
Teachers Suppliers √ √ √
Content Providers Suppliers √ √ √
Education Ministry Board and Shareholders √ √
Teachers’ Association Professional Associations √ √
Students’ Commissions Special Interest Groups √ √
Technology Providers Suppliers √ √
Customers are the ultimate users of the system for learning since e-learning systems are an important communication
channel between learners and instructors. Learners can be individual students or company employees who are using
these systems according to the development policies of their employees. In their case they are external users but they
interact directly with the system. Suppliers can be schools, universities, or educational institutions in general; this
stakeholder group is an internal group of users who interact directly with the system. Accreditation bodies are
external; they interact directly with the system for auditing purposes. Teachers are part of the supplier group; they are
internal users and interact directly with the e-learning platforms. Content providers can be internal or external users
but they interact directly with the system. Other external stakeholders that interact directly with the e-learning
systems are: education ministry, teachers’ associations, students’ commissions and technology providers. Education
ministry is considered as a board and shareholder because public institutions are funded by this ministry. They have a

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direct interaction with the systems in order to accompany the instructional institutions in their teaching role. Teachers
and student groups can also interact directly with the system if they promote learning or research activities. Although
technology providers are external to the system, they can provide maintenance services to the technological part of
the system by giving technical support. Each stakeholders group interacts differently with the system, although all of
the stakeholders play an important role within the e-learning system activities.
Elements of an e-learning system
E-Learning theory comprises three elements. According to Dabbagh (2005) e-learning can be defined through a
theory-based framework that relates learning technologies, instructional strategies, and pedagogical models or
constructs. Dabbagh’s framework (2005) includes multiple dimensions, such as the way people learn (open/flexible
way), with the learning strategy (collaboration, exploration, problem-solving) and also with technology. It is a
pedagogical model, and “cognitive models or theoretical constructs [are] derived from knowledge acquisition models
or views about cognition and knowledge, which form the basis for learning theory. In other words, they are the
mechanism by which we link theory to practice” (Mehlenbacher, 2010, p. 146). Instructional strategies facilitate
learning, such as, collaboration, articulation, reflection, and role-playing among others. Although they are
pedagogical models, our main objective in this study is to review the literature on e-learning systems. Subsequent to
Table 1, which presents the concepts of the context of the e-learning systems, we constructed Table, Table 4 in which
those concepts are classified according to two ways of e-learning definitional dimensions. First, the concepts are
classified according to Dabbagh’s (2005) framework, according to whether the concepts reflect a pedagogical model,
instructional strategy, or a learning technology. Second, we also identify the concepts according to Mason &
Rennie’s (2006) classification of e-learning perspectives, whether concepts are content driven, communication
focused, or technologically oriented.
Table 4. e-Learning concept perspectives overlapping
Year Acronym
Dabbagh’s Theory Based Framework
(2005)
e-Learning Perspectives of Mason &
Rennie (2006)
Pedagogical
models
Instructional
strategies
Learning
technologies
Content Communication Technology
1960 CAI √ √ √
1963 CBE √ √ √
1966 CAL √ √ √ √
1968 LMS √ √ √ √
1969 CMI √ √ √
1970 CAE √ √ √
1983 e-Learning √ √ √ √ √ √
1985 ALE √ √
1989 m-Learning √ √ √ √
1994 SRE √ √ √ √ √
1994 CSCL √ √ √ √ √ √
1995 REAL √ √ √ √ √
1996 Mega-University √ √ √ √
1998 CFL √ √ √ √
2001 LCMS √ √ √ √
2003 B-Learning √ √ √ √ √ √
2004 SDL √ √ √ √ √
2004 c-MOOC √ √ √ √ √
2005 ILM √ √ √ √
2009 MOOC √ √ √ √ √ √
2012 x-MOOC √ √ √ √ √ √
2012 LOOC √ √ √ √ √
2013 SPOC √ √ √ √ √

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Pedagogical models, instructional strategies, and learning technologies, combined together, form a framework
applicable to e-learning (Dabbagh, 2005). These three components enable the linkage between who (open learning,
distributed learning, or communities of practice, among others) is participating in the learning process, with the way
in which these features interact (collaborating, articulation, reflecting, exploring) and the technologies through which
the communication occurs (synchronous, asynchronous, communication tools, course management tools, among
others).
Pedagogical models in e-learning
Pedagogical models are the basis of learning theory, as they derive from knowledge acquisition. From a pedagogical
point of view these models are mechanisms that link e-learning theory to e-learning practice (Dabbagh, 2005). The
pedagogical models in e-learning are open learning, distributed learning, learning communities, communities of
practice, and knowledge building communities. The open learning can take several forms, for example, it can be a
workshop, a seminar, a night course, or a distance course. Some examples on the Web are: “knowledge networks,
knowledge portals, asynchronous learning networks, virtual classrooms, and telelearning” (Dabbagh, 2005, p. 30).
Distributed learning is focused on the learning distribution resulting in a combined channels situation that allows
learners to access education through technology or not in a way that can be obtained synchronously or
asynchronously anywhere (Dabbagh, 2005). In many situations learning communities are composed of students in
universities who “tend to feel more self-confident and to feel supported by peers, by instructors, and by the college”
(Patterson, 2011, p. 20). Communities of practice (CoP) are defined by Wenger (1999) as informal groups of people
who share the same interests on a subject. Communities of practice share interests and best practices and collaborate
not only in academia but also in industry. These communities usually have regularly scheduled meetings, CoP meet
face-to-face or in virtual environments (Liu, Chen, Sun, Wible, & Kuo, 2010; Wenger, 1999). A knowledge building
community is perceived as a group having “commitment among its members to invest their resources in the
collective, upgrading of knowledge” (Hewitt & Scardamalia, 1998, p. 82). These communities pursue the creation of
knowledge by sharing individual knowledge in order to achieve learning. The pedagogical models applied to e-
learning are supported in the following attributes: learning is a social process, learning in group is fundamental to
achieve knowledge; distance is unimportant (space questions are blurred); teaching and learning can be segregated in
time and space.
Instructional strategies
Instructional strategies operationalize the pedagogical models, since strategies consist of general approaches to a
learning model, which is to say, the instructional. Jonassen et al. (1997) present five instructional strategies that, in
fact, are plans and techniques that the instructor uses in order to engage the learners – in other words; instructional
strategies are enablers to learning. The authors state that instructional strategies differ from learning strategies, as
learning strategies are mental tools that students use to understand and learn more (Jonassen et al., 1997). The
authors state that each instructional condition should meet a different instructional strategy.
Learning technologies
Many authors have defined the characteristics of the learning technologies to support a learning environment of
collaboration and supported learning, and have left room for various perspectives (Dabbagh, 2005; Hsieh & Cho,
2011; McLoughlin & Oliver, 1999; Oliver & Herrington, 2003; Rourke & Anderson, 2002). A constructivist
epistemological point of view (Hannafin, Hannafin, Land, & Oliver, 1997) requires integrated strategies, aligning
several foundations and environments: psychological, pedagogical, cultural, pragmatic, and technological, since
according to the characteristics of this vision “knowledge depends on the knower’s frame of reference” (Dabbagh,
2005, p. 29). Oliver and Herrigton (2003) construct an e-learning framework composed of technological elements
grouped into three main areas in learning: resources, supports, and activities. Table 5 summarizes these instructional
strategies and the correspondent technologies’ functionalities.

301
Table 5. Instructional strategies and learning technologies
Strategies
Technologies
Authentic
activities
Problem
solving
Role
playing
Articulation
&
reflection
Collaboration
&
negotiation
Multi-perspectives
Modeling
&
explaining
Scaffolding
Authors
Graphics √
(Dabbagh, 2005;
Hannafin et al.,
1997)
Digital audio & video components √
Animation √
Hypermedia √
Authoring tools √
Synchronous discussion area √
(Dabbagh, 2005;
McLoughlin &
Oliver, 1999)
Online databases/ knowledge
repositories
√
Search engines √ √
Multi-user dialog √
(Dabbagh, 2005;
McLoughlin &
Oliver, 1999)
Virtual reality √
Forums √ √ √
Learner web-post area √ √
Learner online journal √
Sharing tool √
Video conferencing √ √
Chat √ √ √
Web links manager √ √
“Ask the expert” area/link √
Solution/problems area √ (Dabbagh, 2005;
Jonassen et al.,
1997)
Digital area audio/video capturing √
One-on-one mentoring √ (Dabbagh, 2005;
McLoughlin &
Oliver, 1999;
Vygotsky, 1978)
Glossary √
Assessment √ √ √
E-learning theory framework
A framework “classifies the important factors in information systems development can imply that these factors are
causally connected with successful systems development” (Gregor, Martin, Fernandez, Stern, & Vitale, 2006, p.
619). In this framework (Figure 3), we present the main information systems dimensions adapted to e-learning
systems. This framework is a theoretical generalization (Carroll & Swatman, 2000; Lee & Baskerville, 2003)
resulting from the literature review on e-learning dimensions.
The e-learning systems’ theoretical framework contains the three main components of information systems. These
components are people, technologies, and services. People interact with e-learning systems. E-learning technologies
enable the direct or indirect interaction of the different groups of users. Technologies provide support to integrate
content, enable communication, and provide collaboration tools. E-learning services integrate all the activities
corresponding to pedagogical models and to instructional strategies. The complex interaction combination is the
direct or indirect action with e-learning systems. At the same time, systems provide services according to the
specified strategies for activities. In other words, service specifications are e-learning activities aligned with the e-
learning pedagogical models and the instructional strategies.

302
Figure 3. Holistic e-learning systems theoretical framework
Conclusions and future work
In this study we construct an e-learning systems theory framework. The goal is to identify the participants,
technology, and services related to e-learning.
We present a literature review on e-learning, searching for the various concepts related to the use of computers in
learning contexts. This study reveals that e-learning is not the most used concept in research. In fact, researchers
refer to other concepts (e.g., CAL, CFL, CAE, CBE, LMS or MOOCs). After identifying those concepts, we then
report the results of a bibliometric study of the e-learning related concepts indexed by an academic search engine. We
also review the e-learning dimensions, which are: the e-learning systems stakeholders, the pedagogical models, the
instructional strategies, and the learning technologies. Using these dimensions we construct a theoretical e-learning
conceptual framework. The resulting framework for e-learning has three dimensions: people, technology ,and
services. These dimensions provide our theoretical framework with a more holistic view. The main contribution of
this critical literature review is to provide the theoretical background for e-learning research strategies.
The e-learning systems theory framework was constructed upon the three main components of an information
system: people, technology, and services provided by technology itself. Guided by these main pillars we revise and
identify the stakeholders groups and their interaction with e-learning systems. We then present the classification of
the technological considerations to these kinds of system, focusing more on the contents type and ways of
communication, than on providing a list of the platforms existing in the market. This is an important feature of the

303
framework, because apart from the commercial platforms we identify technological specifications that can be applied
to any technological artifact. The third pillar corresponds to services provided by an e-learning system. Services are
considered here as the main output, as they operationalize instructional strategies and several pedagogical models.
The framework provides the theoretical structure for multiple studies in e-learning systems.
For future work we intend to use this framework as a cornerstone to guide our e-learning systems research. We
intend to propose a model for assessing the success of e-learning systems.
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