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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
Foreword by Clive Dilnot
Preface
Part I
Understanding Services
Main concepts, critical aspects and implications of designing
services, discussed by experts
01
Defining services
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Services are the soft infrastructure of society
1.3 Interactions are the core of services
1.4 Services are coproduced
1.5 The service-dominant logic
1.6 The false divide between goods and services
1.7 Product Service Systems
1.8 The products of service
1.9 Interview with Birgit Mager
1.10 Learning features
02
The service economy
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The economics of services
2.3 The market for service design

2.4 The customer-centric organization
2.5 The rise of the social economy
2.6 The sharing economy
2.7 Interview with Ezio Manzini
03
Digital services
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The digital life
3.3 The Internet of Things: ecologies of devices, data, and
infrastructure
3.4 Challenges of an increasingly digital world
3.5 The role of service design in digital services
3.6 Interview with Jodi Forlizzi
04
Services for public interest
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Service innovation and the public sector
4.3 Service design capability for the public sector
4.4 Social innovation and collaborative services
4.5 Interview with Eduardo Staszowski
05
The politics of service design
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The drama of services: emotional labor
5.3 Environmental sustainability of services
5.4 Services as systems and the issue of organizations’ politics
5.5 Interview with Cameron Tonkinwise

06
Designing for services
6.1 Introduction
6.2 A new kind of design?
6.3 Core principles of service design
6.4 What kind of project and what kind of benefit?
6.5 The service design community
6.6 Interview with Daniela Sangiorgi

Part II
The Service Design Process
The service design process, methods and tools explained
through outstanding projects and discussed by the
designers behind them
07
Starting the service design process
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Case study: APAM Bus Company Mantua, Italy, by Intersezioni
Design Integrated
7.3 Interview with Alessandro Confalonieri
7.4 Case study analysis
7.5 Methods and tools
Charting the service design process
Defining the service design brief
08
Research and analysis
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Case study: The Burnaby Starter Project by InWithForward
8.3 Interview with Sarah Schulman
Research planning and strategy
Conducting landscape analysis
Observation
Interviews

Self-documentation
Journey maps, service blueprints, and system
maps
Design themes, principles, and lists of
requirements
09
Generating service design concepts
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Case study: My Voice Project by Reboot
9.3 Interview with the Reboot team
Bridging research and ideation
Generating ideas and concepts: Brainstorming and
codesign workshops
Creative aids: 2x2 diagrams, analogous problems,
and case studies
Storytelling through making and embodiment
10
Prototyping, testing, iterating
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Case study: YTA People’s Pharmacy by Hellon
10.3 Interview with Juha Kronqvist
Physical prototyping
Prototyping digital interactions: Low- and high-fi
Service experience simulation

11
Implementation and evaluation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Case study: London Olympic Games 2012
11.3 Interview with Alex Nisbett
Pilots and road maps
Business implications: The Business Model Canvas
Feedback strategies
Evaluation frameworks: ROI, SROI, monetized
blueprint, RATER, and the Theory of Change
12
Service design core capabilities
12.1 Introduction: A critical design literacy
12.2 Core capability 1: Active and empathic listening
12.3 Core capability 2: Process facilitation and stewardship
12.4 Core capability 3: Envisioning and visualizing
12.5 Core capability 4: Prototyping and testing
12.6 Core capability 5: Organizational change making
12.7 Interview with Lucy Kimbell
Bibliography
Credits/Sources
Index

Foreword Clive Dilnot
The play between the tangible and the intangible, the visible and the
invisible, has always been integral to design. It was, after all, its
raison d’etre. Designers have only ever been employed because the
refinements they add to the simple fact of a thing contribute to its
experience and hence to its desirability. But while experiences are
propelled by the material qualities of the thing, it takes place In
mind. It might be better to say then that the tangible induces the
intangible.
Service design is, in a way, no more, and no less, than this—but in
reverse. In designing a service, the aim is often all but intangible:
the felt quality of the experience offered. Yet the paradox of this
intangibility is that this experience is very largely delivered through
material means (even if the “material” here might be the actions of,
or encounters with, other human beings). This has always been the
case. Think of religious rituals. Services of worship are, by definition,
“services.” Their choreography is as carefully plotted as the
configuration of a building. Indeed, in this case, the latter is often
servant to the former. So a service is no less an artifact than a
physical thing. The difference is that here the artifact is the
choreographed ensemble of places, things, communications, scripted
encounters and so on—in a word the assemblage—that “delivers”
the service and which the subject encounters as a set of experiences
(since services unfold always over time). But there is no evasion of
design. Even in those religions stressing the least ritualistic emphasis
to the communion and connection with God, the quality of the
spaces in which these meetings take place—think of the washed
plain light of a Quaker or Shaker meeting house—is as significant
and no less material, no less designed, than the Baroque interior of
St. Peters. Despite what architects sometimes like to pretend, no
architecture is merely physical. Site is always really situation.

Situation means the encounter of a person and a context: a context
that usually contains other persons and has its basis in a material
human need. Situations are fundamental, they are in a sense, even
prior to artifacts. Not for nothing did even that most technological of
design theorists (Herbert Simon) nonetheless famously insist, back
as early as 1968, that to design “is to devise of actions to change
existing situations into preferred ones.”1
There are as many
situations as there are human interactions. If today they proliferate
as moments for design—both because of the (pseudo-)encounters
that technology allows us but also because of the often egregious
contemporary economic demand to monetize all human relations—
the core remains the situation of the human encounter. It is this that
gives the situation (and hence service design) its ethic, a point
caught by the philosopher Alain Badiou when, in his little book on
Ethics, he argues at one point: “There is no need for an ‘ethics’ but
only for a clear vision of the situation . . . to be faithful to the
situation means: to deal with the situation according to the rule of
maximum possibility; to treat it right to the limit of the possible. Or,
if you prefer, to draw from the situation, to the greatest possible
extent, the affirmative humanity that it contains.”2
It is important to stress the ethics of the situation—and therefore the
ethics of “service design.” which is nothing more than and nothing
less than!) the design of situations—because the same monetarizing
impulse which makes the seizing of intimate human moments one
branch of how the contemporary economy keeps itself afloat also
seizes service design, both in the private and in the public sector.
The operationalizing of service design, often under a jargon that is
as inflated and barbaric as the claims of the economy itself, distorts
what is really at stake here, which is the experience of being human.
Too easily commoditized, Badiou’s double rule is too easily forgotten,
too easily disposed of when profit is put in question.
Yet, outside of the profit motive, the reason why anyone takes up
the mantle of service design is surely in fact to help make manifest,
in concrete human situations, Badiou’s ethic. Service design in this

sense is an ethical act. It is using the capacities of design to
establish resonance between things and persons for human ends.
Technocratic and econometric formulations of “service design” tend
to obscure this more fundamental truth. In fact, branding and
marketing have almost nothing to do with service design—and, as
we know, are often counterproductive, contributing to the wider
devaluing of experience in the contemporary economy. Real service
design has its ethos, by contrast, in how, out of sometimes the most
constrained and difficult situations—the conditions and character of
the delivery of cancer treatments, for example—we can create
moments that can relieve, even in small ways, the tensions of the
experience, and can do so through design. Through design means
here undertaking that extraordinary act that all design achieves
when it translates a perception about a human condition or
encounter into an artifact that helps relieve or enhance it. That is
why service design is necessarily ethical. It deals with how subjects
are enabled to act in the world.
Now all this might seem a long way from what is essentially a
working handbook for learning about, and then for doing, service
design. But it is not, for this is the essential (human) underpinning
to service design. I will note in particular Chapter 12, “Service
Design Core Capabilities,” and the five vital human capacities or
capabilities that the author lays out—for “facilitation and
stewardship,” for “envisioning and visualizing,” for “prototyping and
testing,” for acting as agents of “organizational change-making,” and
not least and indeed first in her list, for “active and empathic
listening,” or what she describes as “understanding people in their
human complexity and being able to see the world from the
perspective of an ‘other’” (here). The “literacy” of designing in this
field of encounters and situations has to come into play; the
developments of professional capacities to translate perceptions into
forms, experiences, ensembles, and arrangements; choreographic
and choreographed structures are not less; indeed, they are often
more, in these contexts. But capacities arise from understanding
what tasks require. And this is where, as the delightful subtitle of

this book has it, Designing the Invisible, comes into play. As a literal
Introduction to Service Design, this book describes concisely but
exhaustively the context and tasks of service design. It leaves the
readers in no doubt as to what is needed and expected of them, but
it also supplies the essential clues for anyone who wishes to take up
service design, either as an aspect of their existing career in
designing, creating, or organizing things, or as a career path in its
own right.
1 Herbert Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969), p.
130.
2 Alain Badiou, Ethics (London: Verso, 2001), p. 15 (adapted quote).

Preface
When I started teaching service design more than ten years ago,
service design literature mainly consisted of academic papers, a few
doctoral theses, a few service marketing and interaction design
publications, and the websites of pioneer service design
consultancies. In those days, I would prepare readers and
compilations, write introductory papers, and even build websites
aggregating all available resources for my students. Things have
changed considerably since then. Soon enough, practitioners and
researchers started producing publications that made service design
knowledge more accessible. A handful of pioneer books—and the list
keeps growing—are still the core of any essential library of service
designers everywhere. Yet, there was still the need for a book
dedicated to the pedagogy of service design.
This book is meant as a resource for students and educators braving
the new specialization of service design, whether they are majoring
in service design at either the undergraduate or graduate level, or
coming from other design or nondesign disciplines and practices and
looking to gain service design literacy. It is also for service design
educators who need a handy resource for their courses.
Learning (and teaching) service design can be challenging because it
is in great part about designing the invisible. The core of services are
social interactions that happen over time, and designing for services
therefore implies designing material and immaterial conditions for
interactions and experiences, flows, and systems. But most of all, we
are designing the enabling conditions for people to solve a problem
and improve their lived experience.
While service design is connected with traditional design domains,
such as visual communication and the built environment, it is equally
connected to organizational policies, protocols, business models,

scripts, and choreographies. So, as service design aggregates
different practices and mindsets and enters new domains and
possibilities, it may actually help redefine design altogether and
reshape our understanding of what design really does and what
capabilities it entails. This book makes a case for service design as
an original and legitimate design practice in its own right, an
ambitious and transdisciplinary design practice occupying a strategic
space between creating visions of sustainable social and
environmental futures, and negotiating these visions within
organizational and political realities. Service designers therefore have
the challenge of dealing with businesses, government, and the civil
society at large, as our efforts can affect labor relations, economic
performance, and public policy. The project examples showcased in
this book were selected precisely because they embody a
responsible and sensible approach of designing for services. The
outcomes of these projects improve people’s lives and create social
value while building capacity within the communities and
organizations through these service relations.
Where do we even start? The rationale for this book is that learning
service design is a journey. And, while it never really ends, it needs
to start from somewhere. This book hopes to offer a starting point
for a lifelong learning journey in service design.
The book is structured in two parts:
Part I attempts to chart the key guiding aspects of the
transdisciplinary nature of services, since services are interconnected
with so many critical aspects of the world and its artificial
infrastructure. Chapters 1 to 6 evoke economics, politics, labor,
technology, social issues, behavior, culture, and emotions. Experts in
the field discuss how all this affects and defines the practice of
service design.
Part II brings the conversation to a hands-on mindset, diving into
the service design process, methods, and tools through outstanding

projects. Chapters 7 to 11 break down the service design process
into manageable packages, through case studies of exemplary
projects and interviews with the designers behind them, as well as a
guide of essential methods and tools. Chapter 12 offers a final
reflection on the core capabilities of service design.
Each chapter ends with a “Learning features” section that includes
glossaries of terms, key points, and recap questions as well as
suggestions of class activities and templates.
Here’s an overview of each chapter.
Chapter 1, “Defining services,” introduces the fundamental
concepts and theories necessary to understand services, and
establishes the basis to help us think through the service lenses,
such as how interactions and relationships are the core of services
that depend on people to actively participate and coproduce them.
The chapter introduces the service-dominant logic, a key concept
that helps us see services as the real base of our economy and the
concept of product service systems (PSS) that help break the barrier
between goods and services. The chapter concludes with an
interview with Birgit Mager, the founder of Service Design Network,
who offers some essential definitions about service design, its
development as a field and a profession, and the development of a
community around service design bringing together practitioners,
researchers, and different industries.
Chapter 2, “The service economy,” locates services in terms of
an economic activity, introduces the main service industries and
emergent service-based economic models such as the sharing
economy and demarcates the highly service-based social economy.
The chapter also discusses the current market for service design,
highlighting the health-care and financial sectors. In the interview,
Ezio Manzini, founder of DESIS (Design for Social Innovation and
Sustainability) Network, talks about the emerging ecosystems of

different economies and the opportunities for the design community
can offer in the emerging economic models.
Chapter 3, “Digital services,” charts the landscape of digital
services, platforms, and ecologies, including the Internet of Things
(IoT) and its main areas of application. It also discusses impacts and
new possible roles for service design in relation to technology—for
example, the possibilities for service design to help humanize
technology development. The chapter concludes with an interview
with Jodi Forlizzi, Associate Professor of Human-Computer
Interaction at Carnegie Mellon University, who discusses emerging
trends in technology and the overlaps of service design with other
design specializations and practices such as interaction design or
experience design.
Chapter 4, “Services for public interest,” frames the main
sources of services for public interest starting with a close look into
service innovation in the public sector, including the spread of
innovation labs within government. It also presents the phenomenon
of social innovation, a dynamic and creative source of innovation in
services emerging directly from active citizens. The chapter
concludes with an interview with Eduardo Staszowski, director of
Parsons DESIS Lab. He charts the history of the growing presence at
the nexus of service innovation, public interest design, and design
for social innovation, exploring future opportunities arising for
designers interested in working with public and collaborative
services.
Chapter 5, “The politics of service design,” introduces crucial
political aspects of services such as labor relationships,
environmental aspects, and the challenges of dealing with
organizations’ cultures. In particular, it investigates the concept of
emotional labor performed by front office staff by examining political
and ethical aspects embedded in it. It also looks into environmental
issues and the link between climate change and services. The
chapter concludes with an interview with Cameron Tonkinwise,

Professor of Design at University of New South, Australia, who offers
a critical perspective on the role of service design as designing the
future of work, the relationship between services, and issues of
sustainability, among other insights.
Chapter 6, “Designing for services,” positions service design
within the design universe, affirming it as a legitimate design
practice; introduces its principles; analyzes the service design
practice; and maps out the community service design. In making a
case for service design as a new kind of design practice, it reviews
core principles of the service design work, including its people-
centeredness, the centrality of participation and codesign, and the
holistic/systemic nature of service design. The interview with service
design researcher and author Daniela Sangiorgi offers reflections
about service design core principles and considers the arc of
evolution of service design, among other key insights.
Chapter 7, “Starting the service design process,” charts how
service design projects are typically structured and presents the
specifics of creating a project brief. It showcases as a case study
project the service redesign of a bus company in Parma, Italy, and
features an interview with Alessandro Confalonieri, partner at design
firm Intersezioni. Confalonieri navigates us through the
transformational process of defining a design brief with the client
organization. The project is further analyzed in a takeaway section
that dissects the main processes and methods employed by the
designers in the project. The “Methods and tools” section expands
and details typical methods and tools used in service design
projects, as well as how to develop a service design brief.
Chapter 8, “Research and analysis,” presents research methods
for discovery in the service design process and tools for synthesis
and insights. It showcases a case study project focusing on a mental
health-care service in Toronto, Canada, and features an interview
with Sarah Schulman, leader of InWithForward. Schulman explains

the team’s research process, centered around immersive
ethnography and a deep analytical process. The project
is further analyzed in takeaway section that dissects the main
processes and methods employed by the InWithForward team in the
project. The “Methods and tools” section gives an overview of typical
methods and tools used in the research and analysis phases.
Chapter 9, “Generating service design concepts,” focuses on
generative processes, such as creative workshops aimed at
developing new service ideas. The case study in this chapter is a
project focusing on health-care management in rural Nigeria, led by
the firm The Reboot. In the interview, Panthea Lee and a team of
Reboot researchers and designers offer details about their ideation
process and the constraints and choices made by the team, leading
to the development of an innovative concept. The project is analyzed
in a takeaway section that highlights the main ideation approaches
employed by the team in the project. The “Methods and tools”
section expands and details typical ideation approaches and
techniques such as workshops and creative sessions, brainstorming,
and storytelling approaches.
Chapter 10, “Prototyping, testing, iterating,” explores how to
prototype service concepts for both physical and digital channels.
The case study describes an award-winning project of a new
pharmacy service model to be implemented across Finland by
Finnish company Hellon. In the interview, Juha Kronqvist, lead
designer at Hellon, explains the unique prototyping techniques used
by Hellon through the pharmacy project, which are further discussed
in the takeaway section. The “Methods and tools” section expands
on other prototyping techniques, both physical and digital, as well as
hybrid prototyping methods.
Chapter 11, “Implementation and evaluation,” presents
methods related to implementation, business models, impact
evaluation, and user feedback. The case study project features the

London Olympic Games (2012), followed by an interview with Alex
Nisbett (Live|Work), who led the service design team of the games.
Nisbett explains the unique approach the team implemented
centered around the spectator experience. The takeaway analyzes
the evaluation and feedback methods employed in the games, and
the “Methods and tools” section expands into evaluation and
feedback methods plus business aspects and other vital
considerations for the implementation of services.
Chapter 12 “Service design core capabilities,” looks into the
service design practice as a whole, considering its unique challenges
and opportunities, framing the core service design capabilities. The
interview with service design lead thinker Lucy Kimbell, from the
University of the Arts London, considers the learning paths toward
service design practice, core capabilities of service design, and a
critical view on the future of service design careers.

01 Defining services
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Services are the soft infrastructure of
society
1.6 The false divide between goods and
services
1.7 Product Service Systems
1.8 The products of service
1.9 Interview with Birgit Mager

1.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts necessary to
understand services, charting the principal theories that help us
think through the service lenses.
The idea of services as a glue around which our lives are structured,
the concept of interactions as the heart of services as social entities,
and the notion of coproduction in services help us understand that
services need users to actively participate in their production.
Next, the chapter introduces the groundbreaking concept of the
service-dominant logic that helps us see services as the real base of
our economy, where goods and services are not two different things
but rather the same integrated thing, revealing there is no divide
between goods and services. The next concept is the
environmentally motivated concept of product service systems, on
which tangible goods and services are incorporated into an
integrated benefit.
The chapter also maps out the products of service, explaining the
strategic and material outputs of service design.
The final highlight of this initial chapter is an interview with Birgit
Mager, the founder of Service Design Network, a foundational entity
for service design practitioners around the world.
What is a service, a working
definition
In economic terms, service occurs when there’s a value
exchange between parts. One part, the service provider,
performs a certain activity that results in some benefit

that includes a specific output and involves certain
experiences. The other part, the service user, sees value in
the output, the experience, or both combined and is
willing to pay for it or exchange for something else of
equivalent value. Expanding into other aspects of life, the
notion of services might overlap with the idea of care,
e.g., health care, personal care, or firefighters protecting
people; religious services; military protecting a country;
community services and public services; and care for
citizens, among many others. In many of these cases, no
payment is made between parts (provider and user), but
the compensation for the service happens through indirect
ways, such as public services. In some cases, there’s no
monetary exchange whatsoever, such as volunteer-based
services.

1.2 Services are the soft infrastructure of
society
Services permeate our busy daily journeys sometimes in invisible
ways—when we take a bus, go to school, use a credit card, talk or
send a message over the phone, use social media, go to a
restaurant, go to the dentist, or read the news. The events of our
lives are interconnected through a myriad of different services.
Through them, we get things done and get to interact with different
people and organizations. Services are everywhere, as life’s essential
scaffold, as a soft infrastructure of our lives.
Services can be organized into categories that may be very different
from each other. Typical service categories include transportation
(subway, buses, and taxis), restaurants, banks, phone and internet
services, entertainment (such as movies, theater, concerts, live
sports events), nail salons, barber shops, laundromats, and every
kind of health-care and school system. Some of these services are
vital utilities like water and plumbing services, gas, and electricity.
Digital services are also key services in everyday life, such as social
media platforms like Facebook and Twitter, along with
communication and data sharing platforms such as Skype and
Google Drive, or services to facilitate exchanges like eBay or Airbnb.
All these services continue to evolve and shape our lives.
With technology and the increased specialization of service
provisions in today’s world, the presence of services in our daily lives
has grown exponentially, or at least our awareness of services has
grown more acute.
As we are now far into the network society, our lives depend heavily
on service provisions such as telecommunications and the internet
for all kinds of communication forms and information exchange. It is

hard to imagine life without all the communication and information
services we increasingly depend on.
Figs 1.1 to 1.12: Typical services of everyday life: transportation, cafes,
social media, school, restaurants and bars, health care, entertainment,
personal care, care for others, car services.

As designers, we look at services primarily as human experiences,
not necessarily as economic activities. Some social science scholars
argue that services are not always monetized and do not always
involve a company or an organization. Instead, services are a
foundation of the human condition in a deeper sense.
Services are people-centric entities that are essentially relational and
social. They are also temporal, because relationships happen over
time. Because human actions and relationships are at the basis of
services, it is essential that we acknowledge the uncertainty and
unpredictability as contingent to services. Service interactions are
therefore unpredictable; we have no guarantees that things will
happen in a certain way.
Service management literature acknowledges interactions as “the
moment of truth” of services, the moment when value in services is
constituted. “Service encounters” occur when a person (user)
interacts with a service via a touchpoint. Touchpoints are the
material face of services and comprise the artifacts that support the
service’s interactions. They not only physically enable the
interactions but also are key to make them better, more efficient,
more meaningful, and more desirable. Services are therefore also
material because they are anchored or supported by some kind of
artifact.
The interaction that happens in the moment of truth is crucial in
determining the perceived value of the service for people, who at
that point are able to assess results against cost and effort of the
service provider.
Apart from the role that touchpoints play in the perception of quality
in service encounters, services are bound to a myriad of other

factors, many beyond the control of service designers and of the
service-providing organizations themselves, and they might vary
over time. The reason is that services can be delivered through
unique face-to-face encounters, through automated digital
interfaces, and through a number of different channels or a
combination of them. Each one of these channels and the processes
behind them need to be accounted for when orchestrating services.
The consistent delivery of positive moments of truth over time is a
critical challenge for service organizations of all kinds.
For designers, the idea of designing for interactions poses a vital
question: can interactions be designed at all? The question reveals
the limits of design. Several authors address this conundrum. Some
of them consider that interactions involve the details and
particularities of daily life, unscripted and unpredictable as they are,
considering all kinds of interactions—whether between people and
objects, services, or systems. Others point out that service
interactions are, to a large extent, undesignable and talk about
designing for services rather than designing services and that we
can design the conditions for interactions to happen but never the
interaction itself.
On one hand, for some designers, previously accustomed to the
assurance of tangible artifacts, entering the unpredictability of
services and interactions will seem painfully complicated, or at least
challenging. Product designers know that they will design a three-
dimensional object, graphic designers knows they will be designing a
two-dimensional visual piece, and architects know they will be
designing a physical space. Service designers might not know what
they will be designing until further into their research process.
On the other hand, designing for interactions presents designers
with a new world of possibilities that takes them beyond form and
function into a more intellectual and strategic practice in which they
are able to create a deeper social impact.

Let’s discuss a few key dimensions to help the designers’ adventure
in the sphere of interactions.
The first dimension is related to the nature of social interactions as
tacit behaviors. Tacit behavior means the opposite of formal or
codified behavior. Social interactions are dynamic interactions
happening between people, individuals, or groups and are connected
to social norms, bound to contextual, cultural, emotional, and
aesthetic aspects that are dynamic and ever evolving in any society.
Understanding tacit behavior is therefore vital for design. And it is
the reason that service design needs to be essentially user-centric: it
depends on directly observing and documenting people in their own
contexts as well as iterative consultations with people through
participatory methods and codesign processes throughout the
development of a service proposition. It makes designers’ work
messier, nonlinear, contradictory, but also exciting.
Fig 1.13: Service interactions through multiple channels over time: some
interactions are face to face, whereas others are mediated through
technology.
The second dimension is related to the medium through which
interactions happen, when they are mediated through technology-
based devices and interfaces. In these interactions, we are affected
both by the hardware design of the equipment as well as the
software that is written based on protocols and coding (e.g., “if x,
then y”). The design of interfaces and interaction systems relies on
defining predetermined protocols (programming) that direct users to

take certain routes and reach certain results. The field of philosophy
offers useful principles to guide designing for interactivity. One such
principle is the notion that, as human beings, we are not naturally
cognitive, reflective thinking individuals, but rather, we are
individuals in the world, situated beings relying on intuitive behavior.
In other words, we don’t think first and act later; in fact, it’s quite
the opposite. In this sense, people’s reactions toward designed
protocols are never predictable. Designers of interactions not only
need to spend a lot of time trying to anticipate people’s reactions to
automated protocols but also—and foremost—they need to get their
interaction ideas out there and test them with users in context
throughout the development process.
The third dimension of interactions to be factored in is the plural
nature of interactions. Services are typically based on interactions
that happen over time, following more or less predetermined
frequencies. We interact with certain services daily, with others
weekly, monthly, yearly, and with some, occasionally, and with some,
just once in a lifetime. They may never repeat exactly in the same
way, even if we’re using automated protocols. It’s through the
continuous negotiation of interactions across time that our
perceptions of value in services are shaped: good service is
consistent; bad service is inconsistent and contradictory. When we
interact with a service through different media and channels, the
challenge of consistency is even higher.
As anticipated previously, time is the fourth dimension to be
considered in service design. Balancing perceptions of the
experiences being delivered over time across different aesthetic and
functional channels—both through human-to-human and human-
machine/computer—requires some specific tools. The main time-
based tools developed and used by designers are time-based
narratives, notably service blueprints and user journeys on which
actions and interactions are described as a sequence of frames or a
timeline. Enactment, either live or captured through video, is also a
popular tool to help envision service design narratives. It helps

service designers create narratives and stories that capture how
services are going to unfold and look at them from different
viewpoints.

In service, users actively participate in its production because the
production of the service relies on varying levels of agency from the
user side. Think about it: We need to physically go to a theater, find
a seat, and watch the movie. We need to go online, click a button,
and make a transfer to pay my bill using an online banking service.
Service users are active participants in generating value by bringing
their own knowledge into the service scene: their actions and
interactions with service providers affect the final outcomes.
What might be the practical implications that users, through their
interaction with providers, affect the outcomes of services? First,
service design practitioners need to ensure they acknowledge the
social norms, social contexts, and value systems affecting the
services they are designing for. Second, practitioners need to
account for the complexity of all the moving parts while being able
to navigate the uncertainty that comes with so many unknowns. It’s
difficult not to feel a project is a fragment of a bigger picture.
Uncertainty can be difficult to negotiate with project stakeholders,
including clients.
Services are necessarily coproduced, and as a result, from a design
perspective, the outcome is not always under the designer’s control.
As we will see in Chapter 4, coproduction is being increasingly
recognized, especially in the sphere of public services delivery.
Activating citizen participation in the delivery of public services has
become a strategy to improve the efficiency of public services.
Rooted in communities where services are enacted, residents carry
insider knowledge and can become integral agents within these
public services. User participation, collaboration, and codesign are
key aspects of how to design coproduced services.

Fig 1.14. An example of coproduction in the public sector, Green Thumb
is a program of New York City’s Department of Parks & Recreation that
supports citizens in the care and maintenance of community gardens, by
providing materials and resources that citizens need to take care of the
gardens themselves.

Prominent service scholars argue that services, not goods, are the
basic unit of human exchange. People ask other people for
knowledge, mental, or physical skills that they themselves don’t have
but that are required to get something done. In turn, people asking
for somebody else’s services can also themselves offer services to
others, according to their own knowledge, mental, or physical skills
and to what other people might need and want. In other words,
people trade their capabilities when there’s a market for them.
Physical products, from a terra-cotta pot from the ancient Greeks to
sophisticated personal computers, are in fact the physical
embodiment of the knowledge, mental, and physical skills of one or
a large number of people who were involved in the design and
production of each product.
Wheels, pulleys, internal combustion engines, and integrated chips
are all examples of encapsulated knowledge, which informs matter
and in turn becomes the distribution channel for skill application
(i.e., services). (Vargo and Lusch, 2004)
Through this logic, services are therefore the real base of our
economy. But not everything is a commercial transaction. Think of
how people in a family take care of each other: a mother or father
caring for their children, a daughter or son caring for their elderly
mother, or even your neighbor caring for you when you’re sick.
Services are not only the base of the economy but also the base of
social relationships and interactions.
All the material world is, in fact, a manifestation of combined skills
and knowledge applied to some medium, articulated through
multiple flows of information and materials. This logic expands the
notion of services at large, of how they are perceived and measured
in economic terms, resulting in new paradigms for production and

consumption and our whole value system. Given this dramatic shift
in how services are understood, as a society, we need to change our
mindset toward a different logic, a “service-dominant logic.”
Even if services are the real base of our economy, our cultural
mindset still follows the exchange of goods as the main paradigm for
value creation and exchange. This paradigm shift has yet to take
hold: we are still not fully familiar with a service logic, nor are we
entirely equipped to promote a service revolution comparable to the
Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century. Politicians still
promote bolstering the manufacturing sector as the only way to
create jobs, insurance companies and banks still advertise their
offering as “products,” and mainstream media and political discourse
are still largely product-centric.
Responding to this gap, the service-dominant logic model, proposed
by Vargo and Lusch (2004), is a contemporary and more meaningful
paradigm on which services, rather than goods, are the fundamental
unit of economic exchange. In the service-dominant logic model, no
divide exists between goods and a service, as a service encompasses
goods. What the service-dominant logic proposes is a new way of
seeing goods and services not as two different things, but rather as
the same integrated thing.
Vargo and Lusch have defined eleven foundational principles (FPs)
that summarize service-dominant logic (2004, 2014, 2016).

Fig. 1.15. Eleven foundational premises (FPs) of service-dominant logic,
of which five have been raised to the status of axioms because they
capture the essence of service-dominant logic and from which the other
foundational premises can be derived.

1.6 The false divide between goods and
services
Service literature originally defined services in opposition to goods.
The main features of services were often explained based on what
they are perceived as lacking (instead of what they are or what they
possess/offer): they are not tangible, not homogeneous; they don’t
last; and their production and consumption cannot be separated
from each other.
The IHIP framework, devised by service marketing scholars,
proposes that services can be identified by four key qualities:
• Intangibility: Services are largely intangible, while goods can be
sensed, touched, felt, and tasted.
• Heterogeneity: Because service encounters are largely unique
(or at least those encounters based on human-to-human
interactions) and inseparable from their cultural contexts, service
provisions are performed and experienced in an irregular,
heterogeneous fashion. In contrast, goods tend to result in variable
experiences.
• Inseparability: The production and consumption of services
occur simultaneously; in contrast with products or goods (mass-
produced products), users need to be present during the delivery
process of services. It is the interaction between providers and users
that defines the service delivery.

Fig. 1.16. Services can be largely intangible. Talking to a call center, you
do not see, touch, or taste anything. You don’t even know who the
representatives are or where they are.

Fig. 1.17. Heterogeneity in services means that different people may
experience the same situation in very different ways. Two people may
watch the same play at the same time and yet have different
experiences.
• Perishability: Services, in general, cannot be stored, rendering
them perishable and requiring the synchronization of demand and
supply. This requires significant logistic and managerial effort.
More recent studies propose that services and goods are not
opposed to each other and that defining services in opposition to
products might not make much sense to users or customers. People
do not discriminate between the two; they just want their problem
solved. In addition, the IHIP, albeit useful as a starting point to help
us understand the nature of services, does not account for the fact
that many services may in fact contradict the IHIP rules. Some

services, for example, depend completely on tangible goods, such as
text message services that depend on mobile phones. We may
consider that no real divide exists between goods and services.
Services encompass goods. Back to the principles of the service-
dominant logic, goods and services cannot be seen as two different
things, since they are actually the same thing.
Fig. 1.18. In services, the production and consumption can be
inseparable, occurring simultaneously. You can take food home from a
restaurant, but the service of the restaurant is not only about food
because it involves eating the food freshly prepared in that specific
space with its specific ambience.

Fig. 1.19. Perishability means that many service situations cannot be
stored for later consumption. If seat 16B of this flight on this day isn’t
taken, it is forever lost; the airline will never be able to sell that empty
seat again.

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different content

A. crenula´ta Pk. Pileus thin, broadly ovate, becoming convex or
nearly plane and somewhat striate on the margin, adorned with a few
thin whitish floccose warts or with whitish flocculent patches, whitish
or grayish, sometimes tinged with yellow. Lamellæ close, reaching
the stem, and sometimes forming decurrent lines upon it, floccose
crenulate on the edge, the short ones truncate at the inner extremity,
white. Stem equal, bulbous, floccose mealy above, stuffed or hollow,
white, the annulus slight, evanescent. Spores broadly elliptic or
subglobose, 7.5–10µ long, nearly as broad, usually containing a single
large nucleus.
Pileus 2.5–5 cm. broad. Stem 2.5–5 cm. long, 6–8 mm. thick.
Low ground, under trees. Eastern Massachusetts. September. Mrs. E.
Blackford and George E. Morris.
The volva in this species must be very slight, as its remains quickly
disappear from the bulb of the stem. The remains carried up by the
pileus form slight warts or thin whitish areolate patches. The annulus
is present in very young plants, but is often wanting in mature ones, in
which state the plant might be mistaken for a species of Amanitopsis.
Its true affinity is with the tribe to which A. rubescens belongs. As in
that species, the bulb soon becomes naked and exhibits no remains of
the volva. It is similar to A. farinosa also in this respect, but quite
unlike it in color, in the adornments of the pileus and in the character
of its margin, which is even in the young plant and but slightly striate
in the mature state. Its dimensions are said sometimes to exceed
those here given, and it is reported to have been eaten without harm
and to be of an excellent flavor. I have had no opportunity to try. Peck,
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. 27, January, 1900.
AMANITOP´SIS Roze.
Amanita; opsis, resembling.

aving a universal veil at first completely enveloping the
young plant, which soon bursts through, carrying particles
of it on the pileus, where they appear as scattered warts
readily brushed off; the remainder or volva closely
enwraps the base of the stem. Ring absent. Spores white. This genus
was formerly included in Amanita. It differs from Amanita in the
absence of a ring or collar upon the stem and in the more sheathing
volva. It differs from Lepiota in having a volva.
Close observation is necessary in collecting Amanitopsis for the table.
It has no trace of ring or veil upon the stem. So far as the species are
known no poisonous one exists. But Amanita spreta Pk., which is
deadly, so closely resembles forms of Amanitopsis that those confident
of their knowledge will be deceived. The veil or traces of veil, which
Amanita spreta always has, sometimes so adheres to and wraps the
stem that it is not noticeable without close examination, thus giving to
it every appearance of an Amanitopsis.
The volva of A. spreta is attached for a considerable distance to the
base of the tapering stem, and is not readily removed. This is a guide
to detect it. It is a wolf in sheep’s clothing.
Amanitopsis corresponds to Volvaria in the pink-spored series, in
which, as far as known, there is no poisonous species.
All American species of Amanitopsis are given. Several have not been
tested by the writer because of lack of opportunity.

Grouped by F.D. Briscoe—Studies by C.
McIlvaine. Plate X.
Fig. Page. Fig. Page.
1. Amanitopsis vaginata, 28 5. Mycena galericulata, 127
2. Amanitopsis vaginata, var.
livida,
29 6. Mycena prolifera, 126
3. Amanitopsis nivalis, 29 7. Mycena prolifera (section), 126
4. Amanitopsis strangulata, 30
A. vagina´ta Roze—vagina, a sheath. (Plate X, figs. 1, 2, p: 28.)
Pileus thin, fragile, glossy, smooth except in rare instances where a
few fragments of the volva adhere to it for a time, deeply and
distinctly striate on the margin, sometimes umbonate. Flesh white, in
the dark forms grayish under the skin. Stem ringless, sometimes

smooth, but generally mealy or floccose, hollow or stuffed with a
cottony pith, not bulbous. Volva long, thin, fragile, closely sheathing
yet free from the stem, except in the lower part, easily detachable and
frequently remaining in the ground when the plant is pulled. Color
variable, generally mouse-gray, sometimes livid, tawny-yellow or
white, in one variety a rich date-brown. Spores globose, 8–10µ broad
Peck; elliptical 10×7–8µ Massee.
Var. liv´ida Pers.—livid. Leaden brown, gills dingy. (Plate X, fig. 2, p.
28.)
Var. ful´va Schæff.—yellowish. Tawny-yellow or pale ochraceous.
This plant is widely dispersed, having been reported from many
localities in the United States, also from Nova Scotia and Greenland.
On ground in woods and on margins of woods, under trees, in shaded
grassy places. Sometimes in open stubble and pastures. June to frost.
Mt. Gretna, September, 1899, found a cluster on decayed chestnut
stump. Various colors abound—hazel, brown, gray, yellow, whitish.
The caps and stems are tender as asparagus tips, but without much
distinct flavor when cooked.
Great care must be taken to distinguish these forms from Amanita
spreta Pk. which is poisonous. See heading of genus—Amanitopsis.
A. niva´lis Grev.—snowy. (Plate X, fig. 3, p. 28.) Pileus at first ovate,
then convex or plane, smooth, striate on the thin margin, white,
sometimes tinged with yellow or ochraceous on the disk. Flesh white.
Gills subdistant, white, free. Stem equal, rather tall, nearly smooth,
bulbous, stuffed, white; the volva very fragile, soon breaking up into
fragments or sometimes persisting in the form of a collar-like ring at
the upper part of the bulb. Spores globose, 7.5–10µ in diameter.
Plant 4–6 in. high. Pileus 2–3 in. broad. Stem 2–4 lines thick. July
to October.
It approaches in some respects A. Frostiana, but its larger size,
smooth pileus, lighter color and the absence of an annulus will easily
distinguish it from that species. Peck, 33d Rep. N.Y. State Bot.

Specimens have been repeatedly found by the writer in open oak
woods near Philadelphia.
A strong, unpleasant bitter, which appears to develop while cooking,
renders it unpalatable. It is harmless, but its use is not advised.
A. velo´sa Pk.—velosus, fleecy. Pileus at first subglobose, then bell-
shaped or nearly plane, generally bearing patches of the remains of
the whitish felty or tomentose volva, elsewhere glabrous, becoming
sulcate-striate on the margin, buff or orange-buff. Flesh compact,
white. Gills close, reaching the stem, subventricose, pale cream color.
Stem firm, at first attenuated and tomentose at the top, then nearly
equal, stuffed, white or whitish, closely sheathed at the base by the
thick volva. Spores globose, 10–13µ.
Pileus 2–4 in. broad. Stem 3–4 in. long, 3–4 lines thick.
Under oak trees. Pasadena, California. April. A.J. McClatchie.
This fungus is closely related to A. vaginata, from which it may be
separated by the more adherent remains of the thicker volva which
sometimes cover the whole surface of the pileus, and by the thicker
gills which are somewhat adnate to the stem and terminate with a
decurrent tooth. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, Vol. 22, No. 12.
As it is probable this species will be found elsewhere than California,
and from its close relation to A. vaginata likely to be edible, its
description is here given.
A. strangula´ta (Fr.) Roze—choked, from the stuffed stem. (Plate X,
fig. 4, p. 28.) Pileus at first ovate or subelliptical, then bell-shaped,
convex or plane, warty, slightly viscid when moist, deeply and
distinctly striate on the margin, grayish-brown. Gills free, close, white.
Stem equal or tapering upward, stuffed or hollow, nearly smooth,
white or whitish, the volva soon breaking up into scales or subannular
fragments. Spores globose, 10–13µ.
Plant 4–6 in. high. Pileus 2–4 in. broad. Stem 3–6 lines thick. Peck,
33d Rep. N.Y. State Bot.

A. Ceciliæ B. and Br. is a synonym.
Not distinct in color and general appearance from A. vaginata, but
distinctly separated by its warty pileus and evanescent mouse-colored
volva which does not sheath the stem. Pileus striate when young,
then sulcate. Stem mealy, especially on the upper part.
Woods, open grassy places, wheat stubble, etc. June to September.
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, West Virginia, McIlvaine.
In the latitude of Philadelphia the plant is found in great abundance.
Its rather early appearance, staying quality, delicate consistency and
flavor make it valuable as a food supply.
Pearl color, bluish-gray and gray are the prevailing cap-coloring.
A. adna´ta (W.G.S.) Roze—adnatus, adnate, of the gills. Pileus
about 3 in. across. Flesh thick, whitish, firm, convex, then expanded,
rather moist, pale yellowish-buff, often furnished with irregular, woolly
patches of volva; margin even, extending beyond the gills. Stem 2–4
in. long, ½ in. thick, cylindrical, rough, fibrillose, pale buff, flesh
distinct from that of the pileus, stuffed, then hollow; base slightly
swollen. Volva adnate, white, downy, margin free and lax, sometimes
almost obsolete. Gills truly adnate, crowded, with many intermediate
shorter ones, white. Spores subglobose, with an oblique point, 7–8µ
Massee.
Tender, good flavor, yielding more substance when cooked than any
other Amanitopsis.
A. volva´ta Pk.—possessing a volva. Pileus convex, then nearly
plane, slightly striate on the margin, hairy or floccose-scaly, white or
whitish, the disk sometimes brownish. Gills close, free, white. Stem
equal or slightly tapering upward, stuffed, minutely floccose-scaly,
whitish, inserted at the base in a large, firm, cup-shaped, persistent
volva. Spores elliptical, 10×8µ.
Plant 2–3 in. high. Pileus 2–3 broad. Stem 3–4 lines thick. Peck,
33d Rep. N.Y. State Bot.

The plant is easily recognized by its large, cup-shaped volva and cap,
which is not smooth, as is usual in a species with a persistent
membranous volva, more or less scaly with minute tufts of fibrils or
tomentose hairs. The gills are white in the fresh plant.
Professor Peck notes the species as quite rare. Numerous specimens
occur in the sandy oak woods of New Jersey, and in oak woods near
Angora, Philadelphia. July to October.
Care must be taken to determine the absence of an annulus or any
trace of one. Tender, delicate, without pronounced flavor. Equal to
Amanitopsis vaginata.
A. farino´sa Schw.—covered with farina, meal. Pileus nearly plane,
thin, flocculent-pulverulent, widely and deeply striate on the margin,
grayish-brown or livid-brown. Gills free, whitish. Stem whitish or
pallid, equal, stuffed or hollow, mealy, sub-bulbous, the volva
flocculent-pulverulent, evanescent. Spores variable, elliptical ovate or
subglobose, 6–8µ long.
Plant about 2 in. high. Pileus 1 in. to 15 lines broad. Stem 1–3 lines
thick. July to September.
This is our smallest Amanita (now Amanitopsis). It is neither very
common nor very abundant when it does occur. It is described by
Schweinitz as “solid,” but I have always found it stuffed or hollow.
Peck, 33d Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
A. pusil´la Pk.—small. Pileus thin, broadly convex or nearly plane,
subglabrous, slightly umbonate, even on the margin, pale brown. Gills
narrow, thin, close, free, becoming brownish. Stem short, hollow,
bulbous, the bulb margined by the remains of the membranous volva.
Spores broadly elliptical, 5–6×4µ.
Pileus about 1 in. broad. Stem 8–12 lines long, 1–2 lines thick.
Grassy ground. Gouverneur, St. Lawrence county. September. Mrs.
Anthony. Peck, 50th Rep. N.Y. State Bot.

Edibility not tested.
A. pubes´cens Schw.—downy. Pileus yellow, covered with a thin
pubescence, margin involute. Stem short, about 1 in. in length, at
first white becoming yellowish, bulbous, bulb thick. Volva evanescent.
Gills white.
In grassy grounds. Rare.
North Carolina, Schweinitz, Curtis.
A. agglutina´ta B. and C.—viscid. Pileus 1–2 in. broad, white,
hemispheric then plane, viscid, areolate-scaly from the remains of the
volva, margin thin, sulcate. Stem .5–1.5 in. long, 2 lines thick, short,
solid, bulbous. Volva with a free margin. Gills broad, ventricose,
rotundate-free. Spores elliptic.
In pine woods.
North Carolina, Curtis.
Resembling some of the dwarf forms of A. vaginata but at once
distinguished by its solid stem and decidedly viscid, areolate-squamose
pileus. Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts, 1848.

(Plate XI.)
Grouped by F.D. Briscoe—Studies by C. McIlvaine. PLATE XII.
Fig. Page. Fig. Page.
1. Lepiota americana, 48 3. Lepiota Cepaestipes, 46
2. Lepiota naucinoides, 45 4. Amanita rubescens, 21
LEPIO´TA Fr.
Lepis, a scale.
Pileus generally scaly from the breaking up
of the cuticle and the adherence of the
concrete veil. Gills free, often very distant
from the stem and attached to a cartilaginous
collar. Stem hollow or stuffed, its flesh
distinct from that of the pileus. Ring at first
attached to the cuticle of the pileus, often
movable, sometimes evanescent.

Section of Lepiota procera.
On the ground. Several are found in hot-
houses and hot-beds, and are probably
introduced species.
The universal veil, covering the entire plant
when very young, is closely applied to the
pileus, which from the breaking up of the
cuticle is generally scaly. The stem in most
species differs in substance from the pileus.
This is readily seen by splitting the plant in
half from cap to base. It is easily separated
from the cap, leaving a cup-like depression
therein. Gills usually white. In some species
they are yellow-tinted. In others they become
a dingy red when wounded or ageing.
The veil in this genus, being concrete with the cuticle of the pileus,
never appears as loose warts or patches, neither is there a volva as in
Amanita and Amanitopsis. These three genera are the only ones in the
white-spored series having gills free from the stem. In a few species
the gills are slightly attached to the stem, but are never decurrent
upon it as in Armillaria. When the plant is young it is egg-shaped. It
then gradually spreads, becomes convex, and opens until it is nearly
flat, with a knob in the center.
The only species in this genus known to be poisonous to some
persons is L. Morgani Pk., which is distinguished by its green spores
and white gills becoming green. L. Vittadini has also been regarded
with suspicion.
ANALYSIS OF TRIBES.
A. Pileus Dry.
Proceri (L. procera). Page 35.
Ring movable. The plant is at first entirely enclosed in a universal veil,
which splits around at the base, the lower part disappearing on the

bulb, the upper part attached to the pileus breaking up into scales.
Stem encircled at the top with a cartilaginous collar to which the free,
remote gills are attached.
Clypeolarii (L. clypeolaria). Page 39.
Ring fixed, attached to the upper portion of the universal veil which
sheaths the stem from the base upward, making it downy or scaly
below the ring. The remainder of the veil united with the pileus
breaking up and becoming downy or scaly. Collar at the apex of stem
not so large as in Proceri, hence the gills are not usually so remote.
Taste and smell unpleasant, resembling that of radishes.
Annulosi (annulus, a ring). Page 44.
Ring fixed, somewhat persistent, universal veil closely attached to the
pileus. Collar absent or similar in texture to the stem. Stem, not
sheathed.
Granulosi (L. granulosa). Page 49.
Pileus granular or warty. Universal veil sheathing the stem, at first
continuous from the stem to the pileus, finally rupturing, forming a
ring nearer the base. Stem not so distinctly different from the pileus as
in other sections.
Mesomorphi (L. mesomorpha).
Small, slender, stem hollow. Pileus smooth, dry.
B. Pileus Viscid. Neither Scaly Nor Warty.

Photographed by Dr. J.R. Weist. Plate XIII.
LEPIOTA PROCERA.
A. Pileus Dry.
Proce´ri. Ring movable, etc.
L. proce´ra Scop.—procerus, tall. (Plate XIII, p. 34.) Tall Lepiota,
Parasol Mushroom, in some localities Pasture Mushroom (a misleading
title).
he Flesh not very thick, soft, permanently white. Pileus at first ovate,
finally expanded, cuticle soon breaking up into brown scales,
excepting upon the umbo, umbo smooth, dark-brown, distinct. The

caps vary in shades of brown, sometimes they have a
faint tinge of lavender. Gills whitish, crowded, narrowing
toward the stem, and very remote from it. Stem variable
in length, often very long, tubular, at first stuffed with
light fibrils, quite bulbous at base, generally spotted or
scaly with peculiar snake-like markings below the ring, which is thick,
firm and readily movable. When the stem is removed from pileus it
leaves a deep cavity extending nearly to the cuticle.
Pileus 3–6 in. broad. Stem 5–12 in. high, about ½ in. thick.
White spores elliptical, 14–18×9–11µ Peck; 12–15×8–9µ Massee;
14×10µ Lloyd.
Readily known by its extremely tall stem, shaggy cap, distinct umbo
and the channel between the gills and stem. Resembles no poisonous
species.
Before cooking the scurf should be rubbed from the caps, which alone
should be eaten, as the stem is tough. Though the flesh is thin, the
gills are meaty and have a pleasant, nutty flavor. Fried in butter it has
few equals. It makes a superior catsup.
L. racho´des Vitt. Gr.—a ragged, tattered garment. Pileus very
fleshy, but very soft when full grown, globose then flattened or
depressed, not umbonate, at first incrusted with a thick, rigid, even,
very smooth, bay-brown, wholly continuous cuticle, which remains
entire at the disk but otherwise soon becomes elegantly reticulated
with cracks; these very readily separate into persistent, polygonal,
concentric scales, which are revolute at the margin and attached to
the surface with beautifully radiating fibers, the surface remaining
coarsely fibrillose-downy. Flesh white, immediately becoming saffron-
red when broken, easily separating from the apex of the distinct stem,
which is encircled with a prominent collar. Stem stout, at the first
bulbous with a distinct margin upon the bulb, conical when young,
then elongated, attenuated upward, as much as a span long, very
robust, 1 in. thick, and more at the base, always even, and without a
trace of scales or even of fibrils although the appearance is obsoletely

silky, wholly whitish, hollow within, stuffed with spider-web threads,
the walls remarkably and coarsely fibrous. Ring movable, adhering
longer to the margin of the pileus than to the apex of the stem, hence
rayed with fibers at the circumference, clothed beneath with one or
two zones of scales. Gills very remote, tapering toward each end or
broadest at the middle, crowded, whitish, sometimes reddening.
Stevenson.
Veil remarkable in its development and thick margin.
Spores 6×8µ W.G.S.
Fort Edward, Howe; Westfield, N.Y., Miss L.M. Patchen; Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, McIlvaine.
A heavier species than L. procera, of which by some writers it has
been considered a variety, but it differs in the absence of umbo and
flesh becoming tinged with red.
Stem is decidedly swollen downward. Veil heavy, apparently double,
thickest at margin of cap to which it remains attached in heavy
fragments. It tears from the stem, leaving no mark of ring.
Var. puella´ris Fr.—puella, a girl. Smaller than typical form, shining
white, pileus with downy scales. Not yet reported in America.
Edible qualities similar to those of L. procera. It is sold indiscriminately
with it in London markets.
L. excoria´ta Schaeff.—stripped of its skin. Flesh spongy, rather
thick, white, unchangeable. Pileus at first globose, then flat, hardly
umbonate, pale-fawn or whitish, disk dark; cuticle thin, silky or scaly,
sometimes areolate, more or less peeled toward margin, hence its
name. Gills ventricose, white, free, somewhat remote. Stem
attenuated, hollow or stuffed, short, scarcely bulbous, smooth, white,
not spotted, very distinct from flesh of pileus. Ring movable but not
so freely as that of L. procera.
Stem 1½-2½ high, less than ½ in. thick. Pileus 2–3 in. broad.
Spores 14–15×8–9µ Massee.

In pastures or grassy lawns. May to September.
North Carolina, edible, Curtis; Massachusetts, Frost; California, H. and
M.; Ohio, Morgan; Minnesota, Johnson.
Distinguished from the preceding by its smaller size and short stem
which is scarcely bulbous.
Esculent qualities good.
L. mastoi´dea Fr. Gr.—breast-shaped. Pileus rather thin, ovate, bell-
shaped, then flattened, with a conspicuous acute umbo, cuticle thin,
brownish, breaking up in minute scattered scales; the pileus appears
whitish beneath. Stem hollow, smooth, tough, flexible, attenuated
from the bulbous base to the apex. Ring entire, movable. Gills very
remote, crowded, broad, tapering at both ends, white.
Pileus 1–2 in. broad. Stem 2–3 in. long, 3–4 lines thick at base,
1½-2 lines at apex.
North Carolina, edible, Curtis. It is generally eaten in Europe. In
woods, especially about old stumps. October.
The entire plant is whitish and is well marked by the prominent umbo,
which generally has a depression around it. It has the least substance
of any in this section, and consequently not much value as food.
L. gracilen´ta Krombh.—gracilis, slender. Pileus rather fleshy,
thickest at the disk, ovate then bell-shaped, finally flattened, obscurely
umbonate; at first brownish from the adnate cuticle, which, breaking
up into broad adpressed scales, allows the whitish pileus to be seen
beneath them. Gills remote, very broad, crowded, pallid. Stem
whitish, obscurely scaly, hollow or containing slight fibrils, slightly
bulbous. Ring thin, floccose, vanishing.
Stem 5–6 in. long, 3–5 lines thick. In pastures, also in woods.
Spores 11×8µ W.G.S.

Almost as tall as L. procera, but slighter in stem and pileus; the ring,
instead of being firm and persistent, is thin and fugacious, and the
stem is hardly bulbous.
Edible, but not of the first quality.
Photographed by Dr. J.R. Weist. Plate XIV.
LEPIOTA MORGANI.
L. Mor´gani Pk.—in honor of Professor Morgan. (Plate XIV.) Pileus
fleshy, soft, at first subglobose, then expanded or even depressed,
white, the brownish or yellowish cuticle breaking up into scales except
on the disk. Gills close, lanceolate, remote, white, then green. Stem
firm, equal or tapering upward, subbulbous, smooth, webby-stuffed,
whitish, tinged with brown. Ring rather large, movable. Flesh both of
the pileus and stem white, changing to reddish and then to yellowish
when cut or bruised. Spores ovate or subelliptical, mostly
uninucleate, sordid green, 10–13×7–8µ.
Plant 6–8 in. high. Pileus 5–9 in. broad. Stem 6–12 lines thick. Peck
in Bot. Gaz., March, 1879.
Open dry grassy places. Dayton, Ohio. A.P. Morgan.

This species is remarkable because of the peculiar color of the spores.
No green-spored Agaric, so far as I am aware, has before been
discovered, and no one of the five series, in which the very numerous
species of the genus have been arranged, is characterized in such a
way as to receive this species.
It seems a little hasty to found a series (Viridispori) on the strength of
a single species. Until other species of such a supposed series shall be
discovered it seems best to regard this as an aberrant member of the
white-spored series. The same course has been taken with those
Agarics which have sordid or yellowish or lilac-tinted spores.
It gives me great pleasure to dedicate this fine species to its
discoverer Mr. Morgan. Peck.
Commonly 6–8 in. high, 5–9 in. diameter, though larger specimens are
sometimes found. It is the most conspicuous Agaric in the meadows
and pastures of the Miami valley; it appears to flourish from spring to
autumn whenever there is abundance of rain.
It is heavier and stouter than L. procera and I am disposed to claim
that it is the largest Agaric in the world. Spores 10–12×7–8µ. In
immature specimens they are greenish-yellow. Morgan.
Kansas, Bartholomew (Peck, Rep. 50); Kansas, Cragin; Alabama, U.
and E.; Georgia, Benson; Louisiana, Rev. A.B. Langlois; Michigan, C.F.
Wheeler (Lloyd, Myc. Notes); Texas, Prof. W.S. Carter; Indiana, H.I.
Miller.
L. Morgani is one of the largest, handsomest of the genus. It is very
abundant in the western and southwestern states. Mr. H.I. Miller, Terre
Haute, Ind., writes August 18, 1898: “I have recently measured
several which were more than twelve inches across. At the present
time this mushroom is growing in more abundance throughout Indiana
than any other. It grows luxuriantly in the pastures, generally in grand
fairy rings, five, ten, fifteen feet in diameter. We find it also in the
woods. It is beautifully white and majestic, and these rings can be
seen in meadows where the grass has been eaten close, for half a
mile or more. The gills are white until the cap is almost opened, by
which time the green spores begin to cause the gills to change to

green. The meat is fine and is usually more free from worms than
other mushrooms. Six families, here, have eaten heartily of them. The
experience is that one or two members of each family are made sick,
though in two families, who have several times eaten them, no one
was made sick. I enjoy them immensely, and never feel any the worse
for eating them. I doubt if we have a finer-flavored fungus. The meat
is simply delicious. One fairy ring yields a bushel.”
Prof. W.S. Carter, University of Texas, Galveston, reported to me (and
sent specimens of L. Morganii) the poisoning of three laboring men
from eating this fungus. They were seriously sick, but recovered.
The conclusion is inevitable that this green-spored Lepiota contains a
poison which violently attacks some persons, yet is harmless upon
others.
I have not had opportunity to test it. It should be tested with great
caution.
Clypeola´rii. Clypeus, a shield. Ring fixed; stem sheathed, etc.
L. Frie´sii Lasch.—in honor of Fries. Pileus fleshy, soft, lacerated into
appressed tomentose scales. Stem hollow, with a webby pith,
subbulbous, scaly. Ring superior, pendulous, equal. Gills subremote,
linear, crowded, branched. Fries.
Pileus fleshy but rather thin, convex or nearly plane, clothed with a
soft, tawny or brownish-tawny down, which breaks up into appressed,
often subconfluent scales, the disk rough with small acute, erect
scales. Flesh soft, white. Gills narrow, crowded, free, white, some of
them forked. Stem equal or slightly tapering upward, subbulbous,
hollow, colored like the pileus below the ring, and there clothed with
tomentose fibrils which sometimes form floccose or tomentose scales,
white and powdered above. Ring well developed, flabby, white above,
tawny and floccose-scaly below. Spores 7–8×3–4µ.
Plant 2–5 in. high. Pileus 1–4 in. broad. Stem 2–5 lines thick.

Catskill mountains and East Worcester. July to September.
I have quoted the description of this species as it is found in Epicrisis,
because the American plant which I have referred to it does not in all
respects agree with this description, but comes so near it that it can
scarcely be specifically distinct. In the American plant, so far as I have
seen it, erect, acute scales are always present, especially on the disk,
and the down of the pileus does not always break up into distinct
areas or scales. Neither is the stem usually scaly, but rather clothed
with soft tomentose or almost silky fibrils. The gills are crowded and
some of them are forked. At the furcations there are slight depressions
which interrupt the general level of the edges, and give them the
appearance of having been eaten by insects. The plant has a slight
odor, especially when cut or bruised. Peck, 35th Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
Remarks under L. acutesquamosa apply to L. Friesii, which Fries
himself doubts being distinct from the first. The plants vary greatly in
size, color and habitat. The name—acutesquamosa—carries a
descriptive meaning with it that L. Friesii does not.
It does not appear to have been reported except by Professor Peck,
but probably appears as L. acutesquamosa in other lists.
The edible qualities are excellent.
L. acutesquamo´sa Wein.—acutus, sharp; squama, a scale. Pileus
fleshy, obtuse, at first hairy-floccose, then bristly with erect, acute,
rough scales. Stem somewhat stuffed, stout, bulbous, powdered
above the moderate-sized ring. Gills approximate, lanceolate, simple.
Fries.
Pileus convex or nearly plane, obtuse or broadly subumbonate,
clothed with a soft tawny or brownish-tawny tomentum, which usually
breaks up into imperfect areas or squamæ, rough with erect, acute
scales, which are generally larger and more numerous on the disk.
Gills close, free, white or yellowish. Stem equal, hollow or stuffed
with webby filaments, subbulbous. Spores about 7×3–4µ.

Woods and conservatories. Buffalo, G.W. Clinton; Albany, A.F.
Chatfield; Adirondack mountains and Brewertown, Peck.
The form found in the hot-houses seems to have the tomentum of the
pileus less dense and the erect scales more numerous than in the form
growing in woods. The annulus is frequently lacerated. In the
specimens of the woods the erect scales are sometimes blackish in
color, and they then contrast quite conspicuously with the tawny or
brownish-tawny tomentum beneath them. They vary in size and
shape. Some resemble pointed papillæ, others, being more elongated,
are almost spine-like. These are sometimes curved. They are generally
larger and more numerous on the disk than elsewhere, and often they
are wholly wanting on the margin. Peck, 35th Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
West Philadelphia, 1897, on lawn and growing from trunk of a maple
tree; Mt. Gretna, Pa., mixed woods. McIlvaine.
I first saw specimens of L. acutesquamosa when sent to me by Miss
Lydia M. Patchen, President Westfield Toadstool Club. It was later
found by myself and tested. Specimens were sent to Professor Peck
and identified as L. acutesquamosa.
Caps and stems brownish-purple. The pointed squamules or tufts have
dark-brown points, shaded to a delicate purple at base. Gills light, faint
flesh-color. Veil is silky, transparent, beautiful, quite tenacious—
stretching until cap is well expanded, persistent, though at times
fugacious. Smell like stewed mushrooms. The caps are of excellent
substance and flavor.
L. his´pida Lasch.—rough. Pileus 2–3 in. across. Flesh thin, white,
unchangeable; hemispherical then expanded, umbonate, tomentose or
downy at first from the remains of the universal veil; during expansion
the down becomes broken up into small, spreading, scaly points,
which eventually disappear, umber-brown, sometimes with a tawny
tinge. Gills free but near to the stem, the collar of the pileus
prominent and sheathing the stem, crowded, ventricose, simple,
white. Stem about 3–5 in. long, 3–5 lines thick, attenuated upward,
densely squamosely-woolly up to the superior, membranaceous,

reflexed ring, dingy-brown, stem tubular, but fibrillosely stuffed.
Spores 6–7×4µ Massee.
In margins of and in open mixed woods, under pine trees,
Haddonfield, N.J., July to September, 1892. Quite plentiful year after
year in the same places. The American plant is taller than the English
species, the stem reaching five inches, and the color of the cap a
delicate tawny-brown. Smell slight, but pungent like radishes.
The whole fungus is tender and delicious. It is one of the few Lepiotæ
that stews well.
L. feli´na Pers.—belonging to a cat. Pileus thin, bell-shaped or
convex, subumbonate, adorned with numerous subtomentose or
floccose blackish-brown scales. Gills close, free, white. Stem slender,
rather long, equal or slightly tapering upward, hollow, clothed with
soft, loose, floccose filaments, brown. Ring slight, evanescent.
Spores elliptical, 6–8×4–5µ.
Plant 2–3.5 in. high. Pileus .5–1.5 in. broad. Stem 1–2 lines thick.
Woods. Adirondack Mountains. August and September.
It is easily distinguished from A. rubrotincta by the darker color of the
scales of the pileus, by the loose floccose filaments that clothe the
brown stem, by the fugacious ring and the smaller spores. Peck, 35th
Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
The caps compare favorably with other Lepiotæ in substance and
flavor.
L. crista´ta A. and S.—crista, a tuft, crest. Pileus thin, bell-shaped or
convex, then nearly plane, obtuse, at first with an even reddish or
reddish-brown surface, then white adorned with reddish or reddish-
brown scales formed by the breaking up of the cuticle, the central part
or disk colored like the scales. Gills close, free, white. Stem slender,
hollow, equal, smooth or silky-fibrillose below the ring, whitish. Ring
small, white. Spores oblong or narrowly subelliptical, 5–7×3–4µ.

Plant 1–2 in. high. Pileus .5–1.5 in. broad. Stem 1–2 lines thick.
Grassy places and borders of woods. June to September.
This species is easily known by its small size and the crested
appearance of the white pileus, an appearance produced by the
orbicular unruptured portion of the cuticle that remains like a colored
spot on the disk. The fragments or scales are more close near this
central part and more distant from each other toward the margin,
where they are often wholly wanting. The scales are sometimes very
small and almost granular. In very wet weather the margin of the
pileus in this and some other species becomes upturned or reflexed.
Peck, 35th Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
Found in Woodland Cemetery, Philadelphia. June to September, 1897.
McIlvaine.
Scales were appressed and slightly tinged with brown, often very
small. Caps of same, upturned and bare near margin. Taste sweet,
slightly like new meal. Odor strong.
Cooked it is of good consistency and pleasing to taste.
L. alluvi´na Pk.—alluvies, the over-flowing of a river. Pileus thin,
convex or plane, reflexed on the margin, white, adorned with minute
pale-yellow hairy or fibrillose scales. Gills thin, close, free, white or
yellowish. Stem slender, fibrillose, whitish or pallid, slightly thickened
at the base. Ring slight, subpersistent, often near the middle of the
stem. Spores elliptical, 6–7×4–5µ.
Plant 1–2 in. high. Pileus .5–1 in. broad. Stem 1–1.5 lines thick.
Alluvial soil, among weeds. Albany. July.
In the fresh plant the scales are of a pale yellow or lemon color, but in
drying they and the whole pileus take a deeper rich yellow hue. The
ring is generally remote from the pileus, sometimes even below the
middle of the stem. Peck, 35th Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
In 1897, I found it growing among weeds on lot near University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Seemingly it is a city resident.

The taste and smell are pleasant. Cooked it is tender and savory. Both
stems and caps are good.
L. metulæ´spora B. and Br.—metula, an obelisk. Pileus thin, bell-
shaped or convex, subumbonate, at first with a uniform pallid or
brownish surface, which soon breaks up into small brownish scales,
the margin more or less striate, often appendiculate with fragments of
the veil. Gills close, free, white. Stem slender, equal or slightly
tapering upward, hollow, adorned with soft floccose scales or
filaments, pallid. Ring slight, evanescent. Spores long, subfusiform.
Plant 2–3.5 in. high. Pileus .5–1.5 in. broad. Stem 1–2 lines thick.
Woods. Adirondack mountains. August and September.
This species occurs with us in the same localities as L. felina, which it
very much resembles in size, shape and general characters, differing
only in color, the striate margin of the pileus and the character of the
spores.
The species has a wide range, having been found in Ceylon, England,
Alabama and Kentucky. Peck, 35th Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
This has not been elsewhere noted in the United States, probably from
neglect of the spore characters, being reported as L. clypeolaria.
New Jersey and Pennsylvania. McIlvaine.
Annulo´si. Ring large, fixed; stem not sheathed.
L. holoseri´cea Fr. Gr.—entire, silken. Pileus 3 in. and more broad,
whitish or clay-white, fleshy, soft, convex then expanded, rather plane,
obtuse, floccoso-silky, somewhat fibrillose, becoming even, fragile,
disk by no means gibbous; and wholly of the same color; margin
involute when young. Flesh soft, white. Stem 2½-4 in. long, ½ in.
and more thick, solid, bulbous and not rooted at the base, soft, fragile,
silky-fibrillose, whitish. Ring superior, membranaceous, large, soft,

pendulous, the margin again ascending. Gills wholly free, broad,
ventricose, crowded, becoming pale-white. Fries.
A species well marked from all others. Inodorous.
On soil in flower beds.
Spores elliptical, 7–8×5µ Massee; 6×9µ W.G.S.
Wisconsin, Bundy; Minnesota, Johnson.
Considered esculent in Europe.
L. Vittadi´ni Fr.—in honor of the Italian mycologist. Pileus 3–4 in.
across. Flesh 4–6 lines thick at the disk, becoming very thin at the
margin, white; convex then plane, obtuse or gibbous, densely covered
with small, erect, wart-like scales, altogether whitish. Gills free but
rather close to the stem, 3–4 lines broad, rounded in front, thickish,
ventricose, with a greenish tinge. Stem 2½-3½ in. long, up to ⅔ in.
thick, cylindrical, with numerous concentric rings of squarrose scales,
up to the superior, large ring; whitish, or the edges of the scales often
tipped with red, solid. Fries.
In pastures, etc.
Intermediate between Lepiota and Amanita.
Noted by Fries as poisonous. It may or may not be, but as a matter of
precaution it is described. A large species, pure white, extremely
beautiful.
Massachusetts, Farlow.

Photographed by Dr. J.R. Weist. Plate XV.
LEPIOTA NAUCINOIDES.
L. nauci´na Fr. No translation applicable. Pileus 1–1½ in. broad,
white, the disk of the same color, fleshy, soft, gibbous or obtusely
umbonate when flattened, even, the thin cuticle splitting up into
granules. Stem 1½-3 in. long, stuffed, at length somewhat hollow,
but without a definite tube, attenuated upward from the thickened
base, fibrillose, unspotted, white. Ring superior, tender, but
persistent, adhering to the stem, at length reflexed. Gills free,
approximate, crowded, ventricose, soft, white.
There is a prominent collar, as in the Clypeolarii, embracing the stem.
Stature and appearance of L. excoriata, but commonly smaller, the
superior ring adfixed, etc. Fries.
Spores subglobose, 6–7µ Massee.
L. naucina Fr. is the European species which has its American
counterpart in L. naucinoides Pk. The variations in the American
species are noted under L. naucinoides.
As Amanita phalloides—in its white form—the poisonous white
Amanita, resembles L. naucina or L. naucinoides in some stages of its
growth and may be confounded with it, careful note should be taken

of their external differences. In L. naucinoides the bulb and stem are
continuous, each passing into the other imperceptibly; in A. phalloides
the junction of stem and bulb is abrupt and remains so, and the bulb
is more or less enwrapped in the volva. The ring is also larger than in
L. naucinoides and is pendulous, and the gills are permanently white.
A certain means of distinguishing between them is by the application
of heat as in cooking. On toasting both it will be found that the gills of
the Amanita remain white, but those of the Lepiota turn quickly
brown.
L. naucinoi´des Pk. No translation applicable. (Plates Plate XV, XII
fig. 2, p. 32.) Pileus soft, smooth, white or snowy-white. Gills free,
white, slowly changing with age to a dirty pinkish-brown or smoky-
brown color. Stem ringed, slightly thickened at the base, colored like
the pileus. Spores subelliptical, uninucleate, white, 8–10 long×5–8µ
broad. Peck, 48th Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
Kansas, Cragin; Wisconsin, Bundy; New Jersey, Ellis; Iowa, Macbride;
New York, Peck, 23d, 29th, 35th Rep.; Indiana, H.I. Miller, Dr. J.R.
Weist.
L. naucinoides Pk. is the American counterpart of L. naucina Fr., a
European species, excepting that the spores of the latter are described
as globose. The caps are ovate when young and usually from 1½-3 in.
across when expanded, but occasionally reach 4 in., smooth, but
frequently rough or minutely cracked in the center, white or varying
shades of white deepening in color at the summit. In a rare form var.
squamo´sa, large, thick scales occur which are caused by the breaking
up of the cap surface. When young the gills are white or faintly yellow,
becoming pinkish or dull brown in age. The pinkish hue is not always
apparent. The outer edge of the veil or ring is thickest; usually it is
firmly attached to the stem, but movable rings are frequently noticed.
When the plant ages the ring is often missing, but traces of it are
always discernible. Stem rarely equal, often it is distinctly bulbous,
generally tapering upward from a more or less enlarged base, hollow
when fully grown, until then containing cottony fibers within the cavity
or appearing solid, 2–3 in. long, ¼-½ in. thick.

Its habitat is similar to that of the common mushroom—lawns,
pastures, grassy places—though unlike the latter it is found in woods.
Until thoroughly acquainted with it, specimens found in woods and
supposed to be L. naucinoides should not be eaten. An Amanita might
be mistaken for it. It is readily distinguishable from the common
mushroom and its allies by the color of the gills and spores which are
white, and differences in stem and veil.
It is found from July until after hard frosts. It was first reported edible
by Professor Peck in 1875, under the name of Agaricus naucinus.
The L. naucinoides is rewarding the favor with which it has been
received as an esculent, it being equal to the common mushroom and
quite free from insects. Large crops of it are reported from all over the
country, and from many sections it is told of as a stranger. During
1897–98 the author has found it in plenty upon ground familiar to him
for years, upon which it had not previously shown itself. The common
mushroom must look to its laurels.
Its cultivation as a marketable crop is possible and probable.
L. cepæsti´pes Sow.—cepa, an onion; stipes, stem. (Plate XII, fig. 3,
p. 32.) Pileus thin, at first ovate, then bell-shaped or expanded,
umbonate, soon adorned with numerous minute brownish scales,
which are often granular or mealy, folded into lines on the margin,
white or yellow, the umbo darker. Gills thin, close, free, white,
becoming dingy with age or in drying. Stem rather long, tapering
toward the apex, generally enlarged in the middle or near the base,
hollow. Ring thin, subpersistent. Spores subelliptical, with a single
nucleus, 8–10×5–8µ.
Plant often cespitose, 2–4 in. high. Pileus 1–2 in. broad. Stem 2–3
lines thick.
Rich ground and decomposing vegetable matter. Also in graperies and
conservatories. Buffalo, G.W. Clinton; Albany, A.F. Chatfield. Peck, 35th
Rep. N.Y. State Bot.
Spores elliptical, 7–8×4µ Massee; 8×4µ W.G.S.; 8–10×5–8µ Peck.

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