analog communication and introduction of AM

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS
Prepared
By
Dr.P.G.Krishna Mohan, Professor
Dr. V Siva Raju, Professor
Dr.P.Munaswamy, Professor
T.Nagarjuna, Asst. Professor

Overview
Communication is the transfer of information from one place to
another.
This should be done
- as efficiently as possible
- with as much fidelity/reliability as possible
- as securely as possible
Communication System: Components/subsystems act together to
accomplish information transfer/exchange.

Elements of a Communication System
Input
message
Output
message
Channel
Transmitter
Input
Transducer

Input Transducer: The message produced by a source must be
converted by a transducer to a form suitable for the particular
type of communication system.
Example: In electrical communications, speech waves are
converted by a microphone to voltage variation.
Transmitter: The transmitter processes the input signal to
produce a signal suits to the characteristics of the transmission
channel.
Signal processing for transmission almost always involves
modulation and may also include coding. In addition to
modulation, other functions performed by the transmitter are
amplification, filtering and coupling the modulated signal to the
channel.

Channel: The channel can have different forms: The atmosphere (or
free space), coaxial cable, fiber optic, waveguide, etc.
The signal undergoes some amount of degradation from noise,
interference and distortion
Receiver: The receiver’s function is to extract the desired signalfrom
the received signal at the channel output and to convert it to a form
suitable for the output transducer.
Other functions performed by the receiver: amplification (the received
signal may be extremely weak), demodulation and filtering.
Output Transducer: Converts the electric signal at its input into the
form desired by the system user.
Example: Loudspeaker, personal computer (PC), tape recorders.

analog communication and introduction of AM

• Once this information is received, the low frequency information
must be removed from the high frequency carrier. This process is
known as “ Demodulation”.

What are the reasons for modulation?
1. Frequency division multiplexing (To support multiple transmissions
via a single channel)To avoid interference

M1(f)
M(f)
Multiplexed signal
f
0
0 f1 f2
f
+
M2(f)
f
0

What are the different Forms of Amplitude
Modulation ?
1. Conventional Amplitude Modulation (DSB-LC)
(Alternatively known as Full AM or Double Sideband with
Large carrier (DSB-LC) modulation
2. Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) modulation
3. Single Sideband (SSB) modulation
4. Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation

AM Signal Waveform
% Positive modulation= 50%
% Negative modulation =50%
Overall Modulation = 50%
Eeng 360 18
Amax = 1.5Ac
Amin = 0.5 Ac

AM – Percentage Modulation
Under modulated (<100%) 100% modulated Over Modulated (>100%)
Eeng 360 20
Envelope Detector
Can be used
Envelope Detector
Gives Distorted signal

Therefore The full AM signal may be written as
s(t) Ac(1m cos(mt)) cos(ct)
cos Acos B 1/ 2[cos( AB) cos( A B)]
s(t)Ac (cosct)
mAc
2
cos(c m)t
mAc
2
cos(c m )t

Draw the Frequency Spectrum of the above AM signal
and calculate the Bandwidth
fc-fm
fC fc+fm
2fm

8. Draw Frequency Spectrum for a complex input
signal with AM
fc-fm fc fc+fm

Frequency Spectrum of an AM signal
The frequency spectrum of AM waveform contains three parts:
1. A component at the carrier frequency fc
2. An upper side band (USB), whose highest frequency
component is at fc+fm
3. A lower side band (LSB), whose highest frequency
component is at fc-fm
The bandwidth of the modulated waveform is twice the
information signal bandwidth.

• Because of the two side bands in the frequency spectrum its often
called Double Sideband with Large Carrier.(DSB-LC)
• The information in the base band (information) signal is
duplicated in the LSB and USB and the carrier conveys no
information.

Modulation Index (m)
• m is merely defined as a parameter, which determines the
amount of modulation.
• What is the degree of modulation required to establish a
desirable AM communication link?
Answer is to maintain m<1.0 (m<100%).
• This is important for successful retrieval of the original
transmitted information at the receiver end.

A
A
A A A
c
c c
AM – Normalized Average Power
The normalized average power of the AM signal is
s2
t 
1
2
gt2

1
2
2
1 mt2
1 2
1 2mt m2
t
2 c
1 2


2 c
2
mt 
1
2
2
m2
t 

If the modulation contains no dc level, then mt  0
The normalized power of the AM signal is
Discrete Carrier Power Sideband power
Eeng 360 27
s2
t  
1
2
A 
2
c
1
2
A m2
t
2
c



Eeng 360 28
  f  fc   f  fc M  f  fc
P c 1 m t
AM – Modulation Efficiency
 Definition : The Modulation Efficiency is the percentage of the totalpower
of the modulated signal that conveys information.
Only “Sideband Components” – Convey information
m2
t 
Modulation Efficiency: E  100
1 m2
t 

Highest efficiency for a 100% AM signal : 50% - square wave modulation
Normalized Peak Envelope Power (PEP) of the AM signal:

A2
    2
PEP
2
Voltage Spectrum of the AM signal:
S( f )  Ac

2
 Mf  fc   
Unmodulated Carrier
Spectral Component
Translated Message Signal
max

A
Power of an AM signal
Suppose that a 5000-W AM transmitter is connected to a 50 ohm load;
Then the constant Ac is given by
2
c
2 50
 5,000  Ac  707 V
If the transmitter is then 100% modulated by a 1000-Hz test tone ,
the total (carrier + sideband) average power will be
 1  A2
   1 
1.5 

c

  1.5 5000 7,500W  m2
t   for 100% modulation 

2  50 
  2 


The peak voltage (100% modulation) is (2)(707) = 1414 V across the 50 ohm load.
 1  A2

The peak envelope power (PEP)is 4 

c

  4 5000 20,000W

2  50 




The modulation efficiency would be 33% since < m2(t) >=1/2
Eeng 360 29
Without
Modulation
1

Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier
(DSB-SC) Modulation
• The carrier component in full AM or DSB-LC does not convey
any information. Hence it may be removed or suppressed
during the modulation process to attain higher power
efficiency.
• The trade off of achieving a higher power efficiency using DSB-
SC is at the expense of requiring a complex and expensive
receiver due to the absence of carrier in order to maintain
transmitter/receiver synchronization.

Derive the Frequency Spectrum for Double Sideband
Suppressed Carrier Modulation (DSB-SC)
1 Consider the carrier
sc (t)  Accos(ct) where c  2fc
2 modulated by a single sinusoidal signal
sm (t)  Am cosmt where m 2fm
3 The modulated signal is simply the product of these two
s(t)  Ac cos(ct)Am cos(mt)
 Ac Am cos(ct) cos(mt)
since cos A cos B 
1
cos( A 
2
B) cos( A  B)

Am Ac
2 cos(c  m )t 
Am Ac
2 cos(c m )t




USB




LSB

Frequency Spectrum of a DSB-SC AM Signal
fc-fm fc fc+fm
X
sm (t) Amcosmt s(t)  Accos(ct)Am cos(mt)
sc (t)  Ac cosct

• All the transmitted power is contained in the two sidebands (no
carrier present).
• The bandwidth is twice the modulating signal bandwidth.
• USB displays the positive components of sm(t) and LSB displays the
negative components of sm(t).

Generation and Detection of DSB-SC
• The simplest method of generating a DSB-SC signal is merely
to filter out the carrier portion of a full AM (or DSB-LC)
waveform.
• Given carrier reference, modulation and demodulation
(detection) can be implemented using product devices or
balanced modulators.

BALANCED MODULATOR
Sm(t) Accos(ct)
Carrier
Accos(ct)
AM Modulator 1
AM Modulator 2
-Sm(t)
S(t)
DSB-SC
Sm(t) S1(t)
S2(t)

• The two modulators are identical except for the sign
reversal of the input to one of them. Thus,
s1 (t)Ac(1m cos(mt)) cos(ct)
s2 (t) Ac(1mcos(mt)) cos(ct)
s(t) s1(t) s2 (t)
 2mAc cos(mt)cos(ct)

COHERENT (SYNCHRONOUS) DETECTOR OR
DSB-SC (PRODUCT DETECTOR)
• Since the carrier is suppressed the envelope no longer
represents the modulating signal and hence envelope
detector which is of the non-coherent type cannot be
used.
X
v(t)
DSB-SC Signal s(t) LPF
Cosct
Local Oscillator
vo(t)

v(t) s(t)cos(ct)  2mAc cos(mt)cos(ct)cos(ct)
 2
Am
Ac
Accos( t)cos2
(ct)
 2A cos( 1 cos2ct 

m mt) 
 2 
 Am cos(mt) Amcos(mt)cos(2ct)
since sm (t) Am cos(mt)
 sm(t) sm(t)cos( 2ct)




Unwanted term( removed byLPF)
m

• It is necessary to have synchronization in both frequency and phase
between the transmitter (modulator) & receiver (demodulator),
when DSB-SC modulation ,which is of the coherent type, is used.
Both phase and frequency must be known to demodulate DSB-SC
waveforms.

LACK OF PHASE SYNCHRONISATION
Let the received DSB-SC signal be
sDSBSC (t) 
if  is unknown,
sm (t)cosct  Ac
v(t)  sDSBSC (t)cosct
 Acsm (t)cosct  cosct

Ac
2
sm (t)cos cos2ct 

Output of LPF
vo (t)  Ac
s
m
(t)cos

But we want just
vo (t)  Ac
s
2
m
(t)
Due to lack of phase synchronization, we will see that the wanted
signal at the output of LPF will be attenuated by an amount of cos.
In other words, phase error causes an attenuation of the output
signal proportional to the cosine of the phase error.
The worst scenario is when =/2, which will give rise to zero or no
output at the output of the LPF.

LACK OF FREQUENCY SYNCHRONISATION
Suppose that the local oscillator is not stable at fc but at
fc+ f, then v(t) sDSBSC (t)cosc  t
 Ac sm (t)cosct cosc  t

Ac
2
sm(t)cost  cos2ct 


Output of LPF
vo (t)  Ac
s
2
m
(t)cos t
Thus, the recovered baseband information signal will vary
sinusoidal according to cos  t

This problem can be overcome by adding an extra
synchronization circuitry which is required to detect  and
 t and by providing the carrier signal to the receiver.
A synchronizer is introduced to curb the synchronization
problem exhibited in a coherent system.
Let the baseband signal be
sm (t) 
Received DSB-SC signal
Am cosmt
s(t) Acsm (t)cosct

A A
A A
SYNCHRONISER
Mathematical analysis of the synchronizer is shown below:
s2
(t)  A2
A2 cos2
 t cos2
 t
c m m c
2 2
c m
4

A2
A2
1
 
cos 2mt

1

cos2ct
    
c m
1
4
cos2 mt cos2 ct cos 2 mt cos 2 ct

A2
A2


    
1
   
1
  

c m
1 cos2 mt cos2 ct cos2 c m t cos2 c m t
4  2 2 

Output of BPF 2 2
c m
cos2ct
( )2 PLL BPF  2

Output of frequency divider
k cosct
where k is a constant of proportionality.
DISADVANTAGE OF USING COHERENT SYSTEMS
• The frequency and phase of the local oscillator signal must
be very precise which is very difficult to achieve.
It requires additional circuitry such as synchronizer circuit
and hence the cost is higher.

Single Side Band Modulation (SSB)
How to generate SSB signal?
• Generate DSB-SC signal
• Band-pass filter to pass only one of the sideband
and suppress the other.
For the generation of an SSB modulated signal
to be possible, the message spectrum must have
an energy gap centered at the origin.

A A
A

m
c
Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)
• Power in a AM signal is given by s2
t 
1
2
2 1 2
c
2
c m2
t
 
Carrier Power Sideband power
 DSBSC is obtained by eliminating carrier component
If m(t) is assumed to have a zero DC level, then
Spectrum 

S( f ) 
Ac
M f
2
 fc  Mf  fc 

Power  s2
t 
1
2
2 2
t

Modulation Efficiency  E 

Disadvantages of DSBSC:
100 100%
• Less information about the carrier will be delivered to the receiver.
• Needs a coherent carrier detector at receiver Eeng 360 53
m2
t
m2
t
s(t)  Acm(t)cosct

DSBSC Modulation
An Example of message energy spectral density.
Energy spectrum of the DSBSC modulated message signal.
Eeng 360 55
B
s(t)  Acm(t)cosct
No Extra Carrier
component
2B

Carrier Recovery for DSBSC Demodulation
 Coherent reference for product detection of DSBSC can not be obtained bythe
use of ordinary PLL because there are no spectral line components at fc.
Eeng 360 56

Carrier Recovery for DSBSC Demodulation
 A squaring loop can also be used to obtain coherent reference carrier for
product detection of DSBSC. A frequency divider is needed to bring thedouble
carrier frequency to fc.
Eeng 360 57

Single Sideband (SSB) Modulation
An upper single sideband (USSB) signal has a zero-valued spectrum for f  fc
A lower single sideband (LSSB) signal has a zero-valued spectrumfor f  fc
 SSB-AM – popular method ~ BW is same as that of the modulating signal.
Note: Normally SSB refers to SSB-AM type of signal
Eeng 360 58
USSB LSSB

H(f)
j
-j

Single Sideband Signal
Theorem : A SSB signal has Complex Envelope and bandpass form as:
st Acmtcosct  m̂(t) sin ct


m̂(t) – Hilbert transform of m(t) m̂t mtht

Where ht
1
t
Hf  ht

and Hf
 j,

j,
f  0
f  0
Hilbert Transform corresponds to a -900 phase shift
f
Eeng 360 59
gt Ac mt jm̂t
Upper sign (-) 
Lower sign (+) 
USSB
LSSB


Chapter 3
FREQUENCY MODULATION

INTRODUCTION
3 properties of an analog signal can bemodulated
by information signal:
oAmplitude - - -> produce AM
oFrequency - - - > produce FM
oPhase - - - > produce PM
FM & PM are forms of angle modulation and often
referred as frequency modulation.

FM VS AM
FM is considered to be superior to AM.
Transmission efficiency:
AM use linear amplifier to produced the final RF signal.
FM has constant carrier amplitude so it is not necessary to
use linear amplifier.
Fidelity (capture effect):
The stronger signal will be capture and eliminate the weaker.
In AM, the weaker signal can be heard in the background.
Noise immunity (noise reduction):
Constant carrier amplitude.
FM receiver have limiter circuit

Disadvantages of FM
Use too much spectrum space.
Requiring a wider bandwidth
Reduce modulation index to minimize BW
but in FM although we reduced the
modulation index, BW is still larger.
typically used at high frequencies (VHF,UHF
& microwave frequencies
More complex circuitry

(t)  Fvm (t)
ANGLE MODULATION
Amplitude of the modulated carrier is held constant and either the
phase or the time derivative of the phase of the carrier is varied linearly
with the message signal m(t).
General angle-modulated signal is given by
mt Vc cosct t
In angle modulation, (t) is prescribed as being a function ofthe
modulating signal
If vm(t) is the modulating signal, angle modulation is expressed as
vm (t)  Vm sin(mt)
where
m  2 fm

FM OR PM ?
FM PM
Instantaneous frequency of the carrier
is varied from its reference value by
an amount proportional to the
modulating signal amplitude
Freq. carrier - - - > directly varied
Phase carrier - - -> indirectly varied
Phase angle of the carrier is varied
from its reference value by an
amount proportional to the
modulating signal amplitude
Phase carrier - - - > directly varied
Freq. carrier - - -> indirectly varied
Both must occur whenever either form of angle modulation is performed

fc-∆f fc fc+∆f f
vm(t) = Vm cos 2πfmt
-Vm 0 +Vm
2∆f
∆f ∆f

phase
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
• Instantaneous frequency deviation
Instantaneous change in the frequency of the carrier and is
defined as the first time derivative of the instantaneous phase
deviation
• Instantaneous frequency
the precise frequency of the carrier at any given instant of time
and is defined as the first time derivative of the instantaneous
instantaneous frequency deviation   '(t) rad/s
or 
 '(t) rad/s

cycle
 Hz
2 rad/cycle s
instantaneous frequency   (t) 
d
 t (t)
i
dt
c
 c  '(t) rad/s

• Substituting 2fc for c gives
• Frequency modulation is angle modulation in which the
instantaneous frequency deviation, ’(t), is proportional
to the amplitude of the modulating signal, and the
instantaneous phase deviation is proportional to the
integral of the modulating signal voltage.
instantaneous frequency  fi (t)
and  (t) 

2
rad 
f
cycles 
 '(t)  2 f  '(t) rad/s
i 
 cycle



c
s


c

DEVIATION SENSITIVITY
• For modulating signal vm(t), the frequency modulation are
frequency modulation = ’(t) = kfvm(t) rad/s
where kf are constant and are the deviation sensitivities of the
frequency modulator.
• Deviation sensitivities are the output-versus-input transfer
function for the modulators, which gave the relationship
between what output parameter changes in respect to
specified changes in the input signal.
• frequency modulator,
kf 
rad/s   
V 
V

 

FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)
• Variation of d/dt produces Frequency Modulation
• Frequency modulation implies that d/dt is proportionalto
the modulating signal.
• This yields
vFM (t)  Vc sinct (t)
V sin 
c

 ct   '(t)dt
 

V sin 
c

 ct  k v (t)dt
 f m


V sin 
c

 ct  k V sin (t)dt
f m  m


 V sin

t 
c
k V
f m
c
 
cos (t)
m 

m 

Derive the FM signal using both cosine wave
signal.
v(t) Vc cosct (t)
vm (t)  Vm cosmt
for PM
vPM (t) Vc cosct  kpvm (t)
Vc cosct  kpVm cos(mt)
for FM
vFM (t) Vc cosct  kf vm (t)dt
Vc cosct  kf Vm cos(mt)dt
Vc cosct  kf Vm cos(mt)dt
V cos  t 
 k V
f m
c 

c

sin( t)

m 
m 

FM WAVEFORM
Phase and Frequency modulation ; (a) carrier signal (b) modulating signal (c)
frequency modulated wave (d) phase modulated wave

• Carrier amplitude remains constant
• Carrier frequency is changed by the modulating signal.
amplitude of the information signal varies, the carrier frequency shift
proportionately.
modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier frequency
increases.
modulating signal amplitude varies, the carrier frequency varies below
and above it normal center or resting, frequency with no modulation.
• The amount of the change in carrier frequency producedby
the modulating signal known as frequency deviation fd.
• Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum
amplitude of the modulating signal.
• The frequency of the modulating signal determines the
frequency deviation rate

vFM (t) Vc sinct  cosm (t)
MODULATION INDEX
• Directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulatingsignal
and inversely proportional to the frequency of the modulating
signal
• Ratio of the frequency deviation and the modulating frequency
• FM equation :
•  as modulation index :
Example:
– Determine the modulation index for FM signal with modulating
frequency is 10KHz deviated by ±10kHz.
 Answer : (20KHz/10KHz) = 2 .0 (unitless)
– The total frequency change, 10kHz x 2 is called the carrier swing
 
kf Vm
m

fc
fm

Example:
– a simple transmitter with an assigned rest frequencyof
100MHz deviated by a ±25kHz, the carrier changes
frequency with modulation between the limits of
99.975MHz and 100.025MHz
– The total frequency change, 25kHz x 2 is called the
carrier swing
• Table 1 display the transmission band that use FM and the
legal frequency deviation limit for each category
• Deviation limits are based on the quality of the intended
transmissions, wider deviation results in higher fidelity
• The frequency deviation is a useful parameter for
determining the bandwidth of the FM-signals

Display the transmission band that use FM and the legal
frequency deviation limit for each category
Specifications for transmission of FM signal

PERCENT MODULATION
• Simply the ratio of the frequency deviation actually
produced to the maximum fre d
by law stated in percent form
• For example if a given modulating signal produces ±50kHz
frequency deviation, and the law stated that maximum
frequency deviation allowed is ±75kHz, then
% modulation =
50kHz
100  67%
75kHz
quency deviation allowe
% modulation 
factual
fmax

A 1 MHz carrier freq with a measured sensitivity of
3 kHz/V is modulated with a 2 V, 4 kHz sinusoid.
Determine
1. the max freq deviation of the carrier
2. the modulation index
3. the modulation index if the modulation voltage is
doubled
4. the modulation index for vm(t)=2cos[2π(8kHz)t)]V
5. express the FM signal mathematically for a cosine
carrier & the cosine-modulating signal of part 4.
Carrier amplitude is 10V

FM RADIO FREQUENCY
• Commercial radio FM band, 88MHz – 108MHz
• Each station allotted to a frequency deviation of ±75kHz (150
carrier swing) and 25kHz of guard band added above and
below the carrier frequency swing
• Total bandwidth is 200kHz
• Therefore, maximum of 100 stations can be made available

FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF FM
WAVES

BESSEL TABLE
, 























Tabulated value for Bessel Function for the first kind of the nth order

• The first column gives the modulation , while the first row gives the
Bessel function.
• The remaining columns indicate the amplitudes of the carrier and
the various pairs of sidebands.
• Sidebands with relative magnitude of less than 0.001 havebeen
eliminated.
• Some of the carrier and sideband amplitudes have negative signs.
This means that the signal represented by that amplitude is simply
shifted in phase 180 (phase inversion).
• The spectrum of a FM signal varies considerably in bandwidth
depending upon the value of the modulation index. The higherthe
modulation index, the wider the bandwidth of the FM signal.
• With the increase in the modulation index, the carrier amplitude
decreases while the amplitude of the various sidebandsincreases.
With some values of modulation index, the carrier can disappear
completely.

PROPERTIES OF BESSEL FUNCTION
• Property - 1:
For n even,
we have Jn() = J-n()
For n odd,
we have Jn() = (-1) J-n()
Thus,
Jn() = (-1)n J-n ()
• Property - 2:
Property - 3:
For small values of the modulation index , we have
J0()  1
J1()  /2
J3()  0 for n > 2

n

J () 1
2
n

FM BANDWIDTH
• The total BW of an FM signal can be determined by knowing the
modulation index and Bessel function.
N = number of significant sidebands
fm = modulating signal frequency (Hz)
• Another way to determine the BW is use Carson’s rule
• This rule recognizes only the power in the most significant
sidebands with amplitude greater than 2% of the carrier.
BW  2 fm N

BW  242.5
 20kHz
Calculate the bandwidth occupied by a FM signal with a
modulation index of 2 and a highest modulating frequency
of 2.5 kHz. Determine bandwidth with table of Bessel
functions.
Referring to the table, this produces 4 significant pairs of
sidebands.

m
B  BW  2f 2 f  2f (1  1 )
T m
or

= 2 fm 1  
CARSON’S RULE
fd (max) = max. frequency deviation
fm (max) = max. modulating frequency
• Carson’s rule always give a lower BW calculated with the
formula BW = 2fmN.
• Consider only the power in the most significant
sidebands whose amplitudes are greater than 1% of the
carrier.
• Rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM signal
generated by a single of frequency f as follows:
BW  2[ fd (max)  fm(max) ]

For an FM modulator with a modulation index 
= 1, a modulating signal
vm(t) = Vmsin(2π1000t) and unmodulated
carrier
vc(t) = 10sin(2π500kt), determine
a) Number of sets of significant sideband
b) Their amplitude
c) Then draw the frequency spectrum showing their
relative amplitudes

For an FM modulator with a peak freq deviation
Δf = 10kHz, a modulating signal freq fm= 10kHz, Vc
=10V and 500kHz carrier, determine
a) Actual minimum bandwidth from the Bessel
function table
b) Approximate minimum bandwidth using Carson’s
rule
c) Plot the output freq spectrum for the Bessel
approximation

DEVIATION RATIO (DR)
• Minimum bandwidth is greatest when maximum freq
deviation is obtained with the maximum modulating
signal frequency
• Worst case modulation index and is equal to the
maximum peak frequency deviation divided bythe
maximum modulating signal frequency
• Worst case modulation index produces the widest
output frequency spectrum
• Mathematically,
DR 
max peak freq deviation

fmax
max mod signalfreq fm(max)

• Determine the deviation ratio and bandwidth for the worst
case (widest bandwidth) modulation index for an FM
broadcast band transmitter with a maximum frequency
deviation of 75kHz and a maximum modulating signal
frequency of 15kHz
• Determine the deviation ratio and maximum bandwidth for
an equal modulation index with only half the peakfrequency
deviation and modulating signal frequency

POWER IN ANGLE-MODULATED SIGNAL
• The power in an angle-modulated signal is easily
computed
P = VC
2/2R W
• Thus the power contained in the FM signal is
independent of the message signal. This is animportant
difference between FM and AM.
• The time-average power of an FM signal may also be
obtained from
vFM (t)  Vc cos(2 fct  (t))

An FM signal is given as vFM(t)=12cos[(6π106t)
+ 5sin(2π x 1250t)] V. Determine
a. freq of the carrier signal
b. freq of the modulating signal
c. modulation index
d. freq deviation
e. power dissipated in 10 ohm resistor.

Determine the unmodulated carrier power for
the FM modulator given that  =1, Vc=10 V,R =
50 Ω. Then, determine the total power in the
angle-modulated wave.
Solution:
 not exactly equal because values in Bessel
table have been rounded off.

An FM signal expressed as
is measured in a 50 ohm antenna. Determine the
following :-
a. total power
b. modulation index
c. peak freq deviation
d. modulation sensitivity if 200 mV is required to achieve part c
e. amplitude spectrum
f. bandwidth (99%) and approximate bandwidth by Carson’s
rule
g. power in the smallest sideband of the 99% BW
h. total information power
v (t) 1000cos(2107
t  0.5sin 2104
t)
FM

An FM signal with 5W carrier power is
fluctuating at the rate of 10000 times per
second from 99.96 MHz to 100.04 MHz. Find
a. carrier freq
b. carrier swing
c. freq deviation
d. modulation index
e. power spectrum

In an FM transmitter, the freq is changing between 100
MHz to 99.98 MHz, 400 times per seconds. The
amplitude of the FM signal is 5 V, determine :-
1. carrier and modulating freq
2. carrier freq swing
3. amplitude spectrum
4. bandwidth by using Bessel Table and Carson’s rule
5. average power at the transmitter if the modulator
carrier power is 5 W.

FM SIGNAL GENERATION
• They are two basic methods of generatingfrequency-
Modulated signals:
– Direct Method
– Indirect Method

fi  fc  k f vm(t)
DIRECT FM
• In a direct FM system the instantaneous frequency is directly
varied with the information signal. To vary the frequency of
the carrier is to use an Oscillator whose resonant frequency is
determined by components that can be varied. The oscillator
frequency is thus changed by the modulating signal
amplitude.
• For example, an electronic Oscillator has an output frequency
that depends on energy-storage devices. There are a wide
variety of oscillators whose frequencies depend on a
particular capacitor value. By varying the capacitor value, the
frequency of oscillation varies. If the capacitor variations are
controlled by vm(t), the result is an FM waveform

INDIRECT FM
• Angle modulation includes frequency modulation FM and
phase modulation PM.
• FM and PM are interrelated; one cannot change withoutthe
other changing. The information signal frequency also
deviates the carrier frequency in PM.
• Phase modulation produces frequency modulation. Sincethe
amount of phase shift is varying, the effect is that, as if the
frequency is changed.
• Since FM is produced by PM , the later is referred toas
indirect FM.
• The information signal is first integrated and then used to
phase modulate a crystal-controlled oscillator, whichprovides
frequency stability.

NOISE AND PHASE SHIFT
• The noise amplitude added to an FM signal
introduces a small frequency variation or phase
shift, which changes or distorts the signal.
• Noise to signal ratio N/S
• Signal to noise ration S/N
N

Frequency
deviation produced by noise
S Maximum allowed deviation
N
S

1
N
S

INTERFERENCE
• A major benefit of FM is that interfering signals on thesame
frequency will be effectively rejected.
• If the signal of one is more than twice the amplitude of the
other, the stronger signal will "capture" the channel and will
totally eliminate the weaker, interfering signal.
• This is known as the capture effect in FM.
• In FM, the capture effect allows the stronger signal to
dominate while the weaker signal is eliminated.
• However, when the strengths of the two FM signals begin to
be nearly the same, the capture effect may cause the signals
to alternate in their domination of the frequency.

• Despite the fact that FM has superior noise rejectionqualities,
noise still interferes with an FM signal. This is particularly true
for the high-frequency components in the modulating signal.
• Since noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy, it contains a
considerable number of harmonics and otherhigh-frequency
components.
• These high frequencies can at times be larger in amplitude
than the high-frequency content of the modulating signal.
• This causes a form of frequency distortion that can makethe
signal unintelligible.
• Toovercome this problem Most FM system use a technique
known as Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis.

Noise in electrical terms may be defined as any unwanted
introduction of energy tending to interfere with the proper
reception and reproduction of transmitted signals.
 Noise is mainly of concern in receiving system, where it sets a
lower limit on the size of signal that can be usefully received. Even
when precautions are taken to eliminate noise from faulty
connections or that arising from external sources, it is found that
certain fundamental sources of noise are present withinelectronic
equipment that limit the receivers sensitivity.
Classification of noise
NOISE
NOISE WHOSE SOURCES ARE NOISE CREATED WITHIN
EXTERNAL TO THE RECEIVER THE RECEIVER ITSELF

EXTERNAL NOISE
 Noise created outside the receiver
 External noise can be further classified as:
1. Atmospheric
2. Extraterrestrial
3. Industrial
ATMOSPHERIC NOISE
 Atmospheric noise or static is generally caused by lightning
discharges in thunderstorms and other natural electricaldisturbances
occurring in the atmosphere.
 Since these processes are random in nature, it is spread over mostof
the RF spectrum normally used for broadcasting.

 Atmospheric Noise consists of spurious radio signals with
components distributed over a wide range of frequencies. It is
propagated over the earth in the same way as ordinary radio
waves of same frequencies, so that at any point on the ground,
static will be received from all thunderstorms, local anddistant.
 Atmospheric Noise becomes less at frequencies above 30MHz
Because of two factors:-
1. Higher frequencies are limited to line of sight propagation i.e.
less than 80 km or so.
2. Nature of mechanism generating this noise is such thatvery
little of it is created in VHF range and above.
EXTRATERRESTRIAL NOISE
COSMIC NOISE SOLAR NOISE

Solar Noise
 Under normal conditions there is a constant noise radiationfrom
sun, simply because it is a large body at a very high temperature (
over 6000°C on the surface, it therefore radiates over a very broad
frequency spectrum which includes frequencies we use for
communication.
 Due to constant changing nature of the sun, it undergoes cycles of
peak activity from which electrical disturbances erupt, such as
corona flares and sunspots. This additional noise produced from a
limited portion of the sun, may be of higher magnitude than noise
received during periods of quite sun.
Cosmic Noise
 Sources of cosmic noise are distant stars ( as they have high

temperatures), they radiate RF noise in a similar manner as ourSun,
and their lack in nearness is nearly compensated by their significant
number.
The noise received is called Black Body noise and is distributed fairly
uniformly over the entire sky.
INDUSTRIAL NOISE
This noise ranges between 1 to 600 MHz ( in urban, suburban and
other industrial areas) and is most prominent.
Sources of such Noise : Automobiles and aircraft ignition,electric
motors, switching equipment, leakage from high voltage lines and a
multitude of other heavy electrical machines.

The Noise is produced by the arc discharge present in allthese
operations. ( this noise is most intense industrial and densely
populated areas)
INTERNAL NOISE
Noise created by any of the active or passive devices found in
receivers.
Such noise is generally random, impossible to treat on individual
voltage basis, but easy to observe and describe statistically. Because the
noise is randomly distributed over the entire radio spectrum thereforeit
is proportional to bandwidth over which it is measured.
Internal noise can be further classified as:
1. Thermal Noise
2. Shot Noise
3. Low frequency or flicker Noise

4. Burst Noise
Thermal Noise
The noise generated in a resistance or a resistive component is
random and is referred to as thermal, agitation, white or Johnson
noise.
CAUSE :
• The free electrons within an electrical conductor possess kinetic
energy as a result of heat exchange between the conductor andits
surroundings.
• Due to this kinetic energy the electrons are in motion, this motion is
randomized through collisions with imperfections in the structure of
the conductor. This process occurs in all real conductors and gives
rise to conductors resistance.
• As a result, the electron density throughout the conductor varies

randomly, giving rise to randomly varying voltage across the ends of
conductor. Such voltage can be observed as flickering on a very
sensitive voltmeter.
• The average or mean noise voltage across the
conductor is zero, but the root-mean-square value
is finite and can be measured.
• The mean square value of the noise voltage is
proportional to the resistance of the conductor, to
its absolute temperature, to the frequency
bandwidth of the device measuring the noise.
• The mean-square voltage measured on the
meter is found to be
Ideal
Filter
H(f)
En
2 = 4RkTBn ①

(
Where En = root-mean-square noise voltage, volts
R = resistance of the conductor, ohms
T = conductor temperature, kelvins
Bn = noise bandwidth, hertz
k = Boltzmann’s constant )
And the rms noise voltage is given by :
En = √(4RkTBn )
NOTE: Thermal Noise is not a free source of energy. To abstract the noise power, the resistance
R is to be connected to a resistive load, and in thermal equilibrium the load will supply as much
energy to R as it receives.

In analogy with any electrical source, the available average power is
defined as the maximum average power the source can deliver.Consider
a generator of EMF En volts and internal resistance R.
Assuming that RL is noiseless and receiving the maximum noise
power generated by R; under these conditions of maximumpower
transfer, RL must be equal to R.Then
Pn = V2/RL = V2/ R = (En/2)2 /R = En
2 /4R
Using Equation ①,
Pn = kTBn
R
V RL
En

R
En
2 = 4RkTBn
 Example:
Calculate the thermal noise power available from any resistor at room
temperature (290 K) for a bandwidth of 1MHz. Calculate also the
corresponding noise voltage, given that R = 50 Ω
Solution For a 1MHz bandwidth, the noise power is
Pn = 1.38 × 10-23 × 290 ×106
= 4 × 10-15 W
En
2 = 4 × 50 × 1.38 × 10-23 ×290
= 810-13
= 0.895 In
2 = 4GkTBn
G=1/R
The thermal noise properties of a resister R may be
represented be the equivalent voltage generator .
a.) Equivalent C
Vu
or
lt
ra
eg
ne
t
S
S
o
o
u
u
r
r
c
c
e
e
 Equivalent current generator is found using the Norton’s Theorem.
Using conductance G = (1/R), the rms noise current is given by :
In
2 = 4GkTBn

+ E n3
n1 n2 n3
Resisters in Series
 let Rser represent the total resistance of the series chain, where
Rser = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….; then the noise voltage of equivalent series
resistance is
En
2 = 4Rser kTBn
= 4( R1 + R2 + R3 + …)kTBn
2 2
n1 n2
2 + .....
Hence the noise voltage of the series chain is given by:
En = √ (E 2 + E 2 + E 2 + .....)
Resisters in Parallel
With resistors in parallel it is best to work in terms ofconductance.
Let Gpar represent the parallel combination where Gpar = G1 + G2 + G3 +
…; then
In
2 = 4Gpar kTBn
= 4( G1 + G2 + G3 + …)kTBn
= I 2 + I 2 + I 3 + ….
n1 n2 n3
+ E
= E

REACTANCE
Reactances do not generate thermal noise. This
follows from the fact that reactances cannot
Dissipate power.
Consider an inductive or capacitive reactance
connected in parallel with a resistor R.
In thermal equilibrium, equal amounts of power must be exchanged;
that is, P1 = P2 . But since the reactance cannot dissipate power, the
power P2 must be zero, and hence P1 must also be zero.
Shot Noise
Shot noise is random fluctuation that accompanies any directcurrent
crossing potential barrier. The effect occurs because the carriers
(electrons and holes in semiconductors) do not cross the barrier
simultaneously but rather with random distribution in the timing of
each carrier, which gives rise to random component of current
superimpose on the steady current.

DC
Time
In case of bipolar junction transistors , the bias current crossingthe
forward biased emitter base junction carries the shot noise.
When amplified, this noise sounds as though a shower of lead shots
were falling on a metal sheet. Hence the name shot noise.
Although it is always present, shot noise is not normally observed
during measurement of direct current because it is small comparedto
the DC value; however it does contribute significantly to the noise in
amplifier circuits.
The mean square noise component is proportion
to the DC flowing, and for most devices the mean- I
Square, shot-noise is given by:
In
2 = 2Idc qe Bn ampere2
Where Idc is the direct current in ampere’s, qe is the magnitude of
electronic charge and Bn is the equivalent noise bandwidth inhertz.

 Example
Calculate the shot noise component of the current present on thedirect
current of 1mA flowing across a semiconductor junction, given that the
effective noise bandwidth is 1 MHz.
SOLUTION
In
2 = 2 × 10-3 × 1.6 × 10-19 × 106
= 3.2 × 10-16 A2
= 18 nA
Flicker Noise ( or 1/f noise )
This noise is observed below frequencies of few kilohertz and its
spectral density increases with decrease in frequency. For this reason itis
sometimes referred to as 1/f noise.
The cause of flicker noise are not well understood and isrecognizable
by its frequency dependence. Flicker noise becomes significant at
frequency lower than about 100 Hz. Flicker noise can be reduced

significantly by using wire-wound or metallic film resistors rather than
the more common carbon composition type.
In semiconductors, flicker noise arises from fluctuations in the carrier
densities (holes and electrons), which in turn give rise to fluctuationsin
the conductivity of the material. I.e the noise voltage will be developed
whenever direct current flows through the semiconductor, and the
mean square voltage will be proportional to the square of the direct
current.
In Electronic devices, it shows up as a low frequency phenomenon,as
the higher frequencies overshadowed by white noise from other
sources.
Burst Noise
It consists of sudden step-like transitions between two or more
discrete voltage or current levels, as high as several hundred microvolts,
at random and unpredictable times. Each shift in offset voltage or

SPECTRAL DENSITY
spectral density is power distribution in frequency spectrum
it use to distinguish type of noise. plote of light intensity/power as a
function of frequency or wavelength.
Thermal noise lies in category of power signals has spectral
densities. Bn is propertyof external receiving system and Bn
assume flat.
from eq. Pn=E2
n/4R=4RkTBn/4R =kTBn , since E2
n=4RkTBn where
En=rms noise voltage(volt)
R=resistance of conductor(Ω)
Bn=noise bandwidth(hertz)
K=Boltzmaan constant=1.38x10-23(J/k)
T=conductor temperature(kelvin)
available power spectral density in Watts/Hz or Joule is
Ga(f)=Pn/Bn=kT

spectral density for mean square voltage is given by
Gv(f)=E2n/Bn=4RkT(v2/hz) since E2n=4RkTBn. Spectraldensities
are flat that is independent of frequency in fig. below
4RkT
kT
Spectral
density
Gv
2
Gp
Thermal noise spectral
densities

So thermal noise is also called white noise because of
analogy to white light that has flat spectrum means signal
contain equal power within a fixed bandwidth at any center
frequency.
when white noise is passed through a network then spectral
density is changed by shape of network frequency response.
total noise power at output is sum of the noise contribution
over complete frequency range. taking into account of
frequency response shape.

 Consider a power spectral density response in figure below
Sp (f)
δf
Sp(f1)
f1 f2 f3
f

 at frequency f1 the noise power for small band width δf about
f1 is δPn1=Sp(f1).δf Here δf assume flat about f1
 δPn1= spectral density (watts/hertz). Bandwidth (Hz) or
δPn1=Sp(f1).δf
 So noise power is equal to area of shaded strip about f1 similarly
for f2,f3,….so that power is sum of all these small areas equal to
total area under the curve. Area of curves gives total mean
square voltage
 area of curve= ∫ Ga(f) ;for f=0 to f=∞

 for mean square voltage Sp(f1)xδf=Sp(f1)δf(V2)=area of curves
gives total mean square voltage.
Equivalent noise bandwidth
it is the frequency span of a noise power curve with amplitude
equal to actual peak value and with same integrated area
If R is connected to input of LC filter as in figure (a) this
represent an input generator of mean square voltagespectral
density 4RkT feeding a network of R and LC filter
Let transfer function of network including R be H(f), so spectral
density for mean square voltage is=4RkT|H(f)|2 ; H(f) is ratio of
output to input voltage for mean square voltage.

H(f)
R
4RkT Vn
2
|H(f)|
Frequency
(Linear scale)

 Total mean square output voltage is given by
Vn
2=∫4RkT.|H(f)|2δf for f=0 to ∞
=4RkTx(area under |H(f)|2) curve
 or total mean square voltage at the output can be stated as
Vn
2=4RkTBn
 By above two equation gets equivalent noise bandwidthof
network
 Bn=∫(|H(f)|2δf) =area under curve |H(f)|2 for f=0 to ∞

R
R C C V2n
4RkT
Example considered in fig. below input capacitance of the
voltmeter used measure the noise voltage across R Circuit
diagram
H(f)

 transfer function of RC network |H(f)|=1/[1+(ωCR)]½
 Equivalence noise bandwidth of the RC network
is Bn=∫|H(f)|2df=1/4RC; f=0 to ∞
 Vn
2=4RkTx1/4RC=kT/C ,so mean square voltage orginates
from R even though it is independent of R and inversly
proportional to C even though C does not generatenoise.
 transfer function |H(f)|=|Xc/Zs| ; Zs=r(1+jyQ) is impedance of
the series tuned circuit and,Xc=1/jωc i.e. reactance of c.

 let circuit is resonant at fo and noise restricted tobandwidth
Δf« fo about resonant frequency fo so transfer function given by
|H(f)|=1/ωo Cr=Q ; area under|H(f)|2 curve of small bandwidth
δf is Q2δf so
 mean square noise voltage is
Vn
2=4rkTBn =4rQ2kTδf=4RDkT∆f use the relation
Q2r=RD ; f=0 to∞ and Bn =1/4RDC
 RD is dynamic resistance of the tuned circuit . Noise bandwidth
expressed as a function of 3-dB bandwidth of circuit
 From equ. B3dB= fo /Q and RD=Q/ωo C combine these equ. Gets
Bn=∏/2B3dB

the mean square voltage at the output as
V n
2=4RDkTx1/4RDC=kT/C So noise from resister RD is limited by
bandwidth Bn is V2n=4RDkTx1/4RDC=kT/C
here assume that Q factor is constant and independent of
frequency for end result gives good indication of noise
expected in practice but not true for range zero toinfinity
In radio receivers noise is generated at antenna receiver input
and output noise bandwidth is determined by the audio part of
the receiver
Equivalent noise bandwidth=area of normalized frequency
curve for low frequency section. normalized means curvemax.
value is unity

Response curve show output in decibels relative to maximum as
in next slide fig.
Equivalent noise bandwidth is area of curve for a single
sideband type, then noise bandwidth appears on both side of
the carrier and gets doubled.

Response curve
Relative
Response
dB
Frequency(log scale)
(a)
Relative response
Power ratio
I
Area under curve
Equal to effective
Noise bandwidth
Frequency linear scale
(b)
Noise bandwidth
RF bandwidth
(c)
(a)Amplifier frequency response curve (b) curve of (a) using linear scales (c)
noise bandwidth Of a double sideband receiver

s n
Signal to noise ratio
in communication it is the signal to noise ratio rather than
absolute value of noise.
It is defined as a power ratio S/N=Ps/Pn=V2 /V2
Repeater /amplifier insert to make up for the loss in analog
telephone cable
If power loss of a line section is L then repeater amplifier power gain G
is chosen so LG=1,long line divided into identical section
If input signal power=Ps to first section as signal passes along the link
power output at

 each repeater is Ps since LG=1 for each link but noise power
are additive and the total noise at the output of mth link is
Pn=Pn1+Pn2+……+Pnm
If each links are identical and contribute Pn then total noise
power is Pnm=MPn then output signal to noise ratio is
(N/S)odB=10logPs/MPn=(S/N)1dB-(M)dB
Where (S/N)1 is ratio for one link and (M)dB is no of links
expressed as power ratio in decibels

Ques: the is equivalent noise resistance for an amplifier is 300Ω and
equivalent shot noise current 5µA.the amplifier is fed from 150Ω 10µV
rms sinusoidal signal source. Calculate the individual noise voltage atthe
input signal to noise ratio in decibels. the noise bandwidth is 10MHz.
Solution: let room temperature so that kT=4x10-21J
And qe=1.6x10-19C shot noise current is Ina=[2qeIEQBn]1/2=4nA
So noise voltage across source resistance is
InaRs=0.6µV shot noise current does not develop a voltage across
Rn . The noise voltage generated by Rn is Vna=[4Rn kToBn]1/2=6.93µV
Thermal noise voltage from source is Vns=[4RskToBn]1/2=4.9µV
total noise voltage at input to the amplifier is Vn=[4.92+6.932+.62]1/2=8.51µV
so signal to noise ratio in decibels is
S/N=20logVs/Vn=1.4dB

NOISE FACTOR
 Noise factor is the ratio of available S/N ratio at the input to the
available S/N ratio at the output .
Consider a signal source at room temperature To= 290K
providing an input to an amplifier . The available noise powerfrom
this would be
Pni = kToBn .
where , k = boltzmann constant = 1.38X10-23 J/K
Bn = equivalent noise bandwidth inHz

 Let the available signal power be Psi , then available s
to noise ratio from the source is
(S/N)ni = Psi /kTo Bn
 The source connected tothe amplifier represents
available signal to noise ratio.
 If amplifier has the available power gain denoted by
the available output signal power Pso = GPsi and if th
amplifier was entirely noiseless , the available noise
would be Pso = GkToBn .
owever , it is known that all real amplifiers contribute
nd the available output signal to noise ratio will be les
that at the input.
ignal
G ,
e
power
H noise
a s than

 The noise factor F us defined as
F = (available S/N power ratio at the input) /
(available S/N power ratio at the output)
F = ( Psi /kTo Bn ) X (Pno /GPsi )
F = Pno /GkTo Bn
It follows from this that the available output noise power is given by
Pno =FGkTo Bn
F can be interpreted as the factor by which the amplifier increases
the output noise , for ,if amplifier were noiseles the output noise
would be GkTn Bn .
The available output power depends on the actual input power
delivered to the amplifier .

Noise factor is a measured quantity and will be specified for
given amplifier or network. It is usually specified in decibels ,when
it is referred to as the noise figure. Thus
noise figure = (F) dB = 10logF
 Example
The noise figure of an amplifier is 7dB. Calculate the outputsignal
to noise ratio when the input signal to noise ratio is 35 dB.
Sol . From the definition of noise factor ,
(S/N)o = (S/N)in – (F) dB
= (35 – 7) dB
= 28 db

Amplifier Input Noise in terms of F
Amplifier noise is generated in many components throughout the
amplifier , but it proves convenient to imagine it to originate from
some equivalent power source at the input of the amplifier . Then
the total available power input noise is
Pni = Pno / G
= FkTo Bn
kTo Bn
(F-1)kTo Bn
Noiseless
amplifier
Gain, G
Noise Factor
 The source contributes an available F
power kToBn and hence the amplifier must contribute Pna , where
Pna = FkToBn – kTo Bn
= (F – 1)kTo Bn

 Example
An amplifier has a noise figure of 13dB. Calculate
equivalent amplifier input noise for a bandwidth of 1
MHz.
Sol. 13 dB is a power ratio of approximately 20 : 1. hence
Pna = (20 – 1)X 4 X 10-21 X106
= 1.44pW.
Noise figure must be converted to a power ratio F to be
used in the calculation.

Noise factor of amplifiers in cascade
consider first two amplifiers in cascade . The problem is to
determine the overall noise factor F in terms of individual noise
factors and available power gains .
the available noise power at the output of the amplifier 1 is
Pno1 = F1 G1 kTo Bn and this available to amplifier 2.

Amplifier 2 has noise (F2 – 1)kTo Bn of its ownat its input, hence
total available noise power at the input of amplifier 2 is
Pni2 = F1 G1 kTo Bn + (F2 -1)kTo Bn
Now since the noise of amplifier 2 is represented by its equivalent
input source , the amplifier itself can be regarded as being noiseless
and of available power gain G2 , so the available noise output of
amplifier 2 is
Pno2 = G2 Pni2
= G2 ( F1 G1 kTo Bn + (F2 –1)kTo Bn ) (1)
The overall available power of the two amplifiers in cascade is
G = G1 G2 and let overall noise factor be F ; then output noise power
can also be expressed as
Pno = FGkToBn (2)
equating the two equations for output noise (1) and (2)

F1 G1 kTo Bn + (F2 -1)kTo Bn = FGkToBn
F1 G1 + (F2 -1) = FG
 F = F1 G1 / G + (F2 – 1)/G
where G = G1 G2
 F = F1 + ( F2 – 1)/ G1

This equation shows the importance of high gain , low
noise amplifier as the first stage of a cascaded system. By
making G1 large, the noise contribution of the second
stage can be made negligible, and F1 must also be small so
that the noise contribution of the first amplifier is low.
The argument is easily extended for additional amplifiers
to give
F = F1 + (F2 -1)/G1 + (F3 -1)/ G1 G2
This is known as FRISS’ FORMULA.

There are two particular situations where a low noise ,
front end amplifier is employed to reduce the noise. One
of these is in satellite receiving systems.
The other is in radio receivers used to pick up weak
signals such as short wave receivers.
In most receivers , a stage known as the mixer stage is
employed to change the frequency of the incoming signal ,
and it is known that the mixer stages have notoriously high
noise factors. By inserting an RF amplifier ahead of the
mixer , the effect of the mixer noise can be reduced to
negligible levels. This is illustrated in following example.

 Example
A mixer stage has a noise figure of 20dB and this is preceded by an
amplifier that has a noise figure of 9 dB and an available powergain
of 15dB. Calculate overall noise figure referred to the input .
Sol. It is necessary to convert all decibel values to the equivalent
power ratios :
F2 = 20dB = 100:1 power ratio
F1 = 9dB = 7.94:1 power ratio
G1 =15dB = 31.62:1 power ratio
F = F1 + (F2 – 1)/ G1
= 7.94 + (100-1)/31.62
= 11.07
This is overall noise factor. The overall noise figure is
(F)dB= 10 log 11.07
= 10.44dB

NOISE TEMPERATURE
The concept of noise temperature is based on available noise power
equation
Pn = kTa Bn
Here the subscript has been included to indicate the noise temperature is
associated only with available noise power.
In general, Ta will not be same as that physical temperature of the noise
source. As an example, an antenna pointed at deep space will pick up asmall
amount of cosmic noise. The equivalent noise temperature of antenna that
represents this noise power may be a few tens of kelvins, well below the
physical ambient temperature of the antenna. If the antenna is directly
pointed at the sun , the received noise power increases enormously and the
corresponding equivalent noise temperature is well above the ambient
temperature.
When the concept is applied to an amplifier, it relates to equivalent noise
of the amplifier referred to the input. If the amplifier noise referred to the
input is denoted by Pna , the equivalent noise temperature of the amplifier
referred to the input is
Te = Pna / kBn (3)

We know equivalent input power for an amplifier is given in terms
of its noise factor by
Pna = (F-1)kTo Bn
putting this in equation (3)
we get equivalent noise temperature of the amplifier as
Te = (F-1)/Ta
This shows the proportionality between Te and F.
In practice it is found that noise temperature is the better measure
for low noise devices , such as low noise amplifiers used in satellite
receiving systems while noise factor is a better measure for the main
receiving system.
Friss’s formula can be expressed in terms of equivalent noise
temperatures. Denoting by Te the overall noise of the cascaded
system referred to the input , and by Te1, Te2, and so on , the noise
temperatures of the individual stages , the in Friss’s formula is easily
rearranged to give
Te = Te1 + Te2 /G1 + Te3/ G1 G2 + ……..

Q. A receiver has a noise figure of 12dB and it is fed by a low noise
amplifier that has gain of 50dB and a noise temperature of 90 K.
calculate the noise temperature of the receiver and the overallnoise
temperature of the receiving system.
SOL. 12dB represents a power ratio of 15.85 : 1.Hence
Tem= (15.85-1) X 290 = 4306 K
The 50dB gain represents a power ratio of 105 : 1 .Hence
Te = 90 + 4306/ 105
= 90 K
This example shows the relatively high noise temperature of the
receiver , which clearly cannot be its physical temperature. It also
shows how the low noise amplifier controls the noise temperature of
the overall receiving system.

RECEIVERS
Radio receiver is an electronic equipment which pick ups
the desired signal, reject the unwanted signal and
demodulate the carrier signal to get back the original
modulating signal.

Function of Radio Receivers
• Intercept the incoming modulated signal
• Select desired signal and reject unwanted signals
• Amplify selected R.F signal
• Detect modulated signal to get back original modulatingsignal
• Amplify modulating frequency signal

Design of Receiver
• The radio receiver has to be cost effective
• Requirements:
– Has to work according to application as for AM
or FM signals
– Tune to and amplify desired radio station
– Filter out all other stations
– Demodulator has to work with all radio stations
regardless of carrier frequency

Classification of Radio Receivers
Depending upon application
• AM Receivers - receive broadcast of speech or music
from AM transmitters which operate on long wave,
medium wave or short wave bands.
• FM Receivers – receive broadcast programs from FM
transmitters which operate in VHF or UHF bands.

• Communication Receivers - used for reception of
telegraph and short wave telephone signals.
• Television Receivers - used to receive television
broadcast in VHF or UHF bands.
• Radar Receivers – used to receive radio detection
and ranging signals.

Depending upon fundamental aspects
• Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF)Receivers
• Super-heterodyne Receivers

RECEIVERS
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver:
• Composed of RF amplifiers and detectors.
• No frequency conversion
• It is not often used.
• Difficult to design tunable RF stages.
• Difficult to obtain high gain RF amplifiers

Super-hetrodyne Receiver
• Downconvert RF signal to lower IF frequency
• Main amplifixcation takes place at IF
Communication Receiver
• Downconvert RF signal to two IF frequency

TRF (Tuned Radio frequency) RECEIVER
Modulating
signal
Tuned radio
frequency
amplifier
detector
A. F.
amplifier

• TRF receiver includes an
– RF stage
– a detector stage
– and an audio stage .
• Two or three RF amplifiers are required to filter
and amplify the received signal to a level
sufficient to drive the detector stage.

• RF section (Receiver front end)
used to detect the signal
bandlimit the received RF signal
and amplifying the received RF signal.
• AM detector
Demodulates the AM wave and converts it to
the original information signal.
• Audio section
Used to amplify the recovered signal

Advantages of TRF
• TRF receivers are simple to design and allow the
broadcast frequency 535 KHz to 1640 KHz.
• High senstivity.

Disadvantages of TRF
• At the higher frequency, it produces difficulty in
design.
• It has poor audio quality.
• Drawbacks
– Instability
– Variation in BW
– Poor Selectivity

• INSTABILITY
Due to high frequency, multi stage amplifiers
are susceptible to breaking into oscillation.
As gain of RF amplifier is very high ,a small
feedback from output to input with correct
phase can lead to oscillations.
Correct phase means a positive feedback and it
takes place due through stray capacitances
As reactance of stray capacitances decreases at
higher frequencies resulting in increased
feedback.
Forcing the device to work as an oscillator
instead of an amplifier.

• VARIATION IN BANDWIDTH
The bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with
the center frequency when tuned over a wide
range of input frequencies.
As frequency increases, the bandwidth ( f/Q)
increases. Thus, the selectivity of the input
filter changes over any appreciable range of
input frequencies.

Example
Suppose required BW=10KHz
We have f1=545KHz,f2=1640KHz
 Q1= f1/BW= 54.5 ,
 Q2=f2/BW=164
 But practically Q is limited upto 120
 Considering Q limit 120 , BW changes to13.6 KHz
( as BW=f2/Q2=1640/120)
 So Adjacent channel is picked up resulting in
variation in bandwidth.

• POOR SELECTIVITY
– The gains are not uniform over a very wide
frequency range.
– Due to higher frequencies ability to select desired
signal is affected.
Due to these drawbacks TRF are rarely used.

RF
amplifier
mixer
IF
amplifier
detector
Local
oscillator
SUPER HETRODYNE RECEIVER
The shortcomings of the TRF receiver are overcome
by the super heterodyne receiver.
IF=fo- fs
fs
fo
Modulating
signal
Ganged
tuning
AF
amplifier

• Heterodyne – to mix two frequencies together in a
nonlinear device or to transmit one frequency to
another using nonlinear mixing.
• Also known as frequency conversion , high
frequency down converted to low frequency.(IF)
• A super heterodyne receiver converts all incoming
radio frequency (RF) signals to a lower frequency
known as an intermediate frequency (IF).

DRAWBACKS OVERCOMED
– Stability – as high frequency is down converted to IF
the reactance of stray capacitances will not decrease
as it was at higher frequencies resulting in increased
feedback.
– No variation in BW- as IF range is 438 to 465 KHz (in
case of AM receivers) mostly 455KHz ,appropriate
for Q limit (120).
– Better selectivity- as no adjacent channels are picked
due to variation in BW.

 RF section
– Consists of a pre-selector and an amplifier
– Pre-selector is a broad-tuned bandpass filter with
an adjustable center frequency used to reject
unwanted radio frequency and to reduce the noise
bandwidth.
– RF amplifier determines the sensitivity of the
receiver and a predominant factor in determining
the noise figure for the receiver.

 Mixer/converter section
– Consists of a radio-frequency oscillator and a
mixer.
– Choice of oscillator depends on the stability and
accuracy desired.
– Mixer is a nonlinear device to convert radio
frequency to intermediate frequencies (i.e.
heterodyning process).
– The shape of the envelope, the bandwidth and the
original information contained in the envelope
remains unchanged although the carrier and
sideband frequencies are translated from RF to IF.

IF section
– Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and
bandpass filters to achieve most of the receiver
gain and selectivity.
– The IF is always lower than the RF because it is
easier and less expensive to construct high-gain,
stable amplifiers for low frequency signals.
– IF amplifiers are also less likely to oscillate than
their RF counterparts.

Detector section
– To convert the IF signals back to the original
source information (demodulation).
– Can be as simple as a single diode or as complex
as a PLL or balanced demodulator.
Audio amplifier section
– Comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and
one or more speakers

 AGC ( Automatic Gain Control )
– Adjust the IF amplifier gain according to signal
level(to the average amplitude signal almost
constant).
– AGC is a system by means of which the overall
gain of radio receiver is varied automatically
with the variations in the strength of received
signals, to maintain the output constant.

• AGC circuit is used to adjust and stabilize the
frequency of local oscillator.
• Types of AGC –
 No AGC
 Simple AGC
 Delayed AGC

• FREQUENCY CONVERSION in the mixer stage is
identical to the frequency conversion in the
modulator except that in the receiver, the frequencies
are down-converted rather that up-converted.
– In the mixer, RF signals are combined with the
local oscillator frequency
– The local oscillator is designed such that its
frequency of oscillation is always above or below
the desired RF carrier by an amount equal to the
IF center frequency.
– Therefore the difference of RF and oscillator
frequency is always equal to the IF frequency

– The adjustment for the center frequency of the pre-
selector and the local oscillator frequency are gang-tune
(the two adjustments are tied together so that single
adjustment will change the center frequency of the pre-
selector and at the same time change the local
oscillator)
– when local oscillator frequency is tuned above the RF –
high side injection
when local oscillator frequency is tuned below the RF –
low side injection
• Mathematically expressed :
High side injection
Low side injection
flo 
flo 
fRF 
fRF 
fIF
fIF

COMPARISON
TRF Receiver Super hetrodyne Receiver
• No frequency conversion
• No IF frequency
• Instability , variation in BW
and poor selectivity due to
high frequencies
• Difficult to design tunable
RF stages.
• Rarely used
• Frequency conversion
• Downconvert RF signal to
lower IF frequency
• No instability, variation in
BW and poor selectivity as
IF introduced.
• Main amplifixcation takes
place at IF
• Mostly used

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIO RECEIVERS
• Sensitivity
• Selectivity
• Fidelity

Sensitivity
• Ability to amplify weak signals.
• Minimum RF signal level that can be detected at
the input to the receiver and still produce a usable
demodulated information signal.
• Broadcast receivers/ radio receivers should have
reasonably high sensitivity so that it may have
good response to the desired signal
• But should not have excessively high sensitivity
otherwise it will pick up all undesired noise
signals.
• It is function of receiver gain and measures in
decibels.

• Sensitivity of a receiver is expressed in microvolts
of the received signal.
• Typical sensitivity for commercial broadcast-band
AM receiver is 50 μV.
• Sensitivity of the receiver depends on :
1.Noise power present at the input to the
receiver
2.Receiver noise figure
3.Bandwidth improvement factor of the
receiver
The best way to improve the sensitivity is to
reduce the noise level.

Selectivity
Selectivity of radio receiver is its ability to
differentiate desired signal from unwanted signals.

• Selectivity is obtained by using tuned circuits,
which are tuned to desired frequency. The quality
factor of these LC circuits determines the
selectivity. It is given by,
Q=XL/R
• For better selectivity ‘Q’ should be high.

Fidelity
• Fidelity is defined as – a measure of the ability of a
communication system to produce an exact replica
of the original source information at the output of
the receiver.
• Any variations in the demodulated signal that are
not in the original information signal is considered
as distortion.
• Radio receiver should have high fidelity or
accuracy.
• Example- In an A.M. broadcast the maximum audio
frequency is 5 KHz hence receiver with good
fidelity must produce entire frequency up to 5KHz.

IMAGE FREQUENCY
• In radio reception using heterodyning in the tuning
process, an undesired input frequency that is
capable of producing the same intermediate
frequency (IF) that the desired input frequency
produces.
• Image frequency – any frequency other than the
selected radio frequency carrier that will produce
a cross-product frequency that is equal to the
intermediate frequency if allowed to enter a
receiver and mix with the local oscillator.
• It is given by signal frequency plus twice the
intermediate frequency
fsi = fs + 2fi

• It is equivalent to a second radio frequency that will
produce an IF that will interfere with the IF from the
desired radio frequency.
– if the selected RF carrier and its image frequency
enter a receiver at a same time, they both mix with
the local oscillator frequency and produce different
frequencies that are equal to the IF.
– Consequently, two different stations are received
and demodulated simultaneously

– The higher the IF, the farther away the image
frequency is from the desired radio frequency.
Therefore, for better image frequency rejection, a
high IF is preferred.
– However, the higher the IF, it is more difficult to
build a stable amplifier with high gain. i.e. there is a
trade-off when selecting the IF for a radio receiver
(image frequency rejection vs IF gain and stability)

MATHEMATICALANALYSIS
• Basic principle with two frequencies component f1
and f2,we have harmonics f1,f2,f1+f2,f1-f2
• In case of radio receivers, two frequency
components are fo and fs
• So harmonic we have fo,fs,fo+fs,fo-fs
• Let Undesired frequency fsi(=fo+fif) able to reach
at the mixer
• So now two frequency components will be fo
(local oscillator) and fsi (undesired freq)
• And harmonics will be fo,fsi,fo+fsi,fo-fsi

• And harmonics will be fo,fsi,fo+fsi,fo-fsi
• Substituting value of fsi we have
• fo,fo+fs,2fo+fif,fif
• It was observed that difference component is a
mirror image of IF
– Consequently, 2 different stations are received
and demodulated simultaneously

• Once an image frequency has down-converted to IF, it
cannot be removed. In order to reject the image
frequency, it has to be blocked prior to the mixer stage.
the bandwidth of the pre-selector must be sufficiently
narrow to prevent image frequency from entering the
receiver.

CHOICE OF IF
• Very high IF will result in poor selectivity and
poor adjacent channel rejection
• A high value of IF will result in tracking
difficulties
• At low values of IF image frequency rejection is
poor. Also the selectivity will be too sharp that cut
off the sidebands

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