!["ambones." Of these, many examples are remaining in the ancient
basilicas, especially at San Lorenzo, San Clemente, &c., at Rome.
These pulpits were also used for chanting the lessons of the Divine
Office, and from the reader asking a blessing before commencing
with, Jubé Domine Benedicite, they were commonly called "jubés,"
which name was retained when those pulpits were exalted into a
lofty gallery reaching across the choir.
It is difficult to affix the precise period when the transverse jubés,
or rood lofts, were first erected, but they must be of very great
antiquity, as that of St. Sophia at Constantinople was large enough
to enable the emperors to be crowned in it, a function which would
require space for a considerable number of persons.
The French kings always ascended the jubé of Rheims Cathedral
at their coronation; and on the accession of Charles X., as the
ancient rood loft had been demolished, a temporary one was erected
for the solemnity of his coronation.
These jubés were usually erected on a solid wall to the choir, and
pillars with open arches towards the nave; and under them there
was usually one or more altars for the parochial mass.
They were usually ascended by two staircases, either in circular
turrets[6] or carried up in the thickness of the wall, which was
generally the case in England.
Occasionally we find altars were erected in the lofts, under the
foot of the cross; such was the case at Vienne, in the Church of St.
Maurice, where the parochial altar was in the centre of the rood loft,
and the Blessed Sacrament was also reserved there Sub titulo crucis.
OF THE FURNITURE OF THE ROOD LOFTS.
1.—The Great Crucifix and Rood, with its attendant images, stood
always in the centre of the loft.
The cross was usually framed of timber, richly carved, painted, and
gilt; at its extremities the four Evangelists were depicted, and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21314-250402220150-5798aecf/85/Analytics-data-science-artificial-intelligence-systems-for-decision-support-Eleventh-Edition-Dursun-Delen-29-320.jpg)
![of the screen; while in others the screens have been removed at a
very recent period, probably that of the great revolution.
From the Instructiones Fabricæ of S. Charles Borromeo.
Under the vaulted arch of the chancel in every church, especially
parochial churches, let a cross, having thereon the image of Christ,
devoutly and becomingly made of wood, or any other material, be
exposed, and conveniently placed.
But if, on account of the great depression of the arch or vaulting,
it cannot be placed so well there, then let it be put up against the
wall, over the arch, under the ceiling; or let it be placed over the
chancel door.
[5] The custom of using brass for the material of choir screens is to be traced to a
very late period, as at St. Gatier, at Tours; Cathedral, Rouen; and in many of the
Flemish cathedrals.
[6] The only instance I have found in England of circular staircases to a rood loft,
inside the church, is at Ely, before the old alterations of the choir.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21314-250402220150-5798aecf/85/Analytics-data-science-artificial-intelligence-systems-for-decision-support-Eleventh-Edition-Dursun-Delen-33-320.jpg)
![ON SCREENS IN ITALY AND SPAIN.
I commence with Italy, first, because it has been the fountain from
whence Catholic truth has flowed to other parts of Christendom, and
secondly, as I believe it is a very general delusion that screens
formed no part of the fittings of a Roman church.
As an overwhelming contradiction to this often-repeated error, I
produce a representation of the great screen in old St. Peter's, from
the most irrefragable authority,[7] from which it will be seen that a
double marble wall was erected, about six feet high, and twelve feet
apart, that on these walls stood twelve porphyry pillars, supporting a
transverse cornice surmounted with standards for lights. Moreover,
at the neck of these pillars, under the cap, rods were extended for
the suspension of lamps, which were kept perpetually burning in
honour of the Apostles, whose relics lay beneath the high altar.
This altar, as will be seen by the plan, stood considerably within
the screen, surrounded by pillars, and covered by a ciborium. The
back of the altar is turned towards the nave, with a cross and
candlesticks upon it, and must have effectually concealed the
celebrant from the people; behind all this is seen the great apse,
with the cathedra for the pope, mosaic ceiling, and usual
decorations.
This is the most important authority for the use of screens in the
ancient Roman church; and the dignity and sanctity of the old
basilica of St. Peter was so great, that it would be naturally
considered as the type for other churches; moreover, if we except
the details which belong to the early period of its erection, it is a
perfect type of a Pointed screen,—convert the twelve pillars into
shafts, surmount them with arches, and terminate them by a
bratishing, and we have a work of the mediæval period. It is also
exceedingly interesting to observe that this screen is surmounted by](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21314-250402220150-5798aecf/85/Analytics-data-science-artificial-intelligence-systems-for-decision-support-Eleventh-Edition-Dursun-Delen-34-320.jpg)
![standards for wax tapers, and many lamps were suspended from it.
The most modern screens of the seventeenth and eighteenth
century still preserve these features, and the traditional arrangement
has lasted from the reign of the emperor Constantine down to our
time. It will be seen by the plate which represents the screen, that
the altar is covered with an elevated ciborium, raised on four pillars,
connected by rods, from which veils of silk and precious stuffs were
suspended. It may be useful to remark, that, although as I have
before said, the altar itself was never shut off purposely from the
sight of the people, yet it is most certain that all altars were
provided with these veils or curtains, which were closely drawn
during the consecration. There is especial mention of the gifts of
such curtains by the early popes to the altars of churches in Rome;[8]
and though this rite has been long disused, yet the lateral curtains,
suspended on rods, which still hang in many continental churches,
are remains of the ancient reverential practice. It is greatly to be
desired that these ciborium altars were more generally revived in our
times, especially for the reservation of the holy sacrament. Their
vaulted coverings are not only most majestic in appearance, but they
are practically useful in preventing the deposition of dust on the altar
and tabernacle. In all cases, side curtains should be retained for
altars in lateral chapels, as they preserve the celebrant from
distraction, and protect the tapers, &c., from currents of air. But to
answer these ends, it is essential that the curtains should be
suspended nearly at right angles to the reredos, and not expanded
flat against the walls, as may be seen in some churches of our own
time.
THE SISTINE CHAPEL SCREEN.
This screen, which is still standing, is probably not older than the
sixteenth century. It is composed of an elevated basement of
marble, about five feet high, and divided above this into
compartments, by square pillars of marble, supporting an
entablature, and the spaces between them being filled by a bronze](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21314-250402220150-5798aecf/85/Analytics-data-science-artificial-intelligence-systems-for-decision-support-Eleventh-Edition-Dursun-Delen-35-320.jpg)
![Has a wall in the same position as the screen of the Sistine chapel,
about five feet high, surmounted by pillars, bearing candelabra for
large wax tapers, but the spaces between these are open. This was
set up in the pontificate of Pius VI.
SAN CLEMENTE.
The marble enclosure of the choir is four feet six inches high; the
floor of this choir is two steps above the nave. Between this choir
and the sanctuary is a cross wall of marble, six feet high, with an
opening in the centre, through which only the back of the altar can
be discerned, as the basilica is turned to the west. It will be readily
perceived by these arrangements, that although no ornamental
screen-work existed, yet, practically, the sanctuary is far more shut
out than in Pointed parochial churches, where the solid panelling
rarely exceeds three feet six inches; and it must be admitted, that, if
the first few feet were built up solid, as at San Clemente, it is a
matter of little consequence, as regards facilities of seeing, whether
this base is surmounted by open work, or terminated by a cornice.
The original fittings and choral arrangements of the greater part of
the ancient churches at Rome have been entirely modernized, with a
view to their embellishment, during the revived Pagan period.
Indeed, this city has been singularly unfortunate. During the
prevalence of Christian art, it was almost deserted, and even the
Popes resided at Avignon, in a pointed palace of stupendous
dimensions and design. But on their return, the new and corrupt
ideas of art had arisen, and so much money was expended in
rebuilding and altering the ancient edifices, that Rome possesses far
less interesting ecclesiastical buildings than many comparatively
small cities of Italy, and it is impossible to form the least idea of the
beauty of Italian mediæval art, without visiting those places that
have had the advantages of poverty and neglect, and the
consequent preservation of the ancient and appropriate fittings.
THE BASILICA OF ST. NEREI AND ACHILLE, ROME.[9]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21314-250402220150-5798aecf/85/Analytics-data-science-artificial-intelligence-systems-for-decision-support-Eleventh-Edition-Dursun-Delen-37-320.jpg)
![This remarkable screen is of marble, about seven feet high, cut
like a panelled wall. A flight of steps ascends on each side behind
the screen, to an elevated platform, from which rise the steps and
ciborium of the altar; on this same level the Epistle and Gospel were
sung by the deacon and sub-deacon, from marble desks enriched
with carvings, and fixed on the entablature of the screens. There are
two twisted candlesticks for tapers, and it is probable that originally
there were a greater number. The altar, as usual, has its back turned
towards the people; so that this truly ancient and interesting church
is in diametrical opposition to the all-seeing principle of modern
times.
I have figured a curious example of an iron screen from a painting
in the cathedral of Sienna, by Pinturicchio. I imagine this sort of
metal trellis screens to have been very common in the Italian
churches.[10]
We next proceed to Florence, where the remains of mediæval
architecture are far more extensive and interesting than at Rome.
The choir of the cathedral is immediately under the dome; an
octagon subasement supported a screen of the Doric order, covered
with sculptures and bas-reliefs. This was only removed a few years
since, and, in consequence of its removal, the canons, in order to
preserve themselves from the cold air, usually officiate during the
winter months in a glazed chapel, very like a large counting-house,
that has been erected on the north side of the church. It is, I
believe, practically impossible to keep choir in this church without a
screen.
SANTA CROCE.
In this church many of the old screens yet remain. They are for
the most part composed of metal trellis-work, supported by wrought
uprights, and terminated by open bratishing. Those on the north
side are quite perfect, and evidently coeval with the fabric.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21314-250402220150-5798aecf/85/Analytics-data-science-artificial-intelligence-systems-for-decision-support-Eleventh-Edition-Dursun-Delen-38-320.jpg)
![carved in bas-relief; at each end are the ambones for the Epistle and
Gospel, with an angel for the book-bearer.
Beneath the corbels which support these ambones are the four
Evangelists represented seated and writing the Gospels. The corbels
themselves are beautifully wrought with cherubims and angels. The
choir stalls within this screen are of elaborate Gothic-work, and
ornamented with skilful inlay. Altogether, this church is another most
striking example, out of multitudes of others, of the extreme fallacy
and absurdity of the modern notion that Pointed architecture is
unsuited to Italy and the south; and yet we hear this continually put
forth in the most positive manner; and instead of men importing the
grand ideas and spirit of those Italian artists who flourished in the
mediæval era, we are inundated with the wild eccentricities of
Bernini, or the more insipid productions of an even later school.
Not having visited Spain, I am not able to give any account of the
church fittings from personal observation, but I have had an
opportunity of inspecting several accurate drawings made on the
spot, and from them it appears that huge screens of ornamental
iron-work, reaching to a vast height, and elaborate in detail, are by
no means uncommon. I have figured one on a small scale from the
cathedral of Toledo, and I have little doubt that they greatly
resemble the choir screens of St. Sernin at Toulouse, which I have
given to a larger scale. This city partakes most strongly of a Spanish
character, which strengthens my supposition regarding the similarity
of the screen-work.
[7] Ciampini, de Sacris Ædificiis, p. xvi. Fontana, Templum Vaticanum, p. 89. Pistolezi,
Il Vaticano Descritto, vol. 7, p. 57. From Professor Willis's History of Canterbury
Cathedral:—"Screen of old St. Peter's, at Rome.—In front of the steps were placed
twelve columns of Parian marble, arranged in two rows; these were of a spiral form,
and decorated with sculpture of vine leaves: the bases were connected by lattice-work
of metal, or by walls of marble breast high. The entrance was between the central
pillars, where the cancelli, or lattices, were formed into doors, which gave access to the
presbytery as well as the confessionary. Above these columns were laid beams, or
entablatures, upon which were placed images, candelabra, and other decorations; and,
indeed, the successive Popes seem to have lavished every species of decoration in
gold, silver, and marble-work upon this enclosure and the crypt below. The entire](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21314-250402220150-5798aecf/85/Analytics-data-science-artificial-intelligence-systems-for-decision-support-Eleventh-Edition-Dursun-Delen-41-320.jpg)
![height, measured to the top of the entablature, was about thirty feet; the columns,
with the connecting lattices and entablatures, formed, in fact, the screen of the
chancel."
[8] Anastasius, in his Lives of the Popes, mentions Sergius I., Gregory III., Adrian I.,
Leo III., Pascal I., Gregory IV., Sergius II., Leo IV., and Nicholas I., as munificent donors
of costly veils for the altars of various churches in Rome, as may be seen at length in
Thiers's Traité des Autels, chap. xiv.
[9] There are five illustrations of this church in an interesting Italian work, entitled
Monumenti della Religione Cristiana.
[10] These pictures are all engraved in a work entitled Raccolta delle più celebri
Pitture di Sienna.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21314-250402220150-5798aecf/85/Analytics-data-science-artificial-intelligence-systems-for-decision-support-Eleventh-Edition-Dursun-Delen-42-320.jpg)
![HAARLEM.
The Dutch churches have, for the most part, been completely
gutted of their ancient Catholic fittings, but S. Bavon, at Haarlem, is
a fortunate exception. It has preserved the brazen screens of its
choir; they are of wrought work, exceedingly open, and very similar
in design and execution to those at Lubeck. There can be no doubt
that all the churches were provided originally with similar screen-
work, the traces of which may be frequently discerned in the piers
and pillars. I have been informed of some brass screens yet
remaining in the more northern part of Holland; but not having
personal knowledge of them, I can give no description of their dates
or design. There is, however, quite sufficient to establish the great
fact, that in Catholic times the Dutch churches were in no way
inferior in this respect, but that screens were as usual in them as in
other parts of Christendom.[11]
The finest example of a Pointed screen remaining in Belgium is at
Louvain; but even this has been sadly modernized, and its use and
symbolical signification both destroyed. It consists at present of
three open arches, through which people can pass into the choir.
Within the memory of many persons yet living, the side arches were
filled by two altars and reredoses, and the centre one closed by two
gates of open metal-work. The removal of this beautiful and
essential furniture for the screen was coeval with the destruction of
the sedilia, the demolition of the ancient high altar, and the
substitution of a Pagan design in marble, and a variety of other
enormities, by which the whole character and ecclesiastical
arrangement of the choir was destroyed; and what is most
lamentable, all this was brought to pass by those very ecclesiastical
authorities who ought to have been foremost in preserving the
ancient traditions.
But to return. The upper part of the screen and rood loft is still,
happily, perfect, and is surmounted by the original rood, with its
attendant images. The details of the cross are admirably executed,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21314-250402220150-5798aecf/85/Analytics-data-science-artificial-intelligence-systems-for-decision-support-Eleventh-Edition-Dursun-Delen-53-320.jpg)
![choir entrance.
TOURNAI.
A huge rood screen of black and white marble, erected in the
seventeenth century, surmounted by a crucifix, and decorated with
sculptures. Although erected at a very debased period, it still retains
all the old traditional arrangements.
BRUGES.
S. Salvator's.—A black and white marble screen and loft of the
seventeenth century. It is divided into three arched compartments,
but without altars; the side spaces are filled with open brass-work,
and the choir gates, or holy doors, are of the same material.[12]
Notre Dame.—A screen of a very similar description, only of a
plainer character. It is remarkable for having the altar erected in the
centre of the loft, out of which grows the great rood, supporting the
crucifix.
S. Giles's church has a very curious screen of the seventeenth
century, exceedingly rich in carving, and supporting a rood loft. It is
designed in perfect conformity to the ancient traditions, although the
detail is necessarily of a debased period.
THE CHURCH OF HAL, NEAR BRUSSELS.
Must have had a very fine rood loft originally, but being a place of
pilgrimage, it became most unfortunately very rich from offerings,
which were employed (with the best possible intention) to destroy
the ancient furniture of the church; the great rood itself, elaborately
carved, hangs up on the south side of the great tower, and is a fine
specimen of what the beauty of the loft must have been in the old
time.
ANTWERP.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21314-250402220150-5798aecf/85/Analytics-data-science-artificial-intelligence-systems-for-decision-support-Eleventh-Edition-Dursun-Delen-55-320.jpg)
![design, they are constructed principally on the old arrangement, and
are usually surmounted by standards for tapers.
The custom of screening off these side chapels was universal. We
find them in Italy at a very early period (see Bologna), and many
beautiful pointed examples, both in wood and stone, exist in
Germany, France, and England; they are subsequently found of
every date and style. In the eighteenth century they were usually
constructed with elaborate wrought-iron-work, and in our time of a
simple form in the same material; but the principle still remains in
every part of Christendom, excepting some of the most modern
Italian churches, where all tradition seems to have been lost, or
abandoned by their artists and architects.
This account of screens in Germany and Flanders is necessarily
very incomplete; but it is sufficient to illustrate the intention of the
work, and anything like a complete list would be both too
voluminous and tedious to the reader.
Chancel screens appear to be very general in the old timber
churches of Norway, and I have figured one in the church of Urnes,
near Bergen, which is exceedingly interesting; and though it is by no
means easy to affix dates to these rude productions, there is every
reason to suppose this to be a work of considerable antiquity. This
church is now used for Lutheran worship, but, like every ancient
edifice erected for Catholic rites, it bears indelible evidence of the
enclosure of the chancel and the erection of the rood.
[11] I have been informed, from good authority, that one of the churches in
Amsterdam has preserved its brass screen-work, but I am not able to supply the name.
[12] The screen across the Bootmakers' Chapel, in the north transept of this church,
is of a great antiquity, probably of the middle of the fourteenth century. It is executed
entirely in oak, most beautifully carved; and skilfully framed in the rails of the doors are
bas-reliefs of angels bearing the cognizance of the confraternity of bootmakers, at
whose cost this chapel was erected and founded. There are other oak screens in the
south transept of a later date,—fifteenth century, and the choir and lateral chapels are
all arched, with marble screens, filled with perforated brass-work.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/21314-250402220150-5798aecf/85/Analytics-data-science-artificial-intelligence-systems-for-decision-support-Eleventh-Edition-Dursun-Delen-58-320.jpg)
Analytics, data science, & artificial intelligence : systems for decision support Eleventh Edition Dursun Delen
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- 8. iii Preface xxv About the Authors xxxiv PART I Introduction to Analytics and AI 1 Chapter 1 Overview of Business Intelligence, Analytics, Data Science, and Artificial Intelligence: Systems for Decision Support 2 Chapter 2 Artificial Intelligence: Concepts, Drivers, Major Technologies, and Business Applications 73 Chapter 3 Nature of Data, Statistical Modeling, and Visualization 117 PART II Predictive Analytics/Machine Learning 193 Chapter 4 Data Mining Process, Methods, and Algorithms 194 Chapter 5 Machine-Learning Techniques for Predictive Analytics 251 Chapter 6 Deep Learning and Cognitive Computing 315 Chapter 7 Text Mining, Sentiment Analysis, and Social Analytics 388 PART III Prescriptive Analytics and Big Data 459 Chapter 8 Prescriptive Analytics: Optimization and Simulation 460 Chapter 9 Big Data, Cloud Computing, and Location Analytics: Concepts and Tools 509 PART IV Robotics, Social Networks, AI and IoT 579 Chapter 10 Robotics: Industrial and Consumer Applications 580 Chapter 11 Group Decision Making, Collaborative Systems, and AI Support 610 Chapter 12 Knowledge Systems: Expert Systems, Recommenders, Chatbots, Virtual Personal Assistants, and Robo Advisors 648 Chapter 13 The Internet of Things as a Platform for Intelligent Applications 687 PART V Caveats of Analytics and AI 725 Chapter 14 Implementation Issues: From Ethics and Privacy to Organizational and Societal Impacts 726 Glossary 770 Index 785 BRIEF CONTENTS
- 9. iv CONTENTS Preface xxv About the Authors xxxiv PART I Introduction to Analytics and AI 1 Chapter 1 Overview of Business Intelligence, Analytics, Data Science, and Artificial Intelligence: Systems for Decision Support 2 1.1 Opening Vignette: How Intelligent Systems Work for KONE Elevators and Escalators Company 3 1.2 Changing Business Environments and Evolving Needs for Decision Support and Analytics 5 Decision-Making Process 6 The Influence of the External and Internal Environments on the Process 6 Data and Its Analysis in Decision Making 7 Technologies for Data Analysis and Decision Support 7 1.3 Decision-Making Processes and Computerized Decision Support Framework 9 Simon’s Process: Intelligence, Design, and Choice 9 The Intelligence Phase: Problem (or Opportunity) Identification 10 0 APPLICATION CASE 1.1 Making Elevators Go Faster! 11 The Design Phase 12 The Choice Phase 13 The Implementation Phase 13 The Classical Decision Support System Framework 14 A DSS Application 16 Components of a Decision Support System 18 The Data Management Subsystem 18 The Model Management Subsystem 19 0 APPLICATION CASE 1.2 SNAP DSS Helps OneNet Make Telecommunications Rate Decisions 20 The User Interface Subsystem 20 The Knowledge-Based Management Subsystem 21 1.4 Evolution of Computerized Decision Support to Business Intelligence/Analytics/Data Science 22 A Framework for Business Intelligence 25 The Architecture of BI 25 The Origins and Drivers of BI 26 Data Warehouse as a Foundation for Business Intelligence 27 Transaction Processing versus Analytic Processing 27 A Multimedia Exercise in Business Intelligence 28
- 10. Contents v 1.5 Analytics Overview 30 Descriptive Analytics 32 0 APPLICATION CASE 1.3 Silvaris Increases Business with Visual Analysis and Real-Time Reporting Capabilities 32 0 APPLICATION CASE 1.4 Siemens Reduces Cost with the Use of Data Visualization 33 Predictive Analytics 33 0 APPLICATION CASE 1.5 Analyzing Athletic Injuries 34 Prescriptive Analytics 34 0 APPLICATION CASE 1.6 A Specialty Steel Bar Company Uses Analytics to Determine Available-to-Promise Dates 35 1.6 Analytics Examples in Selected Domains 38 Sports Analytics—An Exciting Frontier for Learning and Understanding Applications of Analytics 38 Analytics Applications in Healthcare—Humana Examples 43 0 APPLICATION CASE 1.7 Image Analysis Helps Estimate Plant Cover 50 1.7 Artificial Intelligence Overview 52 What Is Artificial Intelligence? 52 The Major Benefits of AI 52 The Landscape of AI 52 0 APPLICATION CASE 1.8 AI Increases Passengers’ Comfort and Security in Airports and Borders 54 The Three Flavors of AI Decisions 55 Autonomous AI 55 Societal Impacts 56 0 APPLICATION CASE 1.9 Robots Took the Job of Camel-Racing Jockeys for Societal Benefits 58 1.8 Convergence of Analytics and AI 59 Major Differences between Analytics and AI 59 Why Combine Intelligent Systems? 60 How Convergence Can Help? 60 Big Data Is Empowering AI Technologies 60 The Convergence of AI and the IoT 61 The Convergence with Blockchain and Other Technologies 62 0 APPLICATION CASE 1.10 Amazon Go Is Open for Business 62 IBM and Microsoft Support for Intelligent Systems Convergence 63 1.9 Overview of the Analytics Ecosystem 63 1.10 Plan of the Book 65 1.11 Resources, Links, and the Teradata University Network Connection 66 Resources and Links 66 Vendors, Products, and Demos 66 Periodicals 67 The Teradata University Network Connection 67
- 11. vi Contents The Book’s Web Site 67 Chapter Highlights 67 • Key Terms 68 Questions for Discussion 68 • Exercises 69 References 70 Chapter 2 Artificial Intelligence: Concepts, Drivers, Major Technologies, and Business Applications 73 2.1 Opening Vignette: INRIX Solves Transportation Problems 74 2.2 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence 76 Definitions 76 Major Characteristics of AI Machines 77 Major Elements of AI 77 AI Applications 78 Major Goals of AI 78 Drivers of AI 79 Benefits of AI 79 Some Limitations of AI Machines 81 Three Flavors of AI Decisions 81 Artificial Brain 82 2.3 Human and Computer Intelligence 83 What Is Intelligence? 83 How Intelligent Is AI? 84 Measuring AI 85 0 APPLICATION CASE 2.1 How Smart Can a Vacuum Cleaner Be? 86 2.4 Major AI Technologies and Some Derivatives 87 Intelligent Agents 87 Machine Learning 88 0 APPLICATION CASE 2.2 How Machine Learning Is Improving Work in Business 89 Machine and Computer Vision 90 Robotic Systems 91 Natural Language Processing 92 Knowledge and Expert Systems and Recommenders 93 Chatbots 94 Emerging AI Technologies 94 2.5 AI Support for Decision Making 95 Some Issues and Factors in Using AI in Decision Making 96 AI Support of the Decision-Making Process 96 Automated Decision Making 97 0 APPLICATION CASE 2.3 How Companies Solve Real-World Problems Using Google’s Machine-Learning Tools 97 Conclusion 98
- 12. Contents vii 2.6 AI Applications in Accounting 99 AI in Accounting: An Overview 99 AI in Big Accounting Companies 100 Accounting Applications in Small Firms 100 0 APPLICATION CASE 2.4 How EY, Deloitte, and PwC Are Using AI 100 Job of Accountants 101 2.7 AI Applications in Financial Services 101 AI Activities in Financial Services 101 AI in Banking: An Overview 101 Illustrative AI Applications in Banking 102 Insurance Services 103 0 APPLICATION CASE 2.5 US Bank Customer Recognition and Services 104 2.8 AI in Human Resource Management (HRM) 105 AI in HRM: An Overview 105 AI in Onboarding 105 0 APPLICATION CASE 2.6 How Alexander Mann Solutions (AMS) Is Using AI to Support the Recruiting Process 106 Introducing AI to HRM Operations 106 2.9 AI in Marketing, Advertising, and CRM 107 Overview of Major Applications 107 AI Marketing Assistants in Action 108 Customer Experiences and CRM 108 0 APPLICATION CASE 2.7 Kraft Foods Uses AI for Marketing and CRM 109 Other Uses of AI in Marketing 110 2.10 AI Applications in Production-Operation Management (POM) 110 AI in Manufacturing 110 Implementation Model 111 Intelligent Factories 111 Logistics and Transportation 112 Chapter Highlights 112 • Key Terms 113 Questions for Discussion 113 • Exercises 114 References 114 Chapter 3 Nature of Data, Statistical Modeling, and Visualization 117 3.1 Opening Vignette: SiriusXM Attracts and Engages a New Generation of Radio Consumers with Data-Driven Marketing 118 3.2 Nature of Data 121 3.3 Simple Taxonomy of Data 125 0 APPLICATION CASE 3.1 Verizon Answers the Call for Innovation: The Nation’s Largest Network Provider uses Advanced Analytics to Bring the Future to its Customers 127
- 13. viii Contents 3.4 Art and Science of Data Preprocessing 129 0 APPLICATION CASE 3.2 Improving Student Retention with Data-Driven Analytics 133 3.5 Statistical Modeling for Business Analytics 139 Descriptive Statistics for Descriptive Analytics 140 Measures of Centrality Tendency (Also Called Measures of Location or Centrality) 140 Arithmetic Mean 140 Median 141 Mode 141 Measures of Dispersion (Also Called Measures of Spread or Decentrality) 142 Range 142 Variance 142 Standard Deviation 143 Mean Absolute Deviation 143 Quartiles and Interquartile Range 143 Box-and-Whiskers Plot 143 Shape of a Distribution 145 0 APPLICATION CASE 3.3 Town of Cary Uses Analytics to Analyze Data from Sensors, Assess Demand, and Detect Problems 150 3.6 Regression Modeling for Inferential Statistics 151 How Do We Develop the Linear Regression Model? 152 How Do We Know If the Model Is Good Enough? 153 What Are the Most Important Assumptions in Linear Regression? 154 Logistic Regression 155 Time-Series Forecasting 156 0 APPLICATION CASE 3.4 Predicting NCAA Bowl Game Outcomes 157 3.7 Business Reporting 163 0 APPLICATION CASE 3.5 Flood of Paper Ends at FEMA 165 3.8 Data Visualization 166 Brief History of Data Visualization 167 0 APPLICATION CASE 3.6 Macfarlan Smith Improves Operational Performance Insight with Tableau Online 169 3.9 Different Types of Charts and Graphs 171 Basic Charts and Graphs 171 Specialized Charts and Graphs 172 Which Chart or Graph Should You Use? 174 3.10 Emergence of Visual Analytics 176 Visual Analytics 178 High-Powered Visual Analytics Environments 180 3.11 Information Dashboards 182
- 14. Contents ix 0 APPLICATION CASE 3.7 Dallas Cowboys Score Big with Tableau and Teknion 184 Dashboard Design 184 0 APPLICATION CASE 3.8 Visual Analytics Helps Energy Supplier Make Better Connections 185 What to Look for in a Dashboard 186 Best Practices in Dashboard Design 187 Benchmark Key Performance Indicators with Industry Standards 187 Wrap the Dashboard Metrics with Contextual Metadata 187 Validate the Dashboard Design by a Usability Specialist 187 Prioritize and Rank Alerts/Exceptions Streamed to the Dashboard 188 Enrich the Dashboard with Business-User Comments 188 Present Information in Three Different Levels 188 Pick the Right Visual Construct Using Dashboard Design Principles 188 Provide for Guided Analytics 188 Chapter Highlights 188 • Key Terms 189 Questions for Discussion 190 • Exercises 190 References 192 PART II Predictive Analytics/Machine Learning 193 Chapter 4 Data Mining Process, Methods, and Algorithms 194 4.1 Opening Vignette: Miami-Dade Police Department Is Using Predictive Analytics to Foresee and Fight Crime 195 4.2 Data Mining Concepts 198 0 APPLICATION CASE 4.1 Visa Is Enhancing the Customer Experience while Reducing Fraud with Predictive Analytics and Data Mining 199 Definitions, Characteristics, and Benefits 201 How Data Mining Works 202 0 APPLICATION CASE 4.2 American Honda Uses Advanced Analytics to Improve Warranty Claims 203 Data Mining Versus Statistics 208 4.3 Data Mining Applications 208 0 APPLICATION CASE 4.3 Predictive Analytic and Data Mining Help Stop Terrorist Funding 210 4.4 Data Mining Process 211 Step 1: Business Understanding 212 Step 2: Data Understanding 212 Step 3: Data Preparation 213 Step 4: Model Building 214 0 APPLICATION CASE 4.4 Data Mining Helps in Cancer Research 214 Step 5: Testing and Evaluation 217
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- 16. x Contents Step 6: Deployment 217 Other Data Mining Standardized Processes and Methodologies 217 4.5 Data Mining Methods 220 Classification 220 Estimating the True Accuracy of Classification Models 221 Estimating the Relative Importance of Predictor Variables 224 Cluster Analysis for Data Mining 228 0 APPLICATION CASE 4.5 Influence Health Uses Advanced Predictive Analytics to Focus on the Factors That Really Influence People’s Healthcare Decisions 229 Association Rule Mining 232 4.6 Data Mining Software Tools 236 0 APPLICATION CASE 4.6 Data Mining goes to Hollywood: Predicting Financial Success of Movies 239 4.7 Data Mining Privacy Issues, Myths, and Blunders 242 0 APPLICATION CASE 4.7 Predicting Customer Buying Patterns—The Target Story 243 Data Mining Myths and Blunders 244 Chapter Highlights 246 • Key Terms 247 Questions for Discussion 247 • Exercises 248 References 250 Chapter 5 Machine-Learning Techniques for Predictive Analytics 251 5.1 Opening Vignette: Predictive Modeling Helps Better Understand and Manage Complex Medical Procedures 252 5.2 Basic Concepts of Neural Networks 255 Biological versus Artificial Neural Networks 256 0 APPLICATION CASE 5.1 Neural Networks are Helping to Save Lives in the Mining Industry 258 5.3 Neural Network Architectures 259 Kohonen’s Self-Organizing Feature Maps 259 Hopfield Networks 260 0 APPLICATION CASE 5.2 Predictive Modeling Is Powering the Power Generators 261 5.4 Support Vector Machines 263 0 APPLICATION CASE 5.3 Identifying Injury Severity Risk Factors in Vehicle Crashes with Predictive Analytics 264 Mathematical Formulation of SVM 269 Primal Form 269 Dual Form 269 Soft Margin 270 Nonlinear Classification 270 Kernel Trick 271
- 17. Contents xi 5.5 Process-Based Approach to the Use of SVM 271 Support Vector Machines versus Artificial Neural Networks 273 5.6 Nearest Neighbor Method for Prediction 274 Similarity Measure: The Distance Metric 275 Parameter Selection 275 0 APPLICATION CASE 5.4 Efficient Image Recognition and Categorization with knn 277 5.7 Naïve Bayes Method for Classification 278 Bayes Theorem 279 Naïve Bayes Classifier 279 Process of Developing a Naïve Bayes Classifier 280 Testing Phase 281 0 APPLICATION CASE 5.5 Predicting Disease Progress in Crohn’s Disease Patients: A Comparison of Analytics Methods 282 5.8 Bayesian Networks 287 How Does BN Work? 287 How Can BN Be Constructed? 288 5.9 Ensemble Modeling 293 Motivation—Why Do We Need to Use Ensembles? 293 Different Types of Ensembles 295 Bagging 296 Boosting 298 Variants of Bagging and Boosting 299 Stacking 300 Information Fusion 300 Summary—Ensembles are not Perfect! 301 0 APPLICATION CASE 5.6 To Imprison or Not to Imprison: A Predictive Analytics-Based Decision Support System for Drug Courts 304 Chapter Highlights 306 • Key Terms 308 Questions for Discussion 308 • Exercises 309 Internet Exercises 312 • References 313 Chapter 6 Deep Learning and Cognitive Computing 315 6.1 Opening Vignette: Fighting Fraud with Deep Learning and Artificial Intelligence 316 6.2 Introduction to Deep Learning 320 0 APPLICATION CASE 6.1 Finding the Next Football Star with Artificial Intelligence 323 6.3 Basics of “Shallow” Neural Networks 325 0 APPLICATION CASE 6.2 Gaming Companies Use Data Analytics to Score Points with Players 328 0 APPLICATION CASE 6.3 Artificial Intelligence Helps Protect Animals from Extinction 333
- 18. xii Contents 6.4 Process of Developing Neural Network–Based Systems 334 Learning Process in ANN 335 Backpropagation for ANN Training 336 6.5 Illuminating the Black Box of ANN 340 0 APPLICATION CASE 6.4 Sensitivity Analysis Reveals Injury Severity Factors in Traffic Accidents 341 6.6 Deep Neural Networks 343 Feedforward Multilayer Perceptron (MLP)-Type Deep Networks 343 Impact of Random Weights in Deep MLP 344 More Hidden Layers versus More Neurons? 345 0 APPLICATION CASE 6.5 Georgia DOT Variable Speed Limit Analytics Help Solve Traffic Congestions 346 6.7 Convolutional Neural Networks 349 Convolution Function 349 Pooling 352 Image Processing Using Convolutional Networks 353 0 APPLICATION CASE 6.6 From Image Recognition to Face Recognition 356 Text Processing Using Convolutional Networks 357 6.8 Recurrent Networks and Long Short-Term Memory Networks 360 0 APPLICATION CASE 6.7 Deliver Innovation by Understanding Customer Sentiments 363 LSTM Networks Applications 365 6.9 Computer Frameworks for Implementation of Deep Learning 368 Torch 368 Caffe 368 TensorFlow 369 Theano 369 Keras: An Application Programming Interface 370 6.10 Cognitive Computing 370 How Does Cognitive Computing Work? 371 How Does Cognitive Computing Differ from AI? 372 Cognitive Search 374 IBM Watson: Analytics at Its Best 375 0 APPLICATION CASE 6.8 IBM Watson Competes against the Best at Jeopardy! 376 How Does Watson Do It? 377 What Is the Future for Watson? 377 Chapter Highlights 381 • Key Terms 383 Questions for Discussion 383 • Exercises 384 References 385
- 19. Contents xiii Chapter 7 Text Mining, Sentiment Analysis, and Social Analytics 388 7.1 Opening Vignette: Amadori Group Converts Consumer Sentiments into Near-Real-Time Sales 389 7.2 Text Analytics and Text Mining Overview 392 0 APPLICATION CASE 7.1 Netflix: Using Big Data to Drive Big Engagement: Unlocking the Power of Analytics to Drive Content and Consumer Insight 395 7.3 Natural Language Processing (NLP) 397 0 APPLICATION CASE 7.2 AMC Networks Is Using Analytics to Capture New Viewers, Predict Ratings, and Add Value for Advertisers in a Multichannel World 399 7.4 Text Mining Applications 402 Marketing Applications 403 Security Applications 403 Biomedical Applications 404 0 APPLICATION CASE 7.3 Mining for Lies 404 Academic Applications 407 0 APPLICATION CASE 7.4 The Magic Behind the Magic: Instant Access to Information Helps the Orlando Magic Up their Game and the Fan’s Experience 408 7.5 Text Mining Process 410 Task 1: Establish the Corpus 410 Task 2: Create the Term–Document Matrix 411 Task 3: Extract the Knowledge 413 0 APPLICATION CASE 7.5 Research Literature Survey with Text Mining 415 7.6 Sentiment Analysis 418 0 APPLICATION CASE 7.6 Creating a Unique Digital Experience to Capture Moments That Matter at Wimbledon 419 Sentiment Analysis Applications 422 Sentiment Analysis Process 424 Methods for Polarity Identification 426 Using a Lexicon 426 Using a Collection of Training Documents 427 Identifying Semantic Orientation of Sentences and Phrases 428 Identifying Semantic Orientation of Documents 428 7.7 Web Mining Overview 429 Web Content and Web Structure Mining 431 7.8 Search Engines 433 Anatomy of a Search Engine 434 1. Development Cycle 434 2. Response Cycle 435 Search Engine Optimization 436 Methods for Search Engine Optimization 437
- 20. xiv Contents 0 APPLICATION CASE 7.7 Delivering Individualized Content and Driving Digital Engagement: How Barbour Collected More Than 49,000 New Leads in One Month with Teradata Interactive 439 7.9 Web Usage Mining (Web Analytics) 441 Web Analytics Technologies 441 Web Analytics Metrics 442 Web Site Usability 442 Traffic Sources 443 Visitor Profiles 444 Conversion Statistics 444 7.10 Social Analytics 446 Social Network Analysis 446 Social Network Analysis Metrics 447 0 APPLICATION CASE 7.8 Tito’s Vodka Establishes Brand Loyalty with an Authentic Social Strategy 447 Connections 450 Distributions 450 Segmentation 451 Social Media Analytics 451 How Do People Use Social Media? 452 Measuring the Social Media Impact 453 Best Practices in Social Media Analytics 453 Chapter Highlights 455 • Key Terms 456 Questions for Discussion 456 • Exercises 456 References 457 PART III Prescriptive Analytics and Big Data 459 Chapter 8 Prescriptive Analytics: Optimization and Simulation 460 8.1 Opening Vignette: School District of Philadelphia Uses Prescriptive Analytics to Find Optimal Solution for Awarding Bus Route Contracts 461 8.2 Model-Based Decision Making 462 0 APPLICATION CASE 8.1 Canadian Football League Optimizes Game Schedule 463 Prescriptive Analytics Model Examples 465 Identification of the Problem and Environmental Analysis 465 0 APPLICATION CASE 8.2 Ingram Micro Uses Business Intelligence Applications to Make Pricing Decisions 466 Model Categories 467 8.3 Structure of Mathematical Models for Decision Support 469 The Components of Decision Support Mathematical Models 469 The Structure of Mathematical Models 470
- 21. Contents xv 8.4 Certainty, Uncertainty, and Risk 471 Decision Making under Certainty 471 Decision Making under Uncertainty 472 Decision Making under Risk (Risk Analysis) 472 0 APPLICATION CASE 8.3 American Airlines Uses Should-Cost Modeling to Assess the Uncertainty of Bids for Shipment Routes 472 8.5 Decision Modeling with Spreadsheets 473 0 APPLICATION CASE 8.4 Pennsylvania Adoption Exchange Uses Spreadsheet Model to Better Match Children with Families 474 0 APPLICATION CASE 8.5 Metro Meals on Wheels Treasure Valley Uses Excel to Find Optimal Delivery Routes 475 8.6 Mathematical Programming Optimization 477 0 APPLICATION CASE 8.6 Mixed-Integer Programming Model Helps the University of Tennessee Medical Center with Scheduling Physicians 478 Linear Programming Model 479 Modeling in LP: An Example 480 Implementation 484 8.7 Multiple Goals, Sensitivity Analysis, What-If Analysis, and Goal Seeking 486 Multiple Goals 486 Sensitivity Analysis 487 What-If Analysis 488 Goal Seeking 489 8.8 Decision Analysis with Decision Tables and Decision Trees 490 Decision Tables 490 Decision Trees 492 8.9 Introduction to Simulation 493 Major Characteristics of Simulation 493 0 APPLICATION CASE 8.7 Steel Tubing Manufacturer Uses a Simulation-Based Production Scheduling System 493 Advantages of Simulation 494 Disadvantages of Simulation 495 The Methodology of Simulation 495 Simulation Types 496 Monte Carlo Simulation 497 Discrete Event Simulation 498 0 APPLICATION CASE 8.8 Cosan Improves Its Renewable Energy Supply Chain Using Simulation 498 8.10 Visual Interactive Simulation 500 Conventional Simulation Inadequacies 500 Visual Interactive Simulation 500
- 22. xvi Contents Visual Interactive Models and DSS 500 Simulation Software 501 0 APPLICATION CASE 8.9 Improving Job-Shop Scheduling Decisions through RFID: A Simulation-Based Assessment 501 Chapter Highlights 505 • Key Terms 505 Questions for Discussion 505 • Exercises 506 References 508 Chapter 9 Big Data, Cloud Computing, and Location Analytics: Concepts and Tools 509 9.1 Opening Vignette: Analyzing Customer Churn in a Telecom Company Using Big Data Methods 510 9.2 Definition of Big Data 513 The “V”s That Define Big Data 514 0 APPLICATION CASE 9.1 Alternative Data for Market Analysis or Forecasts 517 9.3 Fundamentals of Big Data Analytics 519 Business Problems Addressed by Big Data Analytics 521 0 APPLICATION CASE 9.2 Overstock.com Combines Multiple Datasets to Understand Customer Journeys 522 9.4 Big Data Technologies 523 MapReduce 523 Why Use MapReduce? 523 Hadoop 524 How Does Hadoop Work? 525 Hadoop Technical Components 525 Hadoop: The Pros and Cons 527 NoSQL 528 0 APPLICATION CASE 9.3 eBay’s Big Data Solution 529 0 APPLICATION CASE 9.4 Understanding Quality and Reliability of Healthcare Support Information on Twitter 531 9.5 Big Data and Data Warehousing 532 Use Cases for Hadoop 533 Use Cases for Data Warehousing 534 The Gray Areas (Any One of the Two Would Do the Job) 535 Coexistence of Hadoop and Data Warehouse 536 9.6 In-Memory Analytics and Apache Spark™ 537 0 APPLICATION CASE 9.5 Using Natural Language Processing to analyze customer feedback in TripAdvisor reviews 538 Architecture of Apache SparkTM 538 Getting Started with Apache SparkTM 539 9.7 Big Data and Stream Analytics 543 Stream Analytics versus Perpetual Analytics 544 Critical Event Processing 545 Data Stream Mining 546 Applications of Stream Analytics 546
- 23. Contents xvii e-Commerce 546 Telecommunications 546 0 APPLICATION CASE 9.6 Salesforce Is Using Streaming Data to Enhance Customer Value 547 Law Enforcement and Cybersecurity 547 Power Industry 548 Financial Services 548 Health Sciences 548 Government 548 9.8 Big Data Vendors and Platforms 549 Infrastructure Services Providers 550 Analytics Solution Providers 550 Business Intelligence Providers Incorporating Big Data 551 0 APPLICATION CASE 9.7 Using Social Media for Nowcasting Flu Activity 551 0 APPLICATION CASE 9.8 Analyzing Disease Patterns from an Electronic Medical Records Data Warehouse 554 9.9 Cloud Computing and Business Analytics 557 Data as a Service (DaaS) 558 Software as a Service (SaaS) 559 Platform as a Service (PaaS) 559 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) 559 Essential Technologies for Cloud Computing 560 0 APPLICATION CASE 9.9 Major West Coast Utility Uses Cloud-Mobile Technology to Provide Real-Time Incident Reporting 561 Cloud Deployment Models 563 Major Cloud Platform Providers in Analytics 563 Analytics as a Service (AaaS) 564 Representative Analytics as a Service Offerings 564 Illustrative Analytics Applications Employing the Cloud Infrastructure 565 Using Azure IOT, Stream Analytics, and Machine Learning to Improve Mobile Health Care Services 565 Gulf Air Uses Big Data to Get Deeper Customer Insight 566 Chime Enhances Customer Experience Using Snowflake 566 9.10 Location-Based Analytics for Organizations 567 Geospatial Analytics 567 0 APPLICATION CASE 9.10 Great Clips Employs Spatial Analytics to Shave Time in Location Decisions 570 0 APPLICATION CASE 9.11 Starbucks Exploits GIS and Analytics to Grow Worldwide 570 Real-Time Location Intelligence 572 Analytics Applications for Consumers 573 Chapter Highlights 574 • Key Terms 575 Questions for Discussion 575 • Exercises 575 References 576
- 24. xviii Contents PART IV Robotics, Social Networks, AI and IoT 579 Chapter 10 Robotics: Industrial and Consumer Applications 580 10.1 Opening Vignette: Robots Provide Emotional Support to Patients and Children 581 10.2 Overview of Robotics 584 10.3 History of Robotics 584 10.4 Illustrative Applications of Robotics 586 Changing Precision Technology 586 Adidas 586 BMW Employs Collaborative Robots 587 Tega 587 San Francisco Burger Eatery 588 Spyce 588 Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd. 589 Robots in the Defense Industry 589 Pepper 590 Da Vinci Surgical System 592 Snoo – A Robotic Crib 593 MEDi 593 Care-E Robot 593 AGROBOT 594 10.5 Components of Robots 595 10.6 Various Categories of Robots 596 10.7 Autonomous Cars: Robots in Motion 597 Autonomous Vehicle Development 598 Issues with Self-Driving Cars 599 10.8 Impact of Robots on Current and Future Jobs 600 10.9 Legal Implications of Robots and Artificial Intelligence 603 Tort Liability 603 Patents 603 Property 604 Taxation 604 Practice of Law 604 Constitutional Law 605 Professional Certification 605 Law Enforcement 605 Chapter Highlights 606 • Key Terms 606 Questions for Discussion 606 • Exercises 607 References 607
- 25. Contents xix Chapter 11 Group Decision Making, Collaborative Systems, and AI Support 610 11.1 Opening Vignette: Hendrick Motorsports Excels with Collaborative Teams 611 11.2 Making Decisions in Groups: Characteristics, Process, Benefits, and Dysfunctions 613 Characteristics of Group Work 613 Types of Decisions Made by Groups 614 Group Decision-Making Process 614 Benefits and Limitations of Group Work 615 11.3 Supporting Group Work and Team Collaboration with Computerized Systems 616 Overview of Group Support Systems (GSS) 617 Time/Place Framework 617 Group Collaboration for Decision Support 618 11.4 Electronic Support for Group Communication and Collaboration 619 Groupware for Group Collaboration 619 Synchronous versus Asynchronous Products 619 Virtual Meeting Systems 620 Collaborative Networks and Hubs 622 Collaborative Hubs 622 Social Collaboration 622 Sample of Popular Collaboration Software 623 11.5 Direct Computerized Support for Group Decision Making 623 Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS) 624 Characteristics of GDSS 625 Supporting the Entire Decision-Making Process 625 Brainstorming for Idea Generation and Problem Solving 627 Group Support Systems 628 11.6 Collective Intelligence and Collaborative Intelligence 629 Definitions and Benefits 629 Computerized Support to Collective Intelligence 629 0 APPLICATION CASE 11.1 Collaborative Modeling for Optimal Water Management: The Oregon State University Project 630 How Collective Intelligence May Change Work and Life 631 Collaborative Intelligence 632 How to Create Business Value from Collaboration: The IBM Study 632
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- 28. in the manner and for the reasons before described in the introduction to this work. In the "Constitutions" of the great St. Charles Borromeo, which were of course subsequent to the Council of Trent, are the following interesting decrees relative to the enclosure of altars:— Of the Choir. The place of the choir (since it ought to be by the high altar, whether it surround it from before, as the ancient custom was, or it be behind, because either the site of the church, or the position of the altar, or the custom of the place so require) being separated from the space occupied by the people (as the ancient structures and the nature of the discipline show) and surrounded by screens, ought to extend so far, both in length and breadth, where the space of the site allows of it (even to the form of a semicircle, or some other shape, according to the character of the church or chapel, in the judgment of the architect), as to correspond fitly in capaciousness, as well as in becoming adornment, to the dignity of the church, and the number of the clergy. Of the High Altar. The high altar ought to be so placed as that there shall be between the lowest step to it and the screen-work by which it is, or is to be, fenced, a space of eight cubits, and even more where possible, and the size of the church requires it for its proper adornment. OF THE JUBÉ, OR ROOD LOFT. It was the custom of the primitive church, and long afterwards, to sing the Epistle and Gospel from two stone pulpits placed at the lower end of the choir, from whence they could be conveniently heard by the people; and from this reason they were termed
- 29. "ambones." Of these, many examples are remaining in the ancient basilicas, especially at San Lorenzo, San Clemente, &c., at Rome. These pulpits were also used for chanting the lessons of the Divine Office, and from the reader asking a blessing before commencing with, Jubé Domine Benedicite, they were commonly called "jubés," which name was retained when those pulpits were exalted into a lofty gallery reaching across the choir. It is difficult to affix the precise period when the transverse jubés, or rood lofts, were first erected, but they must be of very great antiquity, as that of St. Sophia at Constantinople was large enough to enable the emperors to be crowned in it, a function which would require space for a considerable number of persons. The French kings always ascended the jubé of Rheims Cathedral at their coronation; and on the accession of Charles X., as the ancient rood loft had been demolished, a temporary one was erected for the solemnity of his coronation. These jubés were usually erected on a solid wall to the choir, and pillars with open arches towards the nave; and under them there was usually one or more altars for the parochial mass. They were usually ascended by two staircases, either in circular turrets[6] or carried up in the thickness of the wall, which was generally the case in England. Occasionally we find altars were erected in the lofts, under the foot of the cross; such was the case at Vienne, in the Church of St. Maurice, where the parochial altar was in the centre of the rood loft, and the Blessed Sacrament was also reserved there Sub titulo crucis. OF THE FURNITURE OF THE ROOD LOFTS. 1.—The Great Crucifix and Rood, with its attendant images, stood always in the centre of the loft. The cross was usually framed of timber, richly carved, painted, and gilt; at its extremities the four Evangelists were depicted, and
- 30. frequently on the reverse the four doctors of the church. The Evangelists were sometimes represented as sitting figures in the act of writing, but more frequently under the form of the apocalyptical symbols. The extremities of the cross usually terminated in fleur-de- lys, and its sides were foliated or crocketed. The Blessed Virgin and St. John were the almost invariable accompaniments of the crucifix, but cherubim were occasionally added. As these Roods were of great weight, their support was assisted by wrought-iron chains, depending from the great stone arch on the entrance to the choir and chancel, and the staples for these chains are frequently to be seen in churches from which the Roods have been removed. 2.—Lecterns for the Epistle, Gospel, and Lessons. These lecterns were either moveable brass stands, like those in choirs, or marble desks, forming part of the masonry of the design: these are still left in many churches on the continent. Those at the Frairi at Venice are most beautiful, and, to come nearer home, in a rood loft at Tatershall Church is a curiously-moulded stone desk for the reader of the lessons. 3.—Coronels and Standards for Lights. Coronels of silver or other metal were suspended on all the great rood lofts, and filled with lighted tapers, on solemn feasts. The maintenance of the rood lights was a frequent and somewhat heavy item in the old churchwardens' accounts, as will be seen by extracts published in this work. At Bourges there were twenty-four brass basins, with prickets for tapers, which the bishops used to supply at their own cost. The Blessed Sacrament was usually exposed from the rood loft. The exposition on the high altar of Lyons Cathedral was mentioned as occurring for the first time in the year 1701. All the solemn expositions at Rouen took place from one of the altars under the rood loft, and there is every reason to believe that the Blessed Sacrament was usually exposed either on the rood lofts or the altars
- 31. attached to them; but these expositions were only at considerable intervals of time, and only permitted on some great and urgent occasion, and they were then conducted with the greatest possible solemnity, as may be seen in the account given by De Moleon of the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament at the Cathedral, Rouen. Branches of trees were commonly set up in these rood lofts at Christmas and Whitsuntide, and they were also occasionally decorated with flowers. The principal use of these lofts was for the solemn singing of the Epistle and Gospel; but, as I have said before, the lessons and the great antiphons, &c., were also chanted from them. In the Greek Church, the deacon read the diptychs from the rood loft, and formerly warned the catechumens and the penitents to depart before the mass, crying out Sancta Sanctis! The fronts of the old rood lofts were frequently most richly decorated with paintings or sculptures of sacred history, divided into panels or niches, surmounted by a rich bratishing of open tracery-work and foliage. The Rood Beam.—In the generality of wooden screens, the breastsumer of the screen forms the beam on which the rood is fixed and tennanted; but there are instances where the beam is fixed at some height above the top, as at Little Malvern, the intervening space being filled in with some tracery, or enrichment. The position of this beam gave rise to a very ludicrous mistake on the part of one of the recent screen opponents, who cited this church as an example of a mere beam to sustain a rood without a screen; but unfortunately for his argument, the screen itself is still standing beneath, in its original position. In Italy, at Milan, Sienna, Ovieto, and several of the larger churches, there is only a beam sustaining the rood, with images of the Blessed Virgin and St. John. Some of them are ornamental in design, but I do not think any of them older than the sixteenth century. There are several examples in France, but all comparatively modern; but in the Domkirche, at Lubeck, there is a most remarkable example of a rood beam, that merits a particular description. The beam itself is composed of a great many pieces of timber, deeply moulded and carved, and
- 32. enriched with pendent tracery and crocketed braces. It stretches across the nave in the westernmost arch, on a line with transept, the rood screen being across the easternmost one. The cross is covered with open tracery, and crocketed; each crocket is an expanding flower, from which the bust of a prophet issues, bearing a scroll with a prophecy relative to our Lord's passion. The same images are carved at the extremities of the four great quatrefoils, containing the emblems of the Evangelists. The images of the Blessed Virgin, St. John, St. Mary Magdalen, and the bishop at whose cost the work was set up, are placed on the beam: the two latter are kneeling. Between these, the dead are seen arising from their graves; and in either angle, on a corbel, an angel of justice and mercy. Beyond these, on the piers of the church, are two images of Adam and Eve; and a host of smaller angels and images complete the personages of this most extraordinary work. Some of the images are rather barbarous, but the foliage and details are exquisitely wrought, and the whole design is most striking and original. There are rood beams at Nuremberg, but the originality of that in St. Lawrence's Church is rather doubtful,—though the antiquity of the rood itself is certain. Each arm of the cross ramifies into three branches, at the extremities of which are angels, with chalices, and on the top branch a pelican. Gervase, the monk of Canterbury, in his description of that cathedral, makes the following statement: Under the great tower was erected the altar of the holy cross, and a screen which separated the tower from the nave: a beam was laid across, and upon the middle of this beam a great cross, with images of the Blessed Virgin and St. John, and two cherubim. There is a rood beam of some antiquity at the church of Séran, near Gisors. It is placed across the westernmost arch of the central tower. And the same may be remarked in several of the Normandy churches; but in some cases they stand considerably above the top
- 33. of the screen; while in others the screens have been removed at a very recent period, probably that of the great revolution. From the Instructiones Fabricæ of S. Charles Borromeo. Under the vaulted arch of the chancel in every church, especially parochial churches, let a cross, having thereon the image of Christ, devoutly and becomingly made of wood, or any other material, be exposed, and conveniently placed. But if, on account of the great depression of the arch or vaulting, it cannot be placed so well there, then let it be put up against the wall, over the arch, under the ceiling; or let it be placed over the chancel door. [5] The custom of using brass for the material of choir screens is to be traced to a very late period, as at St. Gatier, at Tours; Cathedral, Rouen; and in many of the Flemish cathedrals. [6] The only instance I have found in England of circular staircases to a rood loft, inside the church, is at Ely, before the old alterations of the choir.
- 34. ON SCREENS IN ITALY AND SPAIN. I commence with Italy, first, because it has been the fountain from whence Catholic truth has flowed to other parts of Christendom, and secondly, as I believe it is a very general delusion that screens formed no part of the fittings of a Roman church. As an overwhelming contradiction to this often-repeated error, I produce a representation of the great screen in old St. Peter's, from the most irrefragable authority,[7] from which it will be seen that a double marble wall was erected, about six feet high, and twelve feet apart, that on these walls stood twelve porphyry pillars, supporting a transverse cornice surmounted with standards for lights. Moreover, at the neck of these pillars, under the cap, rods were extended for the suspension of lamps, which were kept perpetually burning in honour of the Apostles, whose relics lay beneath the high altar. This altar, as will be seen by the plan, stood considerably within the screen, surrounded by pillars, and covered by a ciborium. The back of the altar is turned towards the nave, with a cross and candlesticks upon it, and must have effectually concealed the celebrant from the people; behind all this is seen the great apse, with the cathedra for the pope, mosaic ceiling, and usual decorations. This is the most important authority for the use of screens in the ancient Roman church; and the dignity and sanctity of the old basilica of St. Peter was so great, that it would be naturally considered as the type for other churches; moreover, if we except the details which belong to the early period of its erection, it is a perfect type of a Pointed screen,—convert the twelve pillars into shafts, surmount them with arches, and terminate them by a bratishing, and we have a work of the mediæval period. It is also exceedingly interesting to observe that this screen is surmounted by
- 35. standards for wax tapers, and many lamps were suspended from it. The most modern screens of the seventeenth and eighteenth century still preserve these features, and the traditional arrangement has lasted from the reign of the emperor Constantine down to our time. It will be seen by the plate which represents the screen, that the altar is covered with an elevated ciborium, raised on four pillars, connected by rods, from which veils of silk and precious stuffs were suspended. It may be useful to remark, that, although as I have before said, the altar itself was never shut off purposely from the sight of the people, yet it is most certain that all altars were provided with these veils or curtains, which were closely drawn during the consecration. There is especial mention of the gifts of such curtains by the early popes to the altars of churches in Rome;[8] and though this rite has been long disused, yet the lateral curtains, suspended on rods, which still hang in many continental churches, are remains of the ancient reverential practice. It is greatly to be desired that these ciborium altars were more generally revived in our times, especially for the reservation of the holy sacrament. Their vaulted coverings are not only most majestic in appearance, but they are practically useful in preventing the deposition of dust on the altar and tabernacle. In all cases, side curtains should be retained for altars in lateral chapels, as they preserve the celebrant from distraction, and protect the tapers, &c., from currents of air. But to answer these ends, it is essential that the curtains should be suspended nearly at right angles to the reredos, and not expanded flat against the walls, as may be seen in some churches of our own time. THE SISTINE CHAPEL SCREEN. This screen, which is still standing, is probably not older than the sixteenth century. It is composed of an elevated basement of marble, about five feet high, and divided above this into compartments, by square pillars of marble, supporting an entablature, and the spaces between them being filled by a bronze
- 36. grating of crossing bars, making a total height of above 12 feet. On the top of the entablature are metal standards for tapers. Father Bonanni, who wrote in the seventeenth century, describes the chapel as arranged in the following manner:—1. The altar. 2. The pope's throne. 3. The benches for the cardinals and prelates. 4. An enclosed space for the religious and officers of the pope's court. 5. A sort of balustrade which separates these portions from the laity: at the top of this balustrade are placed four, six, or seven tapers, according to the solemnity of the time. The term balustrade has been usually applied by old writers to screens, and must not be understood in the modern acceptation, of signifying a sort of rail hand high; in this instance we have a clear proof to the contrary, for the screen termed a balustrade is still standing, and, with the exception of the style of pillars and mouldings, is very similar to those erected in Pointed churches. Trevoux, in his great dictionary, has the following explanation of the word: "Balustre also signifies those small pillars to shut off the alcove in a room, or the chancel of a church or chapel. Columellæ, Cancelli, &c." In this sense they are always to be understood when mentioned by old writers in reference to church architecture. Low balustrades, or rails, were unknown to antiquity. The enclosures were always of a sufficient height to prevent persons getting over them, and the low rails round altars, are, in England, a pure Protestant introduction, and originated in the necessity of preventing the gross irreverence offered by the Puritan party to the holy tables, on which they frequently sat during the sermon. If the word balustrade as used by French and Italian writers, be not thoroughly understood, it must lead to a misconception of the old arrangements. Pistolezi, in his great work on the Vatican, describes this screen as a balustrade; his words are as follows:—"La Capella— e divisa in due spartamenti, il minore, che della Porta alla Balustrata de marmore si estende, serve per i Laici," &c. THE QUIRINAL CHAPEL
- 37. Has a wall in the same position as the screen of the Sistine chapel, about five feet high, surmounted by pillars, bearing candelabra for large wax tapers, but the spaces between these are open. This was set up in the pontificate of Pius VI. SAN CLEMENTE. The marble enclosure of the choir is four feet six inches high; the floor of this choir is two steps above the nave. Between this choir and the sanctuary is a cross wall of marble, six feet high, with an opening in the centre, through which only the back of the altar can be discerned, as the basilica is turned to the west. It will be readily perceived by these arrangements, that although no ornamental screen-work existed, yet, practically, the sanctuary is far more shut out than in Pointed parochial churches, where the solid panelling rarely exceeds three feet six inches; and it must be admitted, that, if the first few feet were built up solid, as at San Clemente, it is a matter of little consequence, as regards facilities of seeing, whether this base is surmounted by open work, or terminated by a cornice. The original fittings and choral arrangements of the greater part of the ancient churches at Rome have been entirely modernized, with a view to their embellishment, during the revived Pagan period. Indeed, this city has been singularly unfortunate. During the prevalence of Christian art, it was almost deserted, and even the Popes resided at Avignon, in a pointed palace of stupendous dimensions and design. But on their return, the new and corrupt ideas of art had arisen, and so much money was expended in rebuilding and altering the ancient edifices, that Rome possesses far less interesting ecclesiastical buildings than many comparatively small cities of Italy, and it is impossible to form the least idea of the beauty of Italian mediæval art, without visiting those places that have had the advantages of poverty and neglect, and the consequent preservation of the ancient and appropriate fittings. THE BASILICA OF ST. NEREI AND ACHILLE, ROME.[9]
- 38. This remarkable screen is of marble, about seven feet high, cut like a panelled wall. A flight of steps ascends on each side behind the screen, to an elevated platform, from which rise the steps and ciborium of the altar; on this same level the Epistle and Gospel were sung by the deacon and sub-deacon, from marble desks enriched with carvings, and fixed on the entablature of the screens. There are two twisted candlesticks for tapers, and it is probable that originally there were a greater number. The altar, as usual, has its back turned towards the people; so that this truly ancient and interesting church is in diametrical opposition to the all-seeing principle of modern times. I have figured a curious example of an iron screen from a painting in the cathedral of Sienna, by Pinturicchio. I imagine this sort of metal trellis screens to have been very common in the Italian churches.[10] We next proceed to Florence, where the remains of mediæval architecture are far more extensive and interesting than at Rome. The choir of the cathedral is immediately under the dome; an octagon subasement supported a screen of the Doric order, covered with sculptures and bas-reliefs. This was only removed a few years since, and, in consequence of its removal, the canons, in order to preserve themselves from the cold air, usually officiate during the winter months in a glazed chapel, very like a large counting-house, that has been erected on the north side of the church. It is, I believe, practically impossible to keep choir in this church without a screen. SANTA CROCE. In this church many of the old screens yet remain. They are for the most part composed of metal trellis-work, supported by wrought uprights, and terminated by open bratishing. Those on the north side are quite perfect, and evidently coeval with the fabric.
- 39. SAN MICHELE. The altar of the church San Michele, which was erected in a building originally a corn-market, out of devotion to a picture of our Blessed Lady, that was depicted against one of the pillars. It is surrounded by a superb screen of marble and bronze, which will be better understood by referring to the plate, on which it is figured. The execution of the sculpture of this altar is most admirable, and the minutest details are finished with extreme delicacy and care, and many of the panels are enriched with precious stones and jaspers. The upper part of the screen supports a richly-moulded brass trough, to receive the drippings of the numerous tapers offered upon this altar, and for which standards with prickets are disposed above each mullion or division of the screen. The whole is in the most perfect state, and offers a splendid example of mediæval Italian art. SAN PETRONIO, BOLOGNA. The nave of this gigantic and noble church is alone completed. The choir at the eastern end is therefore but a temporary erection in the two last bays. Several of the side chapels are enclosed by Pointed screens, coeval with the erection of the church. They are composed partly of wood, and partly of marble and metal; but they are elaborate and lofty, and quite of the same character as those of the northern churches. PADUA. The church of San Antonio has a large screen and rood loft, of cinque-cento-work, at the entrance of the choir, which is also surrounded by screen-work, and another screen, of a much older date, with open arches and tracery-work executed in marble, divides off the chapel of S. Felice from the main body of the church. The arrangement of the choir of this remarkable church is very similar to that which prevailed in the French cathedrals; and some of the
- 40. churches in Venice bear a very close resemblance to the Flemish ecclesiastical buildings. The chapel of Santa Maria dell' Arena, in the same city, remains nearly in its original state, and exhibits a very curious example of choral arrangement. The stalls partly return on each side of the entrance, and are backed by stone walls about four feet high on the inside, and seven on the outside; the space between them is ascended by steps, and forms a platform or ambo for the chanting of the Gospel and Epistles, for which purpose an iron and a marble desk, both of the fourteenth century, still remain. These form a screen to the choir, and serve as dosells or reredoses to two altars which are placed against them. There are no appearances of there ever having been any screen-work above these, but all above a solid wall seven feet high is of small consequence as regards facilities of seeing for those in the nave. This chapel was not, however, parochial, but erected for the use of a confraternity. VENICE. The screen of S. Mark has been so often depicted, that it has not been thought necessary to give a plate for its illustration; but it is a very fine example of an early Italian screen. Some writers have commonly described it as Byzantine, but it differs entirely from Greek screens, which are invariably solid, and entered by three doors; whereas that of S. Mark is open above the subase, and has only one pair of doors in the centre. It is a very remarkable work of the period, and decorated with several marble images above the entablature, executed by early Pisan sculptors. The images are of a much more recent date than the screen itself, which is one of the most ancient and best preserved examples of screens now remaining in Italy. The church of Frairi, or Santa Maria Gloriosa, contains a very remarkable choir screen, which I have figured among the plates. It is composed of marble, and quite solid; the front is divided into compartments representing the prophets, boldly designed, and
- 41. carved in bas-relief; at each end are the ambones for the Epistle and Gospel, with an angel for the book-bearer. Beneath the corbels which support these ambones are the four Evangelists represented seated and writing the Gospels. The corbels themselves are beautifully wrought with cherubims and angels. The choir stalls within this screen are of elaborate Gothic-work, and ornamented with skilful inlay. Altogether, this church is another most striking example, out of multitudes of others, of the extreme fallacy and absurdity of the modern notion that Pointed architecture is unsuited to Italy and the south; and yet we hear this continually put forth in the most positive manner; and instead of men importing the grand ideas and spirit of those Italian artists who flourished in the mediæval era, we are inundated with the wild eccentricities of Bernini, or the more insipid productions of an even later school. Not having visited Spain, I am not able to give any account of the church fittings from personal observation, but I have had an opportunity of inspecting several accurate drawings made on the spot, and from them it appears that huge screens of ornamental iron-work, reaching to a vast height, and elaborate in detail, are by no means uncommon. I have figured one on a small scale from the cathedral of Toledo, and I have little doubt that they greatly resemble the choir screens of St. Sernin at Toulouse, which I have given to a larger scale. This city partakes most strongly of a Spanish character, which strengthens my supposition regarding the similarity of the screen-work. [7] Ciampini, de Sacris Ædificiis, p. xvi. Fontana, Templum Vaticanum, p. 89. Pistolezi, Il Vaticano Descritto, vol. 7, p. 57. From Professor Willis's History of Canterbury Cathedral:—"Screen of old St. Peter's, at Rome.—In front of the steps were placed twelve columns of Parian marble, arranged in two rows; these were of a spiral form, and decorated with sculpture of vine leaves: the bases were connected by lattice-work of metal, or by walls of marble breast high. The entrance was between the central pillars, where the cancelli, or lattices, were formed into doors, which gave access to the presbytery as well as the confessionary. Above these columns were laid beams, or entablatures, upon which were placed images, candelabra, and other decorations; and, indeed, the successive Popes seem to have lavished every species of decoration in gold, silver, and marble-work upon this enclosure and the crypt below. The entire
- 42. height, measured to the top of the entablature, was about thirty feet; the columns, with the connecting lattices and entablatures, formed, in fact, the screen of the chancel." [8] Anastasius, in his Lives of the Popes, mentions Sergius I., Gregory III., Adrian I., Leo III., Pascal I., Gregory IV., Sergius II., Leo IV., and Nicholas I., as munificent donors of costly veils for the altars of various churches in Rome, as may be seen at length in Thiers's Traité des Autels, chap. xiv. [9] There are five illustrations of this church in an interesting Italian work, entitled Monumenti della Religione Cristiana. [10] These pictures are all engraved in a work entitled Raccolta delle più celebri Pitture di Sienna.
- 43. Plate II. Elevation of Screen of Old St. Peters Church at Rome. REFERENCES A. Ciborium of the High Altar. B. The Holy Gates. CCC. Metal lattices. EE. Marble Basement. GG. Rods for Suspending Lamps & offerings in honour of St. Peter. HH. Standing Candlesticks for great feasts. PLAN: Gates.
- 44. Plate III. Marble Screen in the Basilica of SS Nerei and Achille, at Rome. Iron Screen from an ancient Painting at Sienna representing the life of Pius the second, by Pinturicchio.
- 45. Plate IV. Marble Screen in the Church of the Frairi, Venice. Detached Altar of St. Michele, Florence, with its Brass Screen.
- 46. ON SCREENS IN GERMANY AND FLANDERS. SCREENS AT LUBECK. The churches of this ancient city have preserved all their internal fittings as perfectly as those of Nuremberg, although the Catholic rites have ceased within them for nearly three centuries. The minutest ornaments remain intact, and but very trifling additions or alterations have been made in the original arrangement; accordingly, we find splendid examples of screens, which I have figured in the adjoining plates. The first is in the Dom or cathedral. It originally consisted of three moulded arches, springing from slender quatrefoil shafts, supporting an open gallery. The choir was entered by two doors under the side arches, while an altar was erected in the centre compartment, and this arrangement is almost universal in the German screens, reversing the custom of France and England, of placing the entrance in the centre, with two lateral altars. This screen received a considerable quantity of enrichment in the way of imagery and tabernacle-work in the fifteenth century; the original arches are probably as old as the early part of the thirteenth. In Lutheran times, a clock has been added on the epistle side of this screen, which completely destroys its symmetry and appearance. Two bays westward of this is a gigantic rood, on a beam, described under rood beams. Each lateral chapel is enclosed by open screens, most artificially wrought in brass, and of great variety of design. The next most important screen at Lubeck is in the Marienkirche. This screen consists of five bays, or compartments, with crocketed labels and images in the spandrels; the masonry is of the fourteenth
- 47. century, but the upper panels, containing images and paintings, are not older than the fifteenth. As this was always a parochial church, the arches are all open, and filled with light brass-work. I examined them most carefully, and they evidently had been open according to the original design, nor were there any marks of altars ever standing under them as at the cathedral. The whole choir of this church, as well as the side chapels, are enclosed with light and beautiful brass screens, and a very elaborate screen of carved oak, surmounted by open bratishing, and basins for tapers, divides off the Lady chapel. The Katherinen Kirche contains a most beautiful rood screen of very original design. The church belonged formerly to religious, and the choir is raised some eighteen or twenty feet above the level of the church floor, supported by three ranges of vaulting resting on dwarf marble pillars, and forming a sort of above-ground crypt. Immediately over the front of these arches, rises the rood loft, fronted by carved panels, most beautifully painted with sacred images, and terminated in a very bold floriated bratishing of admirable execution; in the centre is the great rood, with the Evangelists in floriated quatrefoils, and the attendant images of our Blessed Lady and St. John, on octagonal pedestals. At the eastern end of the lower church is an enclosed choir, divided off by three light metal screens from the parishioners, so the religious and people had distinct altars, and were entirely separated in the same church—a most singular and beautiful arrangement. The great Hospital is constructed like a church, with beds and chambers, open at top, under three vast roofs, covering a nave and aisles. The entrance to this is like a fore choir or antechapel, and dedicated for divine worship. It contains no less than five altars, three of which are under the arches of three screens, the stonework of which is probably the oldest in Lubeck, and to which I should assign the date of the middle of the thirteenth century. The upper part of the loft, consisting of carved panels and paintings, is a work of the fifteenth century.
- 48. It is worthy of remark that, although the Lutheran religion has exclusively prevailed in this city for several centuries, many of the branches set up to burn tapers in front of the images in this and other churches bear the date of 1664, and even later. St. James's church contains several wooden screens of a remarkably early date. They are certainly not later than the middle of the thirteenth century, and are most exquisitely carved with heads of saints, stringcourses, bratishing, images of doctors and evangelists in quatrefoils, and in style of art corresponding to the early work in Wells cathedral. As this treatise is devoted to the subject of screens, I have confined my remarks to them, but I must add that I consider the churches of Lubeck to be the most interesting, as regards fittings and details, of any ecclesiastical buildings remaining in Europe. There are examples of metal-work, early painting, and wood- carving, of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, and the finest monumental brass in the world, most probably by the same artist as produced the famous one at St. Alban's, but much larger and more elaborate. MUNSTER. The churches of this city having been completely sacked during the usurpation of the infamous John of Leyden, present few traces of the ancient furniture, and they are for the most part fitted up in the vilest possible taste. But the cathedral has by some good fortune retained its ancient screen and choir, which, with the exception of the high altar, remains in its original state. The screen is of stone, most richly carved, and composed of five bays, the centre one elevated over the others; under this is an altar, according to German custom, with two doors leading into the choir on each side. In the two external compartments there are two other altars, but these I conceive to be modern additions.
- 49. The eastern elevation of this screen, towards the choir, is most beautiful; there are three richly-canopied stalls at the back of the altar, and the loft, which is very spacious, is ascended by two openwork spiral staircases, of most elaborate design. The present rood is modern, and by no means commensurate in beauty with the screen; but there are evident marks of the former existence of a very large rood, partly supported by iron ties from the vaulting. The lateral screens of the choir are solid, as is universally the case in cathedral churches; but those which enclose the side chapels are composed of brass and marble, and were erected in the seventeenth century, at the cost of the then bishop. Altogether, this choir is one of the most perfect in Germany, and, happily, restored for Catholic worship, without suffering any modernization. BRUNSWICK. Though a very unpromising name to Englishmen, who are accustomed to associate it with very modern times and places in their own country, is a most interesting ancient city, full of fine mediæval remains, and curious domestic architecture. The Dom (Lutheran) contains the remains of a rood screen and loft, with a central altar; but in a church now disused for worship, and of which I was unable to ascertain the name, a most elaborate screen, partly of stone, and partly of wood, is still standing uninjured; the style verges on the cinque-cento, but all the traditional forms and enrichments are preserved, and altogether it is a magnificent and imposing work. The other churches have been much modernized in adapting them to Lutheran worship, which appears to vary in different places and countries to a very considerable extent; for while at Lubeck and Nuremberg the Catholic fittings remain intact, at Brunswick and other places they have nearly disappeared, and been replaced by modern abominations. Perhaps the preservation of these fine remains is principally owing to the want of funds in the cities whose commerce has decayed; they have not had the temporal means to
- 50. spoil them. This is strikingly observable in remote parish churches in England, where no rates could be raised for their repairs, for they are usually in a very perfect state; while in large and populous towns, the churchwardens have had so much to expend, that they are completely gutted and ruined. HILDESHEIM. The cathedral, though it has suffered most severely from extensive alterations in the seventeenth century, has still preserved a most curious stone rood loft, debased in style, but still carrying out the principles of the old traditions. It was approached by two flights of steps, the choir being elevated over a crypt, which gives it a most imposing appearance. On the top of the first platform is an altar, and immediately over it a stone pulpit, with a brass lectern, on the left side, in the form of an eagle, doubtless for the deacon to sing the holy Gospel to the people. On either side of this are doors, with gates of open metal-work; above are five arched canopies, which contain sculptures in alto-relief, representing the sacrifice of Abraham; bearing the cross; entombment of our Lord; Jonas and the whale; and under the foot of the rood, in the centre, Moses setting up the brazen serpent in the wilderness; an appropriate type of the great reality, our Lord lifted up on the cross, or rood, which is, as usual, sculptured with the attendant images of St. John and the Blessed Virgin. There are two Byzantine coronæ for lights still suspended in this church, and many of the details of the choir, crypt, &c. are exceedingly interesting. BREMEN. This cathedral has been much modernized by the Lutherans, but the ancient rood loft, though removed from its original position, is still standing in the church, as a sort of gallery. The sculpture is of a very superior description, and it may be ascribed to the early or middle part of the fifteenth century. In the centre part of the aisle are some exceedingly curious fragments of stall-work, as old as the
- 51. thirteenth century, which doubtless formed a portion of the original choir fittings. They are very remarkable in design and execution, being cut out of huge oak planks, several inches thick, and, though somewhat rude, have a fine, bold, and severe character. BASLE. This cathedral, now used for Lutheran worship, has a very fine close screen, with the remains of a central altar, and two side doorways. FRIEDBERG AND GELNHAUSEN. Have the same arrangement, as may be seen by the plates. MARBURG. The screen is a decorated wall, entirely shutting off the choir, with an altar in the centre. See plate. HALBERSTADT. Has a fine rood loft, of the end of the fifteenth, or beginning of the sixteenth century. ULM. The central altar, surmounted with screen and canopy-work, is still remaining; but the connecting work between it and the stalls has been removed, probably about the middle of the last century, and an iron railing substituted. This church, which is one of the finest in Germany for its elevation and interesting details, is now used for the Lutheran worship, but, with the exception of this screen, the original fittings remain perfect. S. LAWRENCE CHURCH, NUREMBERG.
- 52. Here the great rood is supported by an arched beam, over the entrance of the choir, and as it is some years since I visited this church, I am not prepared to state positively if this is the ancient arrangement; but as I have never seen a corresponding example in a Pointed church where the fittings are coeval with the date of the edifice, I should greatly doubt it; especially as it is most certain that this portion of the building has undergone considerable alterations in adapting it to the Lutheran rites. The ancient arrangement of these German screens, with the central altar and side doors, is often depicted in pictures by the early masters. I may mention one remarkable instance at the Gallery of the Academy, Antwerp. The background of a small picture of our Blessed Lady represents the interior of a church. The screen is depicted as of grey marble, supported on porphyry pillars. The holy doors, of perforated brass-work, are closed, and the whole is surmounted by a rood and accompanying images. The arms of the cross are supported by elaborate metal chains, descending from the vaulting. THE GREAT CHURCH AT OBERWESEL. Has one of the most perfect, as well as the most beautiful screens in Germany (see plate); but in its arrangement it resembles the French, rather than the German types, as the entrance to the choir is in the centre, and there are two side altars in the vaulted space under the loft. The details of this screen are most beautifully wrought, and the mouldings are of the purest form. This church was served by religious, and the screen is therefore solid, and panelled, to correspond with the division of the pillars. The screen is not the only interesting object in this church. The stalls are finely wrought, and the high altar is surmounted by a splendid triptych, richly painted and gilt. The sacristy remains in the original state; there are several incised slabs and mural paintings, and altogether it is a church of very great interest.
- 53. HAARLEM. The Dutch churches have, for the most part, been completely gutted of their ancient Catholic fittings, but S. Bavon, at Haarlem, is a fortunate exception. It has preserved the brazen screens of its choir; they are of wrought work, exceedingly open, and very similar in design and execution to those at Lubeck. There can be no doubt that all the churches were provided originally with similar screen- work, the traces of which may be frequently discerned in the piers and pillars. I have been informed of some brass screens yet remaining in the more northern part of Holland; but not having personal knowledge of them, I can give no description of their dates or design. There is, however, quite sufficient to establish the great fact, that in Catholic times the Dutch churches were in no way inferior in this respect, but that screens were as usual in them as in other parts of Christendom.[11] The finest example of a Pointed screen remaining in Belgium is at Louvain; but even this has been sadly modernized, and its use and symbolical signification both destroyed. It consists at present of three open arches, through which people can pass into the choir. Within the memory of many persons yet living, the side arches were filled by two altars and reredoses, and the centre one closed by two gates of open metal-work. The removal of this beautiful and essential furniture for the screen was coeval with the destruction of the sedilia, the demolition of the ancient high altar, and the substitution of a Pagan design in marble, and a variety of other enormities, by which the whole character and ecclesiastical arrangement of the choir was destroyed; and what is most lamentable, all this was brought to pass by those very ecclesiastical authorities who ought to have been foremost in preserving the ancient traditions. But to return. The upper part of the screen and rood loft is still, happily, perfect, and is surmounted by the original rood, with its attendant images. The details of the cross are admirably executed,
- 54. and the whole effect is most striking and devotional. The cross is gilt, and relieved in colour; the images are also painted. The arms of the cross are supported by wrought-iron chains, fixed to the stonework of the great arch, on the rood loft. The three staples to sustain these chains may yet be discerned in most of the Belgian churches, and point out the ancient position of the rood, which modern innovation has removed. DIXMUDE. Has a very late florid screen and rood loft. It is divided like that of Louvain, into three compartments. The altars, which, however, have been much modernized, are still remaining. The decorations, as well as the reredoses, are of the seventeenth century. The loft is surmounted by a rood. AERSCOT. The rood loft in this church is of the same date as that of Dixmude, and most probably designed by the same artist; the side altars here are also remaining, but covered with decorations of the seventeenth century, in very bad taste. The rood, crucifix, Blessed Virgin, and St. John are still remaining. LOUVAIN. S. Gertrude.—The screen was much injured by alteration in the seventeenth century; but, though modernized, it retained a great deal of its original character, till the monstrous idea was conceived, about three years ago, of suppressing the return stalls, and throwing open the whole choir. This has been very lately carried into execution, and the church has suffered most materially, not only in its church arrangements, but in the general effect of the building. The Dominican church had a fine rood and screen, of which there are still some remains, though greatly injured by the widening of the
- 55. choir entrance. TOURNAI. A huge rood screen of black and white marble, erected in the seventeenth century, surmounted by a crucifix, and decorated with sculptures. Although erected at a very debased period, it still retains all the old traditional arrangements. BRUGES. S. Salvator's.—A black and white marble screen and loft of the seventeenth century. It is divided into three arched compartments, but without altars; the side spaces are filled with open brass-work, and the choir gates, or holy doors, are of the same material.[12] Notre Dame.—A screen of a very similar description, only of a plainer character. It is remarkable for having the altar erected in the centre of the loft, out of which grows the great rood, supporting the crucifix. S. Giles's church has a very curious screen of the seventeenth century, exceedingly rich in carving, and supporting a rood loft. It is designed in perfect conformity to the ancient traditions, although the detail is necessarily of a debased period. THE CHURCH OF HAL, NEAR BRUSSELS. Must have had a very fine rood loft originally, but being a place of pilgrimage, it became most unfortunately very rich from offerings, which were employed (with the best possible intention) to destroy the ancient furniture of the church; the great rood itself, elaborately carved, hangs up on the south side of the great tower, and is a fine specimen of what the beauty of the loft must have been in the old time. ANTWERP.
- 56. This great cathedral was completely sacked by the Calvinists, in the latter part of the sixteenth century, previous to which its fittings were in perfect unison with the edifice. But, unfortunately, when it was restored to Catholic worship, the spirit of Paganism had entered into the arts, and the new furniture exhibited all the marks of debasement. However, the old traditions still ruled the mind as regarded principles, and it will be seen, by reference to the plate, that the screens were conceived in the old spirit; and although the introduction of altars against the nave pillars was a great and distressing innovation, yet they were still protected by elevated screen-work, and not left open for profanation. There is a most striking correspondence between this screen-work and that round the altar of S. Michele, at Florence. The whole of these fittings have disappeared, partly during the occupation of the French, and partly by injudicious repairs. The choir is now being lined with stalls, some of the details of which are deserving of great commendation, but they have been designed in utter contradiction to ecclesiastical tradition. If this is to be made a cathedral church, the choir should be enclosed; but if it is to serve a parochial purpose, instead of the lofty canopies, and solid back, the choir should have been enclosed with open metal screens, like those at Lubeck, and an open rood loft across the choir; at present it is neither one thing nor the other. The whole entrance of the choir is open to the public, who crowd up to the high altar, and the stalls are filled with the first comers; the whole arrangement is disgraceful, unecclesiastical, and irregular, and loudly calls for reform. Frequented as this church is by such masses of people, the screen should certainly be an open one, and the back, above the stalls, should correspond. There are two enormous canopies, over nothing, that stand against the pillars; at first I imagined they indicated the seat of some dean or dignitary, but I soon found they projected only over a vacant space, by which the stalls were ascended, and were simply placed there as a vehicle for exhibiting a great assemblage of pinnacles and buttresses, and expending a sum of money unhappily, that would have half built the rood loft. The authority from which I have taken the representation
- 57. of the old screen, &c., is a picture by Peter Neefs, preserved at Bicton, the seat of Lady Rolle. All the churches in Antwerp have been wofully modernized; but there is something like a screen at S. James's: two huge masses of marble wall, projecting from each of the great pillars, at the entrance of the choir. It is a work of the seventeenth century, heavy, and ill-contrived; and for a parochial church, most unsuitable. GHENT. The cathedral of S. Bavon has two projections of a similar description, leaving the space open in the centre for an entrance to the choir. These form lofts at top, and are ascended by staircases. On Sundays and festivals, I regret to add, they are filled with fiddlers! Were they joined at top, this would form a regular rood loft, but as it stands at present, it is a most anomalous pile of marble- work, effectually shutting out half the choir, without any attempt at beauty or symbolism. The old Dominican church has a remarkable screen of the seventeenth century; it is overloaded with sculpture and ornament of a very bad period; but it has a rood and loft, and it separates the choir from the nave of the church, which, like the usual Dominican churches, consists of a long parallelogram, with side chapels, gained out of the projection of the buttresses. The building itself is of the fine, severe Pointed style that prevailed in the fourteenth century; but all the fittings, erected probably at the same time as the screen, are of very debased character. It may be proper to remark that all the side chapels of the great Belgian churches are enclosed by marble screens, intermixed with perforated brass-work. These are mostly the work of the early part of the seventeenth century, and no doubt replaced the more ancient oak and metal screens that were mutilated or destroyed by the Calvinists in the devastating religious wars of the Low Countries. They are an existing proof that the traditional principles of enclosure and reverence outlived the change of style of architecture; for, although all these are of debased Italian
- 58. design, they are constructed principally on the old arrangement, and are usually surmounted by standards for tapers. The custom of screening off these side chapels was universal. We find them in Italy at a very early period (see Bologna), and many beautiful pointed examples, both in wood and stone, exist in Germany, France, and England; they are subsequently found of every date and style. In the eighteenth century they were usually constructed with elaborate wrought-iron-work, and in our time of a simple form in the same material; but the principle still remains in every part of Christendom, excepting some of the most modern Italian churches, where all tradition seems to have been lost, or abandoned by their artists and architects. This account of screens in Germany and Flanders is necessarily very incomplete; but it is sufficient to illustrate the intention of the work, and anything like a complete list would be both too voluminous and tedious to the reader. Chancel screens appear to be very general in the old timber churches of Norway, and I have figured one in the church of Urnes, near Bergen, which is exceedingly interesting; and though it is by no means easy to affix dates to these rude productions, there is every reason to suppose this to be a work of considerable antiquity. This church is now used for Lutheran worship, but, like every ancient edifice erected for Catholic rites, it bears indelible evidence of the enclosure of the chancel and the erection of the rood. [11] I have been informed, from good authority, that one of the churches in Amsterdam has preserved its brass screen-work, but I am not able to supply the name. [12] The screen across the Bootmakers' Chapel, in the north transept of this church, is of a great antiquity, probably of the middle of the fourteenth century. It is executed entirely in oak, most beautifully carved; and skilfully framed in the rails of the doors are bas-reliefs of angels bearing the cognizance of the confraternity of bootmakers, at whose cost this chapel was erected and founded. There are other oak screens in the south transept of a later date,—fifteenth century, and the choir and lateral chapels are all arched, with marble screens, filled with perforated brass-work.
- 59. Plate V. Rood Screen of the Marienkirche, Lubeck. Rood Loft, Cathedral, Munster.
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