Antenna arrays
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This document discusses various types of antennas and antenna arrays. It begins by describing common antenna types including helical antennas, horn antennas, and parabolic reflector antennas. It then discusses how antenna arrays work, noting that they are composed of multiple similar radiating elements whose spacing and excitation determine the array's properties. Examples of linear and 2D arrays are provided. The document also summarizes different array configurations and beamforming techniques as well as applications such as smart antennas and adaptive arrays. Key benefits of arrays like controlling radiation patterns electronically are highlighted.
![Owens Valley Radio Observatory
The Earth’s
atmosphere is
transparent in
the narrow
visible-light
window
(4000-7000
angstroms) and
the radio band
between 1 mm
and 10 m.
[Sky & Telescope
Feb 1997 p.26]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/antennaarrays-140122070001-phpapp01/85/Antenna-arrays-22-320.jpg)
![The New Mexico Very Large Array
[Sky & Telescope
Feb 1997 p. 30]
27 antennas along 3 railroad tracks provide baselines up to 35 km. Radio
images are formed by correlating the signals garnered by each antenna.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/antennaarrays-140122070001-phpapp01/85/Antenna-arrays-23-320.jpg)
![Beam Steering
Beam direction
θ
d
3∆
2∆
∆
• BeamEqui-phase
steering
wave front
using
phase
∆ = [(2π/λ)d sinθ]
shifters at
Radiating
each
elements
radiating
Phase
0
shifters
element
Power
distribution](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/antennaarrays-140122070001-phpapp01/85/Antenna-arrays-36-320.jpg)
Antenna arrays
- 1. AJAL.A.J professorajal@gmail.com (8907305642) DEPARTMENT OF ECE UNIVERSAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VALLIVATTOM P.O, THRISSUR
- 2. Antennas come in a wide variety of sizes and shapes Antenna types Helical antenna Horn antenna Parabolic reflector antenna
- 3. Propagation mode adapter During both transmission and receive operations the antenna must provide the transition between these two propagation modes.
- 4. Implementation Antenna arrays Antenna array composed of several similar radiating elements (e.g., dipoles or horns). Element spacing and the relative amplitudes and phases of the element excitation determine the array’s radiative properties. Linear array examples Two-dimensional array of microstrip patch antennas
- 5. ANTENNA ARRAYS • Antenna arrays is group of antennas or antenna elements arranged to provide desired directional characteristics. • Generally any combination of elements can form an array. • However equal elements of regualar geometry are usually used.
- 6. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS • • • • • The space available for an antenna The proximity to neighbors The operating frequencies The output power Money
- 7. YAGI-UDA ANTENNA • It is a directional antenna consisting of a driven element (typically a dipole or folded dipole) and additional parasitic elements (usually a so-called reflector and one or more directors). • All the elements are arranged collinearly and close together. • The reflector element is slightly longer (typically 5% longer) than the driven dipole, whereas the so-called directors are a little bit shorter. • The design achieves a very substantial increase in the antenna's directionality and gain compared to a simple dipole.
- 9. ANTENNA ARRAYS It is often impossible to generate a desired antenna pattern with just one antenna Using two or more antenna elements provides the designer with more design variables e.g. 1. Number of elements 2. Physical arrangement of elements 3. Amplitude and Phase of input signals
- 10. Dipole antennas Versions of broadband dipole antennas
- 11. Dipole antennas
- 13. ANTENNA ARRAYS Two Element Example λ/2 Antenna Pattern Transmitter
- 14. FOLDED DIPOLE • Folded antenna is a single antenna but it consists of two elements. • First element is fed directly while second one is coupled inductively at its end. • Radiation pattern of folded dipole is same as that of dipole antenna i.e figure of eight (8).
- 15. ANTENNA ARRAYS Two Element Example λ/2 90deg Transmitter Antenna Pattern
- 16. HERTZ ANTENNA • The Hertzian dipole is a theoretical short dipole (significantly smaller than the wavelength) with a uniform current along its length. • A true Hertzian dipole cannot physically exist, since the assumed current distribution implies an infinite charge density at its ends, and significant radiation requires a very high current over its very short length.
- 18. LOOP ANTENNA • Radiation pattern of loop antenna is a doughnut pattern. • Can be circular or square loop • No radiation is received normal to the plane of loop and null is obtained in this direction. • Application: Used for direction finding applications
- 19. TURNSTILE ANTENNA • A turnstile antenna is a set of two dipole antennas aligned at right angles to each other and fed 90 degrees out-of-phase. • The name reflects that the antenna looks like a turnstile when mounted horizontally. • When mounted horizontally the antenna is nearly omnidirectional on the horizontal plane.
- 20. Antenna arrays • Consist of multiple (usually identical) antennas (elements) ‘collaborating’ to synthesize radiation characteristics not available with a single antenna. They are able – to match the radiation pattern to the desired coverage area – to change the radiation pattern electronically (electronic scanning) through the control of the phase and the amplitude of the signal fed to each element – to adapt to changing signal conditions – to increase transmission capacity by better use of the radio resources and reducing interference • Complex & costly – Intensive research related to military, space, etc. activities » Smart antennas, signal-processing antennas, tracking antennas, phased arrays, etc. Source: adapted from N Gregorieva
- 21. Satellite antennas (TV) • Not an array!
- 22. Owens Valley Radio Observatory The Earth’s atmosphere is transparent in the narrow visible-light window (4000-7000 angstroms) and the radio band between 1 mm and 10 m. [Sky & Telescope Feb 1997 p.26]
- 23. The New Mexico Very Large Array [Sky & Telescope Feb 1997 p. 30] 27 antennas along 3 railroad tracks provide baselines up to 35 km. Radio images are formed by correlating the signals garnered by each antenna.
- 25. 2 GHz adaptive antenna • A set of 48 2GHz antennas – Source: Arraycomm
- 26. Phased Arrays • Array of N antennas in a linear or twodimensional configuration + beam-forming & control device • The amplitude and phase excitation of each individual antenna controlled electronically (“software-defined”) – Diode phase shifters – Ferrite phase shifters • Inertia-less beam-forming and scanning (µsec) with fixed physical structure
- 27. Zero Phase Shift Animation Visuals
- 28. Constant Phase Shift Animation Visuals
- 31. Perspective Advantages Disadvantages High gain / low side lobes Very complex Fast beam jumping Computer controlled beam agility Single element fault retains operability High cost
- 32. • Switched beam antennas – Based on switching function between separate directive antennas or predefined beams of an array • Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) = allocating an angle direction sector to each user – In a TDMA system, two users will be allocated to the same time slot and the same carrier frequency – They will be differentiated by different direction angles
- 33. • Dynamically phased array (PA): – A generalization of the switched lobe concept – The radiation pattern continuously track the designated signal (user) – Include a direction of arrival (DoA) tracking algorithm
- 34. for rural area
- 35. Beamformers vs. omnidirectional antennas 2) Beamformers can reject interference while omnidirectional antennas can’t: Improve SNR and system capacity! interference user null interference user 3) Beamformers directionally send down link information to the users while omnidirectional antennas can’t: save energy!
- 36. Beam Steering Beam direction θ d 3∆ 2∆ ∆ • BeamEqui-phase steering wave front using phase ∆ = [(2π/λ)d sinθ] shifters at Radiating each elements radiating Phase 0 shifters element Power distribution
- 37. Beamforming antennas in ad hoc networks Z0=50Ω,L≈λ/2 Z0=25Ω,L≈λ/2 Z0=50Ω Series resonant patch array interference Phased patch antenna target Phased patch array
- 38. Basic phased array configurations sN(k) y (k ) w*2 ∑ s2(k) s1(k) w*1 s1(k) w*2,1 Z-1 w*1,0 Narrowband . . . Z-1 w*2,0 . . . w*N,1 w*N,k-1 Z-1 . . . s2(k) . . . w*N,0 Z-1 w*2,k-1 Z-1 w*1,1 . . . w*N sN(k) Z-1 w*1,k-1 broadband phased array (fixed/adaptive) configurations-time domain y (k ) ∑
- 39. s2(k) s1(k) F F T F F T w*N . . . … . . . w*2 ∑ I F F T d (t ) y (k ) + MSE F F T … sN(k) F F T … Basic phased array configurations w*1 broadband phased array (fixed/adaptive) configuration-frequency domain
- 40. 4-Bit Phase-Shifter (Example) Input Bit #3 Bit #4 0 or 22.5 0 0 0 or 45 0 Bit #1 Bit #2 0 0 or 90 0 0 0 or 180 0 Steering/ Beam-forming Circuitry Alternative solution: Transmission line with controlled delay 0 Output
- 41. Switched-Line Phase Bit Delay line #1a Input Diode switch Output Delay line #1b Phase bit = delay difference
- 42. 2 omnidirectional antennas 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 -0.5 0 0 0 -1 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 -1 -1 -1 D = 0.5λ, θ= 900 D = 0.5λ, θ= 1800 D = 0.5λ, θ= 00 1
- 43. N omnidirectional antennas 6 2.5 10 9 5 2 8 7 1 Relative gain 1.5 Relative gain Relative gain 4 3 2 0.5 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 0 -180 0 -90 0 90 Azimuth angle, degrees N = 2, θ = 900 180 -180 0 -90 0 90 Azimuth angle, degrees N = 5, θ = 1800 180 -180 -90 0 90 Azimuth angle, degrees N = 9, θ = 450 • Array gain (line, uniform, identical power) 180
- 44. Adaptive (“Intelligent”)Antennas • Array of N antennas in a linear, circular, or planar configuration • Used for selection signals from desired sources and suppress incident signals from undesired sources • The antenna pattern track the sources • It is then adjusted to null out the interferers and to maximize the signal to interference ratio (SIR) • Able to receive and combine constructively multipath signals
- 45. Smart antenna systems Military networks switched array adaptive array Cellular communication networks switched array adaptive array 3G Data rate:100kbps Wireless local area networks switched array adaptive array Wi-Fi Data rate:11Mbps
- 46. Smart antenna systems top view(horizontal) 5 4 6 3 7 2 interference 8 1 9 16 10 15 11 12 13 14 Switched array (predetermined) user
- 47. Smart antenna systems top view(horizontal) Interference 1 user 1 user 2 Interference 2 Adaptive array
- 48. • The amplitude/ phase excitation of each antenna controlled electronically (“software-defined”) • The weight-determining algorithm uses a-priori and/ or measured information to adapt antenna to changing environment • The weight and summing circuits can operate at the RF and/ or at an intermediate frequency 1 w1 Σ wN N Weight-determining algorithm
- 49. Antenna sitting • Radio horizon • Effects of obstacles & structures nearby • Safety – operating procedures – Grounding • lightning strikes • static charges – Surge protection • lightning searches for a second path to ground
- 50. Antenna Arrays: Benefits • Possibilities to control electronically – – – – – Direction of maximum radiation Directions (positions) of nulls Beam-width Directivity Levels of sidelobes using standard antennas (or antenna collections) independently of their radiation patterns • Antenna elements can be distributed along straight lines, arcs, squares, circles, etc.
- 51. Array Blindness • Direct consequence of mutual coupling • Can result in complete cancellation of the radiated beam at some scan angle • Occurs when most of the central elements of the array have reflection coefficients close to unity
- 52. Terminology Antenna – structure or device used to collect or radiate electromagnetic waves Array – assembly of antenna elements with dimensions, spacing, and illumination sequency such that the fields of the individual elements combine to produce a maximum intensity in a particular direction and minimum intensities in other directions Beamwidth – the angle between the half-power (3-dB) points of the main lobe, when referenced to the peak effective radiated power of the main lobe Directivity – the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions Effective area – the functional equivalent area from which an antenna directed toward the source of the received signal gathers or absorbs the energy of an incident electromagnetic wave Efficiency – ratio of the total radiated power to the total input power Far field – region where wavefront is considered planar Gain – ratio of the power at the input of a loss-free isotropic antenna to the power supplied to the input of the given antenna to produce, in a given direction, the same field strength at the same distance Isotropic – radiates equally in all directions Main lobe – the lobe containing the maximum power Null – a zone in which the effective radiated power is at a minimum relative to the maximum effective radiation power of the main lobe Radiation pattern – variation of the field intensity of an antenna as an angular function with respect to the axis Radiation resistance – resistance that, if inserted in place of the antenna, would consume that same amount of power that is radiated by the antenna Side lobe – a lobe in any direction other than the main lobe
Editor's Notes
- #28: In this example, the RF power is evenly distributed through the phase shifters, amplifiers and radiating elements. All phase shifters are in phase. The resulting wave fronts propagate directly to the right.
- #29: In this sequence of images, there is a constant phase difference between neighboring phase shifters. Consequently, the direction of the waves is slightly downward. This illustrates how phased-array antennas can redirect beams.