Antigens notes
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This document provides information on types of antigens and factors that determine antigenicity. It discusses different types of antigens, including exogenous, endogenous, autoantigens, and alloantigens. It also covers the chemical nature of antigens, including proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and lipids. Additionally, it examines factors that influence immunogenicity, such as foreignness, molecular size, chemical nature, physical form, antigen specificity, and others. Superantigens are also discussed as a class of antigens that cause non-specific polyclonal activation of T-cells.
![• When the immune system encounters a conventional T-dependent antigen, only a small fraction (1 in 104 -
105) of the T cell population is able to recognize the antigen and become activated (monoclonal/oligoclonal
response).
• However, there are some antigens which polyclonally activate a large fraction of the T cells (up to 25%).
These antigens are called superantigens.
• Examples of superantigens include: Staphylococcal enterotoxins (food poisoning), Staphylococcal toxic shock
toxin (toxic shock syndrome), Staphylococcal exfoliating toxins (scalded skin syndrome) and Streptococcal
pyrogenic exotoxins (shock).
• Although the bacterial superantigens are the best studied there are superantigens associated with viruses and
other microorganisms as well.
• The diseases associated with exposure to superantigens are, in part, due to hyper activation of the immune
system and subsequent release of biologically active cytokines by activated T cells.
ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR SUPER ANTIGENS:
Superantigens (SAgs) are a class of antigens that result in excessive activation of the immune system.
Specifically it causes non-specific activation of T-cells resulting in polyclonal T cell activation and
massive cytokine release. SAgs are produced by some pathogenic viruses and bacteria most likely as a defense
mechanism against the immune system.[1]
Compared to a normal antigen-induced T-cell response where 0.0001-
0.001% of the body's T-cells are activated, these SAgs are capable of activating up to 20% of the body's T-
cells.[2]
Furthermore, Anti-CD3 and Anti-CD28 Antibodies (CD28-SuperMAB) have also shown to be highly
potent superantigens (and can activate up to 100% of T cells).
The large number of activated T-cells generates a massive immune response which is not specific to any
particular epitope on the SAg thus undermining one of the fundamental strengths of the adaptive immune
system, that is, its ability to target antigens with high specificity. More importantly, the large number of activated
T-cells secrete large amounts of cytokines, the most important of which is Interferon gamma. This excess
amount of IFN-gamma in turn activates the macrophages. The activated macrophages, in turn, over-produce
proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6 and TNF-alpha. TNF-alpha is particularly important as a part of the
body's inflammatory response. In normal circumstances it is released locally in low levels and helps the immune
system defeat pathogens. However, when it is systemically released in the blood and in high levels (due to mass
T-cell activation resulting from the SAg binding), it can cause severe and life-threatening symptoms,
including shock and multiple organ failure.
Reference:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superantigen
https://www.slideshare.net/NatashaSayal/antigen-23025752](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/antigensnotes-200115085548/85/Antigens-notes-5-320.jpg)
Antigens notes
- 1. Course Name/ code Immunology & Bacterial serology / BMLT4002 Unit/ Module/ CO 1 Area & Topic Types of Antigens & Factors determining antigenicity Faculty In charge Mr. A. Vamsi Kumar (Asst Prof) Department / School Medical lab technology, SMAS Semester IV TYPES OF ANTIGENS & FACTORS DETERMINING ANTIGENICITY I. TYPES OF ANTIGENS Antigen is a substances usually protein in nature and sometimes polysaccharide, that generates a specific immune response and induces the formation of a specific antibody or specially sensitized T cells or both. Although all antigens are recognized by specific lymphocytes or by antibodies, only some antigens are capable of activating lymphocytes. Molecules that stimulate immune responses are called Immunogens. Epitope is immunologically active regions of an immunogen (or antigen) that binds to antigen-specific membrane receptors on lymphocytes or to secreted antibodies. It is also called antigenic determinants. Autoantigens, for example, are a person’s own self antigens. Examples: Thyroglobulin, DNA, Corneal tissue, etc. Alloantigens are antigens found in different members of the same species (the red blood cell antigens A and B are examples). Heterophile antigens are identical antigens found in the cells of different species. Examples: Forrssman antigen, Cross-reacting microbial antigens, etc. Adjuvants are substances that are non-immunogenic alone but enhance the immunogenicity of any added immunogen. II. CHEMICAL NATURE OF ANTIGENS (IMMUNOGENS) A. Proteins The vast majority of immunogens are proteins. These may be pure proteins or they may be glycoproteins or lipoproteins. In general, proteins are usually very good immunogens.
- 2. B. Polysaccharides Pure polysaccharides and lipopolysaccharides are good immunogens. C. Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are usually poorly immunogenic. However, they may become immunogenic when single stranded or when complexed with proteins. D. Lipids In general lipids are non-immunogenic, although they may be haptens. III. TYPES OF ANTIGEN ON THE BASIS OF ORDER OF THEIR CLASS (ORIGIN) 1. Exogenous antigens • These antigens enters the body or system and start circulating in the body fluids and trapped by the APCs (Antigen processing cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, etc.) • The uptakes of these exogenous antigens by APCs are mainly mediated by the phagocytosis • Examples: bacteria, viruses, fungi etc • Some antigens start out as exogenontigens, and later become endogenous (for example, intracellular viruses) 2. Endogenous antigens • These are body’s own cells or sub fragments or compounds or the antigenic products that are produced. • The endogenous antigens are processed by the macrophages which are later accepted by the cytotoxic T – cells. • Endogenous antigens include xenogenic (heterologous), autologous and idiotypic or allogenic (homologous) antigens. • Examples: Blood group antigens, HLA (Histocompatibility Leukocyte antigens), etc. 3. Autoantigens • An autoantigen is usually a normal protein or complex of proteins (and sometimes DNA or RNA) that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific autoimmune disease • These antigens should not be, under normal conditions, the target of the immune system, but, due mainly to genetic and environmental factors, the normal immunological tolerance for such an antigen has been lost in these patients. • Examples: Nucleoproteins, Nucleic acids, etc. IV. ON THE BASIS OF IMMUNE RESPONSE 1. Complete Antigen or Immunogen • Posses antigenic properties denovo, i.e. ther are able to generate an immune response by themselves. • High molecular weight (more than 10,000) • May be proteins or polysaccharides 2. Incomplete Antigen or Hapten • These are the foreign substance, usually non-protein substances
- 3. • Unable to induce an immune response by itself, they require carrier molecule to act as a complete antigen. • The carrier molecule is a non-antigenic component and helps in provoking the immune response. Example: Serum Protein such as Albumin or Globulin. • Low Molecular Weight (Less than 10,000) • Haptens can react specifically with its corresponding antibody. • Examples: Capsular polysaccharide of pneumococcus, polysaccharide “C” of beta haemolytic streptococci, cardiolipin antigens, etc. V. DETERMINANTS OF ANTIGENICITY The whole antigen does not evoke immune response and only a small part of it induces B and T cell response. The small area of chemical grouping on the antigen molecule that determines specific immune response and reacts specifically with antibody is called an antigenic determinant. VI. PROPERTY OF ANTIGENS/ FACTORS INFLUENCING IMMUNOGENICITY Immunogenicity is determined by: 1. Foreignness • An antigen must be a foreign substances to the animal to elicit an immune response. 2. Molecular Size • The most active immunogens tend to have a molecular mass of 14,000 to 6,00,000 Da. • Examples: tetanus toxoid, egg albumin, thyroglobulin are highly antigenic. • Insulin (5700 ) are either non-antigenic or weakly antigenic. 3. Chemical Nature and Composition • In general, the more complex the substance is chemically the more immunogenic it will be. • Antigens are mainly proteins and some are polysaccharides. • It is presumed that presence of an aromatic radical is essential for rigidity and antigenicity of a substance. 4. Physical Form • In general particulate antigens are more immunogenic than soluble ones. • Denatured antigens are more immunogenic than the native form. 5. Antigen Specificity • Antigen Specificity depends on the specific actives sites on the antigenic molecules (Antigenic determinants). • Antigenic determinants or epitopes are the regions of antigen which specifically binds with the antibody molecule. 6. Species Specificity • Tissues of all individuals in a particular species possess, species specific antigen. • Human Blood proteins can be differentiated from animal protein by specific antigen-antibody reaction. 7. Organ Specificity
- 4. • Organ specific antigens are confined to particular organ or tissue. • Certain proteins of brain, kidney, thyroglobulin and lens protein of one species share specificity with that of another species. 8. Auto-specificity • The autologous or self antigens are ordinarily not immunogenic, but under certain circumstances lens protein, thyroglobulin and others may act as autoantigens. 9. Genetic Factors • Some substances are immunogenic in one species but not in another .Similarly, some substances are immunogenic in one individual but not in others (i.e. responders and non-responders). • The species or individuals may lack or have altered genes that code for the receptors for antigen on B cells and T cells. • They may not have the appropriate genes needed for the APC to present antigen to the helper T cells. 10. Age • Age can also influence immunogenicity. • Usually the very young and the very old have a diminished ability to elicit and immune response in response to an immunogen. 11. Degradability • Antigens that are easily phagocytosed are generally more immunogenic. • This is because for most antigens (T-dependant antigens) the development of an immune response requires that the antigen be phagocytosed, processed and presented to helper T cells by an antigen presenting cell (APC). 12. Dose of the antigen • The dose of administration of an immunogen can influence its immunogenicity. • There is a dose of antigen above or below which the immune response will not be optimal. 13. Route of Administration • Generally the subcutaneous route is better than the intravenous or intragastric routes. • The route of antigen administration can also alter the nature of the response. • Antigen administered intravenously is carried first to the spleen, whereas antigen administered subcutaneously moves first to local lymph nodes. 14. Adjuvants • Substances that can enhance the immune response to an immunogen are called adjuvants. • The use of adjuvants, however, is often hampered by undesirable side effects such as fever and inflammation. • Example: aluminum hydroxide. *********************************SUPER ANTIGENS*******************************************
- 5. • When the immune system encounters a conventional T-dependent antigen, only a small fraction (1 in 104 - 105) of the T cell population is able to recognize the antigen and become activated (monoclonal/oligoclonal response). • However, there are some antigens which polyclonally activate a large fraction of the T cells (up to 25%). These antigens are called superantigens. • Examples of superantigens include: Staphylococcal enterotoxins (food poisoning), Staphylococcal toxic shock toxin (toxic shock syndrome), Staphylococcal exfoliating toxins (scalded skin syndrome) and Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins (shock). • Although the bacterial superantigens are the best studied there are superantigens associated with viruses and other microorganisms as well. • The diseases associated with exposure to superantigens are, in part, due to hyper activation of the immune system and subsequent release of biologically active cytokines by activated T cells. ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR SUPER ANTIGENS: Superantigens (SAgs) are a class of antigens that result in excessive activation of the immune system. Specifically it causes non-specific activation of T-cells resulting in polyclonal T cell activation and massive cytokine release. SAgs are produced by some pathogenic viruses and bacteria most likely as a defense mechanism against the immune system.[1] Compared to a normal antigen-induced T-cell response where 0.0001- 0.001% of the body's T-cells are activated, these SAgs are capable of activating up to 20% of the body's T- cells.[2] Furthermore, Anti-CD3 and Anti-CD28 Antibodies (CD28-SuperMAB) have also shown to be highly potent superantigens (and can activate up to 100% of T cells). The large number of activated T-cells generates a massive immune response which is not specific to any particular epitope on the SAg thus undermining one of the fundamental strengths of the adaptive immune system, that is, its ability to target antigens with high specificity. More importantly, the large number of activated T-cells secrete large amounts of cytokines, the most important of which is Interferon gamma. This excess amount of IFN-gamma in turn activates the macrophages. The activated macrophages, in turn, over-produce proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6 and TNF-alpha. TNF-alpha is particularly important as a part of the body's inflammatory response. In normal circumstances it is released locally in low levels and helps the immune system defeat pathogens. However, when it is systemically released in the blood and in high levels (due to mass T-cell activation resulting from the SAg binding), it can cause severe and life-threatening symptoms, including shock and multiple organ failure. Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superantigen https://www.slideshare.net/NatashaSayal/antigen-23025752