Apoptosi sppt
- 1. APOPTOSIS For every cell, there is a time to live and a time to die. There are two ways in which cells die: a) They are killed by injurious agents. b) They are induced to commit suicide. Death by injury: like mechanical damage,exposure to toxic chemicals. Death by suicide: The pattern of events in death by suicide is so orderly that the process is often called programmed cell death or PCD. It is also called apoptosis (a greek word means Dropping off) Any multicellular organism must ensure that the production of new cells is approximately equal to destruction of old cells in order to maintain a constant size
- 2. Cells that are induced to commit suicide make a program for cell death. Shrinkage of cell (loss of water) Develop bubble-like blebs on their surface The chromatin in their nucleus degraded or condensed and fragmented Their mitochondria break down with the release of Cytochrome c They break into small, membrane-wrapped, fragments. Release (at least in mammalian cells) ATP and UTP . These nucleotides bind to receptors on wandering phagocytic cells like macrophages and dendrite cells and attract them to the dying cells (a "find-me" signal").
- 3. The phosphatidylserine, which is normally hidden within the plasma membrane, is exposed on the surface. This "eat me" signal is bound by other receptors on the phagocytes which then engulf the cell fragments. The phagocytic cells secrete cytokines that inhibit inflammation Why should a cell commit suicide? There are two different reasons. 1)Programmed cell death is needed for proper development as mitosis. 2) Programmed cell death is needed to destroy cells that represent a threat to the integrity of the organism. Examples: The resorption of the tadpole tail at the time of its metamorphosis into a frog occurs by apoptosis.
- 4. • The formation of the fingers and toes of the fetus requires the removal of tissues in between them (by apoptosis). • The sloughing off of the inner lining of the uterus (the endometrium) at the start of menstruation occurs by apoptosis . • The formation of the proper connections (synapses) between neurons in the brain requires that surplus cells to be eliminated by apoptosis. Examples: for second reasons • Cells infected with viruses • One of the methods by which cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) kill virus-infected cells is by inducing apoptosis
- 5. . Cells of the immune system • As cell-mediated immune responses dilutes, the effector cells should be removed to prevent them from attacking body constituents. CTLs induce apoptosis in each other and even in themselves. Defects in the apoptotic machinery is associated with autoimmune diseases such as lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid. Cells with DNA damage • Damage to its genome can cause a cell to disrupt proper embryonic development leading to birth defects. • To become cancerous.
- 6. • Cells respond to DNA damage by increasing their production of p53. • It is a potent inducer of apoptosis. Is it any wonder that mutations in the p53 gene, producing a defective protein, are so often found in cancer cells • Cancer cells :Radiation and chemicals used in cancer therapy induce apoptosis in some types of cancer cells What makes a cell decide to commit suicide? The balance between: • The withdrawal of +ve signals; that is, signals needed for continued survival ,and the receipt of -ve signals The continued survival of most cells requires that they receive continuous stimulation from other cells and, for many, continued adhesion to the surface on which they are growing.
- 7. Some examples of positive signals: growth factors for neurons Interleukin-2 an essential factor for the mitosis of lymphocytes. In apoptosis these +ve signals are withdrawn. Receipt of negative signals: • Increased levels of oxidants within the cell • Damage to DNA by these oxidants or other agents like – ultraviolet light – x-rays – chemotherapeutic drugs • Accumulation of proteins that failed to fold properly into their proper tertiary structure
- 8. - molecules that bind to specific receptors on the cell surface and signal • the cell to begin the apoptosis program . These death activators include: – Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) that binds to the TNF receptor – Lymphotoxin (also known as TNF-β) that also binds to the TNF receptor – Fas ligand (FasL), a molecule that binds to a cell-surface receptor named Fas (also called CD95)
- 9. The Mechanisms of Apoptosis • There are 3 different mechanisms by which a cell commits suicide by apoptosis. • One generated by signals arising within the cell; • another triggered by death activators binding to receptors at the cell surface: – TNF-α – Lymphotoxin – Fas ligand (FasL) • A third that may be triggered by dangerous reactive oxygen species
- 10. Apoptosis triggered by internal signals: the intrinsic or mitochondrial pathway • In a healthy cell, the outer membranes of its mitochondria display the protein Bcl-2 on their surface. Bcl-2 inhibits apoptosis. • Internal damage to the cell causes a related protein, Bax, to migrate to the surface of the mitochondrion where it inhibits the protective effect of Bcl-2 and inserts itself into the outer mitochondrial membrane punching holes in it and causing cytochrome c to leak out. The released cytochrome c binds to the protein Apaf-1("apoptotic protease activating factor-1"). Using the energy provided by ATP, these complexes aggregate to form apoptosomes. • The apoptosomes bind to and activate caspase-9 . • Caspase-9 is one of a family of over a dozen caspases. They are all proteases.
- 11. • The apoptosomes bind to and activate caspase-9 . • Caspase-9 is one of a family of over a dozen caspases. They are all proteases. They cleave proteins — mostly each other — at aspartic acid residues. Caspase-9 cleaves and activates other caspases (caspase-3 and -7). The activation of these "executioner" caspases creates an expanding cascade of proteolytic activity which leads to digestion of structural proteins in the cytoplasm degradation of chromosomal DNA, and phagocytosis of the cell . 2 Apoptosis triggered by external signals: the extrinsic or death receptor pathway • Fas and the TNF receptor are integral membrane proteins with their receptor domains exposed at the surface of the cell
- 13. • binding of the complementary death activator (FasL andTNF respectively) transmits a signal to the cytoplasm that leads to • activation of caspase 8 • Caspase 8 (like caspase 9) initiates a cascade of caspase activation leading to phagocytosis of the cell. • When cytotoxic T cells recognize (bind to) their target • they produce more FasL at their surface. • This binds with the Fas on the surface of the target cell leading to its death by apoptosis.
- 14. 3). Apoptosis-Inducing Factor (AIF) Neurons, and perhaps other cells, have another way to self-destruct that — unlike the two paths described above — does not use caspases AIF is a protein that is normally located in the intermembrane space of mitochondria. When the cell receives a signal, AIF is released from the mitochondria. • migrates into the nucleus; • binds to DNA, which triggers the destruction of the DNA and cell death .